- Asian History, Corruption, Corporate Social Responsibility, Ladakh studies, International Development, Corporate Governance, and 27 moreMoravian (Church History), Post Conflict Issues, Ladakhi Studies, Economics of Corruption, Post-conflict Reconstruction and Development, Church History, Christian Missionaries In China and Tibet, Civil Society, Bible Translation, Bible Translations, Historiography, History of Missions, Anthropology of Tibet and the Himalayas, Tibetan History, Political Corruption, Human Rights and Corruption, Tibetan Studies, Tibetan and Himalayan societies, Bhutan, Burma Studies, Missionary History, History of Christianity, British Imperial and Colonial History (1600 - ), Myanmar, Peacebuilding, Kham, Tibet, and Tibetedit
- After studying History at Cambridge University, I spent two years teaching in India, first at a school for Tibetan re... moreAfter studying History at Cambridge University, I spent two years teaching in India, first at a school for Tibetan refugees near Dehra Dun and then in Ladakh. On returning to the UK, I embarked on a career as a business risk consultant, and I now live in Singapore. In my consultancy work, I focus on political risk, anti-corruption, and business and human rights. At the same time, I have developed a parallel career as an independent scholar working on the history of Ladakh, Tibet and the Himalayan border regions.
I used to think of my two careers as entirely separate fields of activity. Recently, I have become more alert to common themes. Since childhood I have loved history: old buildings, old documents and the personal reminiscences of relatives and friends. At Cambridge I studied the history of Europe’s relations with Asia and Africa. Now I am based in Singapore, after 12 years in Japan, and I am constantly reminded that my own life is part of this still-unfolding engagement between different cultures and regions.
In both fields of enquiry I am excited by grand themes: inter-connections between East and West; Christianity and Buddhism; human rights. At the same time, I find myself coming back again and again to the lives of individuals, learning how they navigate the pressures and opportunities of the times in which they live.
I have a Ph.D from the University of Cambridge: this was awarded in 2024 on the basis of a selection of ten publications, all of which are posted on this site.edit
This essay explores the practical workings of the shawl wool trade between Western Tibet and Ladakh, with a particular focus on its evolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries as seen through the eyes of British, Indian and—where the... more
This essay explores the practical workings of the shawl wool trade between Western Tibet and Ladakh, with a particular focus on its evolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries as seen through the eyes of British, Indian and—where the sources are available to me—Tibetan officials. It addresses three main questions:
The first concerns taxation, especially taxation in the form of labour obligations. What role did these obligations play in sustaining the wider economic and therefore diplomatic relationship between Ladakh and Tibet?
The second concerns the beneficiaries of the system: what kinds of individuals benefited most?
The third question addresses the perspectives of those who lost out—the kinds of people who might otherwise “escape the historian’s net” (cf. Ramble, Schwieger and Travers 2013). What can we learn of their fate, and what strategies of resistance were open to them?
The first concerns taxation, especially taxation in the form of labour obligations. What role did these obligations play in sustaining the wider economic and therefore diplomatic relationship between Ladakh and Tibet?
The second concerns the beneficiaries of the system: what kinds of individuals benefited most?
The third question addresses the perspectives of those who lost out—the kinds of people who might otherwise “escape the historian’s net” (cf. Ramble, Schwieger and Travers 2013). What can we learn of their fate, and what strategies of resistance were open to them?
Research Interests:
To Tibetanists, Heinrich August Jäschke (1817-1883) is best known for his Tibetan-English Dictionary, which was first published in London in 1881. The title page of the dictionary explains that Jäschke had been a “Moravian missionary at... more
To Tibetanists, Heinrich August Jäschke (1817-1883) is best known for his Tibetan-English Dictionary, which was first published in London in 1881. The title page of the dictionary explains that Jäschke had been a “Moravian missionary at Kyèlang, British Lahoul”. In this case “Moravian” is an ecclesiastical term rather than a geographical one: it refers to the Moravian Church or Unitas Fratrum (Unity of Brethren), whose main international centre is in the small town of Herrnhut in south-east Germany. However, Jäschke’s connections with the Czech lands were ancestral as well as spiritual. His surname is a German version of the Czech ‘Ježek’, and his great-grandfather Michael Jäeschke (1701-1772) was one of the first group of Protestant refugees who fled from Moravia to Herrnhut in 1722. Jäschke’s Moravian inheritance was central to his life and work. In this essay, I show how Jäschke’s religious and cultural formation shaped his academic research and, in doing so, helped lay the foundations of modern Tibetan studies.
Research Interests:
On 17 May 1944 four escaped ‘German’ detainees crossed the Tsangchok La from India into Tibet, having fled from the Internment camp at Premnagar, near Dehra Dun on 29 April. Three of the four men were Austrians. However, since their... more
On 17 May 1944 four escaped ‘German’ detainees crossed the Tsangchok La from India into Tibet, having fled from the Internment camp at Premnagar, near Dehra Dun on 29 April. Three of the four men were Austrians. However, since their country’s annexation by the Third Reich in March 1938, they had been classified—and had classified themselves—as German citizens. All four have left published accounts of their adventures. Most famously, the two Austrians Heinrich Harrer (1912-2006) and Peter Aufschnaiter (1899-1973) eventually reached Lhasa in January 1946. The other two escapees were Hans Kopp (1910-198?) and Bruno Treipl (1916-2006).
The purpose of this essay is to offer a modest footnote to this already extensive literature by showing how the British tried to keep track of the detainees in Western Tibet, and only partly succeeded. Drawing on official files from the British Trade Agency in Western Tibet, now held in the National Archives of India, it points to the strengths but also the limitations of British India’s engagement with Tibet and with Western Tibet in particular. In that respect, it also serves a footnote to the wider history of Anglo-Tibetan relations.
The purpose of this essay is to offer a modest footnote to this already extensive literature by showing how the British tried to keep track of the detainees in Western Tibet, and only partly succeeded. Drawing on official files from the British Trade Agency in Western Tibet, now held in the National Archives of India, it points to the strengths but also the limitations of British India’s engagement with Tibet and with Western Tibet in particular. In that respect, it also serves a footnote to the wider history of Anglo-Tibetan relations.
Research Interests:
This paper focuses on the economic activities of the Moravian mission in Poo (Kinnaur), which is now in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh, close to the Tibetan border. Poo had some 600 inhabitants and, it was one the most prosperous... more
This paper focuses on the economic activities of the Moravian mission in Poo (Kinnaur), which is now in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh, close to the Tibetan border. Poo had some 600 inhabitants and, it was one the most prosperous villages in the region as well as an important trading hub. However, the village’s wealth was unevenly distributed. There was a substantial underclass, many of whom lived in desperate poverty, and all the mission’s would-be converts came from this group. In the harsh winters, they depended on loans of grain from the richer households. The difficulty of paying back these loans meant that they were tied to their more prosperous neighbours in a form of bonded servitude.
The paper discusses the mission’s attempts to develop alternative sources of income through farming and a wool industry that would provide decent livelihoods for the Christian converts, thus relieving them from their bonded debt relationship with their neighbours. The missionaries were fully aware of the possibly that converts would change religions in the hope of receiving material benefits but felt that they had no other option but to take the risk. Nevertheless, the mission ultimately failed, in large part because of the conflict between the missionaries’ spiritual and economic roles.
The paper is based on a close reading of the Missionsblatt aus der Brüdergemeine as well as archival records in Moravian Church House (London). The concluding discussion draws comparisons with other studies of debt bondage relationships elsewhere in the Tibet and the Himalayan border regions.
The paper discusses the mission’s attempts to develop alternative sources of income through farming and a wool industry that would provide decent livelihoods for the Christian converts, thus relieving them from their bonded debt relationship with their neighbours. The missionaries were fully aware of the possibly that converts would change religions in the hope of receiving material benefits but felt that they had no other option but to take the risk. Nevertheless, the mission ultimately failed, in large part because of the conflict between the missionaries’ spiritual and economic roles.
The paper is based on a close reading of the Missionsblatt aus der Brüdergemeine as well as archival records in Moravian Church House (London). The concluding discussion draws comparisons with other studies of debt bondage relationships elsewhere in the Tibet and the Himalayan border regions.
Research Interests:
Heinrich August Jäschke was a Moravian missionary scholar who served in the Western Himalaya between 1856 and 1868. He is best known for his Tibetan-English Dictionary, published in 1881. However, as he explained in the introduction, the... more
Heinrich August Jäschke was a Moravian missionary scholar who served in the Western Himalaya between 1856 and 1868. He is best known for his Tibetan-English Dictionary, published in 1881. However, as he explained in the introduction, the prime objective of the dictionary was to “make preparations for the translation of the [Christian] Holy Scriptures into the Tibetan speech”. Jäschke himself translated most of the New Testament into Tibetan, and his work provided the linguistic foundation both for further Bible translations and for original Christian compositions in Tibetan. In this essay, I review his work as a translator.
Research Interests:
The first account was published by the missionary historian A.H. Francke Volume Two of The Antiquities of Indian Tibet (1926), and was written by the Ladakhi scholar-official Munshi Tsering Palgyas ( c.1830–1920). The second account is... more
The first account was published by the missionary historian A.H. Francke Volume Two of The Antiquities of Indian Tibet (1926), and was written by the Ladakhi scholar-official Munshi Tsering Palgyas ( c.1830–1920). The second account is by an unknown author and is now in the British Library. In this essay, we offer an analysis of the two accounts in their historical context. We also present the original text of the second one, together with a translation.
Research Interests:
Ladakh's first weather station was set up in the late 19th century under the auspices of the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). Henry Francis Blanford, the founder of the IMD, wrote an influential paper on Indian weather patterns,... more
Ladakh's first weather station was set up in the late 19th century under the auspices of the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). Henry Francis Blanford, the founder of the IMD, wrote an influential paper on Indian weather patterns, citing data from Ladakh. A series of Ladakhi Christians served as meteorological observers until the 1960s.
Research Interests:
In 1933 the Indian scholar and social activist Rahul Sankrityayan (1893-1963) compiled a set of four Tibetan-language readers and a grammar for use in Ladakhi schools, together with his Ladakhi colleague Tsetan Phuntsog (1908-1973). The... more
In 1933 the Indian scholar and social activist Rahul Sankrityayan (1893-1963) compiled a set of four Tibetan-language readers and a grammar for use in Ladakhi schools, together with his Ladakhi colleague Tsetan Phuntsog (1908-1973). The readers contain a mix of material from Western, Indian, Ladakhi and Tibetan sources. This includes simple essays about ‘air’ and ‘water’, selections from Aesop’s fables, Indian folk stories, biographies of famous people in Ladakhi and Tibetan history, poems by Ladakhi authors, and extracts from the Treasury of Elegant Sayings by Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen (1182-1251). This essay begins with a review of earlier Tibetan-language schoolbooks published in British India, and then discusses the circumstances that led to Sankrityayan’s involvement in the Ladakh project. The second part of the essay examines the contents of the readers and the grammar, including—where possible—the authorship of particular sections. Finally, the essay briefly reviews linguistic developments in Ladakh since the publication of the textbooks.
Research Interests:
The Missions Étrangères de Paris (M.E.P.) operated in the Sino-Tibetan border region of Kham between 1847 and 1952. The missionaries' prime objective was of course religious, but the division between spiritual and this-worldly aspirations... more
The Missions Étrangères de Paris (M.E.P.) operated in the Sino-Tibetan border region of Kham between 1847 and 1952. The missionaries' prime objective was of course religious, but the division between spiritual and this-worldly aspirations was rarely straightforward. In practice they had to engage with secular rulers, if only to secure the political protection they needed to preach freely. Similarly, they could scarcely avoid entanglement in economic affairs, including trade. This essay discusses the M.E.P.'s involvement with trade as a means of shedding light on wider historical developments in the region in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Part of a collective volume edited by Stephane Gros.
Part of a collective volume edited by Stephane Gros.
Research Interests:
The Moravian missionary scholar August Hermann Francke (1870-1930) left a rich legacy of research on Ladakh and the neighbouring regions of the Western Himalaya. His contributions include his two-volume Antiquities of Indian Tibet as well... more
The Moravian missionary scholar August Hermann Francke (1870-1930) left a rich legacy of research on Ladakh and the neighbouring regions of the Western Himalaya. His contributions include his two-volume Antiquities of Indian Tibet as well as A Lower Ladakhi Version of the Kesar Saga (1905-1941) and dozens of shorter publications on topics ranging from rock inscriptions to music and folk songs.
Francke of course did not work alone. By the nature of his research interests he drew on indigenous sources of knowledge, both written and oral. He therefore needed the assistance of Ladakhi and Lahuli colleagues to locate, transcribe and interpret the texts that he required.
In this essay, I place Francke’s researches in a wider social context. The essay is arranged chronologically, with sections on the different phases of Francke’s activity, beginning with his apprentice years in Leh, the capital of Ladakh. The objective is to show how his interactions with local colleagues informed and enriched Francke’s development as a scholar, and to celebrate their contributions.
Francke of course did not work alone. By the nature of his research interests he drew on indigenous sources of knowledge, both written and oral. He therefore needed the assistance of Ladakhi and Lahuli colleagues to locate, transcribe and interpret the texts that he required.
In this essay, I place Francke’s researches in a wider social context. The essay is arranged chronologically, with sections on the different phases of Francke’s activity, beginning with his apprentice years in Leh, the capital of Ladakh. The objective is to show how his interactions with local colleagues informed and enriched Francke’s development as a scholar, and to celebrate their contributions.
Research Interests:
In 1715 the Italian missionary Ippolito Desideri spent nearly two months in the Himalayan Buddhist kingdom of Ladakh, together with his Portuguese fellow Jesuit and superior, Manoel Freyre. They were well received by King Nyima Namgyal,... more
In 1715 the Italian missionary Ippolito Desideri spent nearly two months in the Himalayan Buddhist kingdom of Ladakh, together with his Portuguese fellow Jesuit and superior, Manoel Freyre. They were well received by King Nyima Namgyal, the Buddhist ruler of Ladakh, and Desideri would have liked to establish a permanent Roman Catholic mission there. However, he was overruled by Freyre who decided to press on to Lhasa. Nevertheless, Desideri’s short stay in Ladakh was an important episode because it was there that he had his first encounter with Tibetan Buddhism.
This essay reviews Desideri’s experiences in the kingdom in the light of recent historical research and with a particular emphasis on the role of his Persian-speaking Muslim guides. He had earlier travelled via Mughal India to Kashmir, and continued to depend on Muslim translators and middlemen until he reached Lhasa. These intermediaries therefore played an essential part in forming his initial views of Ladakh and Tibet to the extent that his exchanges with the King and with local monks may be seen not so much as Buddhist-Christian dialogues but rather as three-way conversations also involving Muslims. None of Desideri’s writings mentions these Muslim intermediaries by name. From scattered references here and there, this essay attempts to draw them out of the shadows.
This essay reviews Desideri’s experiences in the kingdom in the light of recent historical research and with a particular emphasis on the role of his Persian-speaking Muslim guides. He had earlier travelled via Mughal India to Kashmir, and continued to depend on Muslim translators and middlemen until he reached Lhasa. These intermediaries therefore played an essential part in forming his initial views of Ladakh and Tibet to the extent that his exchanges with the King and with local monks may be seen not so much as Buddhist-Christian dialogues but rather as three-way conversations also involving Muslims. None of Desideri’s writings mentions these Muslim intermediaries by name. From scattered references here and there, this essay attempts to draw them out of the shadows.
Research Interests:
Every three years between 1684 and 1946, the rulers of Ladakh sent an official mission to Lhasa known as the Lopchak (Lo phyag), with very few interruptions. Throughout this period, the outward form of the mission changed little; the... more
Every three years between 1684 and 1946, the rulers of Ladakh sent an official mission to Lhasa known as the Lopchak (Lo phyag), with very few interruptions. Throughout this period, the outward form of the mission changed little; the Ladakhi representatives presented a prescribed set of gifts to the treasurer of the Ganden Phodrang (dGa’ ldan pho brang) government in Lhasa; they took part in the second day of the New Year celebrations in Lhasa; and they benefited from ’u lag (corvée transport labour) on both sides of the Tibetan frontier.
In this essay, I draw on a range of historical sources, starting with the 17th century, with a view to explaining the longevity of the Lopchak. Different actors often ascribed contrasting political meanings to the mission. I argue that the ambiguities surrounding the Lopchak—rather than being an obstacle—were one of the main reasons for its survival over more than two and a half centuries.
In this essay, I draw on a range of historical sources, starting with the 17th century, with a view to explaining the longevity of the Lopchak. Different actors often ascribed contrasting political meanings to the mission. I argue that the ambiguities surrounding the Lopchak—rather than being an obstacle—were one of the main reasons for its survival over more than two and a half centuries.
Research Interests:
Annie Taylor was an eccentric but courageous British missionary who sought to evangelise Tibet in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1892-1893 she travelled from Amdo to Nagchuka, only a few days’ march from Lhasa, before being... more
Annie Taylor was an eccentric but courageous British missionary who sought to evangelise Tibet in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1892-1893 she travelled from Amdo to Nagchuka, only a few days’ march from Lhasa, before being obliged to turn east to Sichuan. Later in 1893, she founded the Tibetan Pioneer Mission and called for volunteers to join her in a fresh attempt to extend Christian missionary activities into Tibet via Sikkim. This paper discusses the rise, collapse and long-term consequences of the Tibetan Pioneer Mission. It is based on a close reading of contemporary published sources and archival records, notably the papers of one of Taylor’s recruits, Henry Martyn Stumbles (1873-1915), which are now held at the Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Cambridge.
Research Interests: Tibetan Studies, Mid/Late Victorian Women's History, Tibetan and Himalayan societies, Christian missions in Tibetan marches, Westerners in Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim up until 1959, and 4 moreHistory of Sikkim, History of Christian Missions, Christian Missionaries In China and Tibet, and Victorian Women Travellers
This essay is for a commemoration volume for the Italian scholar Luciano Petech (1914-2010). Petech made many contributions to the study of Ladakhi history. In this essay I trace the lineage of 19th and 20th century historians of Ladakh... more
This essay is for a commemoration volume for the Italian scholar Luciano Petech (1914-2010). Petech made many contributions to the study of Ladakhi history. In this essay I trace the lineage of 19th and 20th century historians of Ladakh to which he belonged, and show how their researches were influenced by the political and social conditions of their times.
Research Interests:
In the summer of 1914 the Germany missionary scholar A.H. Francke (1970-1930) travelled by land across Russian and Chinese Central Asia to Ladakh, which was then part of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir within Britain’s Indian... more
In the summer of 1914 the Germany missionary scholar A.H. Francke (1970-1930) travelled by land across Russian and Chinese Central Asia to Ladakh, which was then part of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir within Britain’s Indian empire. Francke arrived in Ladakh in September and only then discovered that Germany and Britain were on opposite sides in the First World War, which had broken out a month earlier. Together with other German citizens he was subsequently interned in Ahmednagar, before being repatriated via Holland in 1916. This paper discusses Francke’s experiences during the war, and places them within the wider context of his scholarly career.
Research Interests:
In 1855 Wilhelm Heyde (1825-1907) and Eduard Pagell (1820-1883) became the first Moravian missionaries to travel to the Ladakh near the Indian border with Tibet. They were genuine pioneers, but they were also heirs to a longer missionary... more
In 1855 Wilhelm Heyde (1825-1907) and Eduard Pagell (1820-1883) became the first Moravian missionaries to travel to the Ladakh near the Indian border with Tibet. They were genuine pioneers, but they were also heirs to a longer missionary tradition which anticipated—and in many respects prepared the way for—their own work. This paper places the beginnings of the Moravians’ Himalaya Mission in a wider historical and geographical perspective.
The paper begins by introducing the Moravian church’s first foreign missions in the 18th century. It then examines the various Protestant missions who worked in the Himalayan region in the first half of the 19th century. These include: the Baptists’ Bhutan Mission in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; the Anglican Church Missionary Society (CMS), whose Tibetan researches between 1816 and 1820 led to the publication of the first Tibetan-English dictionary in 1826; independent German missionaries who worked in the Darjeeling area from the 1840s onwards; and the CMS’s Himalayan Mission in Kotgarh, near Simla, which started in 1842.
The paper begins by introducing the Moravian church’s first foreign missions in the 18th century. It then examines the various Protestant missions who worked in the Himalayan region in the first half of the 19th century. These include: the Baptists’ Bhutan Mission in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; the Anglican Church Missionary Society (CMS), whose Tibetan researches between 1816 and 1820 led to the publication of the first Tibetan-English dictionary in 1826; independent German missionaries who worked in the Darjeeling area from the 1840s onwards; and the CMS’s Himalayan Mission in Kotgarh, near Simla, which started in 1842.
Research Interests:
This is a conference video: see the URL. The Missions Étrangères de Paris (MEP) sent their first missionary on an exploratory mission to the Sino-Tibetan borderlands in 1847, and they retained a presence in the region until 1952.... more
This is a conference video: see the URL.
The Missions Étrangères de Paris (MEP) sent their first missionary on an exploratory mission to the Sino-Tibetan borderlands in 1847, and they retained a presence in the region until 1952. Together with their Protestant counterparts, the missionaries spent longer periods in the region, and arguably were more intensely involved in its local affairs, than any other category of Westerner. This paper considers the MEP's interactions with local, regional and international trading networks from three points of view: First, many of them were astute observers, playing a role as “incidental ethnographers” alongside their other activities. So what do missionary sources tell us about trade in the region? Secondly though, the missionaries were far from being detached observers. Rather, they may themselves be considered as local ‘actors' who were closely involved with trade, both directly and indirectly. In the paper, I shall discuss the nature of the MEP’s economic activities, and show how it changed in different periods between 1847 and 1952. The MEP were persistent advocates for Tibet's opening to Western commerce, hoping that this would in due course facilitate their evangelistic agenda. The paper will review the arguments that they presented, and assess their influence on wider international engagement with the region. While focusing on the MEP, I propose to take a comparative view, noting the differences and similarities with Protestant experiences in the same period. The paper is primarily based on original sources in the MEP archives in Paris, as well as contemporary missionary publications, and informed by more recent scholarship.
The Missions Étrangères de Paris (MEP) sent their first missionary on an exploratory mission to the Sino-Tibetan borderlands in 1847, and they retained a presence in the region until 1952. Together with their Protestant counterparts, the missionaries spent longer periods in the region, and arguably were more intensely involved in its local affairs, than any other category of Westerner. This paper considers the MEP's interactions with local, regional and international trading networks from three points of view: First, many of them were astute observers, playing a role as “incidental ethnographers” alongside their other activities. So what do missionary sources tell us about trade in the region? Secondly though, the missionaries were far from being detached observers. Rather, they may themselves be considered as local ‘actors' who were closely involved with trade, both directly and indirectly. In the paper, I shall discuss the nature of the MEP’s economic activities, and show how it changed in different periods between 1847 and 1952. The MEP were persistent advocates for Tibet's opening to Western commerce, hoping that this would in due course facilitate their evangelistic agenda. The paper will review the arguments that they presented, and assess their influence on wider international engagement with the region. While focusing on the MEP, I propose to take a comparative view, noting the differences and similarities with Protestant experiences in the same period. The paper is primarily based on original sources in the MEP archives in Paris, as well as contemporary missionary publications, and informed by more recent scholarship.
Research Interests:
This is the list of contents and introduction to a special issue on Ladakh published by the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. The volume contains a total of 11 papers on broadly ‘Tibetological’ themes, including the region’s... more
This is the list of contents and introduction to a special issue on Ladakh published by the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. The volume contains a total of 11 papers on broadly ‘Tibetological’ themes, including the region’s political and religious history, contemporary development and social issues, and Ladakhi understandings of colour. Most of the papers were presented at the 16th international conference of the International Association for Ladakh Studies (IALS) in Heidelberg in April 2013, together with two additional contributions from Rob Linrothe and Nawang Jinpa.
Research Interests:
Lobsang Chospel was a Tibetan monk who worked with the missionary linguist H.A. Jäschke in Lahul in the 1860s. The article discusses their relationship.
Research Interests:
In the Moravian church in Khalatse (Ladakh), there is a Christian 'thangka' painted in local style in the 1930s after a model designed by the Northern Irish artist John Carey. This article discusses its history.
Research Interests:
In 1867 the Government of India sent Dr Henry Cayley (1834-1904) to spend the summer months in Leh (Ladakh) with a view to monitoring trade and political developments there and in Eastern Turkestan (Xinjiang). Alongside his official... more
In 1867 the Government of India sent Dr Henry Cayley (1834-1904) to spend the summer months in Leh (Ladakh) with a view to monitoring trade and political developments there and in Eastern Turkestan (Xinjiang). Alongside his official duties, Cayley set up a dispensary: he was therefore one of the first Western-trained physicians to practise in Ladakh as well as the first of a series of British Joint Commissions who visited Ladakh every year until 1946. This essay places Cayley in his historical context, showing how the themes of medicine and diplomacy complemented each other in early British engagement with Ladakh and Central Asia.
Research Interests:
This essay discusses how Christian missionaries viewed—and engaged with—Tibetan trade between the 17th and mid-20th centuries. It is part of a memorial volume for the Dutch geographer Wim van Spengen (1949-2013), who wrote about both... more
This essay discusses how Christian missionaries viewed—and engaged with—Tibetan trade between the 17th and mid-20th centuries. It is part of a memorial volume for the Dutch geographer Wim van Spengen (1949-2013), who wrote about both trade and missionaries. My aim here is to take the discussion of Tibetan trade and mission history a stage further by treating them in combination rather than as separate topics. Certainly, the missionaries were observers of Tibetan trade, but to what extent were they participants? In what ways did they engage with the various trading networks that crisscrossed the Tibetan border worlds? And how far did they adapt their strategies in response to these networks?
Research Interests:
Shows how Ladakh's cultural development has been influenced by its location across the great communications routes linking India with Tibet and Central Asia. Contains 17 research papers. Their topics range widely over time, from... more
Shows how Ladakh's cultural development has been influenced by its location across the great communications routes linking India with Tibet and Central Asia. Contains 17 research papers. Their topics range widely over time, from prehistoric rock art to mediaeval Buddhist stupas and wall paintings, as well as early modern castle architecture, the inter-regional trade in silk brocades, and the challenges of 21st century conservation.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
The influences of two major religions—Buddhism and Islam—are interwoven in Ladakhi history and contemporary society. However, by comparison with Buddhism, the study of Islam has often been neglected. This essay offers a reading guide as a... more
The influences of two major religions—Buddhism and Islam—are interwoven in Ladakhi history and contemporary society. However, by comparison with Buddhism, the study of Islam has often been neglected. This essay offers a reading guide as a basis for further study. It draws on a range of sources in Asian and European languages, including texts published locally in Ladakh, as well as academic monographs and articles in specialist international journals. The essay begins with a discussion of the key historical texts before looking more closely at Ladakh’s links with Central Asia, and the political and cultural impact of Islam in its relationship with Baltistan and Kashmir. The essay then examines the role of Ladakhi and Kashmiri Muslims in facilitating Ladakh’s diplomatic and commercial exchanges with central Tibet. It concludes with a review of recent studies on contemporary social and political developments.
Research Interests:
The 1814-1816 war between the East India Company and Nepal led to the first substantive British engagement with Sikkim. This paper focuses on the role of Captain Barré Latter (1777-1822), the British officer who had the prime... more
The 1814-1816 war between the East India Company and Nepal led to the first substantive British engagement with Sikkim. This paper focuses on the role of Captain Barré Latter (1777-1822), the British officer who had the prime responsibility for frontline diplomatic contacts with Sikkim. It has two main themes. The first is Latter’s personal contribution to local and regional diplomacy during and after the war. The second concerns his religious views and his indirect contribution to Tibetan linguistic research.
Research Interests:
This paper is based on British records and discusses three episodes in the life of Khwajah Ahmed Ali, the Patna representative of a Kashmiri commercial house with a network of agents in Tibet. In the first episode, Ahmed Ali offers his... more
This paper is based on British records and discusses three episodes in the life of Khwajah Ahmed Ali, the Patna representative of a Kashmiri commercial house with a network of agents in Tibet. In the first episode, Ahmed Ali offers his services to the British explorer William Moorcroft as a source of intelligence at the outset of the 1814 war between the East India Company and Nepal. In the second episode, in 1816, Moorcroft proposed Ahmed Ali as a potential British commercial agent in Lhasa. The third episode took place in 1831 when Brian Houghton Hodgson, the Acting Resident in Nepal, received an appeal from Ahmed Ali who had been imprisoned in Lhasa on charges of being a British spy.
The story concerns the personal dilemmas of a particular individual. However, it also serves as an illustration of the wider role played by the Kashmiri merchants who travelled between northern India, Nepal, Tibet and western China between the 17th and early 20th centuries.
The story concerns the personal dilemmas of a particular individual. However, it also serves as an illustration of the wider role played by the Kashmiri merchants who travelled between northern India, Nepal, Tibet and western China between the 17th and early 20th centuries.
Research Interests:
Over the last three centuries the activities of Christian missionaries have been among the most significant aspects of the East-West encounter with Tibet. This essay reviews the broad span of Christian history in Tibet and the Tibetan... more
Over the last three centuries the activities of Christian missionaries have been among the most significant aspects of the East-West encounter with Tibet. This essay reviews the broad span of Christian history in Tibet and the Tibetan border areas, focusing on two particular themes. The first concerns the translation of ‘sacred words’: using words associated with another culture to express new meanings. The second concerns the church’s relationship with ‘earthly powers’ which likewise has been a major challenge since the early days of Christianity.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This paper discusses a letter that was included as an illustration in Geistesleben in Tibet, published by the Moravian missionary scholar A.H. Francke in 1925. Francke does not discuss the text in any detail beyond stating that it is a... more
This paper discusses a letter that was included as an illustration in Geistesleben in Tibet, published by the Moravian missionary scholar A.H. Francke in 1925. Francke does not discuss the text in any detail beyond stating that it is a 19th century letter from the Dalai Lama to the Ladakhi authorities, and that it was transmitted via the regular trade caravan between Lhasa and Ladakh. He also notes that it acknowledges gifts sent from Ladakh, and draws attention to the Dalai Lama’s large red seal at the bottom of the text. The letter is of special interest to the present authors because it complements our earlier article on “Three 19th Century Documents from Tibet and the lo phyag (Lopchak) mission from Leh to Lhasa”. In this essay we place the letter in its wider historical contest, present a translation of the text, and show how it relates to our previous research.
Research Interests:
The 1684 Treaty of Temisgang (gTing mo sgang) between Ladakh and Tibet set up a triennial mission from Ladakh to Lhasa known as the lo phyag. The mission combined a number of different roles - diplomatic, religious and commercial – and... more
The 1684 Treaty of Temisgang (gTing mo sgang) between Ladakh and Tibet set up a triennial mission from Ladakh to Lhasa known as the lo phyag. The mission combined a number of different roles - diplomatic, religious and commercial – and served as a rich, multilayered vehicle of communication between the two countries. This paper examines three documents from Tibet that are associated with the lo phyag, and are now in the Jammu & Kashmir State Archives Repository in Jammu (India).
Research Interests:
In November 1750 a new book appeared on the stalls of London booksellers. Presented by an anonymous editor, The Oeconomy of Human Life is a collection of aphorisms on the moral ‘duties that relate to man’ and ostensibly an English... more
In November 1750 a new book appeared on the stalls of London booksellers. Presented by an anonymous editor, The Oeconomy of Human Life is a collection of aphorisms on the moral ‘duties that relate to man’ and ostensibly an English translation of an Indian manuscript written by an ‘Ancient Bramin’, but discovered in the archives of Tibet. This article begins by reviewing the book’s contents and philosophy before discussing the identity of the author—almost certainly the bookseller and author Robert Dodsley (1704-1764). It then discusses the sources that he used to construct his image of Tibet and the ‘Ancient Bramin’. The overall argument is that the key features of the Oeconomy are representative of the mid-18th century Enlightenment period in which it was produced, with at best tenuous links with Tibet. However, it also belongs to a much broader literary tradition with deep roots and unexpected contemporary resonances.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Ladakh’s geographic location between the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains has exposed it to competing political and cultural influences from India, Central Asia and Tibet. This book points to Ladakh’s distinct local identity, but argues... more
Ladakh’s geographic location between the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains has exposed it to competing political and cultural influences from India, Central Asia and Tibet. This book points to Ladakh’s distinct local identity, but argues that its historical development can best be understood in a wider regional perspective. It contains twenty-five research papers from the International Association of Ladakh Studies (IALS), and draws on contributions from historians, art historians, linguists and anthropologists. Their sources include Ladakhi historical documents, comparative linguistic research, visual evidence from temple architecture and inscriptions, Mughal biographies, European travel accounts, government records, trade receipts, and local oral tradition. Taken together, the volume provides a much richer view of Ladakhi history than was previously available, and makes a significant contribution to the study of the wider Himalayan region.
Research Interests:
This is the introduction to Ladakhi Histories: Local and Regional Perspectives (Leiden: Brill, 2005), which I edited. It presents an overview of the historiography of Ladakh, paying particular attention to its regional connections, as... more
This is the introduction to Ladakhi Histories: Local and Regional Perspectives (Leiden: Brill, 2005), which I edited. It presents an overview of the historiography of Ladakh, paying particular attention to its regional connections, as well as introducing the papers in the rest of the volume.
Research Interests:
In the western imagination, Tibet has often been seen as a land of mystery, protected by high mountains from unwanted intruders, but the greatest barriers were political rather than geographic. The political barriers were highest in the... more
In the western imagination, Tibet has often been seen as a land of mystery, protected by high mountains from unwanted intruders, but the greatest barriers were political rather than geographic. The political barriers were highest in the nineteenth and early twentieth ...
Research Interests:
In 1846 the Vatican assigned responsibility for mission work in Tibet to the Paris-based Missions Étrangères de Paris (MEP). The first MEP missionary visited eastern Tibet in 1847 and established a mission at Bonga (Bang ga) in south... more
In 1846 the Vatican assigned responsibility for mission work in Tibet to the Paris-based Missions Étrangères de Paris (MEP). The first MEP missionary visited eastern Tibet in 1847 and established a mission at Bonga (Bang ga) in south eastern Kham in 1854. This paper focuses on the political issues which affected the Tibet mission’s development during the first 20 years of its existence. There are two main themes. The first is the relationship between the mission and the French state: the missionaries expected French diplomats to promote the Catholic cause in both China and Tibet. Their demands raised a second issue: to what extent was the Chinese government in a position to carry out France’s wishes in Tibet, even if it so desired?
Research Interests:
This essay addresses the question how far it is possible to conceive of a “Tibetan” or “Ladakhi” Christianity that is both distinctively local while at the same time recognisably part of the universal Church. Joseph Gergan (1878-1946) and... more
This essay addresses the question how far it is possible to conceive of a “Tibetan” or “Ladakhi” Christianity that is both distinctively local while at the same time recognisably part of the universal Church. Joseph Gergan (1878-1946) and his son-in-law Eliyah Tsetan Phuntsog (1908-1946) were among the leading Ladakhi non-monastic intellectuals of their day, well versed in Tibetan literature as well as local oral tradition. Unusually, they were both ordained as Christian ministers in the Moravian church.
I argue that their writings are rooted in Tibetan and Ladakhi literary culture and at the same time represent an authentic response to mainstream Christian teachings. Eliyah Tsetan Phuntsog’s ideas are of particular interest as he explained how he had applied Buddhist meditation techniques in his own contemplative practice on the need to be “one with Christ”.
I argue that their writings are rooted in Tibetan and Ladakhi literary culture and at the same time represent an authentic response to mainstream Christian teachings. Eliyah Tsetan Phuntsog’s ideas are of particular interest as he explained how he had applied Buddhist meditation techniques in his own contemplative practice on the need to be “one with Christ”.
Research Interests:
Until the first Dogra invasion in 1834 Ladakh was an independent Himalayan state, similar in many respects to Bhutan and Sikkim. Today it consists of two districts in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, but Ladakhis have not lost a... more
Until the first Dogra invasion in 1834 Ladakh was an independent Himalayan state, similar in many respects to Bhutan and Sikkim. Today it consists of two districts in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, but Ladakhis have not lost a sense of their own distinct historical ...
Research Interests:
The Moravian Church ran a missionary station in Poo (Kinnaur) near the India’s border with Tibet from 1865 to 1924. This paper discusses the origins of the mission, its contacts with Tibet, Buddhist reactions to Christianity, and the... more
The Moravian Church ran a missionary station in Poo (Kinnaur) near the India’s border with Tibet from 1865 to 1924. This paper discusses the origins of the mission, its contacts with Tibet, Buddhist reactions to Christianity, and the social pressures on Christian converts.
Research Interests:
This paper reviews the main themes of the Moravian missionaries’ Bible translations into Tibetan, starting with Heinrich August Jäschke (1817-1883) and continuing with August Hermann Francke (1870-1930), Joseph Gergan (1878-1946) and... more
This paper reviews the main themes of the Moravian missionaries’ Bible translations into Tibetan, starting with Heinrich August Jäschke (1817-1883) and continuing with August Hermann Francke (1870-1930), Joseph Gergan (1878-1946) and others. The paper discusses how their translation work tied in with their academic researches in Lahul, Ladakh and the wider Himalayan region. It draws on the archives of the Moravian Church in London and Herrnhut, as well as the British and Foreign Bible Society archives.
Research Interests:
Contains an overview, supported by references to archival sources, of the Moravian church in Ladakh and formerly in Lahul and Kinnaur. I've added an updated bibliography including research papers by myself and others published between... more
Contains an overview, supported by references to archival sources, of the Moravian church in Ladakh and formerly in Lahul and Kinnaur. I've added an updated bibliography including research papers by myself and others published between 1985 and 2013
Research Interests:
Based on global survey of more than 600 business people
Research Interests:
This article draws on the findings of an international survey of corporate lawyers commissioned by Control Risks in 2013. When asked to choose between five areas of risk in the anti-corruption arena, 58 per cent of respondents chose... more
This article draws on the findings of an international survey of corporate lawyers commissioned by Control Risks in 2013. When asked to choose between five areas of risk in the anti-corruption arena, 58 per cent of respondents chose ‘risks associated with ensuring the smooth running of the business (e.g. demands for bribes from customs, police officers and tax inspectors)’. The article discusses the reasons behind this choice, and the practical implications.
Research Interests:
Research Interests: Corporate Social Responsibility, Social Entrepreneurship, International Development, Community Development, Corporate Governance, and 11 morePeacekeeping, Environmental Sustainability, Peacebuilding, Green Supply Chain Management, Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief, Ethical Leadership, Responsible Consumption, Stabilization and Reconstruction, Post Conflict Issues, Social Entrepreneurship & Innovation, and Human Rights and Corruption
Historically, the use of intermediaries such as commercial agents has often been seen as a way of circumventing national and international anti-corruption laws. According to conventional wisdom, it has been permissible for international... more
Historically, the use of intermediaries such as commercial agents has often been seen as a way of circumventing national and international anti-corruption laws. According to conventional wisdom, it has been permissible for international companies to turn a blind eye when local intermediaries pay bribes on their behalf. However, such practices involve significant risks, even when anti-bribery laws are poorly enforced. This paper analyses the changing nature of those risks, and the responses of international companies.
Research Interests:
Discusses whether all informal payments to petty officials are to be classified as bribery and ultimately theft? Or can a modest sum in the right hand smooth the course of honest business?
Research Interests:
This article discusses some of the challenges that may be encountered by companies seeking to adhere to the Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights and the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights when... more
This article discusses some of the challenges that may be encountered by companies seeking to adhere to the Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights and the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights when operating in conflict-affected countries. The authors argue that corporate respect for human rights may not be sufficient to correct or compensate for state failure and also suggest that the leverage or influence enjoyed by individual companies in relation to the conduct of security forces and host governments may be limited, particularly in times of crisis. There is therefore a need for a collective approach to human rights risks in conflict-affected countries, and this should focus on public security sector reform and good governance as well as on corporate due diligence.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This article begins with a broad analysis of the strategies employed by NGOs in their use of the Internet, and the companies' responses. It focuses on two case studies: the international human rights campaign on Burma (Myanmar), and the... more
This article begins with a broad analysis of the strategies employed by NGOs in their use of the Internet, and the companies' responses. It focuses on two case studies: the international human rights campaign on Burma (Myanmar), and the NGO campaign against the OECD's proposed Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI). The article concludes with a general discussion of the changing relationship between companies, governments and NGOs, and the implications for the wider debate on the environment, human rights and sustainable development. The argument is made that, by making certain kinds of information more widely available, the Internet changes the balance of power between NGOs, companies and governments. In particular, the wider distribution of information puts greater pressure on companies to explain their activities in countries and regions that previously were considered obscure; and it makes it more difficult for companies and governments to conduct confidential negotiations on issues such as trade and investment.
Research Interests:
Examines the circumstances of the political upheavals in Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s in the run-up to the 50th anniversary of the country's independence
Research Interests:
An assessment of the prospects for Nawaz Sharif's administration written soon after he came to power in November 1990.
Research Interests:
... For example, in December 1989 Begum Rehan Sarwar, the Minister of State for Women's ... is Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, a former PPP Sind Chief Minister under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, but ... nationalist movements, such as GM... more
... For example, in December 1989 Begum Rehan Sarwar, the Minister of State for Women's ... is Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, a former PPP Sind Chief Minister under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, but ... nationalist movements, such as GM Syed's Jiye Sind organisa-tion, which advocates the creation ...
Benazir Bhutto’s coming to power in 1988 brought a marked change of mood, a sense of hope that after years of military and quasi-military rule the country had at last achieved a democratic breakthrough. This article was written soon... more
Benazir Bhutto’s coming to power in 1988 brought a marked change of mood, a sense of hope that after years of military and quasi-military rule the country had at last achieved a democratic breakthrough. This article was written soon afterwards, and gives a contemporary view of Benazir’s ideology and the tight constraints within which she had to operate.
Research Interests:
Review of book containing eight papers from a conference in honour of the birth centenary of the Italian scholar Fosco Maraini (1912-2004).
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
The Shopping-Dialogues phrasebook was published in 1861 by Johann Joseph Hoffmann (1805-1878) who was based at the University of Leiden and served as ‘Japanese Interpreter to the Government of the Dutch East Indies. It was based on an... more
The Shopping-Dialogues phrasebook was published in 1861 by Johann Joseph Hoffmann (1805-1878) who was based at the University of Leiden and served as ‘Japanese Interpreter to the Government of the Dutch East Indies. It was based on an earlier phrase book published in Nagasaki in 1859 by Motoki Shozo, a pioneer of the modern Japanese printing industry.
Research Interests:
This article was written in 2010 but of course touches on a vital, still-unfolding theme. One of my key points is that "International relationships are no longer the preserve of a narrow circle of businessmen and policymakers," even... more
This article was written in 2010 but of course touches on a vital, still-unfolding theme. One of my key points is that "International relationships are no longer the preserve of a narrow circle of
businessmen and policymakers," even though it often seems otherwise.
businessmen and policymakers," even though it often seems otherwise.
Research Interests:
The 1684 Treaty of Temisgang (gTing mo sgang) between Ladakh and Tibet set up a triennial mission from Ladakh to Lhasa known as the lo phyag. The mission combined a number of different roles - diplomatic, religious and commercial – and... more
The 1684 Treaty of Temisgang (gTing mo sgang) between Ladakh and Tibet set up a triennial mission from Ladakh to Lhasa known as the lo phyag. The mission combined a number of different roles - diplomatic, religious and commercial – and served as a rich, multilayered vehicle of communication between the two countries. This paper examines three documents from Tibet that are associated with the lo phyag, and are now in the Jammu & Kashmir State Archives Repository in Jammu (India).
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Nigeria is one of the most vibrant markets in Africa, with an entrepreneurial business culture and recent reforms in the banking sector that have won international plaudits. Foreign investment historically has been dominated by oil and... more
Nigeria is one of the most vibrant markets in Africa, with an entrepreneurial business culture and recent reforms in the banking sector that have won international plaudits. Foreign investment historically has been dominated by oil and gas, but has broadened substantially in recent years into finance, private equity, power, telecoms, consumer products and mining.
However, despite Nigeria’s size, and the energy and talents of its people, it has failed to achieve its full potential. The reasons include poor leadership, poor infrastructure and a history of high levels of corruption. The Nigerian market has long been notorious for graft, partly as a result of the country’s reputation as the world leader in financial crime, but also because of the systematic abuse of its oil wealth over several decades by the political class. As a result, many leading investors that might otherwise have flocked to the country have stayed away.
Against this background, this report seeks to answer one simple question: is it possible to do business successfully in Nigeria without involving employees in corrupt practices? The report draws both on Control Risks’ own experience in Nigeria and on the findings of more than 30 specially conducted interviews with senior executives, lawyers, journalists and officials. We wanted to know what strategies succeeded, and, if they failed, why they failed.
Sceptical assessments remain commonplace, and none of our interviewees could offer a ‘silver bullet’ that would avoid all graft-related problems.
Nevertheless, experience shows that it is possible to avoid corruption with a combination of good management, diplomatic skill and determination verging on bloody-mindedness.
The report presents a distillation of our interviewees’ experiences. We share their view that Nigeria presents a particularly tough business environment. It may not be possible to win every battle. Resisting corruption demands a heavy investment of time, determination and ingenuity.
Nevertheless, we believe that it is possible for companies to face up to corruption in Nigeria, and that this is an essential ingredient of ultimate commercial success.
However, despite Nigeria’s size, and the energy and talents of its people, it has failed to achieve its full potential. The reasons include poor leadership, poor infrastructure and a history of high levels of corruption. The Nigerian market has long been notorious for graft, partly as a result of the country’s reputation as the world leader in financial crime, but also because of the systematic abuse of its oil wealth over several decades by the political class. As a result, many leading investors that might otherwise have flocked to the country have stayed away.
Against this background, this report seeks to answer one simple question: is it possible to do business successfully in Nigeria without involving employees in corrupt practices? The report draws both on Control Risks’ own experience in Nigeria and on the findings of more than 30 specially conducted interviews with senior executives, lawyers, journalists and officials. We wanted to know what strategies succeeded, and, if they failed, why they failed.
Sceptical assessments remain commonplace, and none of our interviewees could offer a ‘silver bullet’ that would avoid all graft-related problems.
Nevertheless, experience shows that it is possible to avoid corruption with a combination of good management, diplomatic skill and determination verging on bloody-mindedness.
The report presents a distillation of our interviewees’ experiences. We share their view that Nigeria presents a particularly tough business environment. It may not be possible to win every battle. Resisting corruption demands a heavy investment of time, determination and ingenuity.
Nevertheless, we believe that it is possible for companies to face up to corruption in Nigeria, and that this is an essential ingredient of ultimate commercial success.