History and description of |
English pronunciation |
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Th-stopping is the realization of the dental fricatives [θ, ð] as stops—either dental or alveolar—which occurs in several dialects of English. In some accents, such as of Indian English and middle- or upper-class Irish English, they are realized as the dental stops [t̪, d̪] and as such do not merge with the alveolar stops /t, d/; thus, for example, tin ([tʰɪn] in Ireland and [ʈɪn] in India) is not a homophone of thin [t̪ʰɪn].[1] In other accents, such as varieties of Caribbean English, Nigerian English, Liberian English, and older, rural, or working-class Irish English, such pairs are indeed merged.[1] Variation between both dental and alveolar forms exists in much of the working-class English speech of North America and sometimes southern England. It is also common for babies and toddlers, who are still learning to talk and/or haven't fully grown their front teeth capable of producing the Th sound. Th-stopping occurred in all continental Germanic languages, resulting in cognates such as German die for "the" and Bruder for "brother".
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Transcription
New York City English
For the working class of New York City and its surrounding region, the fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ are often pronounced as affricatives or stops, rather than as fricatives. Usually they remain dental, so that the oppositions /t-θ/ and [d-ð] are not lost. Thus thanks may be pronounced [θæŋks], [tθæŋks], or [t̪æŋks] in decreasing order of occurrence;[citation needed] all are distinct from tanks [tʰæŋks]. The [t̪] variant has a weakish articulation. The /t-θ/ opposition may be lost, exceptionally in the environment of a following /r/ (making three homophonous with tree), and in the case of the word with, (so that with a may rhyme with the non-rhotic pronunciation of "bitter-bidder"; with you may be [wɪtʃu], following the same yod-coalescence rule as hit you. These pronunciations are all stigmatized.[citation needed]
The [d-ð] opposition seems to be lost more readily, though not as readily as the "Brooklynese" stereotype might lead one to believe. As in many other places, initial [ð] is subject to assimilation or deletion in a range of environments in relatively informal and/or popular speech, e.g. who's there [huz (z)ɛə]; as in many other places, it is also subject to stopping there /dɛə/. This option extends to one or two words in which the /ð/ is not initial, e.g. other, which can thus become a homonym of utter-udder. But it would not be usual for southern to be pronounced identically with sudden or breathe with breed.[citation needed]
African American Vernacular English
In African American Vernacular English, in the words with and nothing, [t] may occur corresponding to standard [θ], with the [t] itself being succeeded by the t-glottalization rule: thus [wɪʔ] for with and [ˈnʌʔɪn] for nothing.[2]: 83 Th-stopping is also reported for some other non-initial [θ]s, apparently particularly when preceded by a nasal and followed by a plosive, as keep your mouth closed.[2]: 90 In initial position, [θ] occurs in AAVE just as in standard accents: thin is [θɪn], without the stopping of West Indian accents.[3] Stopping of initial [ð], however, is frequent, making then pronounced as [d̪ɪ̃n] or sometimes homophonous with den.
Frequency in other accents
Th-stopping is also commonly heard, specifically from speakers of working-class origins, in the American English dialects of the Inland North (for example, in Milwaukee, Chicago, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Scranton), the Upper Midwest (for example in the especially Fennoscandian-descended locals of Minnesota's Iron Range and Michigan's Upper Peninsula), and the Mid-Atlantic region (for example, in Philadelphia and Baltimore),[4] It is also heard in a minority of speakers of England's Estuary dialect (for example, in London), but only in the case of word-initial /ð/.[5] Many speakers of Philippine English and some speakers of other variants in Asia also have th-stopping.
The dialect of Sheffield in England is sometimes referred to as "dee-dar" because of the Th-stopping to change initial /ð/ to /d/. However, a 1997 study in Sheffield found this was then largely confined to older males.[6]
Homophonous pairs
/t, d/ | /θ, ð/ | IPA | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
ate | eighth | ˈeɪt | Some accents pronounce ate as /ɛt/ |
Bart | bath | ˈbɑːt | Non-rhotic accents with trap–bath split. |
bat | bath | ˈbæt | Without trap–bath split. |
bayed | bathe | ˈbeɪd | |
bet | Beth | ˈbɛt | |
bladder | blather | ˈblædə(ɹ) | |
blight | Blythe | ˈblaɪt | |
blitter | blither | ˈblɪɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
boat | both | ˈboʊt | |
body | bothy | ˈbɒɾi | Without lot–cloth split and with intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
boot | booth | ˈbuːt | |
breed | breathe | ˈbɹiːd | |
Brett | breath | ˈbɹɛt | |
brought | broth | ˈbrɔːt | With lot–cloth split. Also /ˈbrɒt/ in some accents. |
cedar | seether | ˈsiːdə(ɹ) | |
cent | synth | ˈsɪnt | With pin–pen merger. |
cite | scythe | ˈsaɪt | |
clot | cloth | ˈklɒt | Without cot–caught merger. |
coot | couth | ˈkuːt | |
D; dee | the | ˈdiː | The before vowels and silent H. |
D; dee | thee | ˈdiː | |
Dan | than | ˈdæn | |
dare | their | ˈdeə(ɹ) | |
dare | there | ˈdeə(ɹ) | |
dare | they're | ˈdeə(ɹ) | |
Darude | the rude | dəˈruːd | |
day | they | ˈdeɪ | |
debt | death | ˈdɛt | |
Dee | the | ˈdiː | The before vowels and silent H. |
Dee | thee | ˈdiː | |
den | then | ˈdɛn | |
dense | thence | ˈdɛns | |
dents | thence | ˈdɛn(t)s | |
dhow | thou | ˈdaʊ | |
die | thy | ˈdaɪ | |
dine | thine | ˈdaɪn | |
dirt | dearth | ˈdɜː(ɹ)t | with fern–fir–fur merger. |
dis | this | ˈdɪs | |
doe | though | ˈdoʊ | |
does | those | ˈdoʊz | |
dough | though | ˈdoʊ | |
dow | thou | ˈdaʊ | |
dow | though | ˈdoʊ | |
drought | drouth | ˈdɹaʊt | |
dye | thy | ˈdaɪ | |
eater | either | ˈiːɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
eater | ether | ˈiːtə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
eight | eighth | ˈeɪt | |
Ent | nth | ˈɛnt | |
fate | faith | ˈfeɪt | |
fetter | feather | ˈfɛɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
fit | fifth | ˈfɪt | Some accents pronounce fifth as /ˈfɪft/. |
fodder | father | ˈfɑːdə(ɹ) | With father–bother merger. |
fort | forth | ˈfɔː(ɹ)t | |
fort | fourth | ˈfɔː(ɹ)t | |
fraught | froth | ˈfɹɔːt | With lot–cloth split. |
frot | froth | ˈfɹɒt | Without lot–cloth split. |
got | goth, Goth | ˈɡɒt | |
groat | growth | ˈɡɹoʊt | |
hart | hearth | ˈhɑː(ɹ)t | |
hat | hath | ˈhæt | |
header | heather | ˈhɛdə(ɹ) | |
heart | hearth | ˈhɑː(ɹ)t | |
heat | heath | ˈhiːt | |
hitter | hither | ˈhɪɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
hurt | earth | ˈɜː(ɹ)t | With H-dropping and fern–fir–fur merger. |
Ida | either | ˈaɪdə | Non-rhotic accents. |
knead | neath | ˈniːd | |
kneader | neither | ˈniːdə(ɹ) | |
kneed | neath | ˈniːd | |
ladder | lather | ˈlædə(ɹ) | |
lade | lathe | ˈleɪd | |
laid | lathe | ˈleɪd | |
latter | lather | ˈlæɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
letter | leather | ˈlɛɾə(ɹ) | |
lied | lithe | ˈlaɪd | |
load | loathe | ˈloʊd | |
lode | loathe | ˈloʊd | |
loud | Louth | ˈlaʊd | |
martyr | Martha | ˈmɑːtə | Non-rhotic accents. |
mat | math | ˈmæt | |
matte | math | ˈmæt | |
mead | Meath | ˈmiːd | |
meat | Meath | ˈmiːt | |
meet | Meath | ˈmiːt | |
met | meth | ˈmɛt | |
mete | Meath | ˈmiːt | |
mitt | myth | ˈmɪt | |
motte | moth | ˈmɑt | |
mutter | mother | ˈmʌɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
naught | north | ˈnɔːt | Non-rhotic accents. |
neater | neither | ˈniːɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. Some accents pronounce neither as /ˈnaɪtə(ɹ)/. |
neat | neath | ˈniːt | |
need | neath | ˈniːd | |
oat | oath | ˈoʊt | |
oats | oaths | ˈoʊts | |
odes | oaths | ˈoʊdz | |
pads | paths | ˈpædz | Without trap–bath split. |
paid | pathe | ˈpeɪd | |
part | path | ˈpɑːt | Non-rhotic accents with trap–bath split. |
parts | paths | ˈpɑːts | |
pat | path | ˈpæt | Without trap–bath split. |
pats | paths | ˈpæts | |
pit | pith | ˈpɪt | |
pity | pithy | ˈpɪti | |
rat | wrath | ˈɹæt | Without trap–bath split. |
rate | wraith | ˈɹeɪt | |
read | wreathe | ˈɹiːd | |
reads | wreathes | ˈɹiːdz | |
reads | wreaths | ˈɹiːdz | |
reed | wreathe | ˈɹiːd | |
reeds | wreathes | ˈɹiːdz | |
reeds | wreaths | ˈɹiːdz | |
ride | writhe | ˈɹaɪd | |
rot | Roth | ˈɹɒt | Without lot–cloth split. |
root | ruth, Ruth | ˈɹuːt | With yod-dropping. Some accents pronounce root as /ˈɹʊt/. |
route | ruth, Ruth | ˈɹuːt | With yod-dropping. Some accents pronounce route as /ˈɹaʊt/. |
scent | synth | ˈsɪnt | With pen–pin merger. |
seed | seethe | ˈsiːd | |
seeder | seether | ˈsiːdə(ɹ) | |
sent | synth | ˈsɪnt | With pen–pin merger. |
set | saith | ˈsɛt | |
set | Seth | ˈsɛt | |
she'd | sheathe | ˈʃiːd | |
sheet | sheath | ˈʃiːt | |
side | scythe | ˈsaɪd | |
sight | scythe | ˈsaɪt | |
sit | Sith | ˈsɪt | |
site | scythe | ˈsaɪt | |
smit | smith | ˈsmɪt | |
smite | Smyth | ˈsmaɪt | |
spilt | spilth | ˈspɪlt | |
soot | sooth | ˈsuːt | Some accents pronounce soot as /ˈsʊt/. |
sudden | southern | ˈsʌdən | Non-rhotic accents. |
sued | soothe | ˈsuːd | With yod-dropping. |
suede | swathe | ˈsweɪd | Some accents pronounce swathe as /ˈswɒd/. |
suit | sooth | ˈsuːt | With yod-dropping. |
swat | swath | ˈswɒt | Without lot–cloth split. |
swayed | swathe | ˈsweɪd | Some accents pronounce swathe as /ˈswɒd/. |
tank | thank | ˈtæŋk | |
tater | theta | ˈteɪtə | Non-rhotic accents. Some accents pronounce theta as /ˈtiːtə/. |
taught | thought | ˈtɔːt | |
team | theme | ˈtiːm | |
teary | theory | ˈtɪəɹi | |
teat | teeth | ˈtiːt | |
teed | teethe | ˈtiːd | |
teeter | theta | ˈtiːtə | Non-rhotic accents. Some accents pronounce theta as /ˈteɪtə/. |
tent | tenth | ˈtɛnt | |
Thai | thigh | ˈtaɪ | |
tic | thick | ˈtɪk | |
tick | thick | ˈtɪk | |
ticket | thicket | ˈtɪkət | |
tide | tithe | ˈtaɪd | |
tie | thigh | ˈtaɪ | |
tied | tithe | ˈtaɪd | |
tin | thin | ˈtɪn | |
tinker | thinker | ˈtɪnkə(ɹ) | |
toot | tooth | ˈtuːt | |
tor | thaw | ˈtɔː | Non-rhotic accents. |
tor | Thor | ˈtɔː(ɹ) | |
tore | thaw | ˈtɔː | Non-rhotic accents with horse–hoarse merger. |
tore | Thor | ˈtɔː(ɹ) | With horse–hoarse merger. |
torn | thorn | ˈtɔː(ɹ)n | With horse–hoarse merger. |
tort | thought | ˈtɔː(ɹ)t | Non-rhotic accents. |
tote | Thoth | ˈtoʊt | |
trash | thrash | ˈtɹæʃ | |
trawl | thrall | ˈtɹɔːl | |
tread | thread | ˈtɹɛd | |
tree | three | ˈtɹiː | |
trill | thrill | ˈtɹɪl | |
true | threw | ˈtɹuː, ˈtɹɪu | |
true | through | ˈtɹuː | With yod-dropping. |
trust | thrust | ˈtɹʌst | |
tum | thumb | ˈtʌm | |
tump | thump | ˈtʌmp | |
turd | third | ˈtɜː(ɹ)d | With fern–fir–fur merger. |
udder | other | ˈʌdə(ɹ) | |
utter | other | ˈʌɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
Utes | youths | ˈjuːts | |
welt | wealth | ˈwɛlt | |
wetter | weather | ˈwɛɾə(ɹ) | With intervocalic alveolar flapping. |
wit | width | ˈwɪt | |
wit | with | ˈwɪt | |
wordy | worthy | ˈwɜː(ɹ)di, ˈwʌɹdi | |
wort | worth | ˈwɜː(ɹ)t, ˈwʌɹt | Some accents pronounce wort as /ˈwɔː(ɹ)t/. |
wrought | Roth | ˈɹɔːt | With lot–cloth split. |
wrought | wroth | ˈɹɔːt | With lot–cloth split. |
See also
References
- ^ a b Wells, J.C. (1989). The British Isles. Accents of English. Vol. 2. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 565–66, 635. ISBN 9780521285407.
- ^ a b Wolfram, Walter A. (September 1970). "A Sociolinguistic Description of Detroit Negro Speech". Language. 46 (3): 764. doi:10.2307/412325. ISSN 0097-8507. JSTOR 412325.
- ^ Wolfram 1969, p. 130, does however mention the use of 'a lenis [t]' as a rare variant.
- ^ van den Doel, Rias (2006). How Friendly Are the Natives? An Evaluation of Native-Speaker Judgements of Foreign-Accented British and American English (PDF). Landelijke onderzoekschool taalwetenschap (Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics). p. 268.
- ^ van den Doel, Rias (2006). How Friendly Are the Natives? An Evaluation of Native-Speaker Judgements of Foreign-Accented British and American English (PDF). Landelijke onderzoekschool taalwetenschap (Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics). p. 251.
- ^ Stoddart, Jana; Upton, Clive; Widdowson, J.D.A. (1999), "Sheffield dialect in the 1990s: revisiting the concept of NORMs", Urban Voices, London: Arnold, pp. 76, 79
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