South Asia and SAARC: Intra-regional Cooperation and Conflicts Vinod K. Bhardwaj Lecturer (Associate professor Scale), Geography Government College, Baran, Rajasthan E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: South Asia is a region with Geographic and cultural entity, and hence it has enough potential to perform. There are number of areas to extend and strengthen Intra-regional cooperation and also to serve the human resource here in the region. Being located at the geographically advantageous location on the globe, it can hold upon the international trade and politics but due to internal conflicts and grievances, unrest is a permanent feature herein. Despite this all, here is some hope of improving mutual relationship among the members as the exchanges in terms of trade and culture, and also ongoing political dialogues are paving the path for better future and trust building. Basically, this is not the time to blame mutually; rather it is the time to search the opportunities to have trust worthy mutual dialogues, to cooperate in unrest conditions and also to promote intraregional trade to strengthen regional economy. Terrorism, extremisms and other anti-national activities can be controlled by mutual cooperation and honest support. Internationalization of bilateral issues will make the relations bitter and therefore the issues can be resolved at personal level only with mutual consensus. Before this, India and Pakistan has to make a lot home work to direct and decide the better future of the SAARC. Polarization of SAARC, if happens, will deteriorate its soul and the entire region will suffer with immense economic, social and political damage. The SAARC platform can be the better space to resolve grievances and beginning for better tomorrow. Page 1 of 23 Background: South Asia is the region of economic potential and agro-productiveness. Besides, it is a region of great source of human resource in the world. Although it is confined only within 3.4 % area of the world but it posses fifth highest population agglomeration (24 % of world’s population) herein, making it most densely populated region in the world. It is home to a vast array of cultures and people. Despite high physiographic variations herein, it is on economic progress, industrialization and power expansion. India, being at its pivot and also the largest country in size in this region, shares its territories with all its other fellow members (excluding Sri Lanka and Maldives) having land boundaries. Being largest economy in the region, and also an emerging economic power in the world, there are expectations in the region from India. The neighboring countries to India have different geographical status due to their location, in respect with open sea access, Usually the terms Indian Sub continent, South Asia and SAARC seem to refereeing to a group of countries, and are used synonymously, whereas geographically there are variations in the divisions on these three different bases. But here in this paper, the two terms South Asia and the SARRC have been used in same sense of group of eight countries, having difference in the sense of this that the first terms refers the geographical limits of the region, whereas the latter refers to the territories of the Economic Association, constituted by these eight constituent states. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), a group of the 8 countries namely- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka started in 1985 with seven countries (excluding Afghanistan) initially, where Afghanistan entered in 2007 as its eighth member, and the South Asia Free Trade Association (SAFTA) included Afghanistan in the year 2011. The SAARC, being organized to cater the economic needs and progress of the region, is expected to proceeds to address economic disparities in the region more, as well as other prevailing issues like human development, socio-cultural development and trust building among the constituent sates. Besides, there are bilateral disputes and conflicts here in the region, which can also be address at this level only if a third party intervention is essential therein. There is enough scope to resolve grievances, strengthening mutual trust and promote regional prosperity to let the human resource sustain in the region and providing them work opportunities herein, so that the productivity of the Page 2 of 23 regional man power can be used to strengthen regional development and progress, decelerate inter-continental emigration. South Asia: A brief account South Asia is a geographical identity in the Asian continent, surrounded by the South east Asia to the east, East Asia to the north and north east, Central Asia to the north west and West Asia to the west (Location Map. 1). The region is comprised of 8 member states- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (Map- 2), which makes together the South Asian Regional Organization South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). The region is full of physiographic, socio- cultural and economic diversities, which reflects in different levels of development and regional diversities herein. The region has all four forms of states- land locked (Afghanistan, Bhutan and Nepal), costal (Bangladesh and Pakistan), peninsular (India) and island (Maldives & Sri Lanka). The region is sometimes also referred as Indian Sub-Continent; however the geographical territories of the Indian Sub continent are not exactly as that of South Asia. The region is also called as ‘South Asian Sub-continent’, ‘South Asia Continent’ and as ‘SAARC region’ etc. This South Asian sub-continent has distinct physiographic disparities as all type of landscapes exist here in this region, beginning from the world’s greatest young fold mountain- the Himalayas, and to the famous river valleys like Indus and the Ganges. The world’s highest plateau- the Tibetan plateau, also is at the margin of the sub-continent; whereas some other plateaus like the Deccan plateau and Shillong plateau (in India); the Potwar Plateau, Balochistan Plateau and the Deosai Plateau (all in Pakistan); the Mahanuwara Plateau, Welimada Plateau, Mahavalathanna Plateau and the Koslandha Plateau (all in Sri Lanka) lie within the main land of the region. Besides, there are some river valleys and plains in this region which enable it to own the title of a sub-continental. Page 3 of 23 This physiographic diversity in the region plays important role in movement of human resource. The physiographic diversity regulates the regional re-distribution of population even in a country Page 4 of 23 like as in case of India. Similar instances are there in Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. The region (South Asia) occupies 51,34,613 Sq. Km area, which is almost 11.51 % of the Asian continent and 3.4 % of the world surface area. Looking upon the country-wise area and population in the region (Table-1), it can be inferred that India, being largest, occupies more than a two-fifth of the geographical area and it is homeland of about three-fourth of the population of the region; followed by Pakistan and Bangladesh at the second and third ranks respectively, in both area and population. Nepal, Afghanistan and Sri Lanka are other countries of major population concentration in the region. Maldives being the smallest country in the region does not get affected more due to its geographic location and high literacy. Neither is it a source nor a destination to migrants in the region. The region retains about 39.49 % of Asia's population, which is more than 24 % of world's population. Table -1 South Asia: Area, Population and Geographic Status,; 2014 S. No. Country Geographic Status Population 2014 Area Pop. Density Sq. Km. % Number % World Rank Rural Annual Median Pop. % Growth Age of Pop. % 1. Afghanistan Land Locked 652,225 12.70 31,280,518 1.85 40 48 76 2.39 16.8 2. Bangladesh Coastal 1,47,570 2.87 158,512,570 9.36 8 1001 70 1.22 25.4 3. Bhutan Land Locked 38,394 0.74 765,552 0.05 163 16 62 1.54 26.2 4. India Peninsular 3,287,240 64.02 1,267,401,849 74.86 2 386 68 1.22 26.2 5. Maldives Island 298 0.01 351,572 0.02 177 1180 56 1.90 25.5 6. Nepal Land Locked 1,47,181 2.87 28,120,740 1.66 46 191 82 1.16 22.7 7. Pakistan Coastal 796,095 15.50 185,132,926 10.94 6 233 63 1.64 22.8 8. Sri Lanka Island 65,610 1.28 21,445,775 1.27 57 327 85 0.81 31.7 51,34,613 100.0 1,69,30,11,502 100.0 - 423 70 1,49 24.7 Peninsular Source: Land Area of countries is taken from the following Google site, replacing each country name in this website in place of Indiahttps://www.google.co.in/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=area+of+India+in+square+kilometers For Census and related figures: Countries in the world, Ranked by 2014 population; retrieved from http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/ ; Website: Worldometers (www.Worldometers.info . India shares 17.5 % of world population and ranks second (preceded by China), followed by Pakistan (6th), Bangladesh (8th), Afghanistan (40th), Nepal (46th), Sri Lanka (57th), Bhutan and Page 5 of 23 Maldives1. As per the projected data, made available by the Worldometer and other agencies, the region has potential of working as its median average age is only 24.7 years, ranging between 16.8 (Afghanistan) and 31.7 (Sri Lanka) which shows the agglomeration of youth/ younger population herein. Average 70 % of the population in the region still resides in rural area. Despite India is largest in area and population, the share of rural population here is 68 %. Countries likeAfghanistan and Bangladesh have more than 70 % of their population residing in rural areas, where as that in Nepal and Sri Lanka it is more than 80 %. So far as the dynamics of human resource are concerned, there is lot diversity in literacy levels among the South Asian states; more in case of female literacy. Maldives is at top with 99.3 %, 99.8 % and 98.8 % literacy rates in total, male and female categories respectively; followed by Sri Lanka as second highest with 92.6 %, 93.6 % and 91,7 % respectively; and having Afghanistan at bottom of all literacy levels in total, male and female (See Table -2). Table -2 South Asia: Literacy, Sex Ratio, Working status and Poverty Scenario; 2014 S. No. Country Literacy rate (2015)* Sex Ratio 2015 (Female Per 1000 Male)+ Total Unemployment $ Rate (%) Labour Force participation rate (%) # Poverty Ratio (Gini Index) Male Female Male 1. Afghanistan 38.2 52.0 24.2 973 35.0 2. Bangladesh 61.5 64.6 58.5 979 5.0 3. Bhutan 64.9 73.1 55.0 862 2.1 4. In d i a 71.2 81.3 60.6 935 8.8 5. Maldives 99.3 99.8 98.8 988 28.0 6. Nepal 63.9 76.4 53.1 1074 46.0 7. Pakistan 57.9 69.5 45.8 946 8. Sri Lanka 92.6 93.6 91.7 - - - # Female NA NA 27.8 (2008) (2010) 36.0 32.1 (2010) NA NA 38.7 (2012) (2012) 31.2 33.9 (2010) NA NA 37.4 (2004) 85.6 (2013) 77.5 32.8 (2010) 6.6 68.9 (2013) 21.5 29.6 (2011) 1050 5.1 75.5 (2013) 35.6 36.4 (2010) 976 (South A.) 983 (World) 3.9 82.5 79.8 56.2 (2013) Source: Literacy rates (2015), reported by UNESCO 2015; Central Intelligence Agency; USA; accessed at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/fields/2103.html#136 on Dec. 16, 2015. + Sex Ratio, 2015; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs; USA; (Last Updated 24th March 2015); accessed on Statistics times, http://statisticstimes.com/population/countries-by-sex-ratio.php on Dec. 16, 2015. $ Unemployment rate 2014; CIA World Fact book – as on January 1, 2014; accessed at http://www.indexmundi.com/g/r.aspx?v=74 on Dec. 16, 2015. The Unemployment rate is estimated on basis of the entry contains the percent of the labor force that is without jobs in the country concerned. # World Employment and Social Outlook, 2015; International Labour Office. – Geneva: ILO, 2015; accessed at http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_337069.pdf ; Pg. 50; Page 6 of 23 Although the literacy rates have improved throughout the region, except that in case of Afghanistan, but yet it is to mention that this data includes those too who are able to read and write only too, which means that this despite in improvement in literacy it does not imply that it is equally worthy for economic growth with the same magnitude. Therefore here is need to focus on programmes which can help in capacity enhancement among populations here in the region. Diversity in sex ratio, as Nepal (1074 PPTF) and Sri Lanka (1050 PPTF) are at top first and second places respectively whereas the Bhutan (862 PPTF) is at the lowest herein, is also an indicator of regional disparity in the region. The average sex ratio of the world altogether is 983 PPTF (Projections by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2014)2. This is may be more due to male emigration from the lands, mainly for economic reasons. 5 countries out of the eight in the region, including India, have lower sex ratio than the world average, and 3 of them even lesser than the regional (South Asia) average (976 PPTF). The rate of unemployment here in the region is also a factor to rethink about strengthening the regional association in order to manage the available human resource here in the region and also to optimize their economic the productivity. As per the estimations by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA, USA; CIA World Factbook; 2014)3 there is 3.9 % unemployment here in South Asia (CIA, 2014) whereas the range of unemployment in the region varies between 2.1 % (Bhutan) and 46.0 % in Nepal. Although this unemployment rates have been estimated on basis of the entries of the persons in working age group but without jobs in the country concern; but yet it is to mentioned that these figures are not much reliable in context of the region as the unemployment situations are not so good in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan as have been mentioned herein. However the situation is poor in Nepal, Afghanistan and Bhutan as mentioned above here in this report. The average participation of labour force (ILO, 2015) in South Asia is 56.2 % (2013)4. It is highest in Nepal (85.6 %; year 2013) Followed by Bangladesh (82.5 %; year 2010), India (79.8 %; year 2012), Sri Lanka (75.5 %; year 2013) and Pakistan (68.9 %; year 2013). Especially the situation of engagement of females as labour force is very poor except in Nepal, which reflects more unskilledness among female in these countries. This indicates that there is majority of human labour based economic activities here in the region. Therefore here is need of addressing labour based Page 7 of 23 industrialization in order generate employment to rural and labour human resource. Basically, there is still high proportion of unskilled and semiskilled labour force in these countries and as a result the engagement of human resource in labour force is higher than other type of qualitative activities. The region requires initiating skill development oriented programme so that the productivity of the huge man power, residing here in this region, can be utilized to strengthen regional economies and raise the living, health and hygiene standards herein. The female participation can be promoted through trainings and initiating skilled based courses with general education streams in order to gear up their work efficiency and engage them as economic resource to strengthen development and also to provide them avenues for their own enhancement. The poverty scenario (ILO, 2015) in the region is still higher than the expected ratio; however there is remarkable decline in poverty here in this region. The poverty proportion ranges between 27. 8 % in Afghanistan (reference year 2008) and 38.7 % in Bhutan (reference year 2012). There are 6 countries in the region, including India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, where the poverty ratio is still one third or more yet. However due to country wise variations in poverty measures, there are different statistics of poverty on basis of National Poverty Lines (NPL) is shown in the table -3. Table- 3: South Asia- Poverty Status: BPL Population S. No. Name of Country Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) 1. Afghanistan - - - 36.3 (2007) 35.8 (2011) 2. Bangladesh 56.6 (1990) 50.1 (1995) 48.9 (2000) 40.0 (2005) 31.5 (2010) 3. Bhutan - - - 23.2 (2007) 12.0 (2012) 4. India - 45.3 (1993) 37.2 (2004) 29.8 (2009) 21.9 (2011) 5. Maldives - - - 16.0 (2008) - 6. Nepal* 41.76 (1996) - - 30.58 (2004) 25.2 (2010) 7. Pakistan 30.6 (1998) 34.5 (2001) 23.9 (2004) 22.3 (2005) 8. Sri Lanka 28.8 (1995) 22.7 (2002) 15.2 (2006) 8.9 (2009) (Year of enumeration / estimation) + South Asia (Total) 6.7 (2012) 18.8 (2012) Source: The World Bank _ Data _ Country; retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country; Poverty is shown as headcount ratio at National Poverty Lines (NPL) as % of population. + Maldives Economy Profile 2014; Index Mundi; http://www.indexmundi.com/maldives/economy_profile.html * Brief results of the National Census 2068 (Summary-Nepali); (English Calendar year 2011); pg. 12 http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/Summary%20(Nepali)/Summary-Nepali.pdf Page 8 of 23 The progress of poverty alleviation programmes can be observed through the date in table 3 and it can be revealed that almost all countries have successfully cut down the size of BPL population up to or onward the year 2010 as compared with late nineties. India, Bangladesh and Nepal have remarkably achieved through the poverty alleviation programmes; Sri Lanka has put its BPL size to minimum in the region; whereas Pakistan has yet make efforts for its poverty control as its achievement rate is comparatively slow. Observing overall performance of HDI (year 2014) and economic productivity of the countries in South Asia, the region is again has a lot diversity (refer Table -4, a & b). According to the world HDI data for 188 countries in the world (World Bank Report, Data; 2015)5 only Sri Lanka has established its place within 100 (73rd rank; HDI Value 0.757); whereas Maldives ranks second (104th rank, HDI value 0.706) in the region, followed by India (130th rank; HDI Value 0.609), Bhutan (132nd rank; HDI Value 0.605), Bangladesh (142nd rank; HDI Value 0.570), Nepal (145th rank; HDI Value 0.548), Pakistan (147th rank; HDI Value 0.538) and Afghanistan at the lowest (171st rank; HDI Value 0.465). Table- 4 (a): South Asia: Development and Economy Status; 2014 S. No. & Name of Country HDI (2014) Value Rank Life Expectancy at birth (in yrs) (2014) & GDP ($ billions) (2014) GDP Growth # (%) (2014) GNI (Current # US$) $ (2014) # 1. Afghanistan 0.465 171 60.4 20.84 2.0 670 2. Bangladesh 0.570 142 66.2 173.80 6.1 1,080 3. Bhutan 0.605 132 69.5 1.82 6.3 2,390 4. India 0.609 130 68.0 2076.00 7.4 1,570 5. Maldives 0.706 104 76.8 3.03 7.6 7170 6. Nepal 0.548 145 69.6 19.64 5.5 730 7. Pakistan 0.538 147 66.2 246.90 5.4 1410 8. Sri Lanka 0.757 73 74.9 74.94 7.4 3400 67 2608.00 2.5 1502 South Asia (Total) Source: # The World Bank _ Data _ Country; retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country & HDI 2014; Human Development Report -2015; retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf ; Pg. 208-11 Considering HDI progress in South Asia since 1990, it is only India where it has gone down by 4 ranks during 1990-2014 (refer table- 4,b & Fig. 4.1), whereas Sri Lanka has improvised by 5 ranks Page 9 of 23 followed by Nepal by 3 ranks and Maldives by 2 ranks. Although there are many factors to interpolate HDI but yet the bigger countries in the region like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan have not registered much progress in human development context. Therefore there is need to address this issue of Human Development collectively at more the regional (SAARC) level. Table- 4 (b): South Asia: Human Development Index; 1990-2014 S. No. Name of Country 1. HDI Value World HDI Rank Change in HDI Rank 1990-2014 1990 2000 2010 2014 1990 2000* 2010 2014 Afghanistan 0.297 0.334 0.448 0.465 171 > 173 171 171 0 2. Bangladesh 0.386 0.468 0.546 0.570 142 145 141 142 0 3. Bhutan - *0.494 0.573 0.605 - 140 136 132 - 4. India 0.507 0.557 0.619 0.609 126 124 128 130 (-) 4 5. Maldives - 0.603 0.683 0.706 106 84 104 104 2 6. Nepal 0.384 *0.490 0.531 0.548 148 142 144 145 3 7. Pakistan 0.399 *0.499 0.522 0.538 147 138 147 147 0 8. Sri Lanka 0.620 0.679 0.738 0.757 78 88 77 73 5 0.432 0.516 0.583 0.600 - - - - - South Asia (Total) Source: HDI 2014; Human Development Report -2015; retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf ; Pg. 212-14. * Human Development Report 2002; United Nations Development Programme; Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 2002; pg. 153-56; retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/263/hdr_2002_en_complete.pdf Source: Table 4 (b). Page 10 of 23 Since all the countries in the region are developing and hence there are demographic, social, economic and political constraints, hindering the growth therein. However the financial crisis is the biggest constraints herein the region which is leading to the get the countries entrapped in to the financial colonialism of western and eastern developed economies. This way somehow the origin of SAARC has its importance to gear-up regional economic strength as its prime agenda and also to support human resource development is it motto. Besides various demographic dimensions of development, there are other issues, waiting yet to get resolved either mutually or with an intervention of third party/ country. Therefore, unless the grievances are not addressed / resolved, the trust building process may not get success, which ultimately leads to intra-regional disagreements even on the issues which can help the regional and country as an individual prosperity. Conflicts, Disputes, Interventions and Tensions in South Asia: The South Asian Region is one of the most violent regions in the world, as years’ long conflicts and violent activities, either inter-state or intra-state, go on. Conflicts in Afghanistan and Pakistan have attracted global attention; parts of India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal have also experienced longrunning conflict. The result is human misery, destruction of infrastructure and social cohesion, and death. The knock-on effects are huge. “There are two types of internal conflict- the first is conflict against the state or civil war; e.g. terrorism, which is an extreme manifestation of conflict and reflects a certain degree of organization of conflict. It is carried out by a relatively organized group of non-state actors, and directed against the state. The second category includes people-to-people conflict, or ethnic conflict. Examples of this include localized land conflicts, religious and ethnic riots, homicides or other crimes. These two types of conflict have evolved differently in South Asia. People-to-people conflict has declined. In India, communal and ethnic riots between Hindus and Muslims are on a downward trend but terrorism has increased”6. However whatever the conflicts/ disputes/ interventions/ tensions are prevailing here in the region, they can majorly be categorized in to following four categories – 1. Regional Conflicts: The issues which are a major concern of a country but not much attended by the opponent; or one sided grievances e.g. Territorial issues between Page 11 of 23 India and Nepal; refugees’ issue between Nepal and Bhutan; Farakka Barrage and Refugees’ issues between India and Bangladesh; expansion of India’s anti national activities like ISI in Nepal but silence of Nepal on this issue etc. Besides, terrorism is a major issue between India and Pakistan. India has submitted the evidences of terrorists’ affiliations with Pakistan which the latter always deny. 2. Regional Disputes: The issues which are a concern of a both countries; or both sided grievances e.g. POK, Siachen Glacier & Sir Creek island’s issues between India and Pakistan; Border lands’ & Enclaves issues between India and Bangladesh; Marine territory violation by fishermen in the Arabian Sea in the east with Pakistan, in the Bay of Bengal with the Bangladesh in the west, and in the Pak strait with Sri Lanka in the south; security related issue between India and Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, Pakistan and Afghanistan etc. 3. Interventions: These are external disturbances which are caused by the other than South Asian country and causing direct tension to any of the South Asian country, and indirectly getting involvement of South Asian country as well due to rivalry attitude; e.g. China’s encroachment along the northern and the north eastern territories of India, getting supported by Pakistan; 4. Tensions: These are the issues where a third party’s interfere or association with any other member country in the region, creates tension to another country herein; e.g. China- Pakistan affiliations and weapons’ deal, China’s growing interest in Nepal, USPakistan association etc. which all altogether put India under tensions for security reasons. Besides, the nuclear competiveness between two big neighbours in the region is also an issue of serious tension in the region. The SAARC: The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), a group of the 8 countries namely- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka started in 1985 with seven countries (excluding Afghanistan) initially, where Afghanistan entered in 2007 as its Page 12 of 23 eighth member, and the South Asia Free Trade Association (SAFTA) included Afghanistan in the year 2011. The SAARC, being organized to cater the economic needs and progress of the region, is expected to proceeds to address economic disparities in the region more, as well as other prevailing issues like human development, socio-cultural development and trust building among the constituent sates. The SAARC was established by seven countries in the year 1985 with its secretariat established in Kathmandu (in 1987). Afghanistan approached the SAARC and formally applied for its membership in the year 2005. Basically Afghanistan is more a Central Asian country and therefore the issue of its addition to the SAARC initiated a serious debate among the members, including concerns and review about the definition of South Asian identity. Basically it might be an apprehension to get Afghanistan added in SAARC that this regional body could have been hijacked/ dominated on some common cultural bases, or the forces which may get associate against India in future on some commonalities. Besides its member, there are 9 nations/ region with observer status including Australia, China, the European Union, Iran, Japan, Mauritius, Myanmar, South Korea and the United States. Myanmar has requested to upgrade its status from observer to full member; whereas Russia and Turkey have applied for observer status in SAARC. This growing interest of adjoin and distant nations in SAARC proves its potential and future worth. The SAARC region is expended over almost 3% of the world's area; and is homeland of 21% (around 1.7 billion) of the world's total population. It contributes about 9.12% to Global economy (2015)7. Considering all SAARC Countries altogether it makes the 3rd largest economy in the world in terms of GDP (PPP) following the USA and China; and 5th largest in terms of nominal GDP. It is also the home to world's 3rd & 7th largest Economy of world in GPP (PPP) & GDP (Nominal) terms respectively as well as world's fastest growing major economy (India). India occupies about 64 % of the area and more than 74 % of the regional (of these eight nations) population (2014). The idea to establish a regional forum to extend economic cooperation at regional level was pounded in the year 1980 by Bangladesh President Ziaur Rahman who organized the first SAARC summit on 8th December 1985 in Dhaka. Since its establishment, 18 summits have been organized Page 13 of 23 till the year 2014 as follows (Table- 5) and the next summit in the year 2016 is expected in Pakistan. There are 12 Regional Centres of the SAARC in different member countries (Table-6). Table- 5: The SAARC: Summits organized S. No. Name of the host country Year Total Summits 1. Afghanistan - 0 2. Bangladesh 1985, 1993, 2005 3 3. Bhutan 2010 1 4. India 1986, 1995, 2007 3 5. Maldives 1990, 1997, 2011 3 6. Nepal 1987, 2002, 2014 3 7. Pakistan 1988, 2004 2 (+ 1 would be in 2016 8. Sri Lanka 1991, 1998, 2008 3 Source: The SAARC Table-6 : The SAARC: Regional Centres S. No. Regional Centre City/ Place Country 1. SAARC Agricultural Centre (SAC) Dhaka Bangladesh 2. SAARC Meteorological Research Centre (SMRC) Dhaka Bangladesh 3. SAARC Forestry Centre (SFC) Thimphu Bhutan 4. SAARC Development Fund (SDF) Thimphu Bhutan 5. SAARC Documentation Centre (SDC) New Delhi India 6. SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) New Delhi India 7. SAARC Coastal Zone Management Centre (SCZMC) Malé Maldives 8. SAARC Information Centre (SIC) Kathmandu Nepal 9. SAARC Tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS Centre (STAC) Kathmandu Nepal 10. SAARC Human Resources Development Centre (SHRDC) Islamabad Pakistan 11. SAARC Energy Centre (SEC) Islamabad Pakistan 12. SAARC Cultural Centre (SCC) Colombo Sri Lanka Source: http://www.saarc.com/the-south-asian-association-for-regional-corporation-saarc/ The charter of the SAARC includes all those points which are essentially required to promote all development and human welfare in the region and elsewhere. The features of the charter, as mentioned under Article-I, are as follows – Page 14 of 23 i. To promote the welfare of the peoples of SOUTH ASIA and to improve their quality of life; ii. To accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and to provide all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realise their full potentials; iii. To promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of SOUTH ASIA; d) to contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another's problems; iv. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields; v. To strengthen cooperation with other developing countries; vi. To strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on matters of common interests; and vii. To cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes. The fourth SAARC summit (Pakistan; 1988) was important in the way that all member countries emphasized to fight against terrorism collectively8 along with discussion on Visa exemption tom some certain categories of people of the region, which was instituted in the year 1992. Currently 24 categories’ people including Dignitaries, Judges of higher courts, Parliamentarians, Senior Officials, Businessmen, Journalists, Sportsmen are entitle for Visa exemption in the region 9. The SAARC in its agenda has identified various areas of mutual cooperation and to some extent these are being materialized as well, but yet there is need of strong willingness to extend the cooperation in real terms to boost regional economy and strengthen development. The identified areas for cooperation are- Agriculture and Rural, Biotechnology, Culture, Economic and Trade, Education, Energy, Environment, Finance, Funding Mechanism, Information, Communication and Media, People to People Contacts, Poverty Alleviation, Science and Technology, Security Aspects, Social Development and Tourism10. To achieve the goals and smoothen the functioning, there has been recognized bodies, established under the SAARC (see annexure-1). The SAARC’s Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism which was signed on 4th November 1987 that came into force on 22nd August 1988. The Standing Committee of the SAARC at its Twenty Eighth Session at Kathmandu on 19-20 August 2002 recommended that legal advisers Page 15 of 23 of SAARC Member States should prepare a draft of an Additional Protocol to the SAARC Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism which was supposed to be in recognition of the need to update the Convention on account of the obligations devolving on Member States in terms of UN Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) and the International Convention for Suppression of Financing of Terrorism. In the 12th Summit of the SAARC at Islamabad during 4-6 January 2004, the Council of Ministers signed the Additional Protocol to the SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism. This Additional Protocol aimed to strengthen the SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism, particularly by criminalizing the provision, collection or acquisition of funds for the purpose of committing terrorist acts and taking further measures to prevent and suppress financing of such acts. Furthermore, at the 14th SAARC Summit in New Delhi during 3-4 April 2007, the Heads of State or Government agreed to work on the modalities to implement the provisions of the existing SAARC Conventions to combat terrorism, narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, trafficking in women and children and other transnational crimes. The conventions of the SAARC11 on various important dimensions are as follows 1. Combating and Prevention of Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution 2. Convention on Promotion of Welfare of Children 3. Convention on Mutual Assistance on Criminal Matters, July 2008 4. SAARC Convention on Narcotics Drugs 5. SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism 6. Additional Protocol on Terrorism, Jan 2004 Besides, the SAARC has 8 agreements and a Charter on SAARC Development Fund (SDF) to extend cooperation in required fields. The Agreements are on the following areas – i. SAARC Framework Agreement for Energy Cooperation (Electricity) ii. Agreement for establishment of SAARC Arbitration Council iii. Final Agreement on Avoidance of Double Taxation iv. Final Agreement on Customs Matters v. Charter of SAARC Development Fund (SDF) on 31st July 2008 vi. Agreement on establishing the SAARC food bank vii. Agreement on south Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) Page 16 of 23 viii. Agreement on the Establishment of South Asian Regional Standards Organization (SARSO) ix. Agreement on Avoidance of Double Taxation The provisions and functioning of the SAARC is ideally so nice that if it functions in its full soul, the regional prosperity and development may attain height and rank first in the world; but most unfortunate is that the birth-clash between 2 big economies and populous countries has de-tracked and mull-functioned the organization. What has been committed about terrorism in 12th and fourteenth Summits is hardly remembered by Pakistan itself where the 12th summit was organized. Even intentional delaying in holding annual summit by either country is also a reason which hurdles the strength of the association. Besides the intra-regional international disputes and conflicts, there are third country interventions which are leading to polarization of members, leaving India alone on the issue of terrorism, smuggling, infiltration, disarmament, nuclear competition, human trafficking etc. China’s growing interest in Nepal, and close affiliations with Pakistan are spoiling regional harmony and peace; which Pakistan is relishing instead of understanding its responsibility towards strengthening SAARC and regional development. Despite knowing about shelter and protection to terrorists by Pakistan, US ignorance and soft corner towards it is another issue of tension here in the region, especially to provoke India to acquire counter defense power. The SAARC: Expectations Besides the above areas of conflicts, disputes, interventions and tensions in South Asia, there are a number of areas of cooperation and re-addressing to strengthen mutual relations, trust building and regional development. Being the third largest in population size, but with majority of poor or low income population, it is needed to be addressing these human welfare issues by taking them on priority, which are cause of conflict or disputes herein or lagging behind regional development or may strengthen regional development better if addressed. Some of the issues are enlisted below – a. SAARC Common Citizenship. b. Intra-regional Migration Policy and Agreements. c. Sharing of River water for regional prosperity. d. Resource sharing and assured passes. Page 17 of 23 e. Intra-regional re-distribution of commodities in order to abridge crises elsewhere in the region. f. Mutual security assurances with unfaltering actions. g. Human Resource Development and Qualitative Skill enhancement h. Rural empowerment to ensure sustainable and symmetric development. i. Women security and empowerment j. Women and Child Trafficking An example to initiate the efforts to strengthen and promote the regional trade is India’s initiation to develop intra-regional freight train here in South Asia. “India has proposed to run an intra-region freight train network from Pakistan through India via Nepal to Bangladesh. The proposed freight train network would link the famous port of Chittagong Port in Bangladesh all the way to the Pakistani City of Lahore. Traditionally trade and diplomatic relations between India and Pakistan has been rocky but in recent times, both countries have been seen to increase corporation in trade and anti- terror talks. If a freight train network is built, it could be a huge stepping stone for the SAARC regional trade integration. In January 2004 SAFTA the SAARC trade agreement was signed by the member countries to work towards a trading block much like the tariff free agreements among the EU. Rough estimates of intra-regional trade for the SAARC countries exceed $ 700 billion and SAFTA together with a smoother freight network would dramatically further increase regional trade while reduce costs and barriers to trade and invest within the region. India has also is rumored to have had talks about drawing up plans to make a block on Crude Oil purchases, which some economists believe would give the SAARC member states more bargaining power in Oil purchase negotiations”12. The issue of South Asian citizenship may help to control the problem of illegal intra-regional international migration here in the region; but it won’t be possible without honest commitments and actions of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal. India, being largest economy and pivot for intra-regional international migrants in South Asia, is the biggest sufferer herein. It is equally sufferer from terrorists, which are trained and originated by Pakistan, routed through Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar and Sri Lanka in to India. But if all concerns agree and prepare a Common Citizen Data Bank of original inhabitants of the region, it can help to promote intraregional fare flow of people for livelihood earning, engagement of people in constructive / Page 18 of 23 productive activities and optimize the man power for regional prosperity. It can better help to control terrorism, smuggling and control over cross border and inland crimes. However, for cross border regional migration a policy framework is required in order to lay down limitations to permit workers, socio-cultural exchange, religious ceremonies, and also for economic progress. River Water disputes in the region are enough to bitter mutual relationship herein. Dispute over the river Indus between India and Pakistan, over the rivers Ganges & Teesta between India and Bangladesh, over the river Mahakali between India and Nepal are biggest challenge to smoothen regional relationship. In all these 3 mutual disputes India is a common party; which segregates it from other neighbours even irrespective of their dependency on it. Besides, India- China dispute over the river Brahmaputra is other water born issue here in the region, especially affecting India’s strength in the region. The issues of river water sharing can be resolved at the SAARC level, and the association is expected to help in resolving these bilateral issues being unbiased. Intra-regional sharing of resource, which is in deficit or shortage elsewhere in the region, can help to save regional currency as well as strengthen regional economy. This may also help to strengthen mutual trust building and pave the path for regional cooperation. Besides, the members has to support and facilitate if there is avenues to have trade deal with extra-regional countries like the proposed Oil trade among Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India (TAPI- Oil Project), which got delayed due to suspicious role of Pakistan towards India. Although the project is signed by all four concern authorities but there is still scope for suspecting Pakistan, failing in controlling terrorists and extremists camping therein. Similarly the Iran–Pakistan-India (IPI) gas pipeline project is under shadow of suspicion due to Pakistan. It is a dream project, also known as Peace Pipeline, which is 2700 km long and aimed to transfer gas from Iran's South Pars fields in the Persian Gulf to Pakistan's major cities of Karachi and Multan and then further to Delhi, India, with an estimated value of USD 7 billion13. To promote intra-regional economic and trade there was an agreement at the 12th SAARC Summit in 2004 in Pakistan where it was agreed to cater and create a free trade area for 1.6 billion people belonging to the seven member states -Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, joined by Afghanistan in the year 2011; and thus making an agreement for about 1.7 Page 19 of 23 billion people in 201114. South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) is an agreement to facilitate regional economic and trading activities in order to cope up with regional economic disparities and assist intra-regional population to sustain at lower expenses. The SAFTA agreement came into force in the year 2006; and is operational following the ratification of the agreement by the seven governments. It was expected from the regional developing countries like India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka to bring their duties down to 20 percent in the first phase of the two-year period which ended in the year 2007; and brought down to zero in the final five-year phase ending in the year 2012, agreeing to cut the 20 percent duty to zero in a series of annual cuts. The rest regional country, considered as least developing nations like- Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Maldives were given additional three years’ span to reduce their tariffs to zero15. For higher educational enhancement and development in the region the South Asian University has been established in Delhi (India) in 2010. It was again India’s initiation when at the 13th SAARC Summit, held in November 2005 in Dhaka, India proposed to create a Centre of Excellence, in the form of a South Asian University, which can provide world class facilities and professional faculty to students and researchers drawn from every country of the region16. Mutual security assurances with honest actions to abiding with commitments are essential to strengthen mutual trust, regional peace, prosperity and economic progress. The India’s neighbors have complaints about its hegemonic attitude but their self ignorance towards India’s security is equally responsible for this self defense attitude of India. Nepal usually blames India for intervening in its internal matters which is Nepal’s one sided perception. Contrarily, Nepal expects to intervene by India to get their internal political matters resolved. India, as big brother, has always helped and cooperated Nepal, whereas Nepal has always been in ‘win –win’ situation by getting privileges from India and receiving supports from China. Therefore Nepal’s blames about intervening by India in its internal matters and disturbing its peace are more politically biased rather than the actual scenario therein. Unlike India’s role to assure security to its neighbours, Nepal is not so serious along the borders with India to control over infiltration through Nepal. Pakistan’ role in unrest in India and also destructive activities is exposed many times, which has been always denied by the former, despite firm evidences produced by the latter. Therefore, unless the firm security measures are Page 20 of 23 guaranteed by neighbours these constrains will be carried on, disturbing regional harmony and peace; ultimately adversely affecting regional prosperity and development. Rural development should be a prime goal to ensure symmetric and sustainable development as majority of population (almost 70 %) ranging between 56 % in Maldives to 85 % in Sri Lanka is residing in rural areas. Larger proportion of this is Below Poverty Line (BPL). Hence food security, shelter and livelihood opportunities are some common issues prevailing here in the region. The programmes like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) can help better in poverty alleviation if implemented successfully without corruption. Poverty in rural areas is leading flesh trading, trafficking, slavery and human exploitation. Therefore holistic approach to address rural development and human resource empowerment through skill enhancement can help to overcome of these evils of South Asian societies. Conclusion: South Asia is a potential region from economic point of view, but due to personal grievances and interventions it is under shadow of mutual suspicion, mistrust, negative competitiveness and ultimately a week regional association, which although exist but almost non-functional in restoring peace and prosperity. The region is 3rd largest in terms of population and this way it is a great home of largest labour which is spread throughout the world. This man power can be used to optimize regional productivity and economic progress if the contemporary issues are addressed with mutual cooperation, without shadowing through personal rivalries. The SAARC, being organized to cater the economic needs and progress of the region, is expected to proceeds to address economic disparities in the region more, as well as other prevailing issues like human development, socio-cultural development and trust building among the constituent sates. Besides, there are bilateral disputes and conflicts here in the region, which can also be address at this level only if a third party intervention is essential therein. There is enough scope to resolve grievances, strengthening mutual trust and promote regional prosperity to let the human resource sustain in the region and providing them work opportunities herein, so that the productivity of the regional man power can be used to strengthen regional development and progress, decelerate inter-continental emigration. Page 21 of 23 References : 1. Countries in the world, Ranked by 2014 population; http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/ 2. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, as on March 2015; Statistics Times (Website); retrieved from http://statisticstimes.com/population/countries-by-sex-ratio.php 3. CIA World Factbook; as on 01.01.2014; accessed at http://www.indexmundi.com/g/r.aspx?v=74 on Dec. 18, 2015. 4. World Employment and Social Outlook, 2015; International Labour Office. – Geneva: ILO, 2015; accessed http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_337069.pdf ; Pg. 50 5. The World Bank _ Data _ Country; retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country 6. Ejaz Ghani & Lakshmi Iyer (2010); Conflict and development; VoxEU – CEPR’s policy portal, Research-based policy analysis and commentary from leading economists; available at http://www.voxeu.org/article/conflict-and-development-lessons-south-asia 7. SAARC.com; retrieved from http://www.saarc.com/the-south-asian-association-for-regional-corporation-saarc/ on Dec. 30, 2015 8. SAARC; retrieved from http://www.saarc.com/the-south-asian-association-for-regional-corporation-saarc/ ; Dec. 29, 2015 9. SAARC; retrieved from http://www.saarc-sec.org/SAARC-Visa-Exemption-Scheme/100/ on Dec. 29, 2015 10. Areas of Cooperation, SAARC; at http://www.saarc-sec.org/ 11. SAARC- Areas of Cooperation at http://www.saarc-sec.org/SAARC-Conventions/63/ 12. India Proposes A SAARC Freight Train Network; SAARC; can be accessed at http://www.saarc.com/; retrieved on Dec. 31, 2015 13. Gulf Oil & gas; retrieved from http://www.gulfoilandgas.com/webpro1/projects/3dreport.asp?id=100730 on Dec. 30, 2015 14. SAFTA Protocol, SAARC; http://www.saarc-sec.org/areaofcooperation/detail.php?activity_id=36 15. SAFTA Protocol; SAARC; retrieved from http://www.saarc-sec.org/uploads/document/SAFTA%20Protocol%20on%20Afghanistan%20%20with%20signatures_20110812124725.pdf on Dec. 31, 2015. 16. Establishment of South Asian University, SAARC; http://www.saarc-sec.org/areaofcooperation/detail.php?activity_id=17 at Other references 17. Daniel Naujoks (2009); Emigration, Immigration, and Diaspora Relations in India; Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC, USA; available at http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/emigration-immigration-and-diaspora-relations-india/ 18. Human Development Report -2015; United Nations Development Programme; Oxford Univ. Press, New York, USA; retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf 19. Collier, Paul, V I Elliott, Hårvard Hegre, Anke Hoeffler, Marta Reynold-Querol, Nicholas Sambanis (2003), Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy, Oxford University Press, USA 20. Stewart, Frances (ed) (2008), Horizontal Inequalities and conflict: Understanding group violence in Multiethnic Societies, Palgrave, UK 21. Ashutosh Varshney (2002), Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India, Yale University Press, USA 22. Fearon, James and David Laitin (2003), "Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War", American Political Science Review, 97:75-90; retrieved from http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~plam/irnotes07/FearonandLaitin2003.pdf . 23. Justino, Patricia (2009). "The Impact of Armed Civil Conflict on Household Welfare and Policy Responses", Research Working Papers 12, MICROCON - A Micro Level Analysis of Violent Conflict; retrieved from http://www.microconflict.eu/publications/RWP12_PJ.pdf 24. $$ http://www.saarc.com/the-south-asian-association-for-regional-corporation-saarc/ Abbreviations: PPTF Persons Per Thousand Females TAPI Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India is an Oil Pipeline Project. IPI Iran, Pakistan and India; is a Gas Pipeline (also known as Peace Pipeline) Project. Page 22 of 23 Annexure- 1 The SAARC : Apex and Recognized Bodies S. No. A. Name of Body/ Organization SAARC Apex Bodies 1. SAARC Chamber of Commerce and Industry (SCCI) 2. SAARCLAW 3. South Asian Federation of Accountants (SAFA) 4. South Asia Foundation (SAF) 5. Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature (FOSWAL) 6. South Asia Initiative to End Violence Against Children (SAIEVAC) B. SAARC Recognized Bodies 1. Association of Management and Development Institutions in South Asia (AMDISA) 2. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation of Architects (SAARCH) 3. Federation of State Insurance Organisations of SAARC Countries (FSIO) 4. SAARC Diploma Engineers (SDEF) 5. Radiological Society of SAARC Countries (RSSC) 6. SAARC Teachers Federation (STF) 7. SAARC Surgical Care Society (SSCS) 8. South Asian Free Media Association (SAFMA) 9. SAARC Women’s Association (SWA) 10. Hindukush Himalayan Grassroots Women’s Natural Resources Management (HIMAWANTI) 11. Federation of Association of Pediatric Surgeons of SAARC Countries (FAPSS) 12. South Asian Federation of Exchanges (SAFE) 13. SAARC Federation of Oncologist (SFO) 14. South Asia Association of National Scout Organization (SAANSO) 15. South Asian Network of Economic Research Institute (SANEI) 16. SAARC Academy of Ophthalmology 17. South Asian Women Development Forum (SAWDF) Source: Apex and Recognized Bodies, SAARC; http://www.saarc-sec.org/Apex-and-Recognised-Bodies/14/ Page 23 of 23