Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{short description|General and ruler of the Delhi Sultanate (1150–1210) (ruled 1206–1210)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Quṭb ud-Dīn Aibak
| title =
| image = Grave of Sultan Qutb al-Din Aibak.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Grave of Qutb ud-Din Aibak, in [[Anarkali Bazaar]] in [[Lahore]]
| succession = 1st [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultan of Delhi]]
| coronation = 25 June 1206, Qasr-e-Humayun, [[Lahore]]
| reign = 25 June 1206 – 14 November 1210
| predecessor = [[Muhammad of Ghor]]
| successor = [[Aram Shah]]
| birth_date = 1150
| birth_place = [[Turkestan]]
| death_date = 14 November 1210 (aged 60)
| death_place = [[Lahore]], [[Delhi Sultanate]] (present-day [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]])
| burial_place = [[Anarkali Bazaar]], [[Lahore]]
| module = {{Infobox military person
| battles = [[First Battle of Tarain]]<br>[[Second Battle of Tarain]]<br>[[Battle of Chandawar]]<br>[[Siege of Kalinjar]]<br>[[Battle of Kasahrada (1197)]]<br>[[Battle of Jhelum (1206)]]
}}|
}}
'''Qutb ud-Din Aibak''' ({{lang-fa|قطبالدین ایبک}}), (1150 – 14 November 1210) was a general of the [[Ghurid]] emperor [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammad Ghori]]. He was in charge of the Ghurid territories in northern India, and after [[Muhammad Ghori]]'s assassination in 1206, he established the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526), and started the [[Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]], which would rule the Sultanate until 1290.
A native of [[Turkestan]], Aibak was sold into slavery as a child. He was purchased by a [[Qazi]] at [[Nishapur]] in [[Persia]], where he learned archery and horse-riding among other skills. He was subsequently resold to Muhammad Ghori in [[Ghazni]], where he rose to the position of the officer of the royal stables. During the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmian]]-Ghurid wars, he was captured by the scouts of [[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultan Shah]]; after the Ghurid victory, he was released and highly favoured by Muhammad Ghori.
After the Ghurid victory in the [[Second Battle of Tarain]] in 1192, Muhammad Ghori made Aibak in charge of his Indian territories. Aibak expanded the Ghurid power in northern India by conquering and raiding several places in the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]], [[Gahadavala]], [[Chaulukya]], [[Chandela]], and other kingdoms.
After the assassination of Muhammad Ghori in March 1206, Aibak fought with another former slave-general [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]] for control of Ghurid territories in north-western India. During this campaign, he advanced as far as [[Ghazni]], although he later retreated and set up his capital at [[Lahore]]. He nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of Muhammad Ghori's successor [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud|Ghiyasuddin Mahmud]], who officially recognized him as the ruler of India.
Aibak was succeeded by [[Aram Shah]], and then by his former slave and son-in-law [[Iltutmish]], who transformed the loosely-held Ghurid territories of India into the powerful Delhi Sultanate. Aibak is known for having commissioned the [[Qutb Minar]] in Delhi, and the [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] in Ajmer.
== Early life ==
Aibak was born in c. 1150.<ref>{{cite book |author=J. Babb |title=A World History of Political Thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsxaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT473 |date=25 May 2018 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-78643-553-8 |page=473 }}</ref> His name is variously transliterated as "Qutb al-Din Aybeg",{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=24}} "Qutbuddin Aibek",{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=191}} and "Kutb Al-Din Aybak".{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}} He came from [[Turkestan]], and belonged to a [[Turkic tribal confederations|Turkic tribe]] called Aibak. The word "Aibak", also transliterated as "Aibek" or "Aybeg", derives from the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] words for "moon" (''ai'') and "lord" (''[[baig|bek]]''). As a child, he was separated from his family and taken to the slave market of [[Nishapur]]. There, [[Qazi]] Fakhruddin Abdul Aziz Kufi, a descendant of the noted Muslim theologian [[Abu Hanifa]], purchased him. Aibak was treated affectionately in the Qazi's household and was educated with the Qazi's sons. He learned archery and horse-riding, besides [[Quran]] recital.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=204}}
The Qazi or one of his sons sold Aibak to a merchant, who in turn, sold the boy to the Ghurid Sultan [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammad Ghori]] in [[Ghazni]]. After being admitted to the Sultan's slave-household, Aibak's intelligence and kind nature attracted the Sultan's attention. Once, when the Sultan bestowed gifts upon his slaves, Aibak distributed his share among the servants. Impressed by this act, the Sultan promoted him to a higher rank.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=204}}
Aibak later rose to the important position of ''Amir-i Akhur'', the officer of the royal stables.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=204}} During the Ghurid conflicts with the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmian]] ruler [[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultan Shah]], Aibak was responsible for the general maintenance of the horses, as well as their fodder and equipment.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=204-205}} One day, while [[foraging]] for horse fodder, he was captured by Sultan Shah's scouts and was detained in an iron cage. After the Ghurids defeated Sultan Shah, Muhammad Ghori ad-Din saw him in the cage and was deeply touched by his desperate condition. After he was released, the Sultan greatly favoured him. No information is available about Aibak's subsequent assignments until the [[First Battle of Tarain]] fought in India, in 1191–1192.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=205}}
== As the Ghurid Sultan's subordinate ==
{{South Asia in 1175|right|Main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the [[Ghurid Empire]] invasion of the subcontinent (orange line: Ghurid territorial conquests from 1175 to 1205).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=37, 147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=074}}</ref>|{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=32|N |long=67|E |label=|position=|label_size=|mark=Chess drt45.svg|marksize=35}}{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=24.5|N |long=75|E |label=|position=|label_size=|mark=Ghurid invasions in India (map overlay).png|marksize=225}}}}
=== Campaign against the Chahamanas ===
Aibak was one of the generals of the Ghurid army that were defeated by the forces of the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]] ruler [[Prithviraja III]] at the [[First Battle of Tarain]] in India.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=162}} At the [[Second Battle of Tarain]], where the Ghurids emerged victorious, he was in charge of the general disposition of the Ghurid army and kept close to Sultan Muhammad Ghori, who had placed himself at the centre of the army.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=164}}
After his victory at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori assigned the former Chahamana territory to Aibak, who was placed at [[Kuhram]] (present-day Ghuram in [[Punjab, India]]).{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=166}}{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}} The exact nature of this assignment is not clear: [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Minhaj]] describes it as an [[iqta']], [[Fakhr-i Mudabbir]] calls it a "command" (''[[ispahsalar|sipahsalari]]''), and [[Hasan Nizami]] states that Aibak was made the governor (''ayalat'') of Kuhram and [[Samana, Punjab|Samana]].{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=24}}
After the death of Prithviraja, Aibak appointed his son [[Govindaraja IV]] as a Ghurid vassal. Sometime later, Prithviraja's brother [[Hariraja]] invaded the [[Ranthambore Fort]], which Aibak had placed under his subordinate Qawamul Mulk. Aibak marched to Ranthambore, forcing Hariraja to retreat from Ranthambore as well as the former Chahamana capital [[Ajmer]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=166}}
=== Campaign against Jatwan ===
{{Main|Battle of Bagar}}
In September 1192, a rebel named [[Jatwan]] besieged the [[Asigarh Fort|Hansi Fort]] commanded by Nusrat-ud-din, in the former Chahamana territory.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}} Aibak marched to Hansi, forcing Jatwan to retreat to [[Bagar tract|Bagar]], where the rebel was defeated and killed in a battle.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}}
The above-mentioned information about Jatwan's rebellion comes from the contemporary writer [[Hasan Nizami]]. [[Firishta]] (17th century), however, dates the rebellion to 1203, and states that Jatwan retreated to the frontiers of [[Gujarat]] after his defeat. He was later killed as a subordinate of the [[Chaulukya]] king [[Bhima II]] when Aibak invaded Gujarat.{{sfn|Majumdar|1956|p=142}} According to historian [[Dasharatha Sharma]], Firishta may have confused the [[Bagar tract]] (where Jatwan was killed) with another area called Bagar near the Gujarat border, around [[Banswara]] and [[Dungarpur]].{{sfn|Sharma|1959|p=100}} Historian A.K. Majumdar adds that Firishta may have confused the Chaulukya ruler Bhima with Bhima-simha, who - according to the ''[[Kharatara Gaccha]] [[Pattavali]]'' - was the governor of Hansi in 1171 CE. Thus, Jatwan may have been a general of Bhima-simha, and may have tried to recover the fort on behalf of his master.{{sfn|Majumdar|1956|p=144}}
[[Henry Miers Elliot]] thought Jatwan to be a leader of [[Jats]], a claim repeated by later writers.{{sfn|Majumdar|1956|pp=143–144}} Nizami does not state this, and Elliot's guess appears to be based on the similarity of the words "Jatwan" and "Jat", and the rebellion's locality, where Jats can be found.{{sfn|Singh|1964|p=213}} According to S.H. Hodivala, "Jatwan" is a mistranscription of the "Chahwan" in the manuscript, and the rebel was probably a Chahamana (Chawhan or Chauhan) subordinate of Prithivraja.{{sfn|Hodivala|1979|p=179}}{{sfn|Majumdar|1956|p=144}} According to Rima Hooja, it is probably a corrupt form of the name "Jaitra".{{sfn|Hooja|2006|p=291}}
=== Initial conquests in Doab ===
[[File:Adhai Din-ka-Jhonpra Screen wall (6133975257).jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] mosque in [[Ajmer]] was started in 1192 and completed in 1199 by Qutb al-Din Aibak.]]
After defeating Jatwan, he returned to Kuhram and made preparations to invade the [[Ganga-Yamuna Doab]]. In 1192, he took control of [[Meerut]] and [[Bulandshahr|Baran]] (modern Bulandshahr), from where he would later launch attacks against the [[Gahadavala]] kingdom.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}} He also took control of [[Delhi]] in 1192, where he initially retained the local [[Tomara dynasty|Tomara]] ruler as a vassal. In 1193, he deposed the Tomara ruler for treason and took direct control of Delhi.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=167–168}}
=== Sojourn in Ghazni ===
In 1193, Sultan Muhammad Ghori summoned Aibak to the Ghurid capital Ghazni.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}} The near-contemporary chronicler [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Minhaj]] does not elaborate why, but the 14th-century chronicler [[Abdul Malik Isami|Isami]] claims that some people had aroused the Sultan's suspicion about Aibak's loyalty. Historian [[K. A. Nizami]] finds Isami's account unreliable and theorizes that the Sultan may have sought Aibak's help in planning further Ghurid expansion in India.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}}
=== Return to India ===
Aibak stayed in Ghazni for about six months. After his return to India in 1194, he crossed the [[Yamuna River]], and captured [[Kol Tehsil|Koil]] (modern [[Aligarh]]) from the [[Dor Rajputs]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}}<ref>{{Cite book|author=Satish Chandra|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=Medieval India:From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) |volume=1|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|year=2004 |isbn=978-8-12411-064-5 |page=27|quote=The areas of Meerut, Baran (modern Buland sher) and Koli (modern Aligarh) in upper doab had been under the control of Dor Rajputs, had been occupied by the Turks shortly after the battle of Tarain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA27}}</ref>
Meanwhile, taking advantage of Aibak's absence in India, Hariraja had regained control of a part of the former Chahamana territory.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=166}} After his return to Delhi, Aibak sent an army against Hariraja, who committed suicide when faced with certain defeat.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=166–167}} Aibak subsequently placed Ajmer under a Muslim governor and moved Govindaraja to [[Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura|Ranthambore]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}}
=== War against the Gahadavalas ===
{{Main|Battle of Chandawar}}
In 1194, Muhammad Ghori returned to India and crossed the [[Yamuna|Jamuna]] with an army of 50,000 horses and at the [[Battle of Chandawar]] defeated the forces of the [[Gahadavala dynasty|Gahadavala]] king [[Jayachandra]], who was killed in action. After the battle, Muhammad Ghori continued his advance to the east, with Aibek in the vanguard. The city of [[Benares]] (Kashi) was taken and razed, and "idols in a thousand temples" were destroyed.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|page=71}}: "In 1194, Muizzuddin returned to India. He crossed the Jamuna with 50,000 cavalry and moved towards Kanauj. A hotly contested battle between Muizzuddin and Jaichandra was fought at Chandawar near Kanauj. We are told that Jaichandra had almost carried the day when he was killed by an arrow, and his army was totally defeated. Muizzuddin now moved on to Banaras which was ravaged, a large number of temples there being destroyed"</ref><ref name="KN116">{{cite book|last=Habib|first=Mohammad|author-link=Mohammad Habib|title=Politics And Society During The Early Medieval Period Vol. 2 |date=1981 |publisher=People's Publishing House |page=116 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99172/page/n145/mode/2up|quote=In the winter of A.D. 1194–1195 Shihabuddin once more marched into Hindustan and invaded the Doab. Rai Jai Chand moved forward to meet him....then description of Chandwar struggle (...) Shihabuddin captured the treasure fort of Asni and then proceeded to Benaras, 'where he converted about thousand idol-temples into house for the Musalmans.}}</ref><ref name="Asher11">{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=Frederick M. |title=Sarnath: A Critical History of the Place Where Buddhism Began |date=2020 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-616-4 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |language=en|quote=And then, in 1193, Qutb-ud-din Aibek, the military commander of Muhammad of Ghor's army, marched towards Varanasi, where he is said to have destroyed idols in a thousand temples. Sarnath very likely was among the casualties of this invasion, one all too often seen as a Muslim invasion whose primary purpose was iconoclasm. It was of course, like any premodern military invasion, intended to acquire land and wealth}}</ref> It is generally thought that the Buddhist city of [[Sarnath]] was also ravaged at that time.<ref name="Asher11"/><ref name="Asher74">{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=Frederick M. |title=Sarnath: A Critical History of the Place Where Buddhism Began |date=2020 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-616-4 |page=74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |language=en}}</ref> Although the Ghurids did not gain complete control over the Gahadavala kingdom, the victory provided an opportunity for them to establish military stations at many places in the region.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}}
=== Other campaigns ===
{{See also|Siege of Gwalior (1196)|Battle of Kasahrada (1197)|Siege of Kalinjar}}
[[File:QutbMinarNewDelhiFromSouth.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Qutb Minar]] in [[Delhi]] was started by Qutb al-Din Aibak in 1199 and completed by his son-in-law Iltutmish in 1220. It is an example of the Mamluk dynasty's works]]
After the victory at Chandawar, Aibak turned his attention towards consolidating his position in Koil.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}} Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni but came back to India in 1195–96 when he defeated Kumarapala, the Bhati ruler of [[Bayana]]. He then marched towards [[Gwalior]], where the local Parihara ruler Sallakhanapala acknowledged his suzerainty after a long siege.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=169}}
Meanwhile, the Mher tribals, who lived near Ajmer, rebelled against the Ghurid rule. Supported by the [[Chaulukya]]s, who ruled [[Gujarat]] in the south, the Mhers posed a serious threat to Aibak's control of the region. Aibak marched against them but was forced to retreat to Ajmer. The Mhers were forced to retreat after reinforcements from the Ghurid capital of Ghazni arrived in Ajmer.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}}
In 1197, [[Battle of Kasahrada (1197)|Aibak defeated the Chaulukya army]] at [[Mount Abu]], thus avenging Muhammad Ghori's defeat at the [[Battle of Kasahrada]] nearly two decades earlier.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=12}} Aibak's army then marched to the Chaulukya capital [[Patan, Gujarat|Anhilwara]]: the defending king [[Bhima II]] fled the city, which was plundered by the invaders.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=169}} Minhaj characterizes Aibak's raid of Anhilwara as the "conquest of Gujarat", but it did not result in the annexation of Gujarat to the Ghurid Empire.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=12}} The 16th-century historian [[Firishta]] states that Aibak appointed a Muslim officer to consolidate Ghurid power in the region, while [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn-i Asir]] states that Aibak placed the newly-captured territory under Hindu vassals. Whatever the case, Ghurid control of the region did not last long, and the Chaulukyas regained control of their capital soon after.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=169}}
In 1197–98, Aibak conquered [[Budaun]] in present-day Uttar Pradesh, and also re-took control of the former Gahadavala capital [[Varanasi]], which had slipped out of Ghurid control. In 1198–99, he captured Chantarwal (unidentified, possibly the same as Chandawar) and [[Kannauj]]. Later, he captured Siroh (possibly modern [[Sirohi]] in Rajasthan). According to the Persian chronicler Fakhr-i Mudabbir (c. 1157–1236), Aibak also conquered [[Malwa]] in present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]], in 1199–1200. However, no other historian refers to such a conquest; therefore, it is likely that Aibak merely raided Malwa.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=169}}
Meanwhile, [[Bahauddin Tughril|Baha' al-Din Toghril]] {{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=27}} (also transliterated as Bahauddin Tughril) - another prominent Ghurid slave-general - besieged the [[Gwalior Fort]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=170–171}} After being reduced to a dire situation, the defenders approached Aibak and surrendered the fort to Aibak.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=171}}
In 1202, Aibak [[Siege of Kalinjar|besieged Kalinjar]], an important fort in the [[Chandela dynasty|Chandela]] kingdom of central India. The Chandela ruler [[Paramardi]] initiated negotiations with Aibak but died before a treaty could be finalized. The Chandela chief minister Ajayadeva resumed hostilities but was forced to seek negotiations when the Ghurids cut off the water supply to the fort. As part of the truce, the Chandelas were forced to move to [[Ajaigarh]]. Their former strongholds of Kalinjar, [[Mahoba]], and [[Khajuraho]] came under Ghurid control, governed by Hasan Arnal.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=170}}
Meanwhile, the Ghurid commander [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]] subjugated the petty Gahadavala chiefs in eastern Uttar Pradesh and the Bihar region.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=172}} After his Bihar campaign, which involved the destruction of Buddhist monasteries, Khalji arrived in Badaun to greet Aibak, who had just concluded his successful campaign at Kalinjar. On 23 March 1203, Khalji presented Aibak with war booty, including 20 captured elephants, jewels, and cash.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=173}} Aibak honoured Khalji, who went on to [[Ghurid conquest of Bengal|conquer a part of the Bengal]] region in the east.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=173–174}} Bakhtiyar acted independently,{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=12}} and at the time of his death in 1206, was not a subordinate of Aibak.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=198}}
In 1204, Muhammad Ghori suffered a defeat against the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmians]] and their allies at the [[Battle of Andkhud]], followed by several challenges to his authority. Aibak helped him [[Battle of Jhelum (1206)|suppress a rebellion]] by the [[Khokhar]] chiefs of the [[Lahore]] region, and then returned to Delhi.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=178}} On 15 March 1206, Muhammad Ghori was assassinated: different sources variously attribute the act to Khokhars or [[Ismaili]]s.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=179}}
== After Muhammad Ghori's death ==
According to [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Minhaj]]'s ''[[Tabaqat-i Nasiri]]'', Aibak had conquered territory up to the frontiers of [[Ujjain]] in the south.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=146}} Minhaj states that at the time of Sultan Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206, the Ghurids controlled the following areas in India:{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=201}}
{{col-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Multan]]
* [[Uch]]
* [[Patan, Gujarat|Nahrwala]] (Patan)
* [[Peshawar|Purshor]]
* [[Sialkot]]
* [[Lahore]]
* [[Bathinda|Tabarhinda]]
* [[Taraori|Tarain]]
* [[Ajmer]]
* [[Hansi]]
* [[Sirsa|Sursuti]]
* [[Ghuram|Kuhram]]
* [[Meerut]]
* [[Aligarh|Kol]]
* [[Delhi]]
* [[Timangarh|Thankar]]
* [[Budaun]]
* [[Gwalior]]
* [[Bhera]]
* [[Varanasi|Banaras]]
* [[Kannauj]]
* [[Kalinjar Fort|Kalinjar]]
* [[Awadh]]
* [[Malwa]]
* [[Bihar Sharif|Adwand]], [[Bihar]]
* [[Gauḍa (city)|Lakhnauti]] in [[Bengal]]
}}
However, Ghurid control was not equally effective in all these areas. In some of these places, such as Gwalior and Kalinjar, Ghurid control had weakened or even ceased to exist.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=202}}
=== Eastern India ===
During Sultan Muhammad Ghori's reign, parts of the Bihar and Bengal area in eastern India had been conquered by the Khalji clan, led by the Ghurid general [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]]. Bakhtiyar was killed by his subordinate [[Ali Mardan Khalji]] at [[Bangarh|Devkot]] in 1206, around the same time Sultan Muhammad Ghori was assassinated. Subsequently, [[Muhammad Shiran Khalji]], another subordinate of Bakhtiyar, detained Ali Mardan and became the leader of the Khaljis in eastern India. Ali Mardan escaped to Delhi, where he persuaded Aibak to intervene in Khalji affairs. The Khaljis were not slaves of Muhammad Ghori, so Aibak had no legal authority in the matter. Nevertheless, he instructed his subordinate Qaimaz Rumi – the governor of Awadh – to march to Lakhnauti in Bengal, and assign suitable [[iqta']]s to the Khalji [[emir|amirs]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=203}}
Qaimaz Rumi assigned the iqta' of Devkot to [[Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Shah|Husamuddin Iwaz Khalji]], another subordinate of Bakhtiyar. Muhammad Shiran and other Khalji amirs disagreed with this decision and marched to Devkot. However, Rumi defeated them decisively, and Shiran was later killed in a conflict. Later, Aibak assigned Lakhnauti to Ali Mardan (see below).{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=203}}
== Recognition as the ruler of northern India==
{{Delhi Sultanate|Mamluk}}
''Tajul-Ma'asir'', a contemporary chronicle by [[Hasan Nizami]], suggests that Muhammad Ghori appointed Aibak as his representative in India after his victory at Tarain. Hasan Nizami also states that the ''iyalat'' (governorship) of Kuhram and [[Samana, Punjab|Samana]] was entrusted to Aibak.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=197}}
Fakhr-i Mudabbir, another contemporary chronicler, states that Muhammad Ghori formally appointed Aibak as the viceroy of his Indian territories only in 1206 when he was returning to Ghazni after suppressing the Khokhar rebellion. According to this chronicler, Aibak was promoted to the rank of ''malik'' and appointed heir apparent (''[[wali al-ahd]]'') of the Sultan's Indian territories.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=197–198}}
Historian [[K. A. Nizami]] theorizes that Sultan Muhammad Ghori never appointed Aibak as his successor in India: the slave-general acquired this position ''after'' the Sultan's death through the use of diplomacy and military power. The Sultan's unexpected death left three of his main slave-generals – Aibak, [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]], and [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha]] – in positions of power.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=198}} During his last years, the Sultan was disappointed in his family and his chiefs and trusted only his slaves, whom he thought of as his sons and successors.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=198–199}}
At the time of the Sultan's death, Aibak had his headquarters at Delhi. The citizens of Lahore requested him to assume sovereign power after the Sultan's death, and he moved his government to Lahore. He informally ascended the throne on 25 June 1206, but his formal recognition as a sovereign ruler happened much later, in 1208–1209.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=199}}{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}}
Meanwhile, in and around Ghazni, the Sultan's slaves fought with his nobles for control of the Ghurid Empire and helped his nephew [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud|Ghiyasuddin Mahmud]] ascend the throne.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=200–201}} When Mahmud had consolidated his rule, Aibak and other slaves sent messengers to his court, seeking deeds of manumission and investiture for ruling over the various Ghurid territories.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=201}} According to Minhaj, Aibak (unlike Yildiz) maintained the [[khutba]] and stuck's coins in Mahmud's name.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}}{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}}
Yildiz, who was Aibak's father-in-law, sought to control the Ghurid territories in India. After Sultan Mahmud confirmed him as the ruler of Ghazni and manumitted him, Yildiz marched to [[Punjab]], intending to take control of the region. Aibak marched against him, forced him to retreat to [[Kohistan District, Kapisa|Kohistan]], and took control of Ghazni.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=202}} Aibak then sent his representative Nizamuddin Muhammad to Mahmud's headquarters at [[Firozkoh|Firuz Kuh]], seeking to expedite his request for the investiture.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=201}}
In 1208–1209, Mahmud conferred a ''chatr'' (ceremonial parasol) on Aibak,{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}} and issued a deed of investiture recognizing him as the ruler of [[Hindustan]]. He may have also issued a deed of manumission for Aibak at this time.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=201}} According to Minhaj's ''Tabaqat-i Nasiri'', Mahmud styled Aibak as a "Sultan"; chronicler Hasan Nizami also calls him a "Sultan".{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}} Nizami states that the ''khutba'' was read and coins were struck in Aibak's name, but no other source corroborates this claim.{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}} No coins issued by him have been found,{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}} and no extant coins describe him as a "Sultan".{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}}
According to Minhaj, Aibak became complacent and devoted his time to pleasures and amusements in Ghazni. The people of Ghazni invited Yildiz to evict him from the city, and when Yildiz arrived in the vicinity of Ghazni, Aibak panicked and escaped to India via a narrow mountain pass called Sang-i Surkh. Subsequently, Aibak moved his capital to [[Lahore]] to safeguard his territories against Yildiz.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=202}}
[[Ali Mardan Khalji]], who had accompanied Aibak to Ghazni, was captured and imprisoned by Yildiz. He somehow secured his release and returned to India. Aibak dispatched him to Lakhnauti in Bengal, where [[Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Shah|Husamuddin Iwaz]] agreed to be his subordinate. Ali Mardan thus became the governor of Aibak's territories in eastern India and brought the whole region under his control.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=203}}
== Death and legacy ==
[[File: Death of the slave king, Kutbuddin Aibak of Delhi, A.D. 1210.jpg|thumb|left|A modern [[artist's impression]] of the accident that caused Aibak's death]]
After being recognized as the ruler of India, Aibak focused on consolidating his rule in the territories already under his control, rather than conquering new territories. In 1210, he fell down from a horse while playing [[chovgan|chaugan]] (a form of [[polo]] on horseback) in [[Lahore]], and died instantly when the pommel of the [[saddle]] pierced his ribs.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=203}}
All contemporary chroniclers praise Aibak as a loyal, generous, courageous, and just man.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=205}} According to Minhaj, his generosity earned him the epithet ''lakh-bakhsh'', literally "giver of [[lakh]]s [of copper coins or ''jitals'']".{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=205–206}} Fakhr-i Mudabbir states that Aibak's soldiers – who included "Turks, Ghurids, Khurasanis, Khaljis, and Hindustanis" – did not dare to forcibly take even a blade of grass or a morsel of food from the peasants. The 16th century [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] chronicler [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abu'l-Fazl]] criticizes [[Mahmud of Ghazna]] for "shedding innocent blood", but praises Aibak stating that "he achieved things, good and great". As late as the 17th century, the term "Aibak of the time" was used to describe generous people, as attested by the chronicler [[Firishta]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=206}}
Aibak's conquests involved the large-scale capture of people as slaves. According to Hasan Nizami, his Gujarat campaign resulted in the enslavement of 20,000 people; and his Kalinjar campaign resulted in the enslavement of 50,000 people. According to [[Irfan Habib]], Nizami's work is full of rhetoric and hyperbole, so these numbers seem to be exaggerated, however, the number of slaves collected must indeed have been vast and grew over time.{{sfn|Habib|1982|p=90}}
[[File:Qutbuddin_Aibak_Tomb_ahore_02.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Tomb of Qutb al-Din Aibak (renovated in 1970) in [[Anarkali Bazaar]] in [[Lahore]].]]
Aibak, who died unexpectedly, had not appointed an heir apparent. After his death, the Turkic officers (''maliks'' and ''amirs'') stationed at [[Lahore]] appointed [[Aram Shah]] as his successor. No details about Aram Shah's life are available before his ascension to the throne.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=206}} According to one theory, he was a son of Aibak, but this is unlikely (see [[#Personal life|personal life]] section).{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=206–207}}
Aram Shah ruled for no more than eight months, during which various provincial governors started asserting independence. Some Turkic officers then invited Aibak's former slave [[Iltutmish]], a distinguished general, to take over the kingdom.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=207}} Aibak had purchased Iltutmish sometime after the conquest of Anhilwara in 1197.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=197}} According to Minhaj, Aibak looked upon Iltutmish as the next ruler: he used to call Iltutmish his son and had granted him the [[iqta']] of [[Badaun]]. Consequently, the nobles appointed Iltutmish as Aram Shah's successor and married Aibak's daughter to him. Aram Shah challenged Iltutmish's claim to the throne but was decisively defeated and killed after a military conflict.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=208}} Iltutmish subjugated the rebel governors and transformed the loosely-held Ghurid territories of India into the powerful [[Delhi Sultanate]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=208, 222}}
Iltutmish was succeeded by his family members, and then by his slave [[Ghiyas ud din Balban]].{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=44}} This line of kings is called [[Mamluk]] or Slave dynasty; however, this term is a misnomer.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=191}}{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=44}} Only Aibak, Iltutmish, and Balban were slaves, and seem to have been [[manumission|manumitted]] before their ascension to the throne.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=191}} The other rulers in this line were not slaves at any point in their life.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=44}}
Today his tomb is located in [[Anarkali Bazaar|Anarkali, Lahore]]. The tomb was built, in its present form, during the 1970s by the Department of Archaeology and Museums (Pakistan) which tried to emulate the Sultanate-era architecture. Before the modern construction, the Sultan's grave existed in a simple form and was enclosed by residential houses. Historians dispute whether a proper tomb ever existed over it (some historians claim that a marble dome did stand over it but was destroyed by the Sikhs).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1453149|title=History: The Heritage of the Slave Sultan|last=Shah|first=Dr Syed Talha|date=2018-12-23|publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref>
== Personal life ==
Some manuscripts of Minhaj's ''[[Tabaqat-i Nasiri]]'' append the words ''bin Aibak'' ("son of Aibak") to the name of Aibak's successor of [[Aram Shah]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=207}} However, this may have been an erroneous addition made by a careless scribe, as Alauddin Ata Malik-i-Juwayni's ''Tarikh-i-Jahan-Gusha'' chronicle explicitly mentions that Aibak had no son.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=206-207}} Contrarily, the 14th century historian [[Abdul Malik Isami]] stated Aaram Shah as Aibak's real son.{{sfn|Siddiqui|2010|page=53}}
Minhaj refers to the three daughters of Aibak. The first one was married to [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha]], the Ghurid governor of [[Multan]]. After her death, the second daughter was married to Qabacha as well. The third one was married to Aibak's slave [[Iltutmish]], who succeeded Aram Shah on the throne of Delhi.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=206–207}}
== Religion ==
Chronicler [[Hasan Nizami]], who migrated from [[Nishapur]] to Delhi during Aibak's reign, characterizes Aibak as a devout Muslim who "uprooted idolatry" and "destroyed temples" at Kuhram. He also mentions that the Hindu temples at Meerut and Kalinjar were converted into mosques during Aibak's reign; these included "a thousand temples" in [[Delhi]] alone.<ref>{{Cite book| last=Eaton|first=Richard|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEXZAAAAMAAJ |title=Essays on Islam and Indian History |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-565114-0|page=124|quote=Mahmud of Ghazni, for example is said to have destroyed 10,000 temples in Kanauj and 1,000 in Mathura, his grandson in Ibrahim 1,000 in Delhi doab and another 1,000 in Malwa. Aybek 1000 in Delhi, and Muhammad Ghuri another 1,000 temples in Benaras-figures that Hindu nationalists like Sita Ram Goel have accepted at face value|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wink|first=Andre|author-link=Andre Wink|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC |title=Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11th–13th Centuries |date=1991 |publisher=Brill| isbn=9004102361|page=333|quote=We do not know much about the first Muslim raid on Benares, by Ahmad Nayaltigin in 1033 AD, which appears merely to have been a plundering expedition. When Muhammad Ghuri marched on the city, we are merely told that after breaking the idols in above 1000 temples, he purified and consecrated the latter to the worship of the true God|language=en}}</ref> He further claims that Aibak freed the whole Kol ([[Aligarh]]) region from idols and [[idolatry]].{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=20}}
Nizami's claim that the remains of the demolished Hindu temples were used to build mosques is corroborated by architectural remains, such as those at the [[Qutb Minar complex]] in Delhi and the [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] in Ajmer. However, his other claims such as Aibak freeing Kol from idols are doubtful.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=20}}
At some point, Aibak's army started recruiting Hindu soldiers. His army at the siege of Meerut (1192) is known to have included Hindu soldiers. Similarly, the "forces of Hindustan" (''Hasham-i Hindustan'') that accompanied him to Ghazni in 1206, included Hindu chiefs ("[[rana (title)|ranas]]" and "[[thakur (title)|thakurs]]").{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=21}}
== Cultural contributions ==
The construction of the [[Qutb Minar]] in Delhi started during Aibak's reign. Aibak was also a patron of literature. Fakhri Mudabbir, who wrote ''Adab al-Harb'' - etiquettes of war - dedicated his book of genealogies to Aibak. The composition of Hasan Nizami's ''Tajul-Ma'asir'', which was completed during the reign of Iltutmish, probably began during Aibak's reign.{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}}
== See also ==
* [[1206 in India]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{Commons category|Qutb al-Din Aibak}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Chandra |first=Satish |author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=History of Medieval India:800–1700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHnHHwAACAAJ |year=2007|publisher=Orient Longman|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Hodivala|first=Shahpurshah Hormasji|title=Studies in Indo-Muslim History: A Critical Commentary on Elliot and Dowson's History of India as Told by Its Own Historians |year=1979 |publisher=Islamic Book Service |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73pDAAAAYAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last=Hooja|first=Rima|title=A History of Rajasthan |year=2006 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=9788129108906 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last=Habib|first=Irfan|author-link=Irfan Habib|chapter=Non-Agricultural Production and Urban Economy |editor1=Tapan Raychaudhuri |editor2=Irfan Habib |title=The Cambridge Economic History of India |volume=1, c. 1200 – c. 1750 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA90 |year=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-22692-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Jackson|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA12 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54329-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Jackson|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Jackson (historian)|chapter=Kutb Al-Din Aybak |editor1=C. E. Bosworth |editor-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor2= E. van Donzel |editor3= Charles Pellat |editor3-link=Charles Pellat |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=New |volume=5: Supplement |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA546 |year=1982 |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=90-04-06167-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Majumdar|first=Ashoke Kumar|title=Chaulukyas of Gujarat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffAdAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1956 |oclc=4413150 }}
* {{cite book |last=Nizami|first=Khaliq Ahmad|author-link=K. A. Nizami |chapter=The Early Turkish Sultans of Delhi |editor1=Mohammad Habib |editor2=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526) |volume=5 |edition=Second |year=1992 |publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |oclc=31870180 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sharma|first=Dasharatha|author-link=Dasharatha Sharma|title=Early Chauhān Dynasties |publisher=S. Chand / Motilal Banarsidass |year=1959 |isbn=9780842606189 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4gcAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last=Singh|first=R. B. |title=History of the Chāhamānas |publisher=N. Kishore |year=1964 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKs9AAAAIAAJ |oclc=11038728 }}
* {{cite book |last=Siddiqui|first=Iqtidar Husain|title=Indo-Persian Historiography Up to the Thirteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJbmTL8svpwC&pg=PA40 |year=2010 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-81-908918-0-6 }}
{{refend}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Sultans of the Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)]]
[[Category:12th-century births]]
[[Category:1210 deaths]]
[[Category:12th-century military personnel]]
[[Category:13th-century military personnel]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:13th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Polo deaths]]
[[Category:People of Cuman descent]]
[[Category:Turkic people]]
[[Category:Slaves of the medieval Islamic world]]
[[Category:Slave soldiers]]
[[Category:Founding monarchs]]
[[Category:Ghurid generals]]
[[Category:12th-century slaves]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|General and ruler of the Delhi Sultanate (1150–1210) (ruled 1206–1210)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}🫥🫥🫥🫥🫥🫥🫥🫥
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Quṭb ud-Dīn Aibak
| title =
| image = Grave of Sultan Qutb al-Din Aibak.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Grave of Qutb ud-Din Aibak, in [[Anarkali Bazaar]] in [[Lahore]]
| succession = 1st [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultan of Delhi]]
| coronation = 25 June 1206, Qasr-e-Humayun, [[Lahore]]
| reign = 25 June 1206 – 14 November 1210
| predecessor = [[Muhammad of Ghor]]
| successor = [[Aram Shah]]
| birth_date = 1150
| birth_place = [[Turkestan]]
| death_date = 14 November 1210 (aged 60)
| death_place = [[Lahore]], [[Delhi Sultanate]] (present-day [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]])
| burial_place = [[Anarkali Bazaar]], [[Lahore]]
| module = {{Infobox military person
| battles = [[First Battle of Tarain]]<br>[[Second Battle of Tarain]]<br>[[Battle of Chandawar]]<br>[[Siege of Kalinjar]]<br>[[Battle of Kasahrada (1197)]]<br>[[Battle of Jhelum (1206)]]
}}|
}}
'''Qutb ud-Din Aibak''' ({{lang-fa|قطبالدین ایبک}}), (1150 – 14 November 1210) was a general of the [[Ghurid]] emperor [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammad Ghori]]. He was in charge of the Ghurid territories in northern India, and after [[Muhammad Ghori]]'s assassination in 1206, he established the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526), and started the [[Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]], which would rule the Sultanate until 1290.
A native of [[Turkestan]], Aibak was sold into slavery as a child. He was purchased by a [[Qazi]] at [[Nishapur]] in [[Persia]], where he learned archery and horse-riding among other skills. He was subsequently resold to Muhammad Ghori in [[Ghazni]], where he rose to the position of the officer of the royal stables. During the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmian]]-Ghurid wars, he was captured by the scouts of [[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultan Shah]]; after the Ghurid victory, he was released and highly favoured by Muhammad Ghori.
After the Ghurid victory in the [[Second Battle of Tarain]] in 1192, Muhammad Ghori made Aibak in charge of his Indian territories. Aibak expanded the Ghurid power in northern India by conquering and raiding several places in the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]], [[Gahadavala]], [[Chaulukya]], [[Chandela]], and other kingdoms.
After the assassination of Muhammad Ghori in March 1206, Aibak fought with another former slave-general [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]] for control of Ghurid territories in north-western India. During this campaign, he advanced as far as [[Ghazni]], although he later retreated and set up his capital at [[Lahore]]. He nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of Muhammad Ghori's successor [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud|Ghiyasuddin Mahmud]], who officially recognized him as the ruler of India.
Aibak was succeeded by [[Aram Shah]], and then by his former slave and son-in-law [[Iltutmish]], who transformed the loosely-held Ghurid territories of India into the powerful Delhi Sultanate. Aibak is known for having commissioned the [[Qutb Minar]] in Delhi, and the [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] in Ajmer.
== Early life ==
Aibak was born in c. 1150.<ref>{{cite book |author=J. Babb |title=A World History of Political Thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsxaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT473 |date=25 May 2018 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-78643-553-8 |page=473 }}</ref> His name is variously transliterated as "Qutb al-Din Aybeg",{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=24}} "Qutbuddin Aibek",{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=191}} and "Kutb Al-Din Aybak".{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}} He came from [[Turkestan]], and belonged to a [[Turkic tribal confederations|Turkic tribe]] called Aibak. The word "Aibak", also transliterated as "Aibek" or "Aybeg", derives from the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] words for "moon" (''ai'') and "lord" (''[[baig|bek]]''). As a child, he was separated from his family and taken to the slave market of [[Nishapur]]. There, [[Qazi]] Fakhruddin Abdul Aziz Kufi, a descendant of the noted Muslim theologian [[Abu Hanifa]], purchased him. Aibak was treated affectionately in the Qazi's household and was educated with the Qazi's sons. He learned archery and horse-riding, besides [[Quran]] recital.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=204}}
The Qazi or one of his sons sold Aibak to a merchant, who in turn, sold the boy to the Ghurid Sultan [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammad Ghori]] in [[Ghazni]]. After being admitted to the Sultan's slave-household, Aibak's intelligence and kind nature attracted the Sultan's attention. Once, when the Sultan bestowed gifts upon his slaves, Aibak distributed his share among the servants. Impressed by this act, the Sultan promoted him to a higher rank.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=204}}
Aibak later rose to the important position of ''Amir-i Akhur'', the officer of the royal stables.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=204}} During the Ghurid conflicts with the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmian]] ruler [[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultan Shah]], Aibak was responsible for the general maintenance of the horses, as well as their fodder and equipment.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=204-205}} One day, while [[foraging]] for horse fodder, he was captured by Sultan Shah's scouts and was detained in an iron cage. After the Ghurids defeated Sultan Shah, Muhammad Ghori ad-Din saw him in the cage and was deeply touched by his desperate condition. After he was released, the Sultan greatly favoured him. No information is available about Aibak's subsequent assignments until the [[First Battle of Tarain]] fought in India, in 1191–1192.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=205}}
== As the Ghurid Sultan's subordinate ==
{{South Asia in 1175|right|Main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the [[Ghurid Empire]] invasion of the subcontinent (orange line: Ghurid territorial conquests from 1175 to 1205).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=37, 147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=074}}</ref>|{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=32|N |long=67|E |label=|position=|label_size=|mark=Chess drt45.svg|marksize=35}}{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=24.5|N |long=75|E |label=|position=|label_size=|mark=Ghurid invasions in India (map overlay).png|marksize=225}}}}
=== Campaign against the Chahamanas ===
Aibak was one of the generals of the Ghurid army that were defeated by the forces of the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]] ruler [[Prithviraja III]] at the [[First Battle of Tarain]] in India.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=162}} At the [[Second Battle of Tarain]], where the Ghurids emerged victorious, he was in charge of the general disposition of the Ghurid army and kept close to Sultan Muhammad Ghori, who had placed himself at the centre of the army.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=164}}
After his victory at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori assigned the former Chahamana territory to Aibak, who was placed at [[Kuhram]] (present-day Ghuram in [[Punjab, India]]).{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=166}}{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}} The exact nature of this assignment is not clear: [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Minhaj]] describes it as an [[iqta']], [[Fakhr-i Mudabbir]] calls it a "command" (''[[ispahsalar|sipahsalari]]''), and [[Hasan Nizami]] states that Aibak was made the governor (''ayalat'') of Kuhram and [[Samana, Punjab|Samana]].{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=24}}
After the death of Prithviraja, Aibak appointed his son [[Govindaraja IV]] as a Ghurid vassal. Sometime later, Prithviraja's brother [[Hariraja]] invaded the [[Ranthambore Fort]], which Aibak had placed under his subordinate Qawamul Mulk. Aibak marched to Ranthambore, forcing Hariraja to retreat from Ranthambore as well as the former Chahamana capital [[Ajmer]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=166}}
=== Campaign against Jatwan ===
{{Main|Battle of Bagar}}
In September 1192, a rebel named [[Jatwan]] besieged the [[Asigarh Fort|Hansi Fort]] commanded by Nusrat-ud-din, in the former Chahamana territory.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}} Aibak marched to Hansi, forcing Jatwan to retreat to [[Bagar tract|Bagar]], where the rebel was defeated and killed in a battle.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}}
The above-mentioned information about Jatwan's rebellion comes from the contemporary writer [[Hasan Nizami]]. [[Firishta]] (17th century), however, dates the rebellion to 1203, and states that Jatwan retreated to the frontiers of [[Gujarat]] after his defeat. He was later killed as a subordinate of the [[Chaulukya]] king [[Bhima II]] when Aibak invaded Gujarat.{{sfn|Majumdar|1956|p=142}} According to historian [[Dasharatha Sharma]], Firishta may have confused the [[Bagar tract]] (where Jatwan was killed) with another area called Bagar near the Gujarat border, around [[Banswara]] and [[Dungarpur]].{{sfn|Sharma|1959|p=100}} Historian A.K. Majumdar adds that Firishta may have confused the Chaulukya ruler Bhima with Bhima-simha, who - according to the ''[[Kharatara Gaccha]] [[Pattavali]]'' - was the governor of Hansi in 1171 CE. Thus, Jatwan may have been a general of Bhima-simha, and may have tried to recover the fort on behalf of his master.{{sfn|Majumdar|1956|p=144}}
[[Henry Miers Elliot]] thought Jatwan to be a leader of [[Jats]], a claim repeated by later writers.{{sfn|Majumdar|1956|pp=143–144}} Nizami does not state this, and Elliot's guess appears to be based on the similarity of the words "Jatwan" and "Jat", and the rebellion's locality, where Jats can be found.{{sfn|Singh|1964|p=213}} According to S.H. Hodivala, "Jatwan" is a mistranscription of the "Chahwan" in the manuscript, and the rebel was probably a Chahamana (Chawhan or Chauhan) subordinate of Prithivraja.{{sfn|Hodivala|1979|p=179}}{{sfn|Majumdar|1956|p=144}} According to Rima Hooja, it is probably a corrupt form of the name "Jaitra".{{sfn|Hooja|2006|p=291}}
=== Initial conquests in Doab ===
[[File:Adhai Din-ka-Jhonpra Screen wall (6133975257).jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] mosque in [[Ajmer]] was started in 1192 and completed in 1199 by Qutb al-Din Aibak.]]
After defeating Jatwan, he returned to Kuhram and made preparations to invade the [[Ganga-Yamuna Doab]]. In 1192, he took control of [[Meerut]] and [[Bulandshahr|Baran]] (modern Bulandshahr), from where he would later launch attacks against the [[Gahadavala]] kingdom.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}} He also took control of [[Delhi]] in 1192, where he initially retained the local [[Tomara dynasty|Tomara]] ruler as a vassal. In 1193, he deposed the Tomara ruler for treason and took direct control of Delhi.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=167–168}}
=== Sojourn in Ghazni ===
In 1193, Sultan Muhammad Ghori summoned Aibak to the Ghurid capital Ghazni.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}} The near-contemporary chronicler [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Minhaj]] does not elaborate why, but the 14th-century chronicler [[Abdul Malik Isami|Isami]] claims that some people had aroused the Sultan's suspicion about Aibak's loyalty. Historian [[K. A. Nizami]] finds Isami's account unreliable and theorizes that the Sultan may have sought Aibak's help in planning further Ghurid expansion in India.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}}
=== Return to India ===
Aibak stayed in Ghazni for about six months. After his return to India in 1194, he crossed the [[Yamuna River]], and captured [[Kol Tehsil|Koil]] (modern [[Aligarh]]) from the [[Dor Rajputs]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}}<ref>{{Cite book|author=Satish Chandra|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=Medieval India:From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) |volume=1|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|year=2004 |isbn=978-8-12411-064-5 |page=27|quote=The areas of Meerut, Baran (modern Buland sher) and Koli (modern Aligarh) in upper doab had been under the control of Dor Rajputs, had been occupied by the Turks shortly after the battle of Tarain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA27}}</ref>
Meanwhile, taking advantage of Aibak's absence in India, Hariraja had regained control of a part of the former Chahamana territory.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=166}} After his return to Delhi, Aibak sent an army against Hariraja, who committed suicide when faced with certain defeat.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=166–167}} Aibak subsequently placed Ajmer under a Muslim governor and moved Govindaraja to [[Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura|Ranthambore]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}}
=== War against the Gahadavalas ===
{{Main|Battle of Chandawar}}
In 1194, Muhammad Ghori returned to India and crossed the [[Yamuna|Jamuna]] with an army of 50,000 horses and at the [[Battle of Chandawar]] defeated the forces of the [[Gahadavala dynasty|Gahadavala]] king [[Jayachandra]], who was killed in action. After the battle, Muhammad Ghori continued his advance to the east, with Aibek in the vanguard. The city of [[Benares]] (Kashi) was taken and razed, and "idols in a thousand temples" were destroyed.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|page=71}}: "In 1194, Muizzuddin returned to India. He crossed the Jamuna with 50,000 cavalry and moved towards Kanauj. A hotly contested battle between Muizzuddin and Jaichandra was fought at Chandawar near Kanauj. We are told that Jaichandra had almost carried the day when he was killed by an arrow, and his army was totally defeated. Muizzuddin now moved on to Banaras which was ravaged, a large number of temples there being destroyed"</ref><ref name="KN116">{{cite book|last=Habib|first=Mohammad|author-link=Mohammad Habib|title=Politics And Society During The Early Medieval Period Vol. 2 |date=1981 |publisher=People's Publishing House |page=116 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99172/page/n145/mode/2up|quote=In the winter of A.D. 1194–1195 Shihabuddin once more marched into Hindustan and invaded the Doab. Rai Jai Chand moved forward to meet him....then description of Chandwar struggle (...) Shihabuddin captured the treasure fort of Asni and then proceeded to Benaras, 'where he converted about thousand idol-temples into house for the Musalmans.}}</ref><ref name="Asher11">{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=Frederick M. |title=Sarnath: A Critical History of the Place Where Buddhism Began |date=2020 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-616-4 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |language=en|quote=And then, in 1193, Qutb-ud-din Aibek, the military commander of Muhammad of Ghor's army, marched towards Varanasi, where he is said to have destroyed idols in a thousand temples. Sarnath very likely was among the casualties of this invasion, one all too often seen as a Muslim invasion whose primary purpose was iconoclasm. It was of course, like any premodern military invasion, intended to acquire land and wealth}}</ref> It is generally thought that the Buddhist city of [[Sarnath]] was also ravaged at that time.<ref name="Asher11"/><ref name="Asher74">{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=Frederick M. |title=Sarnath: A Critical History of the Place Where Buddhism Began |date=2020 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-616-4 |page=74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |language=en}}</ref> Although the Ghurids did not gain complete control over the Gahadavala kingdom, the victory provided an opportunity for them to establish military stations at many places in the region.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}}
=== Other campaigns ===
{{See also|Siege of Gwalior (1196)|Battle of Kasahrada (1197)|Siege of Kalinjar}}
[[File:QutbMinarNewDelhiFromSouth.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Qutb Minar]] in [[Delhi]] was started by Qutb al-Din Aibak in 1199 and completed by his son-in-law Iltutmish in 1220. It is an example of the Mamluk dynasty's works]]
After the victory at Chandawar, Aibak turned his attention towards consolidating his position in Koil.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=168}} Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni but came back to India in 1195–96 when he defeated Kumarapala, the Bhati ruler of [[Bayana]]. He then marched towards [[Gwalior]], where the local Parihara ruler Sallakhanapala acknowledged his suzerainty after a long siege.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=169}}
Meanwhile, the Mher tribals, who lived near Ajmer, rebelled against the Ghurid rule. Supported by the [[Chaulukya]]s, who ruled [[Gujarat]] in the south, the Mhers posed a serious threat to Aibak's control of the region. Aibak marched against them but was forced to retreat to Ajmer. The Mhers were forced to retreat after reinforcements from the Ghurid capital of Ghazni arrived in Ajmer.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=167}}
In 1197, [[Battle of Kasahrada (1197)|Aibak defeated the Chaulukya army]] at [[Mount Abu]], thus avenging Muhammad Ghori's defeat at the [[Battle of Kasahrada]] nearly two decades earlier.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=12}} Aibak's army then marched to the Chaulukya capital [[Patan, Gujarat|Anhilwara]]: the defending king [[Bhima II]] fled the city, which was plundered by the invaders.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=169}} Minhaj characterizes Aibak's raid of Anhilwara as the "conquest of Gujarat", but it did not result in the annexation of Gujarat to the Ghurid Empire.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=12}} The 16th-century historian [[Firishta]] states that Aibak appointed a Muslim officer to consolidate Ghurid power in the region, while [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn-i Asir]] states that Aibak placed the newly-captured territory under Hindu vassals. Whatever the case, Ghurid control of the region did not last long, and the Chaulukyas regained control of their capital soon after.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=169}}
In 1197–98, Aibak conquered [[Budaun]] in present-day Uttar Pradesh, and also re-took control of the former Gahadavala capital [[Varanasi]], which had slipped out of Ghurid control. In 1198–99, he captured Chantarwal (unidentified, possibly the same as Chandawar) and [[Kannauj]]. Later, he captured Siroh (possibly modern [[Sirohi]] in Rajasthan). According to the Persian chronicler Fakhr-i Mudabbir (c. 1157–1236), Aibak also conquered [[Malwa]] in present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]], in 1199–1200. However, no other historian refers to such a conquest; therefore, it is likely that Aibak merely raided Malwa.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=169}}
Meanwhile, [[Bahauddin Tughril|Baha' al-Din Toghril]] {{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=27}} (also transliterated as Bahauddin Tughril) - another prominent Ghurid slave-general - besieged the [[Gwalior Fort]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=170–171}} After being reduced to a dire situation, the defenders approached Aibak and surrendered the fort to Aibak.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=171}}
In 1202, Aibak [[Siege of Kalinjar|besieged Kalinjar]], an important fort in the [[Chandela dynasty|Chandela]] kingdom of central India. The Chandela ruler [[Paramardi]] initiated negotiations with Aibak but died before a treaty could be finalized. The Chandela chief minister Ajayadeva resumed hostilities but was forced to seek negotiations when the Ghurids cut off the water supply to the fort. As part of the truce, the Chandelas were forced to move to [[Ajaigarh]]. Their former strongholds of Kalinjar, [[Mahoba]], and [[Khajuraho]] came under Ghurid control, governed by Hasan Arnal.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=170}}
Meanwhile, the Ghurid commander [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]] subjugated the petty Gahadavala chiefs in eastern Uttar Pradesh and the Bihar region.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=172}} After his Bihar campaign, which involved the destruction of Buddhist monasteries, Khalji arrived in Badaun to greet Aibak, who had just concluded his successful campaign at Kalinjar. On 23 March 1203, Khalji presented Aibak with war booty, including 20 captured elephants, jewels, and cash.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=173}} Aibak honoured Khalji, who went on to [[Ghurid conquest of Bengal|conquer a part of the Bengal]] region in the east.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=173–174}} Bakhtiyar acted independently,{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=12}} and at the time of his death in 1206, was not a subordinate of Aibak.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=198}}
In 1204, Muhammad Ghori suffered a defeat against the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmians]] and their allies at the [[Battle of Andkhud]], followed by several challenges to his authority. Aibak helped him [[Battle of Jhelum (1206)|suppress a rebellion]] by the [[Khokhar]] chiefs of the [[Lahore]] region, and then returned to Delhi.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=178}} On 15 March 1206, Muhammad Ghori was assassinated: different sources variously attribute the act to Khokhars or [[Ismaili]]s.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=179}}
== After Muhammad Ghori's death ==
According to [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Minhaj]]'s ''[[Tabaqat-i Nasiri]]'', Aibak had conquered territory up to the frontiers of [[Ujjain]] in the south.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=146}} Minhaj states that at the time of Sultan Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206, the Ghurids controlled the following areas in India:{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=201}}
{{col-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Multan]]
* [[Uch]]
* [[Patan, Gujarat|Nahrwala]] (Patan)
* [[Peshawar|Purshor]]
* [[Sialkot]]
* [[Lahore]]
* [[Bathinda|Tabarhinda]]
* [[Taraori|Tarain]]
* [[Ajmer]]
* [[Hansi]]
* [[Sirsa|Sursuti]]
* [[Ghuram|Kuhram]]
* [[Meerut]]
* [[Aligarh|Kol]]
* [[Delhi]]
* [[Timangarh|Thankar]]
* [[Budaun]]
* [[Gwalior]]
* [[Bhera]]
* [[Varanasi|Banaras]]
* [[Kannauj]]
* [[Kalinjar Fort|Kalinjar]]
* [[Awadh]]
* [[Malwa]]
* [[Bihar Sharif|Adwand]], [[Bihar]]
* [[Gauḍa (city)|Lakhnauti]] in [[Bengal]]
}}
However, Ghurid control was not equally effective in all these areas. In some of these places, such as Gwalior and Kalinjar, Ghurid control had weakened or even ceased to exist.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=202}}
=== Eastern India ===
During Sultan Muhammad Ghori's reign, parts of the Bihar and Bengal area in eastern India had been conquered by the Khalji clan, led by the Ghurid general [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]]. Bakhtiyar was killed by his subordinate [[Ali Mardan Khalji]] at [[Bangarh|Devkot]] in 1206, around the same time Sultan Muhammad Ghori was assassinated. Subsequently, [[Muhammad Shiran Khalji]], another subordinate of Bakhtiyar, detained Ali Mardan and became the leader of the Khaljis in eastern India. Ali Mardan escaped to Delhi, where he persuaded Aibak to intervene in Khalji affairs. The Khaljis were not slaves of Muhammad Ghori, so Aibak had no legal authority in the matter. Nevertheless, he instructed his subordinate Qaimaz Rumi – the governor of Awadh – to march to Lakhnauti in Bengal, and assign suitable [[iqta']]s to the Khalji [[emir|amirs]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=203}}
Qaimaz Rumi assigned the iqta' of Devkot to [[Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Shah|Husamuddin Iwaz Khalji]], another subordinate of Bakhtiyar. Muhammad Shiran and other Khalji amirs disagreed with this decision and marched to Devkot. However, Rumi defeated them decisively, and Shiran was later killed in a conflict. Later, Aibak assigned Lakhnauti to Ali Mardan (see below).{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=203}}
== Recognition as the ruler of northern India==
{{Delhi Sultanate|Mamluk}}
''Tajul-Ma'asir'', a contemporary chronicle by [[Hasan Nizami]], suggests that Muhammad Ghori appointed Aibak as his representative in India after his victory at Tarain. Hasan Nizami also states that the ''iyalat'' (governorship) of Kuhram and [[Samana, Punjab|Samana]] was entrusted to Aibak.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=197}}
Fakhr-i Mudabbir, another contemporary chronicler, states that Muhammad Ghori formally appointed Aibak as the viceroy of his Indian territories only in 1206 when he was returning to Ghazni after suppressing the Khokhar rebellion. According to this chronicler, Aibak was promoted to the rank of ''malik'' and appointed heir apparent (''[[wali al-ahd]]'') of the Sultan's Indian territories.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=197–198}}
Historian [[K. A. Nizami]] theorizes that Sultan Muhammad Ghori never appointed Aibak as his successor in India: the slave-general acquired this position ''after'' the Sultan's death through the use of diplomacy and military power. The Sultan's unexpected death left three of his main slave-generals – Aibak, [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]], and [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha]] – in positions of power.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=198}} During his last years, the Sultan was disappointed in his family and his chiefs and trusted only his slaves, whom he thought of as his sons and successors.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=198–199}}
At the time of the Sultan's death, Aibak had his headquarters at Delhi. The citizens of Lahore requested him to assume sovereign power after the Sultan's death, and he moved his government to Lahore. He informally ascended the throne on 25 June 1206, but his formal recognition as a sovereign ruler happened much later, in 1208–1209.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=199}}{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}}
Meanwhile, in and around Ghazni, the Sultan's slaves fought with his nobles for control of the Ghurid Empire and helped his nephew [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud|Ghiyasuddin Mahmud]] ascend the throne.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=200–201}} When Mahmud had consolidated his rule, Aibak and other slaves sent messengers to his court, seeking deeds of manumission and investiture for ruling over the various Ghurid territories.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=201}} According to Minhaj, Aibak (unlike Yildiz) maintained the [[khutba]] and stuck's coins in Mahmud's name.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}}{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}}
Yildiz, who was Aibak's father-in-law, sought to control the Ghurid territories in India. After Sultan Mahmud confirmed him as the ruler of Ghazni and manumitted him, Yildiz marched to [[Punjab]], intending to take control of the region. Aibak marched against him, forced him to retreat to [[Kohistan District, Kapisa|Kohistan]], and took control of Ghazni.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=202}} Aibak then sent his representative Nizamuddin Muhammad to Mahmud's headquarters at [[Firozkoh|Firuz Kuh]], seeking to expedite his request for the investiture.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=201}}
In 1208–1209, Mahmud conferred a ''chatr'' (ceremonial parasol) on Aibak,{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}} and issued a deed of investiture recognizing him as the ruler of [[Hindustan]]. He may have also issued a deed of manumission for Aibak at this time.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=201}} According to Minhaj's ''Tabaqat-i Nasiri'', Mahmud styled Aibak as a "Sultan"; chronicler Hasan Nizami also calls him a "Sultan".{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}} Nizami states that the ''khutba'' was read and coins were struck in Aibak's name, but no other source corroborates this claim.{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}} No coins issued by him have been found,{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}} and no extant coins describe him as a "Sultan".{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}}
According to Minhaj, Aibak became complacent and devoted his time to pleasures and amusements in Ghazni. The people of Ghazni invited Yildiz to evict him from the city, and when Yildiz arrived in the vicinity of Ghazni, Aibak panicked and escaped to India via a narrow mountain pass called Sang-i Surkh. Subsequently, Aibak moved his capital to [[Lahore]] to safeguard his territories against Yildiz.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=202}}
[[Ali Mardan Khalji]], who had accompanied Aibak to Ghazni, was captured and imprisoned by Yildiz. He somehow secured his release and returned to India. Aibak dispatched him to Lakhnauti in Bengal, where [[Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Shah|Husamuddin Iwaz]] agreed to be his subordinate. Ali Mardan thus became the governor of Aibak's territories in eastern India and brought the whole region under his control.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=203}}
== Death and legacy ==
[[File: Death of the slave king, Kutbuddin Aibak of Delhi, A.D. 1210.jpg|thumb|left|A modern [[artist's impression]] of the accident that caused Aibak's death]]
After being recognized as the ruler of India, Aibak focused on consolidating his rule in the territories already under his control, rather than conquering new territories. In 1210, he fell down from a horse while playing [[chovgan|chaugan]] (a form of [[polo]] on horseback) in [[Lahore]], and died instantly when the pommel of the [[saddle]] pierced his ribs.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=203}}
All contemporary chroniclers praise Aibak as a loyal, generous, courageous, and just man.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=205}} According to Minhaj, his generosity earned him the epithet ''lakh-bakhsh'', literally "giver of [[lakh]]s [of copper coins or ''jitals'']".{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=205–206}} Fakhr-i Mudabbir states that Aibak's soldiers – who included "Turks, Ghurids, Khurasanis, Khaljis, and Hindustanis" – did not dare to forcibly take even a blade of grass or a morsel of food from the peasants. The 16th century [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] chronicler [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abu'l-Fazl]] criticizes [[Mahmud of Ghazna]] for "shedding innocent blood", but praises Aibak stating that "he achieved things, good and great". As late as the 17th century, the term "Aibak of the time" was used to describe generous people, as attested by the chronicler [[Firishta]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=206}}
Aibak's conquests involved the large-scale capture of people as slaves. According to Hasan Nizami, his Gujarat campaign resulted in the enslavement of 20,000 people; and his Kalinjar campaign resulted in the enslavement of 50,000 people. According to [[Irfan Habib]], Nizami's work is full of rhetoric and hyperbole, so these numbers seem to be exaggerated, however, the number of slaves collected must indeed have been vast and grew over time.{{sfn|Habib|1982|p=90}}
[[File:Qutbuddin_Aibak_Tomb_ahore_02.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Tomb of Qutb al-Din Aibak (renovated in 1970) in [[Anarkali Bazaar]] in [[Lahore]].]]
Aibak, who died unexpectedly, had not appointed an heir apparent. After his death, the Turkic officers (''maliks'' and ''amirs'') stationed at [[Lahore]] appointed [[Aram Shah]] as his successor. No details about Aram Shah's life are available before his ascension to the throne.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=206}} According to one theory, he was a son of Aibak, but this is unlikely (see [[#Personal life|personal life]] section).{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=206–207}}
Aram Shah ruled for no more than eight months, during which various provincial governors started asserting independence. Some Turkic officers then invited Aibak's former slave [[Iltutmish]], a distinguished general, to take over the kingdom.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=207}} Aibak had purchased Iltutmish sometime after the conquest of Anhilwara in 1197.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=197}} According to Minhaj, Aibak looked upon Iltutmish as the next ruler: he used to call Iltutmish his son and had granted him the [[iqta']] of [[Badaun]]. Consequently, the nobles appointed Iltutmish as Aram Shah's successor and married Aibak's daughter to him. Aram Shah challenged Iltutmish's claim to the throne but was decisively defeated and killed after a military conflict.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=208}} Iltutmish subjugated the rebel governors and transformed the loosely-held Ghurid territories of India into the powerful [[Delhi Sultanate]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=208, 222}}
Iltutmish was succeeded by his family members, and then by his slave [[Ghiyas ud din Balban]].{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=44}} This line of kings is called [[Mamluk]] or Slave dynasty; however, this term is a misnomer.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=191}}{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=44}} Only Aibak, Iltutmish, and Balban were slaves, and seem to have been [[manumission|manumitted]] before their ascension to the throne.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=191}} The other rulers in this line were not slaves at any point in their life.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=44}}
Today his tomb is located in [[Anarkali Bazaar|Anarkali, Lahore]]. The tomb was built, in its present form, during the 1970s by the Department of Archaeology and Museums (Pakistan) which tried to emulate the Sultanate-era architecture. Before the modern construction, the Sultan's grave existed in a simple form and was enclosed by residential houses. Historians dispute whether a proper tomb ever existed over it (some historians claim that a marble dome did stand over it but was destroyed by the Sikhs).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1453149|title=History: The Heritage of the Slave Sultan|last=Shah|first=Dr Syed Talha|date=2018-12-23|publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref>
== Personal life ==
Some manuscripts of Minhaj's ''[[Tabaqat-i Nasiri]]'' append the words ''bin Aibak'' ("son of Aibak") to the name of Aibak's successor of [[Aram Shah]].{{sfn|Nizami|1992|p=207}} However, this may have been an erroneous addition made by a careless scribe, as Alauddin Ata Malik-i-Juwayni's ''Tarikh-i-Jahan-Gusha'' chronicle explicitly mentions that Aibak had no son.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=206-207}} Contrarily, the 14th century historian [[Abdul Malik Isami]] stated Aaram Shah as Aibak's real son.{{sfn|Siddiqui|2010|page=53}}
Minhaj refers to the three daughters of Aibak. The first one was married to [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha]], the Ghurid governor of [[Multan]]. After her death, the second daughter was married to Qabacha as well. The third one was married to Aibak's slave [[Iltutmish]], who succeeded Aram Shah on the throne of Delhi.{{sfn|Nizami|1992|pp=206–207}}
== Religion ==
Chronicler [[Hasan Nizami]], who migrated from [[Nishapur]] to Delhi during Aibak's reign, characterizes Aibak as a devout Muslim who "uprooted idolatry" and "destroyed temples" at Kuhram. He also mentions that the Hindu temples at Meerut and Kalinjar were converted into mosques during Aibak's reign; these included "a thousand temples" in [[Delhi]] alone.<ref>{{Cite book| last=Eaton|first=Richard|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEXZAAAAMAAJ |title=Essays on Islam and Indian History |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-565114-0|page=124|quote=Mahmud of Ghazni, for example is said to have destroyed 10,000 temples in Kanauj and 1,000 in Mathura, his grandson in Ibrahim 1,000 in Delhi doab and another 1,000 in Malwa. Aybek 1000 in Delhi, and Muhammad Ghuri another 1,000 temples in Benaras-figures that Hindu nationalists like Sita Ram Goel have accepted at face value|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wink|first=Andre|author-link=Andre Wink|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC |title=Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11th–13th Centuries |date=1991 |publisher=Brill| isbn=9004102361|page=333|quote=We do not know much about the first Muslim raid on Benares, by Ahmad Nayaltigin in 1033 AD, which appears merely to have been a plundering expedition. When Muhammad Ghuri marched on the city, we are merely told that after breaking the idols in above 1000 temples, he purified and consecrated the latter to the worship of the true God|language=en}}</ref> He further claims that Aibak freed the whole Kol ([[Aligarh]]) region from idols and [[idolatry]].{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=20}}
Nizami's claim that the remains of the demolished Hindu temples were used to build mosques is corroborated by architectural remains, such as those at the [[Qutb Minar complex]] in Delhi and the [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] in Ajmer. However, his other claims such as Aibak freeing Kol from idols are doubtful.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=20}}
At some point, Aibak's army started recruiting Hindu soldiers. His army at the siege of Meerut (1192) is known to have included Hindu soldiers. Similarly, the "forces of Hindustan" (''Hasham-i Hindustan'') that accompanied him to Ghazni in 1206, included Hindu chiefs ("[[rana (title)|ranas]]" and "[[thakur (title)|thakurs]]").{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=21}}
== Cultural contributions ==
The construction of the [[Qutb Minar]] in Delhi started during Aibak's reign. Aibak was also a patron of literature. Fakhri Mudabbir, who wrote ''Adab al-Harb'' - etiquettes of war - dedicated his book of genealogies to Aibak. The composition of Hasan Nizami's ''Tajul-Ma'asir'', which was completed during the reign of Iltutmish, probably began during Aibak's reign.{{sfn|Jackson|1982|p=546}}
== See also ==
* [[1206 in India]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{Commons category|Qutb al-Din Aibak}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Chandra |first=Satish |author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=History of Medieval India:800–1700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHnHHwAACAAJ |year=2007|publisher=Orient Longman|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Hodivala|first=Shahpurshah Hormasji|title=Studies in Indo-Muslim History: A Critical Commentary on Elliot and Dowson's History of India as Told by Its Own Historians |year=1979 |publisher=Islamic Book Service |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73pDAAAAYAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last=Hooja|first=Rima|title=A History of Rajasthan |year=2006 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=9788129108906 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last=Habib|first=Irfan|author-link=Irfan Habib|chapter=Non-Agricultural Production and Urban Economy |editor1=Tapan Raychaudhuri |editor2=Irfan Habib |title=The Cambridge Economic History of India |volume=1, c. 1200 – c. 1750 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA90 |year=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-22692-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Jackson|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA12 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54329-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Jackson|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Jackson (historian)|chapter=Kutb Al-Din Aybak |editor1=C. E. Bosworth |editor-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor2= E. van Donzel |editor3= Charles Pellat |editor3-link=Charles Pellat |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=New |volume=5: Supplement |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA546 |year=1982 |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=90-04-06167-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Majumdar|first=Ashoke Kumar|title=Chaulukyas of Gujarat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffAdAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1956 |oclc=4413150 }}
* {{cite book |last=Nizami|first=Khaliq Ahmad|author-link=K. A. Nizami |chapter=The Early Turkish Sultans of Delhi |editor1=Mohammad Habib |editor2=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526) |volume=5 |edition=Second |year=1992 |publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |oclc=31870180 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sharma|first=Dasharatha|author-link=Dasharatha Sharma|title=Early Chauhān Dynasties |publisher=S. Chand / Motilal Banarsidass |year=1959 |isbn=9780842606189 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4gcAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last=Singh|first=R. B. |title=History of the Chāhamānas |publisher=N. Kishore |year=1964 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKs9AAAAIAAJ |oclc=11038728 }}
* {{cite book |last=Siddiqui|first=Iqtidar Husain|title=Indo-Persian Historiography Up to the Thirteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJbmTL8svpwC&pg=PA40 |year=2010 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-81-908918-0-6 }}
{{refend}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Sultans of the Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)]]
[[Category:12th-century births]]
[[Category:1210 deaths]]
[[Category:12th-century military personnel]]
[[Category:13th-century military personnel]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:13th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Polo deaths]]
[[Category:People of Cuman descent]]
[[Category:Turkic people]]
[[Category:Slaves of the medieval Islamic world]]
[[Category:Slave soldiers]]
[[Category:Founding monarchs]]
[[Category:Ghurid generals]]
[[Category:12th-century slaves]]' |
