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The 20s decade ran from January 1, AD 20, to December 31, AD 29.
In Europe, the 20s saw revolts by the Aedui, Thracian tribesmen, and the Frisians against the Roman Empire. In North Africa, Tacfarinas, a Numidian Berber deserter, led the Musulamii tribe and a loose and changing coalition of other Berber tribes in revolt, before being defeated in AD 24. In China, the Xin dynasty collapsed and the Eastern Han dynasty was established. In Korea, Daemusin of Goguryeo annexed Dongbuyeo and killed its king Daeso.
In science, the 20s saw the manufacture of pens and metal writing tools in Rome. Major disasters of this decade include a fire in Rome, and the collapse of a poorly built amphitheatre in Fidenae, which killed 20,000 of the 50,000 spectators. In 27, Christianity was born as a Jewish sect in Jerusalem. Geographica, an encyclopedia of geographical knowledge created by Strabo, was finished no later than AD 23.
Manning (2008) tentatively estimates the world population in AD 20 as 246 million.
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Transcription
Episode 32: The Roaring 20s? Hi, I’m John Green, this is Crash Course U.S. History and today we’re going to learn about one the best eras ever, the 1920s. The 20s gave us Jazz, movies, radio, making out in cars, illegal liquor. And the 20s also gave us prosperity, although not for everybody and gangsters and a consumer culture based on credit and lots of prejudice against immigrants and eventually the worst economic crisis the U.S. has seen. Mr. Green, Mr. Green, but what about Gatsby? Yeah, Me from the Past, it’s true that Gatsby turned alright in the end, but what preyed on Gatsby, what foul dust trailed in the wake of his dreams did temporarily close out my interest in the aborted sorrows and short-winded elations of men. intro So there’s a stereotypical view of the 1920s as the “Roaring 20s,” a decade of exciting change and new cultural touchstones, as well as increased personal freedom and dancing. And it really was a time of increased wealth. For some people. The quote of the decade has to go to our famously taciturn president from Massachusetts, Calvin Coolidge, who said, “the chief business of the American people is business.” Jay-Z would later update this for the 21st century noting, “I'm not a businessman, I'm a business, man.” But anyway during the 1920s the government helped business grow like gangbusters, largely by not regulating it much at all. This is known as “laissez-faire” capitalism. Or “laissez-faire” capitalism if you’re good at speaking French. The Republican Party dominated politics in the 1920s, with all the presidents elected in the decade being staunch conservative Republicans. The federal government hewed to the policies favored by business lobbyists, including lower taxes on personal income and business profits, and efforts to weaken the power of unions. Presidents Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover stocked the boards of the Federal Reserve and the Federal Trade Commission with men who shared their pro-business views, shifting the country away from the economic regulation that had been favored by Progressives. And that was very good for the American economy. At least in the short run. The 1920s were also marked by quite a bit of government corruption, most of which can be pinned to the administration of Warren G. Harding. Now, Harding himself wasn’t terribly corrupt, but he picked terrible friends. They included attorney general Harry Daughtery, who accepted money to not prosecute criminals, and Interior Secretary Albert Fall, who took half a million dollars from private business in exchange for leases to government oil reserves at Teapot Dome. Fall later became the first cabinet member ever to be convicted of a felony. But on the other hand: Business, man! Productivity rose dramatically, largely because older industries adopted Henry Ford’s assembly line techniques, and newer industries like aviation, chemicals, and electronics grew up to provide Americans with new products and new jobs. During the 1920s annual production of cars tripled to 4.8 million and automobile companies were gradually consolidated into the big three that we know today: Ford, Chrysler, and Harley Davidson. What? General Motors. By 1929 half of all American families owned a car. And thus began the American love affair with the automobile, which is also where love affairs were often consummated. Which is why, in the 1920, cars came to be known as “skoodilypooping chariots.” What’s that? They were called “Brothels on Wheels”? And the economy also grew because American corporations were extending their reach overseas and American foreign investment was greater than that of any other country. The dollar replaced the pound as the most important currency for trade and by the end of the decade America was producing 85% of the world’s cars and 40% of its overall manufactured goods. Stan, can I get a Libertage? Libertage And companies churned out all kinds of labor saving devices like vacuum cleaners, toasters, refrigerators. And not having to spend all day washing your clothes or turning over your own toast like some kind of commoner meant that Americans had more time for leisure. And this was provided by radios, and baseball games, boxing matches, vacations, dance crazes. I mean before Gangnam Style, there was the the Lindy and the Charleston. But probably the most significant leisure product was movies. And I’m not just saying that because I’m staring into a camera. The American film industry moved out to Hollywood before World War I because land was cheap and plentiful, all that sunshine meant that you could shoot outside all year round. And it was close to everything: desert, mountains, ocean, plastic surgeons. And by 1925 the American film industry had eclipsed all of its competitors and become the greatest in the world, especially if you count by volume and not quality. And more and more people had money to go see those movies thanks to consumer debt. The widespread use of credit and layaway buying plans meant that it was acceptable to go into debt to maintain what came to be seen as the American “standard of living” and this was a huge change in attitude. These days we don’t even think of credit cards as debt really, but they are. And that was a relatively new idea. As was another feature of American life in the 20s that is still with us: celebrity. Opera singer Enrico Caruso has often been called the first modern celebrity but now he’s a lot less famous than Charlie Chaplin, or Rudolph Valentino, or Babe Ruth. But probably the biggest celebrity of the decade was Charles Lindbergh, whose claim to fame was flying across the Atlantic Ocean by himself without stopping. Although he did use an airplane, which makes it slightly less impressive. Now Lindbergh wasn’t a truly contemporary celebrity in the sense of being famous for being famous, but he was a business more than a businessman. High culture also flourished. This was the age of the “Lost Generation” of American writers, many of whom lived and worked in Europe, but America had its own version of Paris in New York. The decade of the 1920s saw continued migration of African American people from the south to cities in the North, and Harlem became the capital of Black America. And speaking of migration, let us now migrate to the chair for the Mystery Document. The rules here are simple. I guess the author of the Mystery Document. I’m either right or I get shocked with the shock pen. Alright let’s see what we’ve got here. If we must die, let it not be like hogs Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot, While round us bark the mad and hungry dogs, Making their mock at our accursed lot … Like men we’ll face the murderous, cowardly pack, Pressed to the wall, dying but fight back. Stan, thank you for the poetry. I appreciate that it’s not some obscure document from 18th century blah blah blah. It’s Claude McKay, Harlem Renaissance poet, the poem is called “If We Must Die.” It’s the only thing in the world I’m actually good at. Now I know this from the imagery alone, especially the line about mad and hungry dogs that would figuratively and literally make up the mobs at the lynchings, but the giveaway here is the ultimate sentiment that “we” will fight back. This was part of the spirit of the Harlem Renaissance, which rejected stereotypes and prejudice and sought to celebrate African American experience. Meanwhile, things were changing for women as well as they found ways to express autonomy. Flappers kept their hair and skirts short, smoked and drank illegally in public and availed themselves of birth control. And marketers encouraged them to buy products like cigarettes, christened “torches of freedom” by Edward Bernays. “Liberation” had its limits, though. Most women were still expected to marry, have children, and find their freedom at home through the use of washing machines. But the picture of prosperity is, as usual, more complicated than it at first appears. The fact that so many Americans were going into debt in order to pursue the American dream meant that if the economy faltered, and it did, there was going to be lots of trouble. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble. Prosperity in the 1920s wasn’t equally distributed through the population. Real industrial wages rose by a quarter between 1922 and 1929, but corporate profits rose at twice that rate. By 1929, 1% of the nation’s banks controlled 50% of the nation’s financial resources and the wealthiest 5% of Americans’ share of national income exceeded that of the bottom 60%. An estimated 40% of Americans lived in poverty. Now, many Americans celebrated big business and Wall Street was often seen as heroic, possibly because by 1920 about 1.5 million Americans owned some kind of stock. But big business also meant that smaller businesses disappeared. During the 1920s the number of manufacturing workers declined by 5%, the first time this class of workers had seen its numbers drop, but not the last. Now, some of these jobs were made up for by new jobs in retail, finance, and education, but as early as the 1920s New England was beginning to see unemployment and deindustrialization as textile companies moved their operations to the South, where labor was cheaper. And working class people still made up the majority of Americans and they often couldn’t afford these newfangled devices. Like in 1930, 75% of American homes didn’t have a washing machine, and only 40% of them had a radio. Farmers were even worse off. Many had prospered during World War I when the government subsidized farm prices in order to keep farms producing for the war effort. But, when the subsidies ended, production didn’t subside, largely due to mechanization and increased use of fertilizer. Farmers’ incomes dropped steadily and many saw banks foreclose upon their property. For the first time in American history, the number of farms declined during the 1920s. For farmers, the Great Depression began early. Thanks, Thought Bubble. So, organized labor also took a big hit. Although some companies engaged in welfare capitalism, providing pensions, medical insurance, and greater guarantees of workplace safety, many more continued to oppose unions and their efforts to improve working conditions. They employed stri kebreakers and continued to blacklist union organizers. And coupled with the market logic that led companies to move their businesses to the low-wage south, organized labor lost more than 2 million members in the 1920s. So, in general the federal government did little to nothing to help farmers or workers. The Supreme Court was the only segment of the government that kept any progressive ideas alive, as they began to craft a system of ideas that we call the jurisprudence of civil liberties. For instance, the courts stepped back from decisions like Schenk v. U.S. That was partly down to the newly created ACLU, which through lawsuits brought new meaning to freedom of speech and eventually the right to privacy. Now, the court still voted to uphold convictions of left wing critics of the government, but gradually began to embrace the idea that people had the right to express dissonant views in what Oliver Wendell Holmes called the “marketplace of ideas.” In Near v. Minnesota the Supreme Court struck down censorship of newspapers, and by 1927, Justice Brandeis was writing “that freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth.” But despite increased free speech and torches of liberty and flappers and the Harlem Renaissance, the 1920s was in many ways a reactionary period in American history. For instance, the decade saw the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan in a new and improved form and by improved I mean much more terrible. Spurred on by the hyper-patriotism that was fostered during World War I, the Klan denounced immigrants, and Jews, and Catholics as less than 100% American. And by the mid 20s the Klan claimed more than 3 million members and was the largest private organization right here in my home state of Indiana. And with more immigrants coming from Southern and Eastern Europe – who were often Catholic and Jewish – White Protestants became more and more concerned about losing their dominant position in the social order. Spoiler alert – it turns out okay for you, white Protestants. The first immigration restriction bill was passed in 1921 limiting the number of immigrants from Europe to 357,000. In 1924 a new immigration law dropped that number to 150,000 and established quotas based on national origin. The numbers of immigrants allowed from southern and eastern Europe were drastically reduced and Asians (except for Filipinos) were totally forbidden. The quota for Filipinos was set at 50 per year although they were still allowed to emigrate to Hawaii because their labor was needed there. There were no restrictions however on immigration from the Western Hemisphere because California’s large-scale farms were dependent upon seasonal laborers from Mexico. These immigration restrictions were also influenced by fear of radical anarchists and pseudo-scientific ideas about race. Whites were seen as scientifically superior to people of color and as president Coolidge himself declared when he signed the 1924 immigration law, “America must be kept American.” Tell me, Calvin Coolidge, about how American you are. Are you Cherokee? Or Cree? Or Lakota? The 1920s also saw increased tension between science education in the United States and religious beliefs. The best known example is, of course, the trial of John Scopes in Tennessee in 1925. Scopes was tried for breaking the law against teaching evolution, which he had been encouraged to do by the ACLU as a test case for the freedom of speech. Scopes was prosecuted by William Jennings Bryan, whom you will remember as having recently resigned as Secretary of State and who had become a leader of the fundamentalist movement. And Scopes was defended by Clarence Darrow, that famous defense attorney who contemporary defense attorneys always point to to argue that defense attorneys aren’t all scum. Scopes and Darrow actually lost the trial but the case drew national attention and ultimately led to evolution being taught in more American schools. The Scopes trial is often seen as a victory for free thinking, and science, and modernism, and I suppose it was, but for me it’s more a symbol of the contradictions of the 1920s. This is the decade that gave us mass consumer culture and celebrity worship, which are important and very complicated legacies. And it also saw the birth of modern conceptions of civil liberties. It was a period when tolerance became an important value, but at the same time it saw a rise in lynchings. Immigrants were necessary for the economic boom of the 1920s, but at the same time their numbers were restricted as they were seen as a threat to “traditional American values.” And that raises a question that we’re still struggling with today: what are those values? I don’t mean that rhetorically. Let me know in comments. Thanks for watching. I’ll see you next week. Crash Course is produced and directed by Stan Muller. Our script supervisor is Meredith Danko. The associate producer is Danica Johnson. The show is written by my high school history teacher, Raoul Meyer, Rosianna Rojas, and myself. And our graphics team is Thought Café. I nailed that. Every week, there’s a new caption for the libertage. You can suggest your own in comments or ask questions about today’s video that will be answered by our team of historians. Thank you for watching Crash Course. If you enjoyed today’s video, make sure you’ve subscribed. And as we say in my hometown, don’t forget to be awesome. Roaring 20s -
Demographics
Due to lack of reliable demographic data, estimates of the world population in the 1st century vary wildly, with estimates for AD 1 varying from 150[1] to 300[2] million. Demographers typically do not attempt to estimate most specific years in antiquity, instead giving approximate numbers for round years such as AD 1 or AD 200. However, attempts at reconstructing the world population in more specific years have been made, with Manning (2008) tentatively estimating the world population in AD 20 as 246 million.[3]
Events
AD 20
By place
Roman Empire
- Galba, the future emperor, is a Roman praetor.
- Emperor Tiberius is forced to order an investigation and a public trial in the Roman Senate, for the murder of Germanicus. Fearing he will be found guilty, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso commits suicide.[4]
By topic
AD 21
By place
Roman Empire
- The Aedui revolt under Julius Florus and Julius Sacrovir; the revolt is suppressed by Gaius Silius.[5]
- Emperor Tiberius is a Roman Consul for the fourth time.
- The Romans create a buffer state in the territory of the Quadi, in southern Slovakia.
- Barracks are constructed for the Praetorian Guard, on the Quirinal (located on the Seven Hills of Rome).
Korea
- King Daeso of Dongbuyeo is killed in battle against the armies of Goguryeo, led by its third ruler, King Daemusin.
By topic
Art and Science
AD 22
By place
Roman Empire
- Drusus Julius Caesar receives the tribunicia potestas (tribunician power).[6]
AD 23
By place
Roman Empire
- Greek geographer Strabo publishes Geography, a work covering the world known to the Romans and Greeks at the time of Emperor Augustus – it is the only such book to survive from the ancient world.[7]
- Emperor Tiberius' son Drusus Julius Caesar dies.[8] From that point forward, he seems to lose interest in the Empire and occupies himself with the pursuit of pleasure.
- Lucius Aelius Sejanus begins to dominate the Roman Senate and Tiberius, after the death of Drusus.[9]
China
- Liu Xuan, a descendant of the Han dynasty royal family and leader of insurgents against the Xin dynasty, proclaims himself emperor against Wang Mang.[10]
- July – After being under siege for two months, about 19,000 insurgents under Liu Xiu defeat 450,000 of Wang Mang's troops in the Battle of Kunyang, ushering in the fall of Wang Mang's Xin dynasty and restoration of the Han dynasty.[11]
- October 6 — Emperor Liu Xuan's forces kill Wang Mang at the end of a three-day siege.
AD 24
By place
Roman Empire
- The Roman war against Numidia and Mauretania ends with their annexation.
- Tacfarinas' revolt in Africa is repressed.
- The Senate expels actors from Rome.
Korea
Africa
AD 25
By place
Roman Empire
- Emperor Tiberius settles a dispute between Messenia and Sparta over the Ager Dentheliales on Mount Taygetus, awarding the land to Messenia.[13][14]
- Lucius Aelius Sejanus unsuccessfully attempts to marry Livilla.
China
- August 5 – The Han Dynasty is restored in China as Liu Xiu proclaims himself Emperor Guangwu of Han, starting the Jianwu era (until AD 56).
- November 27 – Luoyang becomes the capital of the Houhan or Eastern Han Dynasty.[15]
AD 26
By place
Roman Empire
- Pontius Pilate is appointed as prefect of Judea.
- Jesus's crucifixion, one out of three possible years.
- Emperor Tiberius retires to Capri, leaving the Praetorian Guard under Lucius Aelius Sejanus in charge of the Roman Empire and the city of Rome.
- Romans crush an uprising of Thracian tribesmen.[16]
AD 27
By place
Roman Empire
- Fire in Rome.[17]
- A poorly built amphitheatre in Fidenae collapses, killing 20,000 of the 50,000 spectators.[18]
- Using the dates and ranges listed in the Gospel of Luke, this year can be established as when John the Baptist begins preaching in the Jordan. It is also likely that Jesus was baptised by John in the final months of this year before his temptation and the first of three Passovers listed in the Gospel of John.
- An Arc of Triumph is erected in Rimini, in honor of the former Emperor Augustus.
By topic
Religion
- Possible date of the Baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist. (Another possibility is AD 29)
AD 28
By place
Germania
- Roman legions in Germania are transported by fleet to the fortress of Flevum on the Rhine, to operate against the rebellious Frisians.[19]
- The Frisians negotiate a treaty with the Roman Empire at the River Rhine, avoiding conquest.
Korea
- King Daru of Baekje succeeds to the throne of Baekje in the Korean peninsula.[20]
Judea
- According to the Gospel of Luke (Luke 3:1-2), the ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus begin at the earliest in this year, and more likely in AD 29.[21]
AD 29
By place
Roman Empire
- Agrippina the Elder is exiled to the island of Pandataria, and her sons (except Caligula) are imprisoned by Lucius Aelius Sejanus.
- Aulus Plautius, later military leader of the invasion of Britain under Emperor Claudius, becomes suffect consul alongside Lucius Nonius Asprenas.
By topic
Religion
- According to the Gospel of Luke (Luke 3:1-2), the ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus probably began in this year.[21] Jesus baptized by John the Baptist.
- Jesus executed, according to Roman Catholic tradition.[22]
Significant people
Births
AD 22
- Valeria Messalina, third wife of Emperor Claudius (d. 48 AD)[23]
AD 23
- Pliny the Elder, Roman scientist and writer[24] (d. 79 AD)
AD 25
- Gaius Julius Civilis, Batavian military leader
- Quintus Volusius Saturninus, Roman consul
AD 27
- Herod Agrippa II, king of Judea
- Petronius, Roman writer and suffect consul (d. AD 66)
- Wang Chong, Chinese astronomer and philosopher (d. AD 100)
AD 28
- June 15 – Ming of Han, Chinese emperor (d. AD 75)
- Julia Berenice, Jewish client queen of Judea
- Silius Italicus, Roman consul and epic poet
Deaths
AD 20
- Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, Roman statesman and governor of Syria (b. 44 BC)
- Vipsania Agrippina, wife of Gaius Asinius Gallus and former wife of Tiberius (b. 36 BC)
- Amanitore, Nubian Queen Regnant of the Kushitic Kingdom of Meroë[25]
AD 21
- Arminius, Germanic military leader (b. 18/17 BC)[26]
- Clutorius Priscus, Roman poet (b. c. 20 BC)
- Daeso of Dongbuyeo, Korean king (b. 60 BC)
- Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus, Roman consul (b. 11 BC)
- Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, Roman governor (b. c. 51 BC)
- Wang (or Xiaomu), Chinese empress of the Xin Dynasty
AD 22
- Daeso, emperor of Dongbuyeo (b. 60 BC)
- Gaius Ateius Capito, Roman jurist and suffect consul (b. c. 30 BC)[27]
- Junia Tertia, wife of Gaius Cassius Longinus (b. c. 75 BC)[28]
AD 23
- September 14 – Drusus Julius Caesar, son of Emperor Tiberius[29] (b. 14 BC)
- October 6 – Wang Mang, Chinese emperor of the Xin dynasty (b. c. 45 BC)[30]
- Juba II, king of Mauretania[31] (b. c. 50 BC)
- Liu Xin, Chinese astronomer, mathematician and politician[32] (b. c. 50 BC)
- Liu Yan, Chinese general and politician
- Servius Cornelius Lentulus Maluginensis, Roman statesman
- Wang, Chinese empress of the Xin dynasty (b. 8 BC)
AD 24
- Gaius Silius, Roman general and consul
- Lucius Calpurnius Piso, Roman consul
- Namhae, king of Silla[12]
- Strabo, Greek geographer and historian
- Tacfarinas, Numidian military leader
- Wang Lang, Chinese emperor
AD 25
- Aulus Cremutius Cordus, Roman historian and writer
- Gengshi, Chinese emperor of the Han Dynasty
- Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus, Roman consul (b. 54 BC)
- Lucius Antonius, grandson of Mark Antony (b. 20 BC)
- Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Roman consul (b. 49 BC)
- Ruzi Ying, Chinese emperor of the Western Han (b. AD 5)
AD 26
- Claudia Pulchra, cousin and close friend to Agrippina the Elder (b. 14 BC)
- Marcus Asinius Agrippa, Roman consul
- Quintus Haterius, Roman politician
- Sun Deng, Chinese puppet emperor
AD 27
- Publius Quinctilius Varus the Younger, Roman nobleman (b. AD 4)
AD 28
- Onjo of Baekje, Korean king [20]
AD 29
- Gaius Fufius Geminus, Roman plebeian tribune and consul
- Julia the Younger, granddaughter of Augustus (b. 19 BC)
- Livia, wife of Augustus and mother of Tiberius (b. 58 BC)
- Jesus (b. 5 BC)
References
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- ^ Haub (1995): "By 1 A.D., the world may have held about 300 million people. One estimate of the population of the Roman Empire, from Spain to Asia Minor, in 14 A.D. is 45 million. However, other historians set the figure twice as high, suggesting how imprecise population estimates of early historical periods can be."
- ^ Manning, Scott (2008-01-12). "Year-by-Year World Population Estimates: 10,000 B.C. to 2007 A.D." Historian on the Warpath. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
- ^ Rome and the Greek East to the death of Augustus. Robert K. Sherk. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. 1984. ISBN 0-521-24995-3. OCLC 9197359.
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: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Jasiński, Jakub; Bak, Marcin. "Rebellion of Florus and Sacrovir in Gaul (21 CE) « IMPERIUM ROMANUM". Retrieved 18 September 2022.
- ^ Williams, Rose (2013). Caesar's Blood: Greek Tragedy in Roman Life. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-61041-102-8.
- ^ Roller, Duane W. (1998). The building program of Herod the Great. University of California Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-520-20934-3.
- ^ Bunson, Matthew (2002). Encyclopedia of the Roman empire (2nd ed.). Infobase Publishing. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-0-8160-4562-4.
- ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (2004). Handbook to life in ancient Rome (2nd ed.). Infobase Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8160-5026-0.
- ^ Giele, Enno (2006). Imperial decision-making and communication in early China: a study of Cai Yong's Duduan. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 218. ISBN 978-3-447-05334-1.
- ^ Schram, Stuart R. (1992). Mao's road to power: revolutionary writings 1912–1949. Vol. 1. M.E. Sharpe. p. 366. ISBN 978-1-56324-457-5.
- ^ a b "List of Rulers of Korea". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
- ^ Gawlinski, Laura (2011-12-23). The Sacred Law of Andania: A New Text with Commentary. Walter de Gruyter. p. 12. ISBN 978-3-11-026814-0.
- ^ Smith, William (1868). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. James Walton. p. 345.
- ^ The Cambridge history of Chinese literature. Kang-i Sun Chang, Stephen Owen. Cambridge, UK. 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-11677-0. OCLC 410227423.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Tacitus, The Annals 4.46-4.51
- ^ Tacitus, The Annals 4.64
- ^ Tacitus, The Annals 4.63
- ^ Tacitus, The Annals 4.73
- ^ a b "List of Rulers of Korea". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
- ^ a b Colin Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, page 65
- ^ "Chronology of the Life of Jesus Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia.
- ^ Perry, Curtis (2008). Eros and Power in English Renaissance Drama: Five Plays by Marlowe, Davenant, Massinger, Ford and Shakespeare. McFarland. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-7864-3165-6.
- ^ Healy, John F. (1999). Pliny the Elder on science and technology. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-814687-2.
- ^ Török, László (1997). The kingdom of Kush : handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic civilization. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10448-8. OCLC 36865663.
- ^ Tacitus, Publius. "The Annals 2.88". Retrieved 18 September 2022.
- ^ Bunson, Matthew (1995). A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. OUP USA. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-19-510233-8.
- ^ Lightman, Marjorie; Lightman, Benjamin (2008). A to Z of Ancient Greek and Roman Women. Infobase Publishing. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-4381-0794-3.
- ^ Bowman, Alan K.; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (1996). The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-521-26430-3.
- ^ Clark, Anthony E. (2008). Ban Gu's history of early China. Cambria Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-60497-561-1.
- ^ Rocca, Samuel (2008). Herod's Judaea: a Mediterranean state in the classical world. Mohr Siebeck. p. 58. ISBN 978-3-16-149717-9.
- ^ Yunis, Harvey (2003). Written texts and the rise of literate culture in ancient Greece. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-521-80930-6.
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