G Greenhouse Gases and Sustainable Development Michael Aprill and Joy Kcenia O’Neil School of Education, College of Professional Studies, The University of Wisconsin Stevens Point, Stevens Point, WI, USA education can educate the next generation to learn about how to build a sustainable future through diverse disciplinary solutions from science and technology to social science and humanities coupled with action-oriented change agent skills. Introduction Synonyms Carbon emissions; GHGs Definition Anthropogenic greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels, methane from livestock and landfill decay, nitrous oxide from agricultural fertilizers, and fluorinated gases. These compounds absorb radiation within our atmosphere, thereby trapping heat and insulating our atmosphere resulting in an increased greenhouse effect leading to increase temperature of the planet. This increase in temperature of the planet is consequently attributing to climate change resulting in rising sea levels, altering temperature of waters, and sporadic and severe weather patterns and events. These forces are contributing to the wicked problems that are interconnected to climate change such as biodiversity loss, human loss, and socioeconomic disparities of livelihoods. Sustainable development in higher Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are compounds that absorb radiation within our atmosphere, thereby trapping heat and insulating our atmosphere resulting in an increased greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is an analogy used to compare Earth’s increasing temperatures within a greenhouse. Heat is able to be trapped by the GHGs but not dissipate, therefore, gradually increasing the temperature of the planet. In a report written by approximately 150 authors, representing 100 countries, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), states with 90% certainty that human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels are the cause of global warming during the past 50 years (Schnoor 2007). Global warming and climate change are frequently used interchangeably. However, there are two widely accepted definitions of climate change. According to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), climate change is “attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 W. Leal Filho (ed.), Encyclopedia of Sustainability in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63951-2_282-1 2 global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” (United Nations, p. 7). The IPCC defines climate change as a change of climate state identified through statistical tests and persists for many decades (UNFCC 2011). The main anthropogenic greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO2) (e.g., burning fossil fuels and deforestation), methane (CH4) (e.g., livestock and landfill waste decay), nitrous oxide (N2O) (e.g., agricultural fertilizer), and fluorinated gases (F-gases) (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs). These account for 75%, 14%, 8%, and 1%, respectively for anthropogenic GHGs. Each gas contributes to the greenhouse effect differently based on its abundance and unique characteristics, such as direct-radiative effect. Carbon dioxide has the greatest effect on Earth’s radiative balance and is the reference gas in which all other GHGs are measured. Not all GHGs are equal in their effects of trapping heat within the atmosphere, some have a greater Global Warming Potential (GWP). According to the fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the IPCC, one kilogram of methane (CH4) is 25 times more potent than CO2 and nitrous oxide is 265 times more potent over a 100-year period because they have a greater GWP (IPCC 2014). Higher education institutions (HEIs) are an ideal contributor to solving the problem of GHG emissions. Higher education institutions have access to nearly every population center and often contribute technological advances within society. Higher education institutions have the far-reaching potential to lead the way through innovative research focusing on GHG mitigation and clean energy initiatives. Higher education institutions have always been regarded as the leaders in recognizing societies greatest problems and contributing to creative solutions. Additionally, HEIs have proven increased energy efficiency can be applied on a large scale, as demonstrated by the success of both domestic and international carbon neutral campuses (Bookhart 2008). Within this entry, the authors define greenhouse gases and their impact and discuss how HEIs have helped lead the way in sustainable development initiatives. Greenhouse Gases and Sustainable Development Sustainable Development Goals As the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) states within the SDGs, “Emissions anywhere affect people everywhere” (“Climate Action,” n.d., p. 4). Much of HEI’s direction is driven by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by UNESCO. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) based in Paris. In 2015, the 17 SDGs of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development were adopted. Goal 13 focuses on combating climate change, a goal that is interconnected to the reduction of GHGs. A year later, the Paris Climate Agreement (PCA), which was adopted by 185 nations, took effect which aims to reduce GHG levels and calls for pledges by 2030 to reach zero net anthropogenic GHG emissions by 2060–2080. People are experiencing the significant impacts of climate change, which include changing weather patterns, rising sea level, and more extreme weather events. The greenhouse gas emissions from human activities are driving climate change and continue to rise. They are now at their highest levels in history. Without action, the world’s average surface temperature is projected to rise over the twenty-first century and is likely to surpass 3  C this century – with some areas of the world expected to warm even more (UNESCO n.d., “Climate Action,” para. 2). In 2015, the United Nations (n.d.) adopted the PCA, providing direction for the reduction of emissions and building climate resilience to meet the requirements of the SDGs (“Climate Action,” p. 6). Higher education throughout the world has proved a significant role in reducing GHGs through various initiatives to reduce GHGs. For example: student-led sustainability initiatives and technological improvements, online higher education, use of renewable energy or alternative energy, and HEI action through climate action plans, student action while attending school, and postgraduation from college. Greenhouse Gases and Sustainable Development Higher Education Leading the Way Higher education is an important international sector. Higher education institutions across the world rise above international boundaries, sociopolitical schemes, and economics. Higher education institutions are uniquely situated to play a leading role in sustainable development through reduction of GHGs and combatting climate change (Li et al. 2015). Higher education institutions have the opportunity to lead the way in energy efficiency through research and development of new technology and through the expansion of the minds of young people (Tilbury 2012). According to Filho et al. (2017), HEIs may prepare students for research and education to help combat the problems associated with GHG reductions and climate change as HEIs lead our next generation and become influential in public policy. Each of these will be discussed further throughout this entry. In 2006, the American College and University President’s Climate Commitment (ACUPCC) was organized to build HEI network of 600 signatories within the USA to share information about climate change and GHGs. In 2015, Second Nature, the largest supporter of the ACUPCC, took over the program and changed its name to the “Presidents Climate Commitment” (Second Nature 2017). The US HEIs have taken the lead by signaling a wide range of sectors, from business to government to take steps to mitigate GHGs. This movement is driving changes in technologies and economies and allowing schools to address greenhouse gas emissions with less capital (Second Nature 2017). Carbon Offsets (Voluntary Emission Reductions or VERs) Although, the Presidents Climate Commitment states HEIs should first focus on their own reductions, carbon offsets are a way to compensate for others carbon production and reach carbon neutrality. A carbon offset is a purchase to reduce GHGs produced somewhere else. One offset is equal to one metric ton of CO2 or the equivalent amount of another GHG. Purchases of offsets mitigate their own productions of GHGs. Since 3 there are many areas in which higher education cannot reduce in their production of GHGs such as air travel and other transportation, carbon offsets allow them to compensate for these productions by buying reductions elsewhere and offsets are met by providing funds to support projects such as renewable energy elsewhere (Friend 2009). Some example projects include tree plantings, wind turbines, and hydroelectric dams. Since not all carbon offsets are equal, colleges and universities may purchase offsets from a trusted source of GHG emission reductions such as the Voluntary Carbon Standard (VCS). Through the purchase of Voluntary Carbon Units (VCUs), higher education will know the offsets are verified and true permanent offsets (Antonioli 2011). Within the USA, some HEIs choose to purchase on the open-market Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs). Each REC represents one megawatt hour of energy (MWh). These are not as favorable by HEIs as they are indirect savings of GHG emissions. According to the EPA, RECs only count towards indirect GHG emissions (“EPA Touts” 2010). Although, the authors could not locate any specific studies identifying international HEIs in the trading of GHG emissions, certificates similar to RECs do exist in other nations. Several countries such as the USA, EU, Australia, China, India, Brazil, and Japan trade energy consumption (Espey 2001). Carbon Credit, Carbon Purchasing, and the Continued Fight Colleges and universities may also participate in various carbon credit or purchasing programs that are available worldwide. Some ways to earn credits include participation in energy conservation programs, use renewable energy, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified buildings, and energy efficiency efforts. Even though in 2017 President Trump announced the USA was withdrawing from the Paris Agreement, American leaders including those from HEIs created the “We are still in” campaign to meet the world’s challenge to obtain carbon neutrality and remain a leader in GHG reductions despite limited political support (We Are Still In n.d.). In the USA, 180 HEIs signed the pledge 4 providing continued commitment that the USA is still interested in meeting the terms of the PCA (Gluckman 2017). As the PCA is a voluntary action and commitment, any ratifying nation may withdraw without legal action (Ohri 2017). If HEIs had not stepped forward, there may have been detrimental international consequences in the fight for GHG reductions. Higher Education Institutions Reduce Their Carbon Footprints Universities can produce GHG emissions equivalent to those of small cities (Knuth et al. 2007; St. Arnaud et al. 2009; TERIU and UNDP 2014). According to Filho (2000) and Knuth et al. (2007), HEIs have a moral responsibility to put into place programs that practice addressing climate change and lead the way. Higher education institutions have far-reaching effects since there are nearly 4,627 colleges and universities in the USA (IES 2017a), serving 20.4 million students (IES 2017b) and worldwide 207 million students in higher education (UNESCO 2017)., serving 20.4 million students (IES 2017b) and worldwide 207 million students in higher education (UNESCO 2017). One way HEIs lead is through the development and implementation of advanced energy efficiency. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Air Radiation, HEIs spends $14 billion annually on energy expenses (2007). With advanced energy efficiency comes a reduction in GHGs and possibly the elimination of using fossil fuels. Higher education institutions have led the way in the application of renewable energy technologies such as wind, solar, natural gas cogeneration, geothermal, and use of biomass (NACUBO 2012). Campuses may become even more sustainable through the installation of green spaces, green roofs, or school forests. In the USA, HEIs may pledge elimination of fossil fuels in signing the Climate Leadership Commitment. These institutions are anchors within their communities. Their investment in buildings and grounds, along with interest in new technologies and commitment to the future plays a key role in “leading the nation to energy Greenhouse Gases and Sustainable Development independence, energy security, and energy innovation,” all of which result in reductions in GHGs (ACUPCC 2012). Higher Education Institution Initiatives Around the World Student-Led Initiatives Throughout the world, there are student-led initiatives that offset the use of GHGs. The Sierra Youth Coalition (SYC), which is part of the Sierra Club-Canada, plays a role in campus sustainability initiatives in every province in Canada (SYC n. d.). According to Helferty and Clarke, sustainability initiatives permeate throughout Canada. The University of Manitoba and the University of Prince Edward Island are two prominent HEIs currently leading the way in student-led programs that help mitigate GHGs. On Prince Edward Island, students work to increase the number of bike racks and public transportation through community collaboration. Student-led programs at McGill University in Quebec has residence challenges which are organized to reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions (Helferty and Clarke 2009). Kahler describes a student-led initiative at Tulane University in New Orleans. Students as part of the climate change team designed a dorm room equipped with energy-efficient appliances and electronics. They then gave tours of the room to educate the Tulane community about GHG emissions. To take this further, a studentled study calculated how much energy savings would take place if this model were utilized throughout the entire campus. This project illustrates how sustainable education can be utilized by reaching out to the community (Kahler 2003). Technological Improvement One technological advancement that has taken place over the last several years is the conversion of paper-based books and journals at HEIs to online and digital resources. Digital information services play a key role in reducing GHGs (Chowdhury 2011). Further, Chowdhury found that going digital for books and other journals Greenhouse Gases and Sustainable Development can help reduce CO2 emissions because it significantly reduces the GHGs associated with the production, distribution, use, and storage, as well as, maintenance of printed books in physical libraries. Since the appearance of the first electronic journal New Horizons in Adult Education in 1987 (Medeiros 2009), most HEI libraries around the world have accumulated large collections of digital journals. Online and Distance Higher Education Higher education institutions can significantly reduce their impact on GHG emissions and environmental impact by offering alternative modes of instruction such as home-based open and distance learning and online courses as these models reduce or possibly eliminates the need for infrastructure for course delivery and emissions associated with student and staff travel (Roy et al. 2008). Sheffield University offers numerous online courses and according to Little (2010) is the UK’s e-learning capital. According to Roy et al. (2008), the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India and Allama Iqbal Open University in Pakistan are two additional examples of distance learning universities offering undergraduate and graduate programs. Roy et al. (2008) conducted a study at the UK Open University, one of the world’s largest distance learning universities. Findings showed that distance learning used 87% less energy and produced 85% lower CO2 emissions. Secondly, they found e-learning to reduce CO2 emissions by 12% (Roy et al. 2008; Caird et al. 2015). According to Caird et al. (2015), further reductions in GHGs can be accomplished by reducing student travel by providing residential or campus housing. Renewable Energy or Alternative Energy Sources The use of renewable energy or alternative energy sources by HEIs in the USA have aggressively expanded. Not only does the use of renewables reduce GHG emissions but it also provides opportunities for research and learning on campus. Due to the amount of empty space on campus’, they are ideal sites for using alternative energy sources. In a report prepared by Weissman et al. (2017), there 5 are several recent examples of the USA. Higher education institution expansion of renewables and alternative energy sources: first, the Environmental Protection Agency’s Green Power Partnership Program identifies 45 HEIs obtaining 100% of their electricity from renewable sources. Second, the Association for Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE) identifies 330 campuses that have completed 587 solar energy installations spanning 41 states. Third, the National Wildlife Federation (NWF) lists 160 campuses across 42 states that use geothermal energy to heat and cool their campuses. Climate Action Plans and Impacts on Students In the USA and Canada, HEI networks have helped catalyze efforts across the globe. The UK’s Government’s Carbon Reduction Commitment Energy Efficiency Scheme (CRC) that was introduced in 2010 made it mandatory for carbon emission reporting for nonenergy sectors in the UK economy, including HEIs. Furthermore, the Higher Education Funding Council published its Carbon Strategy in order for England to meet this requirement (Tilbury 2012). In the USA, Ripon College offers incoming freshman an opportunity to get a free bike if they agree to not bring a car with them to college (Grasgreen 2011). A newer trend is for HEIs to offer green housing options (Dunkel 2009) resulting in reduced GHGs and promoting sustainable education. Ezarik (2011) asserts green housing options converts the entire campus into a living laboratory. As stated earlier, Tulane University students developed a project to reduce GHG emissions in residential housing. They worked with Energy Star labels to help meet the goals of Tulane’s Climate Action Plan to cut GHG emissions by 2008 to 7% below the 1990 levels. Further, since Energy Star labels are found in countries such as Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, Europe, and Canada, this model could easily be applied in those places as well (Kahler 2003). In addition, there are various other “green” label programs in other parts of the world. 6 Leith Sharp, director of Harvard’s Office for Sustainability, and a Harvard graduate student conducted a case study surrounding a 120,000 square foot residence hall built in 1959. They found that on paper that the residence hall could obtain zero net GHG emissions in just 12 years for US$6,000. This savings was obtained through energy efficiency measures that were reinvested in other GHG reducing activities (Sharp 2009). Final Comments Anthropogenic greenhouse gases have been implicated in recent climate changes that have taken place worldwide. Higher education institutions are in a position to help make a difference in GHG production and the greenhouse effect, therefore helping reduce the effects of climate change. Higher education institutions can especially help target the production of carbon dioxide, the leading greenhouse gas. Since HEIs have access to most populations in most countries, they are an ideal place to start in the fight to reduce GHGs, educate the world, and spread the word of new research and technologies. Through the Sustainable Development Goals set by UNESCO, HEIs around the world have been directed to help reduce emissions because all are affected in some way by emissions. Around the world, HEIs have shown they can have an impact on GHGs. Through HEI climate action plans, many campuses lead the way for the implementation of energy efficiency technology; the use of carbon offsets, credits, carbon purchasing, and the use of RECs; and they have modeled the reduction of carbon footprints. Students play a vital role in GHG reductions as well. Students often are involved in campus research and implementation of new technologies, case-studies, student-led GHG initiatives, and they are tomorrows leaders. As the format of HEIs changes, online classrooms and campus libraries are also reducing GHG emissions. As can be seen, HEIs contribute in many ways to helping offset, reduce, or eliminate the production of GHGs worldwide. Higher education institutions have the ability to transform society’s thinking about GHGs and help Greenhouse Gases and Sustainable Development offset anthropogenic GHGs. As HEIs worldwide move towards a carbon-neutral environment, they can change the world. Cross-References ▶ Carbon Emissions ▶ Climate Change ▶ GHGs, Global Warming ▶ Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) ▶ Sustainable Development ▶ Sustainable Education References ACUPCC Climate Leadership Summit (2012) Higher education: leading the nation to a safe and secure energy future. http://www.nacubo.org/Documents/ BusinessPolicyAreas/LeadingtheNation.pdf. Accessed 4 Nov 2017 Antonioli D (2011) Carbon offsets 101: what colleges and universities can learn – and teach – about GHG offset quality. 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