The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
Farabi is the only philosopher in the Muslim world whose views and opinions on the resurrection a... more Farabi is the only philosopher in the Muslim world whose views and opinions on the resurrection are controversial and different and there are numerous reports of his views on On this subject as far as Some believe that he does not believe in the resurrection of mankind. But our research in this article shows that Farabi does not deny the principle of resurrection ،Rather, he denies the resurrection of the Incomplete Spirits (children, insane peoples and idiots) .The purpose of this article is to examine Farabi's perspective on the fate of the Incomplete Spirits (children, insane peoples and idiots) Discussion on the Fate of the Incomplete Spirits is usually examined from the standpoint of theology and its relation to the two attributes of justice and divine wisdom. But Farabi deals with this The problem purely from a philosophical perspective And even he Does not discuss about the verses and traditions that are seemingly opposite views. Farabi, according to his anthropological principles and specific look at the quality of the Resurrection, to conclude that incomplete Spirits, like other animals, are annihilated after death. In this article we examined the views of Farabi and his Evidence and arguments and his Anthropological Foundations.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
The concept of participation is, one of the key concepts that plays a central role in Thomas's me... more The concept of participation is, one of the key concepts that plays a central role in Thomas's metaphysics, based on which it communicates between creator and creature. It has a Record in the philosophy of Plato and Boethius, And in Thomas's terms, when anything receives in a particular manner that which belongs to another in a total manner. It is said to participate it. Since his metaphysics is based on special attention to "existence", and existence is also attributed to both the Creator and the Creator, and the creatures have existence, therefore, the type of relationship between the creator and the creature should be studied and it appears that each one shares the same in existence. Also, what role does it play in the relationship between existence and Essence? This paper intends, in the analytical and research methodology, to study the problem of participation in Thomas Aquinas philosophy by studying the his works and the scholars to determine that what is the purpose of participation, types of participation and the uses of the concept of participation in Thomas's philosophy. He recognizes three types of participation, of which only one can be attributed to God and beings. He justifies the relation between of creator and creature, the relation of Essence and existence and multiplicative relation with the unit by the participation theory.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
This paper seeks to demonstrate how Habermas' idea of the universality of modernity is driven by ... more This paper seeks to demonstrate how Habermas' idea of the universality of modernity is driven by the unsubstantiated assumption that takes this notion to be founded on occidental rationality. In carrying out this task, I first reveal the inherent contradiction of a concept of rationality which seeks to establish itself as the basis of modernity, while at the same time declaring legitimate recognition of its other. Briefly stated, excluding non-Western occidental from the foundation of modernity belies the fundamental requirement of universality, namely the inclusion of the other. This encapsulates what I shall refer to as "The Dichotomous Logic of Exclusive Inclusion" which has engendered philosophical and historical criticisms in both non-Western and Western thought. In the second section of this paper, I shall argue that it is necessary for the "non-Western Other" to push itself away from the margins and to the forefront of the discussion of universality, in order to be recognized as fundamental to the development of a genuine notion of universality that is guided by the contribution of all cultures. Habermas, Jürgen Other, the , Occidental Rationality
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
In the criminal jurisprudence, It is kind of an established and generally accepted maxim that we ... more In the criminal jurisprudence, It is kind of an established and generally accepted maxim that we must never punish anyone for his mere thought (or thoughts) including his feelings, desires, fantasies, wishes, beliefs, and unexecuted intentions. Generally It seems that there are more or less convincing reasons that we must avoid punishing mere thought due to its unacceptable and undesirable consequences for both the individual and the society. In this paper, however, I will investigate into some discussions about the justification related to the maxim that any criminalization of mere thought is intrinsically (i.e., consequentially-independent) morally unjust and hence is culpably wrong. My investigation is here mostly confined to one kind of mere thought, that is, unexecuted intentions, leaving some important kinds such as fundamentalist or racist beliefs untouched. I will show that unexecuted intentions can be regarded as more or less harmful, culpably wrong, in section 3, and provable, in section 4, and hence we should find more uncontroversial grounds to secure our more or less common and shared intuition about the respected maxim that punishing mere thought seems to be altogether unacceptable. The paper doesn't claim that provide convincing arguments for the criminalization of mere thought. Rather its modest claim is that some of the established arguments against the criminalization of mere thought need to be reconsidered.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
Moral arguments, especially in the form of concise formulation based on the tradition of analytic... more Moral arguments, especially in the form of concise formulation based on the tradition of analytical philosophers, have become very popular since the twentieth century. The main focus of this article is on examining the practical challenges to the realization of an effective ethical argument. Benjamin De Mesel is one of the few who has independently analyzed the issue, believing that a rational and perfected moral argument is not a reasonably valid argument, but must have overcome some practical obstacles or challenges. On this basis, the main question in this paper is, in the light of the De Mesel view, what are these challenges and to what extent are they appropriate and valid. The denial of moral determinants, disregard for one's moral attitudes, lack of depth, and neglect of the individual dimensions of ethical issues are the subject of these four challenges. The findings of the article suggest that, first of all, De Mesel is not very successful in explaining and proving all of these challenging cases, and in successful cases, some of them require better reasoning or more explanation.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
Dream has always been an attractive issue for the people in various erras and psychologists have ... more Dream has always been an attractive issue for the people in various erras and psychologists have investigated it a lot in the past. However, most of the issues relating to dreams such as its nature and the reality of prophetic dreams are still ambiguous. Mulla Sadra as a philosopher and also as a psychologist has relatively considered it in his scientific works. This study, after reviewing the litrature and extracting the philosophic foundations of sleep and its psychological issues, has shown that given the Mulla Sadra's thoughts including principality of existence, gradation of existence, substantial motion, bodily origination, spiritual subsistence and consequently two-dimensionality of human as well as Mulla Sadra's belief in human authority, an appropriate structure is created for difining dream, types of dreams and source of dreams. It should be noted that though a number of Mulla Sadra's opinions regarding material dimension of human and considering one of the dimensions of human relatively corresponds to psychology, one can extract exact ideas and opinions regarding dreams and particularly prophetic dreams from the perspective of Mulla Sadra due to lack of existing immateriality in contemporary psychology.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
Wittgenstein begins the important work of his later period of thought, Philosophical Investigatio... more Wittgenstein begins the important work of his later period of thought, Philosophical Investigations, by critiquing Augustine's view of language. He goes on to show that Augustine's theory is based on a limited understanding and, in his words, an element of language that has limited it to the realm of communication and imagery. He also acknowledges Augustine's remarks as a way of ostensive teaching for language learning and has criticized this view. In this study, inferential qualitative method and using one of Augustine's completely specialized and philosophical works on the category of language and its relation to teaching, Teacher dialogue, has been shown that Wittgenstein's critiques of the picture theory of language, the criterion of meaning of language, and the theory of ostensive teaching and definition are, though not entirely, largely based on a limited understanding of Augustine's linguistic positions. Thus, the findings of the study suggest that Wittgenstein's criticism of Augustine's view of the narrative of his work was limited to the Confession book and since this autobiographical work is written more for the general audience and Augustine's aim was not to pose complicated and complex language issues and philosophize about them, Wittgenstein's understanding of the geography of Augustine's thought is strongly in doubt.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
The concept of action in Heidegger is related to understanding and projection. What Dasein projec... more The concept of action in Heidegger is related to understanding and projection. What Dasein projects is something like the plot in narration. Although narration is not a word of Heidegger, some commentators have a narrativistic interpretation based on historicallity and temporality of Dasein. In this writing we focus on a different interpretation based on fundamental narrativity of Dasein and its relation to action. Our basic thesis is that there is a mutual dependence and hermeneutical circle between actuality and narrativity of Dasein; They are both equal to understanding and projection, so coexist in Dasein' s existential structure. The aim of our discussion is to show that how our actions can be influenced by the way of our narration and interpretation of our life and self-understanding. The analysis of this influence has a basic role in our understanding of the way different narrations such as stories, films, criticisms and…, could affect our behavior and our self-understanding. We find that the understanding of our situation and possibilities can form the kind of our action; Every action as understanding, can open a vast area of possibilities which nonetheless stay hidden. This circle continues perpetually and extends our world.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
At the end of his Socrates and Aristophanes, Leo Strauss indicates that Muhammad b. Zakaryya al-R... more At the end of his Socrates and Aristophanes, Leo Strauss indicates that Muhammad b. Zakaryya al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life is "the clearest and the most thoughtful" exposition of the possibility of Socrates' conversion from his youthful contempt for the political or moral things, for the human things or human being, to his mature concern with them. In this paper I will attempt to explain this strange claim through close reading of al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life. al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life is the clearest exposition of this possibility because it reveals Socrates' irony as "taqiyya": "Socrates' turn" requires the dissimulation between theoretical way of life and political way of life. What highlights al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life as "the most thoughtful" exposition of this possibility is al-Razi's attempt to add a supplement to Socrates' "taqiyya" which is rational legislation in order to overcome the theological-political basis of the revealed religion. This is the task Athenian Strange in Plato's Laws undertakes. Accordingly, al-Razi opens a new horizon Platonic political philosophy in his era to face with the theological political challenge against philosophy from revealed religion in which after mutatis mutandis his successors (Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes) try to defend philosophy and the philosophic way of life.
The present paper is studying Farabi’s approach to the nature of language as a philosophical topi... more The present paper is studying Farabi’s approach to the nature of language as a philosophical topic. The goal of this paper is to draw a picture of nature of language in his philosophical system. As a result of this research, Farabi believes that (while he explains three meanings of notq) language has two levels, : 1) Internal level or what is in mind, i.e., intellectual and imaginary understanding, those – as Farabi maintains - which are definition of the perceptual world; 2) Surface level or the words, which are expression of the 1st part or level of language, and these two levels are based on intellect, as third meaning of notq. In his definition of language, Farabi adds a factor of speaker’s intention of expression. As a result, language, to Farabi, is not just a means of conveyance of words, but forming of the meanings as well as expression of those meanings constitute language. It seems that language has no a single essence, since nature of language for different people depends on how they use their intellect and also how their use of language is based on logic. On the other hand, forming of the intellectual and imaginary understanding of people is different. Method of this paper is descriptive and analytical.
Within the contemporary literature, there is a well-known narration of the history of the problem... more Within the contemporary literature, there is a well-known narration of the history of the problem of primacy of existence according to which Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi and Sadra plays the leading roles and Mirdamad has the supporting role: Ibn Sina introduces the supper-addition of existence to the essence in mind; Suhrawardi denies that this distinction is in reality; Mirdamad reconstruct this problem as to whether existence or essence is primarily exist; and finally, Sadra introduces the thesis of primacy of existence. We will argue that all these historical data is incorrect. First, it was historically controversial whether Ibn Sina's distinction between existence and essence was something in reality or purely in mind. Second, after Ibn Sina there was a vast debate on this problem among the followers of the peripatetic philosophers and their opponents. Third, Suhrawardi is just one of the enemies of the followers of the peripatetic philosophers who argue against the distinction of existence and essence in reality. Forth, the only text based on which the introduction of the problem of the primacy of existence is ascribed to Mirdamad is not Mirdamad's. Fifth, Mirdamad and Sadra actually engaged in the traditional problem of the distinction of existence and essence in reality.
.Hegel explains development of spirit through evolution sensational consciousness, self-conscious... more .Hegel explains development of spirit through evolution sensational consciousness, self-consciousness, reason, spirit, religion and Absolute Wisdom. The consciousness and self-consciousness move in the cultural history . In fact, the consciousness is not the stable, but that transmit steps of history live. The consciousness moves with dialectical method in history context. In the respect, knowledge is considered as a dynamic fact and self-discovery. This historicity perspective is to be situated consciousness in the human practice. By Hegel, no consciousness can pure reason. Mannheim set the knowledge into social situation. Consideration at knowledge base make it in the social situation, and emit pure position. Hegel place knowledge to history context and Mannheim attach it to social context. They pass customary epistemological tradition. Mannheim in some basic concepts such as history, ideology, false consciousness, action, totality, knowledge, and truth has influenced of the Phenomenology of Spirit and it has developed in knowledge sociology
We often define Technic as a category of instrument and tools produced by a technician; We do so ... more We often define Technic as a category of instrument and tools produced by a technician; We do so in the case of Art; A category of works such as paintings, sculpture, architecture, poems, etc. created by an artist. In an ontical approach, such humanistic definitions are so correct; But if we look for the essence of things and want to determine their ontological status, the correct definitions are not enough; Because the essence of everything is that which allows it to be what it is. According to this, the essence of Technic and Art can not be determined merely by the technician or the artist, and also by their artifacts. In this paper, it has been tried to determine the ontological status of Technic and Art - based on the ratio of human to Being - from the viewpoint of Hidegger; And considering that he recognizes different periods of history as ages of Being and believes that Being has revealed itself in various forms - including Poiesis and Gestell – in each age, to answer this question why this thinker has called the ancient Greek as the age of Art and the present day as the age of Technic.
According to the current view regarding the principality of existence and the fictitiousness of q... more According to the current view regarding the principality of existence and the fictitiousness of quiddity, these two properties of principality and fictitiousness can be reduced to essential truth and accidental truth on external reality. Hence, not only the quiddity does not have any share of reality in the external world, but also it doesn’t represent anything beyond itself. According to my view, such interpretation of the concept of principality of existence cannot be documented and also clearly contradicts Sadra’s own words on this matter. The origin of this misconception can be found in the way the issue has been raised, discussed and argued for by Sadra as well as presupposing of a kind of entailment between truth and external realization by the proponents of the above interpretation. I will also show that regardless of its connection with Sadra, this interpretation as an independent philosophical theory in its own right might oppose our common sense intuition and be in need of sufficient arguments and more importantly and decisively, lacks the necessary internal coherence and involves certain unreasonable implications.
Although the conflict between freedom and system (The concept which is derived from the Greek wor... more Although the conflict between freedom and system (The concept which is derived from the Greek word συνίστημι) has been always the subject of philosophical debate, there were German idealists who first formulated the relation between these two concepts explicitly. Here the system, which guarantees the coherence of knowledge, is a subjective and rational foundation. But Heidegger in his later thought, passed through the concept of system which its structure is determined by mathematical order, and hence has absolutely subjective implications, and instead used the concept of fugue to refer to the structure of Being’s swaying, i.e. the enowning event (Ereignis). However, the concept of Fugue does not involve the same rules as system does, but this structure has its own order. The privileged feature of this order is preserving the unity components, while every component is also self-confident. It is notable that in this structure, the self-confidence of every component is even strengthen by its freedom. Thus, the concept of Fugue let Heidegger think of a systematic structure (fugue) which is not against of freedom, but also freedom is its foundation.
The problem of knowledge and level of human knowledge of objects is one of the important issues o... more The problem of knowledge and level of human knowledge of objects is one of the important issues of the history of thought and philosophy. Hakim Mulla'abdolrazzagh Lahiji (1072 AH) and John Locke (1632-1704) are among the philosophers who have investigated the subject of knowledge and level of human knowledge. Mohaghghegh e Lahiji believes in a theory that in Islamic philosophy refers to it as a "Phantasm of Representative" (Shabah e Mohaki).In his book, Shavaregh Al-Elham, he states that we when knowledge to objects do not achieve in the their essence and reality, but achieve the phantasm that represent from the outer object. John Locke, also, in his precious book, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding , recognizes two different meanings of essence and distinguishes between the real essence and the nominal essence of objects, and knows our knowledge of things about their nominal essence. The similarity between Lahiji and Locke is that both know power of human are more limited than they are to achieve the reality and the essence of objects, but they differ in the quiddity of knowledge and perception.
Beaty is a metaphysiical and transcendental attribute in Thomas and is connected to Being. Beauty... more Beaty is a metaphysiical and transcendental attribute in Thomas and is connected to Being. Beauty as a transcendental attribute of Being, needs to Being alone. Form is a original concept in aesthetics of Thomas Aquinas and is base of beauty of all things. all of things that Thomas says about Beauty, imply that beauty is based on the Form. In the philosophy of Thomas the form of a thing is connected to perfection and actuality of that thing. then Beauty is inseparable of actuality. The form of a thing is internal norm of beauty of that thing; and in the same time, three conditions of beauty that Thonmad numerate; i.e integrity, harmony and claruty; all of them represent to concept of beauty. on the other side, Thomas connects beauty with knowledge and the perception of a beautiful thing propose a epistemological one, because beuty is connected to the form. seeing or perception are act that the perceeper in the perception process percepts a formal reality. percept of beauty is percept and abstract of the form of a beautiful thing. then we can presopose form as a mediate between the reality and the mind, because the form is the intellectual side of a beautiful thing and is base of a reality.
Throughout history, “the objectivity of moral concepts and judgments” has been an issue of crucia... more Throughout history, “the objectivity of moral concepts and judgments” has been an issue of crucial importance to a great number of philosophers. Philippa Foot, a British philosopher, and one of the founders of the contemporary virtue ethics, is among the most inspiring philosophers regarding this issue and her last theory regarding it is well known as an influential project. In this theory, Philippa Foot contends that moral judgments belong to the category of judgments, which are based on natural goodness. In this view, natural goodness of an organism will be extracted based on the “life-form” of its species. After a brief Explanation of philippa Foot’s theory regarding the objectivity of moral concepts and judgments, in this article, by formulating a dialogue between her critics and advocates, we attempt to analyze the theory of natural goodness and show that the struggle between the opponents and proponents is due to different interpretations of “human life”; interpretations based on happiness and agency. Although the interpretation based on agency can defend foot’s theory of natural goodness against some critiques, it creates different set of questions and problems which should be considered.
Ghazali in his different works says that every human being born on a clean nature, but his/her pa... more Ghazali in his different works says that every human being born on a clean nature, but his/her parents drive them to a certain religion or sect. He uses the concept of Fetrah in different meanings and functions. Based on religious anthropology, Gazali believes that we cannot affirm simply that the Fetrah that humans born based on it, in completely correspond with the religion of Islam. This is not the same thing that majority of Muslim theologians believe to it. In addition, for achieving Truth, we should notice to the main Fetrah not to the imitation. Gazali in his two works, Almahak alnazar and Alehya o Alolum, by a logical approach to the Fetrah, sometimes takes it the same thing with Reason (Aghl) and sometimes believes that it is the intuitional instrument for logical reasonings. In this article, we try to investigate the different meanings and functions of Fetrah in the Gazali's Works and survey that to some extent, He affected by the Avicenna's works and thoughts. Also we will try to show that Gazali in his different works, logical or philosophical or theological, notices to the different functions of Fetrah, for example, religious function and logical and also epistemological functions.
In contemporary metaphysics, there are two main approaches to the nature of persistence of object... more In contemporary metaphysics, there are two main approaches to the nature of persistence of objects through time: according to three-dimensionalism, objects are wholly present at every moment of their existence, whereas in a four dimensionalist picture, objects persistence through time is analogous to their extension through space and is a matter of possessing different temporal parts at each subinterval of their lifetime. One major version of this theory known as stage theory, maintains that ordinary objects are instantaneous stages which persist through time by having different temporal counterparts at different times (temporal stages which are bound together by temporal counterpart relation). One of the main objections to this view is that it fails to genuinely account for objects’ persistence through time. The aim of this paper is twofold: first we present the stage-theoretic account of persistence and some of its correlative problems (namely the problems of temporal instantiation, reference and timeless counting) and then, we mention some difficulties arise from adopting such an account. Quite apart from the deficiency of its analysis of persistence and temporal instantiation and different objections which are raised to it in this regard, stage theory strategies for the problem of timeless counting seem to be at odds with standard criteria of numerical unity and multiplicity.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
Farabi is the only philosopher in the Muslim world whose views and opinions on the resurrection a... more Farabi is the only philosopher in the Muslim world whose views and opinions on the resurrection are controversial and different and there are numerous reports of his views on On this subject as far as Some believe that he does not believe in the resurrection of mankind. But our research in this article shows that Farabi does not deny the principle of resurrection ،Rather, he denies the resurrection of the Incomplete Spirits (children, insane peoples and idiots) .The purpose of this article is to examine Farabi's perspective on the fate of the Incomplete Spirits (children, insane peoples and idiots) Discussion on the Fate of the Incomplete Spirits is usually examined from the standpoint of theology and its relation to the two attributes of justice and divine wisdom. But Farabi deals with this The problem purely from a philosophical perspective And even he Does not discuss about the verses and traditions that are seemingly opposite views. Farabi, according to his anthropological principles and specific look at the quality of the Resurrection, to conclude that incomplete Spirits, like other animals, are annihilated after death. In this article we examined the views of Farabi and his Evidence and arguments and his Anthropological Foundations.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
The concept of participation is, one of the key concepts that plays a central role in Thomas's me... more The concept of participation is, one of the key concepts that plays a central role in Thomas's metaphysics, based on which it communicates between creator and creature. It has a Record in the philosophy of Plato and Boethius, And in Thomas's terms, when anything receives in a particular manner that which belongs to another in a total manner. It is said to participate it. Since his metaphysics is based on special attention to "existence", and existence is also attributed to both the Creator and the Creator, and the creatures have existence, therefore, the type of relationship between the creator and the creature should be studied and it appears that each one shares the same in existence. Also, what role does it play in the relationship between existence and Essence? This paper intends, in the analytical and research methodology, to study the problem of participation in Thomas Aquinas philosophy by studying the his works and the scholars to determine that what is the purpose of participation, types of participation and the uses of the concept of participation in Thomas's philosophy. He recognizes three types of participation, of which only one can be attributed to God and beings. He justifies the relation between of creator and creature, the relation of Essence and existence and multiplicative relation with the unit by the participation theory.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
This paper seeks to demonstrate how Habermas' idea of the universality of modernity is driven by ... more This paper seeks to demonstrate how Habermas' idea of the universality of modernity is driven by the unsubstantiated assumption that takes this notion to be founded on occidental rationality. In carrying out this task, I first reveal the inherent contradiction of a concept of rationality which seeks to establish itself as the basis of modernity, while at the same time declaring legitimate recognition of its other. Briefly stated, excluding non-Western occidental from the foundation of modernity belies the fundamental requirement of universality, namely the inclusion of the other. This encapsulates what I shall refer to as "The Dichotomous Logic of Exclusive Inclusion" which has engendered philosophical and historical criticisms in both non-Western and Western thought. In the second section of this paper, I shall argue that it is necessary for the "non-Western Other" to push itself away from the margins and to the forefront of the discussion of universality, in order to be recognized as fundamental to the development of a genuine notion of universality that is guided by the contribution of all cultures. Habermas, Jürgen Other, the , Occidental Rationality
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
In the criminal jurisprudence, It is kind of an established and generally accepted maxim that we ... more In the criminal jurisprudence, It is kind of an established and generally accepted maxim that we must never punish anyone for his mere thought (or thoughts) including his feelings, desires, fantasies, wishes, beliefs, and unexecuted intentions. Generally It seems that there are more or less convincing reasons that we must avoid punishing mere thought due to its unacceptable and undesirable consequences for both the individual and the society. In this paper, however, I will investigate into some discussions about the justification related to the maxim that any criminalization of mere thought is intrinsically (i.e., consequentially-independent) morally unjust and hence is culpably wrong. My investigation is here mostly confined to one kind of mere thought, that is, unexecuted intentions, leaving some important kinds such as fundamentalist or racist beliefs untouched. I will show that unexecuted intentions can be regarded as more or less harmful, culpably wrong, in section 3, and provable, in section 4, and hence we should find more uncontroversial grounds to secure our more or less common and shared intuition about the respected maxim that punishing mere thought seems to be altogether unacceptable. The paper doesn't claim that provide convincing arguments for the criminalization of mere thought. Rather its modest claim is that some of the established arguments against the criminalization of mere thought need to be reconsidered.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
Moral arguments, especially in the form of concise formulation based on the tradition of analytic... more Moral arguments, especially in the form of concise formulation based on the tradition of analytical philosophers, have become very popular since the twentieth century. The main focus of this article is on examining the practical challenges to the realization of an effective ethical argument. Benjamin De Mesel is one of the few who has independently analyzed the issue, believing that a rational and perfected moral argument is not a reasonably valid argument, but must have overcome some practical obstacles or challenges. On this basis, the main question in this paper is, in the light of the De Mesel view, what are these challenges and to what extent are they appropriate and valid. The denial of moral determinants, disregard for one's moral attitudes, lack of depth, and neglect of the individual dimensions of ethical issues are the subject of these four challenges. The findings of the article suggest that, first of all, De Mesel is not very successful in explaining and proving all of these challenging cases, and in successful cases, some of them require better reasoning or more explanation.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
Dream has always been an attractive issue for the people in various erras and psychologists have ... more Dream has always been an attractive issue for the people in various erras and psychologists have investigated it a lot in the past. However, most of the issues relating to dreams such as its nature and the reality of prophetic dreams are still ambiguous. Mulla Sadra as a philosopher and also as a psychologist has relatively considered it in his scientific works. This study, after reviewing the litrature and extracting the philosophic foundations of sleep and its psychological issues, has shown that given the Mulla Sadra's thoughts including principality of existence, gradation of existence, substantial motion, bodily origination, spiritual subsistence and consequently two-dimensionality of human as well as Mulla Sadra's belief in human authority, an appropriate structure is created for difining dream, types of dreams and source of dreams. It should be noted that though a number of Mulla Sadra's opinions regarding material dimension of human and considering one of the dimensions of human relatively corresponds to psychology, one can extract exact ideas and opinions regarding dreams and particularly prophetic dreams from the perspective of Mulla Sadra due to lack of existing immateriality in contemporary psychology.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
Wittgenstein begins the important work of his later period of thought, Philosophical Investigatio... more Wittgenstein begins the important work of his later period of thought, Philosophical Investigations, by critiquing Augustine's view of language. He goes on to show that Augustine's theory is based on a limited understanding and, in his words, an element of language that has limited it to the realm of communication and imagery. He also acknowledges Augustine's remarks as a way of ostensive teaching for language learning and has criticized this view. In this study, inferential qualitative method and using one of Augustine's completely specialized and philosophical works on the category of language and its relation to teaching, Teacher dialogue, has been shown that Wittgenstein's critiques of the picture theory of language, the criterion of meaning of language, and the theory of ostensive teaching and definition are, though not entirely, largely based on a limited understanding of Augustine's linguistic positions. Thus, the findings of the study suggest that Wittgenstein's criticism of Augustine's view of the narrative of his work was limited to the Confession book and since this autobiographical work is written more for the general audience and Augustine's aim was not to pose complicated and complex language issues and philosophize about them, Wittgenstein's understanding of the geography of Augustine's thought is strongly in doubt.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
The concept of action in Heidegger is related to understanding and projection. What Dasein projec... more The concept of action in Heidegger is related to understanding and projection. What Dasein projects is something like the plot in narration. Although narration is not a word of Heidegger, some commentators have a narrativistic interpretation based on historicallity and temporality of Dasein. In this writing we focus on a different interpretation based on fundamental narrativity of Dasein and its relation to action. Our basic thesis is that there is a mutual dependence and hermeneutical circle between actuality and narrativity of Dasein; They are both equal to understanding and projection, so coexist in Dasein' s existential structure. The aim of our discussion is to show that how our actions can be influenced by the way of our narration and interpretation of our life and self-understanding. The analysis of this influence has a basic role in our understanding of the way different narrations such as stories, films, criticisms and…, could affect our behavior and our self-understanding. We find that the understanding of our situation and possibilities can form the kind of our action; Every action as understanding, can open a vast area of possibilities which nonetheless stay hidden. This circle continues perpetually and extends our world.
The Iranian Journal of Philosophy , FALSAFEH, 2020
At the end of his Socrates and Aristophanes, Leo Strauss indicates that Muhammad b. Zakaryya al-R... more At the end of his Socrates and Aristophanes, Leo Strauss indicates that Muhammad b. Zakaryya al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life is "the clearest and the most thoughtful" exposition of the possibility of Socrates' conversion from his youthful contempt for the political or moral things, for the human things or human being, to his mature concern with them. In this paper I will attempt to explain this strange claim through close reading of al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life. al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life is the clearest exposition of this possibility because it reveals Socrates' irony as "taqiyya": "Socrates' turn" requires the dissimulation between theoretical way of life and political way of life. What highlights al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life as "the most thoughtful" exposition of this possibility is al-Razi's attempt to add a supplement to Socrates' "taqiyya" which is rational legislation in order to overcome the theological-political basis of the revealed religion. This is the task Athenian Strange in Plato's Laws undertakes. Accordingly, al-Razi opens a new horizon Platonic political philosophy in his era to face with the theological political challenge against philosophy from revealed religion in which after mutatis mutandis his successors (Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes) try to defend philosophy and the philosophic way of life.
The present paper is studying Farabi’s approach to the nature of language as a philosophical topi... more The present paper is studying Farabi’s approach to the nature of language as a philosophical topic. The goal of this paper is to draw a picture of nature of language in his philosophical system. As a result of this research, Farabi believes that (while he explains three meanings of notq) language has two levels, : 1) Internal level or what is in mind, i.e., intellectual and imaginary understanding, those – as Farabi maintains - which are definition of the perceptual world; 2) Surface level or the words, which are expression of the 1st part or level of language, and these two levels are based on intellect, as third meaning of notq. In his definition of language, Farabi adds a factor of speaker’s intention of expression. As a result, language, to Farabi, is not just a means of conveyance of words, but forming of the meanings as well as expression of those meanings constitute language. It seems that language has no a single essence, since nature of language for different people depends on how they use their intellect and also how their use of language is based on logic. On the other hand, forming of the intellectual and imaginary understanding of people is different. Method of this paper is descriptive and analytical.
Within the contemporary literature, there is a well-known narration of the history of the problem... more Within the contemporary literature, there is a well-known narration of the history of the problem of primacy of existence according to which Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi and Sadra plays the leading roles and Mirdamad has the supporting role: Ibn Sina introduces the supper-addition of existence to the essence in mind; Suhrawardi denies that this distinction is in reality; Mirdamad reconstruct this problem as to whether existence or essence is primarily exist; and finally, Sadra introduces the thesis of primacy of existence. We will argue that all these historical data is incorrect. First, it was historically controversial whether Ibn Sina's distinction between existence and essence was something in reality or purely in mind. Second, after Ibn Sina there was a vast debate on this problem among the followers of the peripatetic philosophers and their opponents. Third, Suhrawardi is just one of the enemies of the followers of the peripatetic philosophers who argue against the distinction of existence and essence in reality. Forth, the only text based on which the introduction of the problem of the primacy of existence is ascribed to Mirdamad is not Mirdamad's. Fifth, Mirdamad and Sadra actually engaged in the traditional problem of the distinction of existence and essence in reality.
.Hegel explains development of spirit through evolution sensational consciousness, self-conscious... more .Hegel explains development of spirit through evolution sensational consciousness, self-consciousness, reason, spirit, religion and Absolute Wisdom. The consciousness and self-consciousness move in the cultural history . In fact, the consciousness is not the stable, but that transmit steps of history live. The consciousness moves with dialectical method in history context. In the respect, knowledge is considered as a dynamic fact and self-discovery. This historicity perspective is to be situated consciousness in the human practice. By Hegel, no consciousness can pure reason. Mannheim set the knowledge into social situation. Consideration at knowledge base make it in the social situation, and emit pure position. Hegel place knowledge to history context and Mannheim attach it to social context. They pass customary epistemological tradition. Mannheim in some basic concepts such as history, ideology, false consciousness, action, totality, knowledge, and truth has influenced of the Phenomenology of Spirit and it has developed in knowledge sociology
We often define Technic as a category of instrument and tools produced by a technician; We do so ... more We often define Technic as a category of instrument and tools produced by a technician; We do so in the case of Art; A category of works such as paintings, sculpture, architecture, poems, etc. created by an artist. In an ontical approach, such humanistic definitions are so correct; But if we look for the essence of things and want to determine their ontological status, the correct definitions are not enough; Because the essence of everything is that which allows it to be what it is. According to this, the essence of Technic and Art can not be determined merely by the technician or the artist, and also by their artifacts. In this paper, it has been tried to determine the ontological status of Technic and Art - based on the ratio of human to Being - from the viewpoint of Hidegger; And considering that he recognizes different periods of history as ages of Being and believes that Being has revealed itself in various forms - including Poiesis and Gestell – in each age, to answer this question why this thinker has called the ancient Greek as the age of Art and the present day as the age of Technic.
According to the current view regarding the principality of existence and the fictitiousness of q... more According to the current view regarding the principality of existence and the fictitiousness of quiddity, these two properties of principality and fictitiousness can be reduced to essential truth and accidental truth on external reality. Hence, not only the quiddity does not have any share of reality in the external world, but also it doesn’t represent anything beyond itself. According to my view, such interpretation of the concept of principality of existence cannot be documented and also clearly contradicts Sadra’s own words on this matter. The origin of this misconception can be found in the way the issue has been raised, discussed and argued for by Sadra as well as presupposing of a kind of entailment between truth and external realization by the proponents of the above interpretation. I will also show that regardless of its connection with Sadra, this interpretation as an independent philosophical theory in its own right might oppose our common sense intuition and be in need of sufficient arguments and more importantly and decisively, lacks the necessary internal coherence and involves certain unreasonable implications.
Although the conflict between freedom and system (The concept which is derived from the Greek wor... more Although the conflict between freedom and system (The concept which is derived from the Greek word συνίστημι) has been always the subject of philosophical debate, there were German idealists who first formulated the relation between these two concepts explicitly. Here the system, which guarantees the coherence of knowledge, is a subjective and rational foundation. But Heidegger in his later thought, passed through the concept of system which its structure is determined by mathematical order, and hence has absolutely subjective implications, and instead used the concept of fugue to refer to the structure of Being’s swaying, i.e. the enowning event (Ereignis). However, the concept of Fugue does not involve the same rules as system does, but this structure has its own order. The privileged feature of this order is preserving the unity components, while every component is also self-confident. It is notable that in this structure, the self-confidence of every component is even strengthen by its freedom. Thus, the concept of Fugue let Heidegger think of a systematic structure (fugue) which is not against of freedom, but also freedom is its foundation.
The problem of knowledge and level of human knowledge of objects is one of the important issues o... more The problem of knowledge and level of human knowledge of objects is one of the important issues of the history of thought and philosophy. Hakim Mulla'abdolrazzagh Lahiji (1072 AH) and John Locke (1632-1704) are among the philosophers who have investigated the subject of knowledge and level of human knowledge. Mohaghghegh e Lahiji believes in a theory that in Islamic philosophy refers to it as a "Phantasm of Representative" (Shabah e Mohaki).In his book, Shavaregh Al-Elham, he states that we when knowledge to objects do not achieve in the their essence and reality, but achieve the phantasm that represent from the outer object. John Locke, also, in his precious book, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding , recognizes two different meanings of essence and distinguishes between the real essence and the nominal essence of objects, and knows our knowledge of things about their nominal essence. The similarity between Lahiji and Locke is that both know power of human are more limited than they are to achieve the reality and the essence of objects, but they differ in the quiddity of knowledge and perception.
Beaty is a metaphysiical and transcendental attribute in Thomas and is connected to Being. Beauty... more Beaty is a metaphysiical and transcendental attribute in Thomas and is connected to Being. Beauty as a transcendental attribute of Being, needs to Being alone. Form is a original concept in aesthetics of Thomas Aquinas and is base of beauty of all things. all of things that Thomas says about Beauty, imply that beauty is based on the Form. In the philosophy of Thomas the form of a thing is connected to perfection and actuality of that thing. then Beauty is inseparable of actuality. The form of a thing is internal norm of beauty of that thing; and in the same time, three conditions of beauty that Thonmad numerate; i.e integrity, harmony and claruty; all of them represent to concept of beauty. on the other side, Thomas connects beauty with knowledge and the perception of a beautiful thing propose a epistemological one, because beuty is connected to the form. seeing or perception are act that the perceeper in the perception process percepts a formal reality. percept of beauty is percept and abstract of the form of a beautiful thing. then we can presopose form as a mediate between the reality and the mind, because the form is the intellectual side of a beautiful thing and is base of a reality.
Throughout history, “the objectivity of moral concepts and judgments” has been an issue of crucia... more Throughout history, “the objectivity of moral concepts and judgments” has been an issue of crucial importance to a great number of philosophers. Philippa Foot, a British philosopher, and one of the founders of the contemporary virtue ethics, is among the most inspiring philosophers regarding this issue and her last theory regarding it is well known as an influential project. In this theory, Philippa Foot contends that moral judgments belong to the category of judgments, which are based on natural goodness. In this view, natural goodness of an organism will be extracted based on the “life-form” of its species. After a brief Explanation of philippa Foot’s theory regarding the objectivity of moral concepts and judgments, in this article, by formulating a dialogue between her critics and advocates, we attempt to analyze the theory of natural goodness and show that the struggle between the opponents and proponents is due to different interpretations of “human life”; interpretations based on happiness and agency. Although the interpretation based on agency can defend foot’s theory of natural goodness against some critiques, it creates different set of questions and problems which should be considered.
Ghazali in his different works says that every human being born on a clean nature, but his/her pa... more Ghazali in his different works says that every human being born on a clean nature, but his/her parents drive them to a certain religion or sect. He uses the concept of Fetrah in different meanings and functions. Based on religious anthropology, Gazali believes that we cannot affirm simply that the Fetrah that humans born based on it, in completely correspond with the religion of Islam. This is not the same thing that majority of Muslim theologians believe to it. In addition, for achieving Truth, we should notice to the main Fetrah not to the imitation. Gazali in his two works, Almahak alnazar and Alehya o Alolum, by a logical approach to the Fetrah, sometimes takes it the same thing with Reason (Aghl) and sometimes believes that it is the intuitional instrument for logical reasonings. In this article, we try to investigate the different meanings and functions of Fetrah in the Gazali's Works and survey that to some extent, He affected by the Avicenna's works and thoughts. Also we will try to show that Gazali in his different works, logical or philosophical or theological, notices to the different functions of Fetrah, for example, religious function and logical and also epistemological functions.
In contemporary metaphysics, there are two main approaches to the nature of persistence of object... more In contemporary metaphysics, there are two main approaches to the nature of persistence of objects through time: according to three-dimensionalism, objects are wholly present at every moment of their existence, whereas in a four dimensionalist picture, objects persistence through time is analogous to their extension through space and is a matter of possessing different temporal parts at each subinterval of their lifetime. One major version of this theory known as stage theory, maintains that ordinary objects are instantaneous stages which persist through time by having different temporal counterparts at different times (temporal stages which are bound together by temporal counterpart relation). One of the main objections to this view is that it fails to genuinely account for objects’ persistence through time. The aim of this paper is twofold: first we present the stage-theoretic account of persistence and some of its correlative problems (namely the problems of temporal instantiation, reference and timeless counting) and then, we mention some difficulties arise from adopting such an account. Quite apart from the deficiency of its analysis of persistence and temporal instantiation and different objections which are raised to it in this regard, stage theory strategies for the problem of timeless counting seem to be at odds with standard criteria of numerical unity and multiplicity.
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