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利用者:Koolah/サンドボックス4


Eucalypt woodlands in Victoria.

オーストラリアの植物相（英: Flora of Australia）は20,000種以上の維管束植物、14,000種以上の非維管束植物、25，000種以上の菌類、3,000種以上の地衣類を含む莫大な種類の植物で成り立っているゴンドワナ大陸起源の植物相が多く存在し、科レベルでは大陸の移動と白亜紀以降の気候変化の影響により多様性が生まれた、非常に多くの被子植物相からなる。オーストラリアの植物相の顕著な特徴は、硬葉植物やSerotinyを含む植物が乾燥や火に適応していることである。これらの適応はヤマモガシ科（バンクシアなど）、マメ科（アカシアなど）、フトモモ科（ユーカリなど）よく知られた多種の植物を含む。

61,000（+9,000/-13,000）年前にオーストラリアの先住民が[1]、そして1788年にヨーロッパ人が入植して以来、植物相に多大な影響を与えられてきた。先住民による火かき棒農業は長期にわたり植物の分布域に変化を与え、1788年以来の農業や都市化による大規模な植生の改変や破壊は多くの固有の生態系に影響を与え、61種の植物を絶滅に、1000種以上の植物を絶滅危惧種に追いやった。

起源

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The Tasmanian rainforest is considered a en:Gondwanan relic.

Australia was part of the southern supercontinent en:Gondwana, which also included en:South America, en:Africa, en:India and en:Antarctica. Most of the modern Australian flora had their origin in Gondwana during the en:Cretaceous when Australia was covered in subtropical rainforest. Australian ferns and gymnosperm bear strong resemblance to their Gondwanan ancestors,[2] and prominent members of the early Gondwanan angiosperm flora such as the en:Nothofagus, en:Myrtaceae and en:Proteaceae were also present in Australia.[3]

Scrubland with en:Xanthorrhoea following bushfire.

Gondwana began to break up 140 million years ago (MYA); 50 MYA during the en:Oligocene Australia separated from Antarctica, and was relatively isolated until the collision of theen:Indo-Australian Plate with Asia in the en:Miocene era 5.3 MYA. As Australia drifted, local and global en:climate change had a significant and lasting effect: a circumpolar oceanic current developed, atmospheric circulation increased as Australia moved away from Antarctica, precipitation fell, there was a slow warming of the continent and en:aridconditions started to develop.[4] These conditions of geographic isolation and aridity led to the development of a more complex flora. From 25-10 MYA pollen records suggest the rapid radiation of species like en:Eucalyptus, en:Casuarina, en:Allocasuarina, en:Banksia and the pea-flowered legumes, and the development of open forest; grasslands started to develop from the en:Eocene. Collision with the en:Eurasian Plate also led to additional en:South-east Asian and cosmopolitan elements entering the flora like the en:Lepidium and en:Chenopodioideae.[5]

The development of aridity and the old and nutrient poor soils of the continent led to some unique adaptations in the Australian flora and evolutionary radiation of genera – like en:Acaciaand en:Eucalyptus – that adapted to those conditions. Hard leaves with a thick outer layer, a condition known as scleromorphy, and C4 and CAM carbon fixation which reduce water loss during photosynthesis are two common adaptations in Australian arid-adapted dicot and monocot species respectively. Rising aridity also increased the frequency of fires in Australia. Fire is thought to have played a role in the development and distribution of fire-adapted species from theen:Late Pleistocene. An increase in charcoal in sediment around 38,000 years ago coincides with dates for the inhabitation of Australia by the en:Indigenous Australians and suggests that man-made fires, from practices like en:fire-stick farming, have played an important role in the establishment and maintenance of sclerophyll forest, especially on the east coast of Australia.[6] Adaptations to fire include en:lignotubers and epicormic buds in Eucalyptus and Banksia species that allow fast regeneration following fire. Some genera also exhibit en:serotiny, the release of seed only in response to heat and/or smoke. en:Xanthorrhoea grass trees and some species of orchids only flower after fire.[7]

植生の種類

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ファイル:Australia Vegetation map.PNG
Major vegetation groups in Australia as identified by the National Land and Water Resources Audit's Australian vegetation assessment in 2001.
Hummock grassland, the green hummocks are en:Triodia pungens and the blue-grey hummocks are en:Triodia basedowii.

Australia's terrestrial flora can be collected into characteristic en:vegetation groups. The most important determinant is rainfall, followed by temperature which affects water availability.[8] Several schemes of varying complexity have been created, the most recent scheme developed by the en:Natural Heritage Trust divides Australia's terrestrial flora into 30 Major Vegetation Groups, and 67 Major Vegetation Subgroups.[9]

According to the scheme the most common vegetation types are those that are adapted to arid conditions where the area has not been significantly reduced by human activities such as land clearing for agriculture. The dominant vegetation type in Australia is the hummock grasslands that occur extensively in arid Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory. It accounts for 23% of the native vegetation, the predominant species of which are from the genus Triodia. en:Zygochloa also occurs in inland sandy areas like the en:Simpson Desert.

A further 39% of native vegetation is covered by a combination of:

  • Eucalypt woodlands found at the transition between hummock grasslands and higher rainfall areas where conditions still limit tree growth; the woodland may have a grass or shrubby understory. The most common species is en:Eucalyptus camaldulensis which occurs along the majority of inland waterways and creeklines in Australia. The largest area is in Queensland.
  • Acacia forests and woodlands that occur in semi-arid areas where tree growth is stunted. The dominant Acacia species varies with the location, and may include lancewood,bendee, en:mulga, gidgee and brigalow. The largest area is in Western Australia.
  • Acacia shrublands in semi arid and arid regions. The most common are mulga shrublands; the largest area is in Western Australia.
  • Tussock grasslands that occur in semi-arid and some temperate parts of Australia; they host a large variety of grasses from more than 10 genera. The largest area is in Queensland.
  • Chenopod/samphire shrubs and forblands that are widespread in the near-estuarine, arid and semi-arid areas. Species in chenopod communities are drought and salt tolerant and include the en:Sclerolaena, en:Atriplex, en:Maireana, en:Chenopodium and en:Rhagodia genera while samphire representatives include en:Tecticornia‎,en:Salicornia, en:Sclerostegia and en:Sarcocornia. Both South and Western Australia have large areas with this vegetation type.

Other groups with restricted areas of less than 70,000 square kilometres include tropical or temperate rainforest and vine thickets, tall or open eucalypt forests, en:callitris and Casuarina forests, and woodlands and heath.

維管束植物

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Australia has over 20,000 described species of vascular plants, these include the en:angiosperms, seed-bearing non-angiosperms (like the conifers and cycads), and the spore-bearing ferns and fern allies.[10] Of these about 11% are naturalised species; the remainder are native or endemic.[11] The vascular plant flora has been extensively catalogued, the work being published in the ongoing Flora of Australia series. A list of vascular plant families represented in Australia using the en:Cronquist system is also available.[12]

At the higher taxonomic levels the Australian flora is similar to that of the rest of the world; most vascular plant families are represented within the native flora, with the exception of thecacti, birch and a few others, while 9 families occur only in Australia.[13][14] Australia's vascular flora is estimated to be 85% endemic;[15] this high level of vascular plant endemism is largely attributable to the radiation of some families like the en:Proteaceae, en:Myrtaceae, and en:Fabaceae.

被子植物

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Largest angiosperm families in Australia
Family % of total flora1 Notable genera

en:Fabaceae 12.0 en:Pultenaea, en:Daviesia, en:Bossiaea
en:Myrtaceae 9.3 en:Callistemon, en:Eucalyptus, en:Melaleuca, en:Leptospermum
en:Asteraceae 8.0 en:Brachyscome, en:Olearia
en:Poaceae 6.5 Triodia
en:Proteaceae 5.6 en:Banksia, en:Hakea, en:Grevillea
en:Cyperaceae 3.3 en:Cyperus
en:Orchidaceae 3.0 en:Caladenia, en:Pterostylis
en:Ericaceae 2.1 en:Leucopogon, en:Epacris
en:Euphorbiaceae 2.0 en:Ricinocarpos
en:Rutaceae 1.8 en:Boronia, en:Correa, en:Citrus
1 Based on total number of species

Data from Orchard modified to AGPII classifications.[10]

The native Australian flora contains many en:monocotyledons. The family with the most species is the en:Poaceae which includes a huge variety of species, from the tropical bambooen:Bambusa arnhemica to the ubiquitous spinifex that thrives in arid Australia from the genera Triodia and en:Plectrachne. There are more than 800 described species of orchid in Australia.[16] About one quarter of these are epiphytes; epiphytic orchids occur along the east coast and in Tasmania and do not occur in South or Western Australia. The terrestrial orchids occur across most of Australia, the majority of species being en:deciduous – their aboveground parts die back during the dry season and they re-sprout from a tuber when it rains.

Other families with well-known representatives include the alpine Tasmanian button grass, which form tussock-like mounds from the en:Cyperaceae; the genusen:Patersonia of temperate iris-like grasses from the en:Iridaceae; and, the kangaroo paws from the family en:Haemodoraceae. The en:Xanthorrhoea grass trees, the screw palms of the en:Pandanaceae and palms are large moncots present in Australia. There are about 57 native palms; 79% of these only occur in Australia.[17] en:Livistonia is unusual amongst the palm genera in Australia; rather than tropical habitats, its members are found in inland gorges and open forest.

The dicots are the most diverse group of angiosperms. Australia's best known species come from three large and very diverse dicot families: the en:Fabaceae, the en:Myrtaceaeand the en:Proteaceae. The Myrtaceae is represented by a variety of woody species; gum trees from the genera en:Eucalyptus, en:Corymbia and en:Angophora, Lillipillies (en:Syzygium), the water-loving en:Melaleuca and en:Bottlebrush and the shrubby Darwinia and en:Leptospermum, commonly known as teatrees, anden:Geraldton wax. The Proteaceae are also woody, well-known genera include en:Banksia, en:Dryandra, en:Grevillea, en:Hakea, the en:waratah and Australia's only commercial native food crop, the en:macadamia. Australia also has representatives of all three legume subfamalies. en:Caesalpinioideae is notably represented by Cassia trees. The en:Faboideae or pea-flowered legumes are common and many are well-known for their flowers, including the golden peas, Glycine species and the en:Sturt's desert pea. The en:Mimosoideae is best known for the huge genus en:Acacia which includes Australia's floral emblem the golden wattle.

Many plant families that occur in Australia are known for their floral displays that follow seasonal rains. The en:Asteraceae is well represented by its subfamily en:Gnaphalieae, which included the paper or everlasting daisies; this group has its greatest diversity in Australia. Other families with flowering shrubs include the en:Rutaceae, with the fragrant en:Boroniaand en:Eriostemon, the en:Myoporaceae with the Eremophila, and members of the en:Ericaceae with Victoria's Floral Emblem en:Epacris impressa.

Amongst the most ancient species of flowering hardwood trees are the en:Casuarinaceae, including beach, swamp and river oaks, and en:Fagaceae represented in Australia by three species ofen:Nothofagus. Trees of the en:Rosales are notably representented by the en:Moraceae whose species include the en:Moreton Bay Fig and the en:Port Jackson Fig, and theen:Urticaceae whose members include several tree sized stinging nettles; en:Dendrocnide moroides is the most virulent. There are also numerous sandalwood species including the en:quandongs and native cherry, en:Exocarpus cupressiformis. The bottle tree of the en:Sterculiaceae is one of 30 tree species from theen:Brachychiton. There are about 75 native mistletoes that parasitise Australian tree species, including two terrestrial parasitic trees, one of which is the spectacular en:Western Australian Christmas tree.

Australia's salt marshes and wetlands are covered by a large variety of salt and drought tolerant species from the en:Amaranthaceae which include the saltbushes (en:Atriplex) and bluebushes (en:Maireana and en:Chenopodium). Many of these plants have succulent leaves; other native succulents are from the genera en:Carpobrotus,en:Calandrinia anden:Portulaca. Succulent stems are present in many of the en:Euphorbiaceae in Australia, though the best known members are the non-succulent looking fragrant Wedding bushes of the genusen:Ricinocarpos. en:Carnivorous plants which favour damp habitats are represented by four families including the sundews, bladderworts, pitcher-plants from the en:Cephalotaceae, which are endemic to en:Western Australia, and the en:Nepenthaceae.

Aquatic moncots and dicots both occur in Australian waters. Australia has about 51,000 square kilometres of en:seagrass meadows and the most diverse group seagrass species in the world. There are 22 species found in temperate waters and 15 in tropical waters out of a known 70 species worldwide.[18] Aquatic dicots include the en:mangroves; in Australia there are 39 mangrove species that cover 11,500 square kilometres and comprise the third largest area of mangroves in the world.[19] Other native marine dicots here include water lilies and water milfoils.

非被子植物

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Seed bearing non-angiosperms present in Australia include the en:cycads and en:conifers. There are 69 species of cycad from 4 genera and 3 families – they are all endemic and their distribution is confined to forests of eastern and northern Australia, with a few in south-western Western Australia and central Australia. Native pines are distributed through 3 families, 14 genera and 43 species, of which 39 are endemic. Most species are present in wetter mountainous areas consistent with their Gondwanan origins, including the genera en:Athrotaxis,en:Actinostrobus, en:Microcachrys, en:Microstrobos, en:Diselma and the Tasmanian Huon pine, sole member of the genus Lagarostrobos.en:Callitris is a notable exception; species from this genus are found mainly in drier open woodlands.[20] The most recently discovered species of conifer is the en:living fossil Wollemi pine, which was first described in 1994.

Spore bearing vascular plants include the en:ferns and fern allies. True ferns are found over most of the country and are most abundant in tropical and subtropical areas with high rainfall. Australia has a native flora of 30 families, 103 genera and 390 species of ferns, with another 10 species being naturalised. The fern allies are represented by 44 native species ofpsilophytes, en:horsetails and lycophytes.[20] Ferns prefer a cool and damp environment since water is required for reproduction, the majority of Australian species are found in bushland and rainforest, there are aquatic, epiphytic (en:Platycerium, en:Huperzia and en:Asplenium), and terrestrial species including large tree ferns from the genera en:Cyathea and en:Dicksonia.

非維管束植物

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The en:algae are a large and diverse group of photosynthetic organisms. Many studies of algae include the en:cyanobacteria, in addition to micro and macro eukaryotic types that inhabit both fresh and saltwater. Currently, about 10,000 to 12,000 species of algae are known for Australia.[21] The algal flora of Australia is unevenly documented: northern Australia remains largely uncollected for seaweeds and marine phytoplankton, descriptions of freshwater algae are patchy, and the collection of terrestrial algae has been almost completely neglected.[22]

The en:bryophytes – en:mosses, liverworts and en:hornworts – are primitive, usually terrestrial, plants that inhabit the tropics, cool-temperate regions and montane areas; there are some specialised members that are adapted to semi-arid and arid Australia. There are slightly fewer that 1,000 recognised species of moss in Australia. The five largest genera are the en:Fissidens, en:Bryum, en:Campylopus, en:Macromitrium and en:Andreaea.[23] There are also over 800 species of liver- and horn-worts in 148 genera in Australia.[24]

菌類

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The fungal flora of Australia is not well characterised; Australia is estimated to have about 250,000 fungal species of which roughly 5% have been described. Knowledge of distribution, substrates and habitats is poor for most species, with the exception of common plant pathogens.[25]

地衣類

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en:Lichens are a composite organisms comprising, in most cases, an Ascomycete fungus and a unicellular green alga, their classification is based on the type of fungi. The lichen flora of Australia and its island territories, including en:Christmas Island, Heard Island, en:Macquarie Island and en:Norfolk Island, currently comprises 3,238 species and infra-specific taxa in 422 genera, 34% of which are considered to be endemic.[26]

人との関わり

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en:Solanum laciniatum

The first Australian plants recognised and classified in Linnaean taxonomy were a species of Acacia and Synaphea in 1768 as Adiantum truncatum and Polypodium spinulosumrespectively by Dutch philologist en:Pieter Burman the Younger, who stated they were from Java. Later, both were found to be from Western Australia, likely to have been collected near the Swan River, possibly on a 1697 visit there of fellow Dutchman en:Willem de Vlamingh.[27] This was followed by Cook's expedition making landfall at what is now Botany bay in April 1770, and the early work of Banks, Solander and Parkinson. Botanical exploration was enabled by the founding of the permanent colony at Port Jackson in 1788, and the subsequent expeditions along Australia's coastline.[27]

The Australia flora was utilised by the Indigenous inhabitants of Australia. They used hundreds of species for food, medicine, shelter, tools and weapons. For example, the starchy roots of en:Clematis microphylla were used in western Victoria to make a dough that was baked, and the leaves of the plant were used as a poultice applied to skin irritations and blisters.[28]

植民地化以降

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Economic exploitation of the flora by settlers since 1788 has not been extensive; forestry has been the most extensive use of the flora. Forestry species include a number of eucalypts used for paper and timber, huon pine, hoop pine, cypress pine, en:Australian Blackwood, and sandalwood fromen:Santalum spicatum and S. lanceolatum are also timber producing species. A significant area used by the pastoral industry is based on native pasture species including Mitchell grass, saltbush, bluebush, wallaby grass, spear grass, tussock grassesand kangaroo grass.

商業利用

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Until recently the macadamia nut and en:Tetragonia tetragonoides were the only Australian food plant species widely cultivated. Although commercial cultivation of macadamia started in Australia in the 1880s, it became an established large-scale crop in en:Hawaii.[29][30] The development of a range of native food crops began in the late 1970s with the assessment of species forcommercial potential. In the mid-1980s restaurants and wholesalers started to market various native food plant products. These included wattles for their edible seeds; Davidson's Plum, desert lime, finger lime, quandong, riberry,Kakadu plum, muntries, bush tomato, Illawarra plum for fruit; warrigal greens as a leaf vegetable; and, en:lemon aspen, en:lemon myrtle, mountain pepper as spices. A few Australian native plants are used by the pharmaceutical industry, such as two en:scopolamine and en:hyoscyamine producing en:Duboisia species and Solanum aviculare and S. laciniatum for the steroiden:solasodine. Essential oils from en:Melaleuca, en:Callitris, en:Prostanthera, Eucalyptus and en:Eremophila are also used medicinally. Due to the wide variety of flowers and foliage, Australian plant species are also popular for floriculture internationally. [[:en:File:Austnativheathcote.jpg|thumb|left|250px|en:Gymea Lily growing in en:Heathcote National Park, Sydney.]]

保護

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Modification of the Australian environment by Indigenous Australians and following European settlement has affected the extent and the distribution of the flora. The changes since 1788 have been rapid and significant: displacement of Indigenous Australians disrupted fire régimes that had been in place for thousands of years; forestry practices have modified the structure of native forests; wetlands have been filled in; and broad scale land-clearing for crops, grazing and urban development has reduced native vegetation cover and led to landscape salinisation, increased sediment, nutrient and salt loads in rivers and streams, loss of habitat and a decline in biodiversity.[31] The intentional and unintentional release of invasive plant and animal species into delicate ecosystems is a major threat to floral biodiversity; 20 introduced species have been declared weeds of national significance.[32] Since European settlement of Australia, 61 plant species are known to have become extinct; a further 1,239 species are presently considered threatened.[33]

Protected areas have been created in every state and territory to protect and preserve the country's unique ecosystems. These protected areas include national parks and other reserves, as well as 64 wetlands registered under the en:Ramsar Convention and 16 en:World Heritage Sites. As of 2002, 10.8% (774,619.51 km²) of the total land area of Australia is within protected areas.[34] Protected marine zones have been created in many areas to preserve marine biodiversity; as of 2002, these areas cover about 7% (646,000 km²) of Australia's marine jurisdiction.[35] The Australian Government's Threatened Species Scientific Committee has identified 15 en:biodiversity hotspots in Australian and 85 characteristic ecosystems, as classified by the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia, cover the continent; some effort is being made to ensure each is represented within a protected area under Australia's en:Biodiversity Action Plan.[36][37]

関連項目

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Region specific articles

参考文献

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脚注

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  1. ^ Josephine Flood (2004) Archaeology of the Dreamtime, J.B Publishing, Marleston p. 283 ISBN 1 876 62250 4
  2. ^ Page, C. N. and Clifford, H. T. 1981. Ecological biogeography of Australian conifers and ferns. In A. Keast Ecological Biogeography of Australia. W. Junk
  3. ^ Dettmann, M. E. and Jarzen, D. M. 1990. The Antarctic/Australian rift valley: Late Cretaceous cradle of Northeastern Australasian relicts? Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 65:131-144.
  4. ^ Bowler, J. M. 1982. Age, origin and landform expression of aridity in Australia. In W. R. Barker, P. J. M. Greensdale. Evolution of the Flora and Fauna of Australia. Australian Systematic Botany Society ISBN 0-909209-62-6
  5. ^ Crisp, M. et al. 2004. Radiation of the Australian flora: what can comparisons of molecular phylogenies across multiple taxa tell us about the evolution of diversity in present-day communities? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B -Biological Sciences 359: 1551-1571
  6. ^ Singh, G. et al. 1981. Quaternary vegetation and fire history in Australia. In A. M. Gill, R. A. Groves and I. R. Nobel. Fire and the Australian Biota. Australian Academy of Science, 23-54
  7. ^ Gill, A. M. 1981. Adaptive responses of Australian vascular plant species to fire. In A. M. Gill, R. H. Groves, and I. R. Noble. eds. Fire and the Australian Biota. Australian Academy of Science
  8. ^ Groves, R. H. 1999. Present vegetation types. In A. E. Orchard, ed. Flora of Australia - Volume 1, 2nd edition pp 369-401. ABRS/CSIRO
  9. ^ Natural Heritage Trust. 2001.Australia's native vegetation : a summary of the National Land and Water Resources Audit's Australian vegetation assessment 2001. National Land and Water Resources Audit ISBN 0-642-37128-8. The 2001 version has beenupdated as of 2006.
  10. ^ a b Orchard, A. E. 1999. Introduction. In A. E. Orchard, ed. Flora of Australia - Volume 1, 2nd edition pp 1-9. ABRS/CSIRO
  11. ^ Hnatiuk, R.J. 1990. Census of Australian Vascular Plants. AGPS ISBN 0-644-11606-4
  12. ^ Australian Biological Resources Study. Flora of Australia Online - What's published and online, contributors and dates of publication
  13. ^ Crisp, M. D., West, J. G., and Linder, H.P. 1999. Biogeography of the Australian flora. In A. E. Orchard, ed. Flora of Australia - Volume 1, 2nd edition pp 321-367. ABRS/CSIRO
  14. ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage.Australia's Biodiversity: an overview of selected significant components, Biodiversity Series, Paper No. 2
  15. ^ ESD Working Group on Biological Diversity. 1991. The Conservation of Biological Diversity as it Relates to Ecologically Sustainable Development, Report of Working Party to the Ecologically Sustainable Development Secretariat, Canberra.
  16. ^ Nesbitt, L. 1997. Australia's Native Orchids. en:Association of Societies for Growing Australian Plants
  17. ^ Jones, D. 1984. Palms in Australia. Reed Books ISBN 0-7301-0007-3
  18. ^ CSIRO. 2000. About Australian Seagrasses
  19. ^ Robertson, A.I. and Alongi, D.M. 1995. Mangrove ecosystems in Australia: structure , function and status in D.P. Larr ed Our Sea, Our Future Major findings of the State of the Marine Environment Report for Australia Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories ISBN 0-642-17391-5
  20. ^ a b Flora of Australia Volume 48—Ferns, Gymnosperms and Allied Groups. 1998. Australian Biological Resources Study/CSIRO Publishing ISBN 0-643-05972-5
  21. ^ Australian Biological Resources Study.Algae of Australia
  22. ^ Entwisle T.J., and Huisman J. 1998. Algal systematics in Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 11:203-214
  23. ^ Klazenga, N. 2005. Generic concepts in Australian mosses. Australian Systemic Botany. 18:17-23
  24. ^ McCarthy, P.M. 2006.Checklist of Australian Liverworts and Hornworts. Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra. Version 6.
  25. ^ May, T. W. 2001. Documenting the fungal biodiversity of Australasia: from 1800 to 2000 and beyond.Australian Systematic Botany 14:329-356
  26. ^ McCarthy, P.M. 2006. Checklist of the Lichens of Australia and its Island Territories. Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra. Version 6
  27. ^ a b George, A. S. (1981). “The genusBanksia L.f. — a case history in Australian botany”. History in the service of systematics : papers from the Conference to celebrate the centenary of the British Museum (Natural History. London: Society for the Bibliography of Natural History. pp. 53–59. ISBN 0-901843-05-9 
  28. ^ Traditional uses of the Australian flora have been written on extensively, for an overview see Isaacs, J. 2002 Bushfood: Aboriginal food and herbal medicine. New Holland ISBN 1-86436-816-0
  29. ^ Power, J., Macadamia Power in a Nutshell, 1982, ISBN 0-9592892-0-8, p. 13.
  30. ^ O'Neill, G. 1996. Winning back the macadamia. Ecos 88:15-19
  31. ^ Williams J. 2000, Managing the Bush: Recent research findings from the EA/LWRRDC National Remnant Vegetation R&D Program, National Research and Development Program on Rehabilitation, Management and Conservation of Remnant Vegetation, Research Report 4/00.
  32. ^ Thorp, J.R. and Lynch, R. 2000. Weeds of National Significance. Commonwealth of Australia & National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee ISBN 1-876977-20-5
  33. ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage.EPBC Act List of Threatened Fauna
  34. ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2002. Summary of Terrestrial Protected Areas in Australia by Type
  35. ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2002. About the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA)
  36. ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. National Biodiversity Hotspots
  37. ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage IBRA Version 6.1

参考文献

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外部リンク

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