Moshe Fischer

Sea level variability affected by sea water mass is strongly associated with global, regional and local climate. In this context, the eastern Mediterranean Sea has been intensively investigated in recent decades because of its sensitivity to climatic and environmental variables, due to the influence of the Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT). The sea level in Israel during the Crusader period (12th-13th centuries CE) was found to be −0.5 ± 0.20 m relative to the present mean sea level (MSL). The difference between the Crusader sea level and the present-day MSL raises some questions which bring us to the aim of this study: estimating the timeline of the changes in sea level elevation in the eastern Mediterranean over the last two centuries. Archaeological evidence from areas of low tidal range, such as the Mediterranean Sea, can provide significant information on sea level changes for times when instrumental measurements where not yet available (e.g., before 1955 in Israel). The method employed in this study integrates two dimensions: The vertical-estimating the changes in sea levels relative to the present MSL, based on archaeological evidence; and the horizontal-determining the coastline changes, based on coastal architectural and geomorphological structures appearing in historical maps. Both the structural and the cartographic evidence for sea level changes date to the 19th Century, and indicate a rise of 0.36 m over the last two centuries. Findings attesting to horizontal changes, indicate a gradual migration of the coastline landward, to the east since 1863 and a rapid change in the coastal geomorphology at the beginning of the 20th century. The sea level increase from the 19th century might be, in part, a consequence of regional trends and, in part, a result of a gap between method accuracy (archaeology and modern measurements). Nevertheless, the drastic change in the geomorphology of the coastline may indicate an extreme meteorological event, such as a storm at sea, accompanied by a local rise of sea level, but further research is required to verify this.

7 avneh was one of the major ancient cities in the southern coastal plain of Israel, situated 20 km south of Jaffa, 15 km north of Ashdod, and 7 km east of the Mediterranean. However, despite its importance, this city remained at the margins of archaeological research, apart from a few surveys and limited excavations. The main part of the site of ancient Yavneh is a large, raised tel (ca. 150 dunams in area), which developed on a natural kurkar hill (kurkar is the local term for carbonate cemented quartz sandstone from the Pleistocene age). Surface finds and architectural remains indicate that the tel was inhabited, possibly even continuously, between the MB II and the British Mandate period. However, in some periods, especially during the Byzantine period, the settlement expanded to cover part of the plain and hills that surround the tel. 1 The present research focuses on the Byzantine period (ca. mid-fourth to mid-seventh centuries c.e.), with special attention on the later part (sixth and mid-seventh centuries). Rather than dealing with the city of Yavneh, 1 For a recent review of the archaeological activity in Yavneh, see Fischer and Taxel 2007. This article deals with the rural vicinity of the towns of Yavneh and Yavneh-Yam (on Israel's coastal plain) in the Byzantine period (ca. mid-fourth to mid-seventh centuries c.e.), and synthesizes archaeological data relating to the Jewish, Christian, and Samari-tan populations of this region. The present study is based on literary sources and a few previous archaeological discoveries, but mainly is focused on the results of comprehensive archaeological surveys conducted in the region by the authors on behalf of Tel Aviv University since 2001. The main aim is to assemble data about the hinterland of Yavneh and Yavneh-Yam throughout their history. Inter alia, these surveys have revealed much new evidence about rural settlement in the discussed area in the Byzantine period, including some important details about the religious identity of the settlement in this region.

T he topic of this paper is a re-examination of several historical sources Tregarding the presence of marble in the Land of Israel and their relationship with archaeological and laboratory analysis. We start with a short survey of the use of marble and the trade in this commodity, and then deal with the place marble had in ancient Israel. Finally, we present the sources we have chosen as relevant to the origin of marble used in this part of the Mediter-ranean. Some concluding remarks emphasize the relationships between the different kinds of information we have used here.