McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS Temple landscapes Fragility, change and resilience of Holocene environments in the Maltese Islands By Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Reuben Grima, Rowan McLaughlin, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone Volume 1 of Fragility and Sustainability – Studies on Early Malta, the ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project Temple landscapes McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS Temple landscapes Fragility, change and resilience of Holocene environments in the Maltese Islands By Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Reuben Grima, Rowan McLaughlin, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone With contributions by Gianmarco Alberti, Jeremy Bennett, Maarten Blaauw, Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Lisa Coyle McClung, Alan J. Cresswell, Nathaniel Cutajar, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rory P. Flood, Timothy C. Kinnaird, Steve McCarron, Rowan McLaughlin, John Meneely, Anthony Pace, Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Paula J. Reimer, Alastair Ruffell, George A. Said-Zammit, David C.W. Sanderson, Patrick J. Schembri, Sean Taylor, David Trump†, Jonathan Turner, Nicholas C. Vella & Nathan Wright Illustrations by Gianmarco Alberti, Jeremy Bennett, Sara Boyle, Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Lisa Coyle McClung, Rory P. Flood, Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, John Meneely, Anthony Pace, David Redhouse, Alastair Ruffell, George A. Said-Zammit & Simon Stoddart Volume 1 of Fragility and Sustainability – Studies on Early Malta, the ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-2007-2013) (Grant agreement No. 323727). Published by: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research University of Cambridge Downing Street Cambridge, UK CB2 3ER (0)(1223) 339327 [email protected] www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2020 © 2020 McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. Temple landscapes is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercialNoDerivatives 4.0 (International) Licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ISBN: 978-1-902937-99-1 Cover design by Dora Kemp and Ben Plumridge. Typesetting and layout by Ben Plumridge. On the cover: View towards Nadur lighthouse and Għajnsielem church with the Gozo Channel to Malta beyond, from In-Nuffara (Caroline Malone). Edited for the Institute by James Barrett (Series Editor). Contents Contributors Figures Tables Preface and dedication Acknowledgements Foreword Introduction xi xiii xvi xix xxi xxiii Caroline Malone, Simon Stoddart, Chris O. Hunt, Charles French, Rowan McLaughlin & Reuben Grima 0.1. Introduction 0.2. Background to FRAGSUS as an archaeological project 0.3. Environmental research in Malta and the Mediterranean 0.4. The development of the FRAGSUS Project and its questions 0.5. Archaeological concerns in Maltese prehistory and the FRAGSUS Project 0.6. The research programme: the sites and their selection 0.7. Investigating the palaeoenvironmental context 0.8. Archaeological investigations 1 1 3 5 6 8 9 10 11 Part I The interaction between the natural and cultural landscape – insights into the fifth–second millennia bc 17 Chapter 1 The geology, soils and present-day environment of Gozo and Malta Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Patrick J. Schembri, Charles French, Alastair Ruffell & Simon Stoddart 1.1. Previous work 1.2. Geography 1.3. Geology 1.4. Stratigraphy of the Maltese Islands 1.4.1. Lower Coralline Limestone Formation 1.4.2. Globigerina Limestone Formation 1.4.3. Chert outcrops 1.4.4. Blue Clay Formation 1.4.5. Greensand Formation 1.4.6. Upper Coralline Limestone Formation 1.4.7. Quaternary deposits 1.5. Structural and tectonic geology of the Maltese Islands 1.6. Geomorphology 1.7. Soils and landscape 1.8. Climate and vegetation 19 Chapter 2 19 19 21 23 23 23 25 26 28 28 29 29 29 31 32 Chronology and stratigraphy of the valley systems 35 Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Charles French, Rowan McLaughlin, Maarten Blaauw, Jeremy Bennett, Rory P. Flood, Sean D. F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Paula J. Reimer, Alastair Ruffell, Alan J. Cresswell, Timothy C. Kinnaird, David Sanderson, Sean Taylor, Caroline Malone, Simon Stoddart & Nicholas C. Vella 2.1. Methods for dating environmental and climate change in the Maltese Islands 35 Rowan McLaughlin, Maarten Blaauw, Rory P. Flood, Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Alan J. Cresswell, David C.W. Sanderson, Timothy C. Kinnaird, Paula J. Reimer & Nicholas C. Vella 2.1.1. Data sources for chronology building 35 2.1.2. Pottery finds 41 v 2.2. Basin infill ground penetrating radar surveys Alastair Ruffell, Chris O. Hunt, Jeremy Bennett, Rory P. Flood, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone 2.2.1. Rationale 2.2.2. Geophysics for basin fill identification 2.2.3. Valley locations 2.3. The sediment cores Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Rory P. Flood, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, Nicholas C. Vella, Sean Taylor & Charles French 2.3.1. Aims and methods 2.3.2. The core descriptions 2.3.3. Magnetic susceptibility and XRF analyses of the cores 2.4. Age-depth models Maarten Blauuw & Rowan McLaughlin 2.4.1. Accumulation rates 2.5. A local marine reservoir offset for Malta Paula J. Reimer 2.6. Major soil erosion phases Rory P. Flood, Rowan McLaughlin & Michelle Farrell 2.6.1. Introduction 2.6.2. Methods 2.6.3. Results 2.6.4. Discussion 2.6.5. Conclusions Chapter 3 The Holocene vegetation history of the Maltese Islands Michelle Farrell, Chris O. Hunt & Lisa Coyle McClung 3.1. Introduction Chris O. Hunt 3.2. Palynological methods Lisa Coyle-McClung, Michelle Farrell & Chris O. Hunt 3.3. Taxonomy and ecological classification Chris O. Hunt 3.4. Taphonomy Chris O. Hunt & Michelle Farrell 3.5. The pollen results Michelle Farrell, Lisa Coyle-McClung & Chris O. Hunt 3.5.1. The Salina cores 3.5.2. Wied Żembaq 3.5.3. Xemxija 3.5.4. In-Nuffara 3.5.5. Santa Verna 3.5.6. Ġgantija 3.6. Synthesis 3.6.1. Pre-agricultural landscapes (pre-5900 cal. bc) 3.6.2. First agricultural colonization (5900–5400 cal. bc) 3.6.3. Early Neolithic (5400–3900 cal. bc) 3.6.4. The later Neolithic Temple period (3900–2350 cal. bc) 3.6.5. The late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age transition (2350–2000 cal. bc) 3.6.6. The Bronze Age (2000–1000 cal. bc) 3.6.7. Late Bronze Age, Punic and Classical periods (c. 1000 cal. bc to ad 1000) 3.6.8. Medieval to modern (post-ad 1000) 3.7. Conclusions vi 41 41 41 43 43 43 49 59 64 64 65 65 65 66 67 68 71 73 73 74 75 75 87 87 87 87 87 95 105 107 107 108 109 110 111 112 112 113 113 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Molluscan remains from the valley cores Katrin Fenech, Chris O. Hunt, Nicholas C. Vella & Patrick J. Schembri 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Material 4.3. Methods 4.4. Radiocarbon dates and Bayesian age-depth models 4.5. Results 4.5.1. Marsaxlokk (MX1) 4.5.2. Wied Żembaq (WŻ) 4.5.3. Mġarr ix-Xini (MĠX) 4.5.4. Marsa 2 4.5.5. Salina Deep Core 4.5.6. Xemxija 1 and 2 4.6. Interpretative discussion 4.6.1. Erosion – evidence of major events from the cores 4.7. Environmental reconstruction based on non-marine molluscs 4.7.1. Early Holocene (c. 8000–6000 cal. bc) 4.7.2. Mid-Holocene (c. 6000–3900 cal. bc) 4.7.3. Temple Period (c. 3900–2400 cal. bc) 4.7.4. Early to later Bronze Age (2400–c. 750 cal. bc) 4.7.5. Latest Bronze Age/early Phoenician period to Late Roman/Byzantine period (c. 750 cal. bc–cal. ad 650) 4.8. Concluding remarks 4.9. Notes on selected species 4.9.1. Extinct species 4.9.2. Species with no previous fossil record 4.9.3. Other indicator species The geoarchaeology of past landscape sequences on Gozo and Malta Charles French & Sean Taylor 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Methodology and sample locations 5.3. Results 5.3.1. Santa Verna and its environs 5.3.2. Ġgantija temple and its environs 5.3.3. Skorba and its immediate environs 5.3.4. Taċ-Ċawla settlement site 5.3.5. Xagħra town 5.3.6. Ta’ Marżiena 5.3.7. In-Nuffara 5.3.8. The Ramla valley 5.3.9. The Marsalforn valley 5.3.10. Micromorphological analyses of possible soil materials in the Xemxija 1, Wied Żembaq 1, Marsaxlokk and Salina Deep (SDC) cores 5.4. The Holocene landscapes of Gozo and Malta 5.5. A model of landscape development 5.6. Conclusions Cultural landscapes in the changing environments from 6000 to 2000 bc Reuben Grima, Simon Stoddart, Chris O. Hunt, Charles French, Rowan McLaughlin & Caroline Malone 6.1. Introduction 6.2. A short history of survey of a fragmented island landscape 6.3. Fragmented landscapes vii 115 115 117 117 117 117 127 127 128 128 133 152 153 153 155 155 155 155 155 156 156 157 157 158 158 161 161 164 165 165 174 183 188 190 192 192 193 195 196 213 217 221 223 223 223 225 6.4. The Neolithic appropriation of the landscape 6.5. A world in flux (5800–4800 cal. bc) 6.6. The fifth millennium bc hiatus (4980/4690 to 4150/3640 cal. bc) 6.7. Reappropriating the landscape: the ‘Temple Culture’ 6.8. Transition and decline 6.9. Conclusion 227 227 228 230 236 237 Part II The interaction between the natural and cultural landscape – insights from the second millennium bc to the present: continuing the story 239 Chapter 7 Cultural landscapes from 2000 bc onwards Simon Stoddart, Anthony Pace, Nathaniel Cutajar, Nicholas C. Vella, Rowan McLaughlin, Caroline Malone, John Meneely & David Trump† 7.1. An historiographical introduction to the Neolithic–Bronze Age transition into the Middle Bronze Age 7.2. Bronze Age settlements in the landscape 7.3. The Bronze Age Phoenician transition and the Phoenician/Punic landscape 7.4. Entering the Roman world 7.5. Arab 7.6. Medieval 7.7. The Knights and the entry into the modern period 241 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 The intensification of the agricultural landscape of the Maltese Archipelago Jeremy Bennett 8.1. Introduction 8.2. The Annales School and the Anthropocene 8.3. The Maltese Archipelago and the longue durée of the Anthropocene 8.4. Intensification 8.5. Population 8.5.1. Sub-carrying capacity periods 8.5.2. Post-carrying capacity periods 8.6. The agrarian archipelago 8.6.1. The agricultural substrate 8.6.2. The development of agricultural technology 8.7. Discussion: balancing fragility and sustainability Locating potential pastoral foraging routes in Malta through the use of a Geographic Information System Gianmarco Alberti, Reuben Grima & Nicholas C. Vella 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Methods 9.2.1. Data sources 9.2.2. Foraging routes and least-cost paths calculation 9.3. Results 9.3.1. Garrigue to garrigue least-cost paths 9.3.2. Stables to garrigues least-cost paths 9.4. Discussion 9.4. Conclusions Chapter 10 Settlement evolution in Malta from the Late Middle Ages to the early twentieth century and its impact on domestic space George A. Said-Zammit 10.1. The Medieval Period (ad 870–1530) 10.1.1. Medieval houses viii 241 243 246 250 250 251 251 253 253 254 255 257 258 258 260 262 262 262 264 267 267 267 267 268 271 271 273 276 283 285 285 288 10.1.2. Giren and hovels 10.1.3. Cave-dwellings 10.1.4. Architectural development 10.2. The Knights’ Period (ad 1530–1798) 10.2.1. The phase ad 1530–1565 10.2.2. The phase ad 1565–1798 10.2.3. Early modern houses 10.2.4. Lower class dwellings 10.2.5. Cave-dwellings and hovels 10.2.6. The houses: a reflection of social and economic change 10.3. The British Period (ad 1800–1900) 10.3.1. The houses of the British Period 10.3.2. The effect of the Victorian Age 10.3.3. Urban lower class dwellings 10.3.4. Peasant houses, cave-dwellings and hovels 10.4. Conclusions Chapter 11 Conclusions Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, Reuben Grima, Nicholas C. Vella, Patrick J. Schembri, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone 11.1. The palynological record Chris O. Hunt & Michelle Farrell 11.1.1. Climate 11.1.2. Farming and anthropogenic impacts on vegetation 11.2. The molluscan record Katrin Fenech, Chris O. Hunt, Nicholas C. Vella & Patrick J. Schembri 11.3. The soil/sediment record Charles French 11.4. Discontinuities in Maltese prehistory and the influence of climate Chris O. Hunt 11.5. Environmental metastability and the longue durée Chris O. Hunt 11.6. Implications for the human story of the Maltese Islands Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Caroline Malone, Katrin Fenech, Michelle Farrell, Rowan McLaughlin, Reuben Grima, Patrick J. Schembri & Simon Stoddart References 289 292 292 293 293 293 294 297 298 298 298 299 300 301 301 302 303 303 303 307 308 310 313 314 316 325 Appendix 1 How ground penetrating radar (GPR) works Alastair Ruffell 351 Appendix 2 Luminescence analysis and dating of sediments from archaeological sites and valley fill sequences Alan J. Cresswell, David C.W. Sanderson, Timothy C. Kinnaird & Charles French A2.1. Summary A2.2. Introduction A2.3. Methods A2.3.1. Sampling and field screening measurements A2.3.2. Laboratory calibrated screening measurements A2.4. Quartz OSL SAR measurements A2.4.1. Sample preparation A2.4.2. Measurements and determinations 353 ix 353 354 355 355 355 356 356 356 A2.5. Results A2.5.1. Sampling and preliminary luminescence stratigraphies A2.5.2. Gozo A2.5.3. Skorba A2.5.4. Tal-Istabal, Qormi A2.6. Laboratory calibrated screening measurements A2.6.1. Dose rates A2.6.2. Quartz single aliquot equivalent dose determinations A2.6.3. Age determinations A2.7. Discussion A2.7.1. Ġgantija Temple (SUTL2914 and 2915) A2.7.2. Ramla and Marsalforn Valleys (SUTL2917–2923) A2.7.3. Skorba Neolithic site (SUTL2925–2927)s A2.7.4. Tal-Istabal, Qormi (SUTL2930) A2.7. Conclusions 357 357 357 363 363 363 367 367 371 372 372 373 373 376 376 Appendix 2 – Supplements A–D 379 Appendix 3 Deep core borehole logs Chris O. Hunt, Katrin Fenech, Michelle Farrell & Rowan McLaughlin 401 Appendix 4 Granulometry of the deep cores Katrin Fenech 421 (online edition only) Appendix 5 The molluscan counts for the deep cores Katrin Fenech 441 (online edition only) Appendix 6 The borehole and test excavation profile log descriptions Charles French & Sean Taylor 535 Appendix 7 The detailed soil micromorphological descriptions from the buried soils and Ramla and Marsalforn valleys Charles French A7.1. Santa Verna A7.2. Ġgantija Test Pit 1 A7.3. Ġgantija WC Trench 1 A7.4. Ġgantija olive grove and environs A7.5. Skorba A7.6. Xagħra town A7.7. Taċ-Ċawla A7.8. In-Nuffara A7.9. Marsalforn Valley Profile 626 A7.10. Ramla Valley Profile 627 A7.11. Dwerja 549 549 551 552 553 553 554 555 555 556 556 556 Appendix 8 The micromorphological descriptions for the Malta deep cores of Xemxija 1, Wied Żembaq 1, Marsaxlokk and the base of the Salina Deep Core (21B) Charles French & Sean Taylor 557 Appendix 9 The charcoal data Nathan Wright 563 Index 565 x Contributors Dr Gianmarco Alberti Department of Criminology, Faculty for Social Wellbeing, University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] Dr Rory P. Flood School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Jeremy Bennett Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Prof. Charles French Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Dr Maarten Blaauw School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Reuben Grima Department of Conservation and Built Heritage, University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] Dr Petros Chatzimpaloglou Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Dr Evan A. Hill School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Lisa Coyle McClung School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Prof. Chris O. Hunt Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK Email: [email protected] Dr Alan J. Cresswell SUERC, University of Glasgow, East Kilbride, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland Email: [email protected] Dr Timothy C. Kinnaird School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of St Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland Email: [email protected] Nathaniel Cutajar Deputy Superintendent of Cultural Heritage, Heritage Malta, Valletta, Malta Email: [email protected] Prof. Caroline Malone School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Michelle Farrell Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, School of Energy, Construction and Environment, Coventry University, Coventry, UK Email: [email protected] Dr Steve McCarron Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Katrin Fenech Department of Classics & Archaeology, University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] Dr Rowan McLaughlin School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] xi John Meneely School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Prof. Patrick J. Schembri Department of Biology, University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] Dr Anthony Pace UNESCO Cultural Heritage, Valletta, Malta Email: [email protected] Dr Simon Stoddart Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Dr Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Email: [email protected] Dr Sean Taylor Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Prof. Paula J. Reimer School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr David Trump† Dr Jonathan Turner Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, University College, Dublin, Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Alastair Ruffell School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Prof. Nicholas C. Vella Department of Classics and Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] George A. Said-Zammit Department of Examinations, Ministry for Education and Employment, Government of Malta, Malta Email: [email protected] Dr Nathan Wright School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Email: [email protected] Prof. David C.W. Sanderson SUERC, University of Glasgow, East Kilbride, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland Email: [email protected] xii Figures 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Location map of the Maltese Islands in the southern Mediterranean Sea. Location of the main Neolithic archaeological and deep coring sites investigated on Malta and Gozo. Some views of previous excavations on Malta and Gozo. Some views of recent excavations. The location of the Maltese Islands in the southern Mediterranean Sea with respect to Sicily and North Africa. Stratigraphic column of the geological formations reported for the Maltese Islands. Geological map of the Maltese Islands. Typical coastal outcrops of Lower Coralline Limestone, forming sheer cliffs. Characteristic geomorphological features developed on the Lower Coralline Limestone in western Gozo (Dwerja Point). The Middle Globigerina Limestone at the Xwejni coastline. An overview of the area investigated in western Malta. The end of the major fault system of Malta (Victorian Lines) at Fomm Ir-Riħ. An overview of the western part of Gozo where the chert outcrops are located. Chert outcrops: a) and c) bedded chert, and b) and d) nodular chert. Four characteristic exposures of the Blue Clay formation on Gozo and Malta. Map of the fault systems, arranged often as northwest–southeast oriented graben, and strike-slip structures. Summary of new radiocarbon dating of Neolithic and Bronze Age sites on Gozo and Malta. Summed radiocarbon ages for the main sediment cores. The location of the Birżebbuġa Għar Dalam and Borġ in-Nadur basins and their GNSS-located GPR lines. The core locations in Malta and Gozo. Radiocarbon activity in settlement cores. The Xemxija 2 core by depth. The Wied Żembaq 1 and 2 cores by depth. The Mġarr ix-Xini core by depth. The Marsaxlokk 1 core and part of 2 by depth. The resistivity and magnetic susceptibility graphs for Xemxija 1 core. The resistivity and magnetic susceptibility graphs for Xemxija 2 core. The multi-element data plots for Xemxija 1 core. The multi-element data plots for Wied Żembaq 1 core. The multi-element data plots for Marsaxlokk 1 core. RUSLE models of soil erosion for the Maltese Islands in September and March. R and C factors and their product. Valley catchments and core locations in the Mistra area of Malta. The modern pollen spectra. Pollen zonation for the Salina Deep Core. Pollen zonation for the Salina 4 core. Pollen zonation for the Wied Żembaq 1 core. Pollen zonation for the Xemxija 1 core. Pollen zonation for the pit fills at In-Nuffara. Pollen and palynofacies from the buried soils below the temple at Santa Verna. Pollen and palynofacies from Test Pit 1 on the southwestern edge of the Ġgantija platform. Photomicrographs (x800) of key components of the palynofacies at Santa Verna and Ġgantija. Marsaxlokk 1 molluscan histogram. Wied Żembaq 1 molluscan histogram. Mġarr ix-Xini molluscan histogram. Marsa 2 molluscan histogram. Salina Deep Core molluscan histogram. Marine molluscan histogram for the Salina Deep Core. xiii 2 11 12–13 14 20 22 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 27 28 30 36 36 42 44 48 51 52 54 55 60 60 61 62 63 69 70 79 81 82–3 88–9 92–3 96–7 101 102 104 106 120 122 129 134 138 139 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7.1 7.2a 7.2b 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 8.1 8.2 9.1 Xemxija 1 molluscan histogram. 144 Base of Xemxija 2 molluscan histogram. 145 Location map of the test excavation/sample sites and geoarchaeological survey areas on Gozo and Malta. 164 Plan of Santa Verna temple and the locations of the test trenches. 166 Santa Verna excavation trench profiles all with sample locations marked. 167 The red-brown buried soil profiles in Trench E, the Ashby and Trump Sondages within the Santa Verna temple site. 170 Santa Verna soil photomicrographs. 172–3 Plan of Ġgantija temple and locations of Test Pit 1 and the WC Trench excavations, with as-dug views of the WC Trench and TP1. 175 Section profiles of Ġgantija Test Pit 1 on the southwest side of Ġgantija temple and the east-west section of the Ġgantija WC Trench on the southeast side. 176 Ġgantija TP 1 photomicrographs. 178 Ġgantija WC Trench 1 photomicrographs. 180 Section profiles of Trench A at Skorba showing the locations of the micromorphological and OSL samples. 183 Skorba Trench A, section 1, photomicrographs. 185 Skorba Trench A, section 2, photomicrographs. 186 Taċ-Ċawla soil photomicrographs. 189 A typical terra rossa soil sequence in Xagħra town at construction site 2. 191 Xagħra soil photomicrographs. 191 In-Nuffara photomicrographs. 193 The Marsalforn (Pr 626) and Ramla (Pr 627) valley fill sequences, with the micromorphology samples and OSL profiling/dating loci marked. 194 Ramla and Marsalforn valley profiles soil photomicrographs. 195 Photomicrographs of the Blue Clay and Greensand geological substrates from the Ramla valley. 199 Xemxija 1 deep valley core photomicrographs. 202 Wied Żembaq 1 deep valley core photomicrographs. 206 Marsaxlokk and Salina Deep Core photomicrographs. 210 Scrub woodland on an abandoned terrace system and garrigue plateau land on the north coast of Gozo. 213 Terracing within land parcels (defined by modern sinuous lanes) on the Blue Clay slopes of the Ramla valley with Xagħra in the background. 216 The location of the Cambridge Gozo Project survey areas. 224 Fieldwalking survey data from around A. Ta Kuljat, B. Santa Verna, and C. Għajnsielem on Gozo from the Cambridge Gozo survey and the FRAGSUS Project. 227 The first cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis for the Għar Dalam, Red Skorba and Grey Skorba phases. 229 The first half of the second cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis implemented for the Żebbuġ and Mġarr phases. 232 The second half of the second cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis for the Ġgantija and Tarxien phases. 233 Kernel density analysis of the Tarxien Cemetery, Borġ in-Nadur and Baħrija periods for the areas covered by the Cambridge Gozo survey. 244 The evidence for Bronze Age settlement in the Mdina area on Malta. 245 The evidence for Bronze Age settlement in the Rabat (Gozo) area. 245 Distribution of Early Bronze Age dolmen on the Maltese Islands. 246 Distribution of presses discovered in the Mġarr ix-Xini valley during the survey. 248 The cultural heritage record of the Punic tower in Żurrieq through the centuries. 249 The changing patterns of social resilience, connectivity and population over the course of the centuries in the Maltese Islands. 252 An oblique aerial image of the northern slopes of the Magħtab land-fill site, depicting landscaping efforts including ‘artificial’ terracing. 256 RUSLE estimates of areas of low and moderate erosion for Gozo and Malta. 259 a) Sheep being led to their fold in Pwales down a track; b) Sheep grazing along a track on the Bajda Ridge in Xemxija, Malta. 269 xiv 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A2.4 A2.5 A2.6 A2.7 A2.8 A2.9 A2.10 A2.11 A2.12 A2.13 A2.14 A2.15 A2.16 A2.17 Least-cost paths (LCPs), connecting garrigue areas, representing potential foraging routes across the Maltese landscape. Density of LCPs connecting garrigue areas to random points within the garrigue areas themselves. Location of ‘public spaces’, with size proportional to the distance to the nearest garrigue-to-garrigue LCP. LCPs connecting farmhouses hosting animal pens to randomly generated points within garrigue areas in northwestern (A) and northeastern (B) Malta. As for Figure 9.5, but representing west-central and east-central Malta. As for Figure 9.5, but representing southern and southwestern Malta. Location of ‘public spaces’, with size proportional to the distance to the nearest outbound journey. a) Public space at Tal-Wei, between the modern town of Mosta and Naxxar; b) Tal-Wei public space as represented in 1940s survey sheets. Approximate location of the (mostly disappeared) raħal toponyms. Isochrones around farmhouse 4 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals considering animal walking speed. Isochrones around farmhouse 2 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals considering animal walking speed (grazing while walking). a) Isochrones around farmhouse 5 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals; b) Isochrones around farmhouse 6; c) Isochrones around farmhouse 7. The likely distribution of built-up and cave-dwellings in the second half of the fourteenth century. The lower frequency of settlement distribution by c. ad 1420. The distribution of settlements just before ad 1530. The late medieval Falson Palace in Mdina. A girna integral with and surrounded by stone dry walling. A hovel dwelling with a flight of rock-cut steps. The hierarchical organisation of settlements continued, with the addition of Valletta, Floriana and the new towns around Birgu. An example of a seventeenth century townhouse with open and closed timber balconies. An example of a two-storey razzett belonging to a wealthier peasant family. The distribution of built-up settlements in about ad 1900. An example of a Neo-Classical house. Summary of tree and shrub pollen frequencies at 10 sample sites. Summary of cereal pollen frequencies at 14 sample sites. Schematic profiles of possible trajectories of soil development in the major geological zones of Malta and Gozo. The main elements of a new cultural-environmental story of the Maltese Islands throughout the last 10,000 years. Marsalforn valley, Gozo. Marsalforn valley, Gozo. Ramla valley, Gozo. Ġgantija Test Pit 1, Gozo. Skorba Neolithic site; trench A, East section; trench A, South section. Skorba, Trench A, South section. Tal-Istabal, Qormi, Malta. Tal-Istabal, Qormi, Malta. Photograph, showing locations of profile sample and OSL tubes, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 1. Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 3. Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 2. Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profiles 4 and 6. Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 5. Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2916 (P1). Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2920 (P2). Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2913 (P3). Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2924 (P4). xv 271 272 273 274 274 275 276 277 279 280 281 282 286 286 288 289 290 291 295 296 297 299 301 304 305 311 317 360 361 361 361 362 362 364 364 365 365 366 366 367 370 370 370 370 A2.18 A2.19 A2.20 A2.21 A2.22 A2.23 A2.24 A2.25 SB.1 SB.2 SB.3 SB.4 SB.5 SB.6 SB.7 SB.8 SB.9 SB.10 SB.11 SB.12 SC.1 SC.2 SC.3 SC.4 SC.5 SC.6 SC.7 SC.8 SC.9 SC.10 SC.11 SC.12 SD.1 SD.2 SD.3 SD.4 SD.5 SD.6 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2929 (P5). Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2928 (P6). Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2931 (P7). Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2914 and 2915. Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2917–2919. Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2921–2923. Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2925–2927. Probability Distribution Function for the stored dose on sample SUTL2930. Dose response curves for SUTL2914. Dose response curves for SUTL2915. Dose response curves for SUTL2917. Dose response curves for SUTL2918. Dose response curves for SUTL2919. Dose response curves for SUTL2921. Dose response curves for SUTL2922. Dose response curves for SUTL2923. Dose response curves for SUTL2925. Dose response curves for SUTL2926. Dose response curves for SUTL2927. Dose response curves for SUTL2930. Abanico plot for SUTL2914. Abanico plot for SUTL2915. Abanico plot for SUTL2917. Abanico plot for SUTL2918. Abanico plot for SUTL2919. Abanico plot for SUTL2921. Abanico plot for SUTL2922. Abanico plot for SUTL2923. Abanico plot for SUTL2925. Abanico plot for SUTL2926. Abanico plot for SUTL2927. Abanico plot for SUTL2930. Apparent ages for profile 1, with OSL ages. Apparent ages for profile 2, with OSL ages. Apparent ages for profile 3, with OSL ages. Apparent ages for profiles 4 and 6, with OSL ages. Apparent ages for profile 5, with OSL ages. Apparent ages for profile 7. 371 371 371 374 374 375 375 376 385 385 386 386 387 387 388 388 389 389 390 390 391 391 392 392 392 393 393 393 394 394 394 395 397 397 398 398 399 399 Description of the geological formations found on the Maltese Islands. The cultural sequence of the Maltese Islands (with all dates calibrated). Quartz OSL sediment ages from the Marsalforn (2917–2919) and Ramla (2921–2923) valleys, the Skorba temple/buried soil (2925–2927) and Tal-Istabal, Qormi, soil (2930). Dating results for positions in the sediment cores. Summary stratigraphic descriptions of the sequences in the deep core profiles. Mean sediment accumulation rates per area versus time for the deep cores. Radiocarbon measurements and ΔR values from early twentieth century marine shells from Malta. Calibrated AMS 14C dates of charred plant remains from Santa Verna palaeosol, Gozo. Physical properties of the catchments. Normalized Diffuse Vegetation Index (NDVI) for the catchments in 2014–15 and average rainfall data for the weather station at Balzan for the period 1985 to 2012. Semi-natural plant communities in the Maltese Islands. 21 37 Tables 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 xvi 40 45 57 64 65 68 68 69 76 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 8.1 8.2 11.1 Attribution of pollen taxa to plant communities in the Maltese Islands and more widely in the Central Mediterranean. Characteristics of the taphonomic samples from on-shore and off-shore Mistra Valley, Malta. The pollen zonation of the Salina Deep Core with modelled age-depths. The pollen zonation of the Salina 4 core with modelled age-depths. The pollen zonation of the Wied Żembaq 1 core with modelled age-depths. The pollen zonation of the Xemxija 1 core with modelled age-depths. The pollen zonation of the fill of a Bronze Age silo at In-Nuffara, Gozo. Summary of the pollen analyses of the buried soil below the Santa Verna temple structure. Summary of the pollen analyses from the buried soil in Ġgantija Test Pit 1. Activity on Temple sites and high cereal pollen in adjacent cores. List of freshwater molluscs and land snails found in the cores, habitat requirement, palaeontological record and current status and conservation in the Maltese Islands. Molluscan zones for the Marsaxlokk 1 core (MX1). Molluscan zones for the Wied Żembaq 1 core (WŻ1). Molluscan zones for the Wied Żembaq 2 core (WŻ2). Integration of molluscan zones from the Wied Żembaq 1 and 2 cores. Molluscan zones for the Mġarr ix-Xini 1 core (MĠX1). Molluscan zones for the Marsa 2 core (MC2). The non-marine molluscan zones for the Salina Deep Core (SDC). Molluscan zones for the Salina Deep Core (SDC). Molluscan zones for the Xemxija 1 core (XEM1). Molluscan zones for the Xemxija 2 core (XEM2). Correlation and integration of molluscan data from Xemxija 1 (XEM1) and Xemxija 2 (XEM2). Micromorphology and small bulk sample sites and numbers. Summary of available dating for the sites investigated in Gozo and Malta. pH, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, calcium carbonate and % sand/silt/clay particle size analysis results for the Ġgantija, Santa Verna and the Xagħra town profiles, Gozo. Selected multi-element results for Ġgantija, Santa Verna and Xagħra town buried soils, and the Marsalforn and Ramla valley sequences, Gozo. Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations for the Santa Verna, Ġgantija and the Xagħra town profiles, Gozo. pH, magnetic susceptibility and selected multi-element results for the palaeosols in section 1, Trench A, Skorba. Loss-on-ignition organic/carbon/calcium carbonate frequencies and particle size analysis results for the palaeosols in section 1, Trench A, Skorba. Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations of the buried soils in sections 1 and 2, Trench A, Skorba. Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations of the possible buried soils at Taċ-Ċawla. Field descriptions and micromorphological observations for the quarry and construction site profiles in Xagħra town. Sample contexts and micromorphological observations for two silo fills at In-Nuffara. Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations from the Ramla and Marsalforn valley fill profiles. Main characteristics of the Upper and Lower Coralline Limestone, Globigerina Limestone, Blue Clay and Greensand. Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Xemxija 1 core. Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Wied Żembaq 1 core. Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Marsaxlokk 1 core. Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the base zone of the base of the Salina Deep Core. Carrying capacity estimates for the Neolithic/Temple Period of the Maltese Archipelago. Summary of population changes in the Maltese Archipelago. Summary of the environmental and vegetation changes in the Maltese Islands over the longue durée. xvii 77 80 84 90 94 98 103 103 105 105 118 121 123 125 128 130 135 140 142 146 148 151 162 163 168 169 181 184 184 188 189 190 192 196 197 200 207 209 211 258 261 306 11.2 11.3 11.4 A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A2.4 A2.5 A2.6 A2.7 A2.8 A2.9 SA.1 SA.2 SA.3 SA.4 SA.5 A3.1 A3.2 A3.3 A3.4 A3.5 A3.6 A3.7 A3.8 A3.9 A3.10 A3.11 A3.12 A4.1 A4.2 A4.3 A4.4 A4.5 A4.6 A4.7 A4.8 A5.1 A5.2 A5.3 A5.4 A5.5 A5.6 A5.7 A5.8 A5.9 A8.1 A8.2 A8.3 A8.4 A9.1 Summary of events revealed by the molluscan data in the deep cores. 309 Major phases of soil, vegetation and landscape development and change during the Holocene. 312 Occurrence of gypsum in FRAGSUS cores and contemporary events. 314 Sample descriptions, contexts and archaeological significance of the profiling samples used for initial screening and laboratory characterization. 358 Sample descriptions, contexts and archaeological significance of sediment samples SUTL2914–2930. 360 Activity and equivalent concentrations of K, U and Th determined by HRGS. 368 Infinite matrix dose rates determined by HRGS and TSBC. 368 Effective beta and gamma dose rates following water correction. 369 SAR quality parameters. 369 Comments on equivalent dose distributions of SUTL2914 to SUTL2930. 372 Quartz OSL sediment ages. 372 Locations, dates and archaeological significance of sediment samples SUTL2914–2930. 373 Field profiling data, as obtained using portable OSL equipment, for the sediment stratigraphies examined on Gozo and Malta. 379 OSL screening measurements on paired aliquots of 90–250 μm 40% HF-etched ‘quartz’. 380 OSL screening measurements on three aliquots of 90–250 μm 40% HF-etched ‘quartz’ for SUTL2924. 382 IRSL screening measurements on paired aliquots of 90–250 μm 15% HF-etched ‘polymineral’. 382 IRSL screening measurements on three aliquots of 90–250 μm 15% HF-etched ‘polymineral’ for SUTL2924. 383 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina Deep Core. 401 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina 4 core. 405 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina 2 core. 407 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Xemxija 1 core. 408 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Xemxija 2 core. 411 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Wied Żembaq 1 core. 413 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Wied Żembaq 2 core. 413 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Mgarr ix-Xini core. 414 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Marsaxlokk core. 416 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Marsa 2 core. 417 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Mellieħa Bay core. 418 Key to the scheme for the description of Quaternary sediments. 419 Marsa 2. 421 (online edition only) Mgarr ix-Xini. 424 (online edition only) Salina Deep Core. 427 (online edition only) Wied Żembaq 2. 429 (online edition only) Wied Żembaq 1. 430 (online edition only) Xemxija 1. 432 (online edition only) Xemxija 2. 435 (online edition only) Marsaxlokk 1. 438 (online edition only) Marsa 2. 442 (online edition only) Mgarr ix-Xini. 456 (online edition only) Salina Deep Core non-marine. 466 (online edition only) Salina Deep Core marine. 478 (online edition only) Wied Żembaq 2. 490 (online edition only) Wied Żembaq 1. 496 (online edition only) Xemxija 1. 502 (online edition only) Xemxija 2. 516 (online edition only) Marsaxlokk 1. 528 (online edition only) Xemxija 1 core micromorphology sample descriptions. 557 Wied Żembaq 1 core micromorphology sample descriptions. 559 Marsaxlokk core micromorphology sample descriptions. 560 Salina Deep Core micromorphology sample descriptions. 561 The charcoal data from the Skorba, Kordin, In-Nuffara and Salina Deep Core. 563 xviii Preface and dedication Caroline Malone The FRAGSUS Project emerged as the direct result of an invitation to undertake new archaeological fieldwork in Malta in 1985. Anthony Bonanno of the University of Malta organized a conference on ‘The Mother Goddess of the Mediterranean’ in which Colin Renfrew was a participant. The discussions that resulted prompted an invitation that made its way to David Trump (Tutor in Continuing Education, Cambridge University), Caroline Malone (then Curator of the Avebury Keiller Museum) and Simon Stoddart (then a post-graduate researcher in Cambridge). We eagerly took up the invitation to devise a new collaborative, scientifically based programme of research on prehistoric Malta. What resulted was the original Cambridge Gozo Project (1987–94) and the excavations of the Xagħra Brochtorff Circle and the Għajnsielem Road Neolithic house. Both those sites had been found by local antiquarian, Joseph Attard-Tabone, a long-established figure in the island for his work on conservation and site identification. As this and the two other volumes in this series report, the original Cambridge Gozo Project was the germ of a rich and fruitful academic collaboration that has had international impact, and has influenced successive generations of young archaeologists in Malta and beyond. As the Principal Investigator of the FRAGSUS Project, on behalf of the very extensive FRAGSUS team I want to dedicate this the first volume of the series to the enlightened scholars who set up this now 35 year-long collaboration of prehistoric inquiry with our heartfelt thanks for their role in our studies. We dedicate this volume to: Joseph Attard Tabone Professor Anthony Bonanno Professor Lord Colin Renfrew and offer our profound thanks for their continuing role in promoting the prehistory of Malta. xix Acknowledgements They were helped by Vincent Van Walt, who provided technical assistance. Al Ruffell and John Meneely did geophysical evaluation and GRP location of the cores. During fieldwork, Tim Kinnaird and Charles French were assisted by Sean Taylor, Jeremy Bennett and Simon Stoddart. We are grateful to the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage, Malta and Heritage Malta for permission to undertake the analyses and much practical assistance. For Chapter 5, we would like to thank all at Heritage Malta, the Ġgantija visitor’s centre and the University of Malta for their friendly and useful assistance throughout. In particular, we would like to thank George Azzopardi, Daphne Caruana, Josef Caruana, Nathaniel Cutajar, Chris Gemmell, Reuben Grima, Joanne Mallia, Christian Mifsud, Anthony Pace, Ella Samut-Tagliaferro, Mevrick Spiteri, Katya Stroud, Sharon Sultana and Nick Vella. We also thank Tonko Rajkovača of the McBurney Laboratory, Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, for making the thin section slides, the Physical Geography Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, and the ALS Global laboratory in Seville, Spain, for processing the multi-element analyses. For Chapter 6, Reuben Grima wrote the first draft of this contribution, receiving comments and additions from the other authors. For Chapter 7, Simon Stoddart wrote the first draft of this contribution, receiving comments and additions from the other authors. For Chapter 9, we thank Sharlo Camilleri for providing us with a copy of the GIS data produced by the MALSIS (MALtese Soil Information System) project. We are grateful to Prof. Saviour Formosa and Prof. Timmy Gambin, both of the University of Malta, who facilitated the donation of LiDAR data, together with computer facilities, as part of the European project ERDF156 Developing National Environmental Monitoring Infrastructure and Capacity, from the former Malta This volume records research undertaken with funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement n. 323727 (FRAGSUS Project: Fragility and sustainability in small island environments: adaptation, cultural change and collapse in prehistory – http://www.qub.ac.uk/ sites/FRAGSUS/). All the authors of this volume are indebted to the ERC for its financial support, and to the Principal Investigator of the FRAGSUS Project, Prof. Caroline Malone (Queen’s University, Belfast, UK), for her central role in devising the project and seeing this research through to publication. For Chapter 2, we extend warm thanks to the staff of the 14CHRONO centre at QUB, especially Stephen Hoper, Jim McDonald, Michelle Thompson and Ron Reimer, all of whom took a keen interest in the FRAGSUS Project. The success of the FRAGSUS Project in general and the radiocarbon dating exercise has depended on their work. We thank the Physical Geography Laboratory staff at the School of Geography, University College Dublin, for the use of their ITRAX XRF core scanner. In particular, we would like to thank Dr Steve McCarron, Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, Maynooth and Dr Jonathan Turner, Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, University College, Dublin. We thank Prof. Patrick Schembri for sourcing and collecting the Acanthocardia samples from the Natural Museum of Natural History. Sean Pyne O’Donnell thanks Dr Chris Hayward at the Tephrochronology Analytical Unit (TAU), University of Edinburgh, for help and advice during microprobe work. Dr Maxine Anastasi, Department of Classics and Archaeology, University of Malta, helped identify the pottery from the settlement cores. Dr Frank Carroll helped show us the way forward; but sadly is no longer with us. Chris Hunt, Rory Flood, Michell Farrell, Sean Pyne O’Donnell and Mevrick Spiteri were the coring team. xxi Acknowledgements Environment and Planning Authority. A number of individuals were happy to share their recollections of shepherding practices in Malta and Gozo over the last sixty or seventy years; others facilitated the encounters. We are grateful to all of them: Charles Gauci, Grezzju Meilaq, Joseph Micallef, Louis Muscat, Ċettina and Anġlu Vella, Ernest Vella and Renata Zerafa. Simon Stoddart would like to thank Prof. Martin Jones and Rachel Ballantyne for their advice in constructing Figure 11.4. The editors would like to thank Emma Hannah for compiling the index. Firstly, the FRAGSUS Project is the result of a very generous research grant from the European Research Council (Advanced Grant no’ 323727), without which this and its two partner volumes and the research undertaken could not have taken place. We heartily thank the ERC for its award and the many administrators in Brussels who monitored our use of the grant. The research team also wants to record our indebtedness to the administrators of the grant within our own institutions, since this work required detailed and dedicated attention. In particular we thank Rory Jordan in the Research Support Office, Stephen Hoper and Jim McDonald – CHRONO lab, and Martin Stroud (Queen’s University Belfast), Laura Cousens (Cambridge University), Glen Farrugia and Cora Magri (University of Malta), the Curatorial, Finance and Designs & Exhibitions Departments in Heritage Malta and Stephen Borg at the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage. Finally, we thank Fr. Joe Inguanez (Emeritus Head of Department, Department of Sociology, University of Malta) for offering us the leitmotif of this volume while a visiting scholar in Magdalene College, Cambridge: ‘Mingħajr art u ħamrija, m’hemmx sinjorija’ translating as ‘without land and soil, there is no wealth’. xxii Foreword Anthony Pace Sustainability, as applied in archaeological research and heritage management, provides a useful perspective for understanding the past as well as the modern conditions of archaeological sites themselves. As often happens in archaeological thought, the idea of sustainability was borrowed from other areas of concern, particularly from the modern construct of development and its bearing on the environment and resource exploitation. The term sustainability entered common usage as a result of the unstoppable surge in resource exploitation, economic development, demographic growth and the human impacts on the environment that has gripped the World since 1500. Irrespective of scale and technology, most human activity of an economic nature has not spared resources from impacts, transformations or loss irrespective of historical and geographic contexts. Theories of sustainability may provide new narratives on the archaeology of Malta and Gozo, but they are equally important and of central relevance to contemporary issues of cultural heritage conservation and care. Though the archaeological resources of the Maltese islands can throw light on the past, one has to recognize that such resources are limited, finite and non-renewable. The sense of urgency with which these resources have to be identified, listed, studied, archived and valued is akin to that same urgency with which objects of value and all fragile forms of natural and cultural resources require constant stewardship and protection. The idea of sustainability therefore, follows a common thread across millennia. It is all the more reason why cultural resource management requires particular attention through research, valorization and protection. The FRAGSUS Project (Fragility and sustainability in small island environments: adaptation, cultural change and collapse in prehistory) was intended to further explore and enhance existing knowledge on the prehistory of Malta and Gozo. The objective of the project as designed by the participating institutional partners and scholars, was to explore untapped field resources and archived archaeological material from a number of sites and their landscape to answer questions that could be approached with new techniques and methods. The results of the FRAGSUS Project will serve to advance our knowledge of certain areas of Maltese prehistory and to better contextualize the archipelago’s importance as a model for understanding island archaeology in the central Mediterranean. The work that has been invested in FRAGSUS lays the foundation for future research. Malta and Gozo are among the Mediterranean islands whose prehistoric archaeology has been intensely studied over a number of decades. This factor is important, yet more needs to be done in the field of Maltese archaeology and its valorization. Research is not the preserve of academic specialists. It serves to enhance not only what we know about the Maltese islands, but more importantly, why the archipelago’s cultural landscape and its contents deserve care and protection especially at a time of extensive construction development. Strict rules and guidelines established by the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage have meant that during the last two decades more archaeological sites and deposits have been protected in situ or rescue-excavated through a statutory watching regime. This supervision has been applied successfully in a wide range of sites located in urban areas, rural locations and the landscape, as well as at the World Heritage Sites of Valletta, Ġgantija, Ħaġar Qim and Mnajdra and Tarxien. This activity has been instrumental in understanding ancient and historical land use, and the making of the Maltese historic centres and landscape. Though the cumulative effect of archaeological research is being felt more strongly, new areas of interest still need to be addressed. Most pressing are those areas of landscape studies which often become xxiii Foreword peripheral to the attention that is garnered by prominent megalithic monuments. FRAGSUS has once again confirmed that there is a great deal of value in studying field systems, terraces and geological settings which, after all, were the material media in which modern Malta and Gozo ultimately developed. There is, therefore, an interplay in the use of the term sustainability, an interplay between what we can learn from the way ancient communities tested and used the very same island landscape which we occupy today, and the manner in which this landscape is treated in contested economic realities. If we are to seek factors of sustainability in the past, we must first protect its relics and study them using the best available methods in our times. On the other hand, the study of the past using the materiality of ancient peoples requires strong research agendas and thoughtful stewardship. The FRAGSUS Project has shown us how even small fragile deposits, nursed through protective legislation and guardianship, can yield significant information which the methods of pioneering scholars of Maltese archaeology would not have enabled access to. As already outlined by the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage, a national research agenda for cultural heritage and the humanities is a desideratum. Such a framework, reflected in the institutional partnership of the FRAGSUS Project, will bear valuable results that will only advance Malta’s interests especially in today’s world of instant e-knowledge that was not available on such a global scale a mere two decades ago. FRAGSUS also underlines the relevance of studying the achievements and predicaments of past societies to understand certain, though not all, aspects of present environmental challenges. The twentieth century saw unprecedented environmental changes as a result of modern political-economic constructs. Admittedly, twentieth century developments cannot be equated with those of antiquity in terms of demography, technology, food production and consumption or the use of natural resources including the uptake of land. However, there are certain aspects, such as climate change, changing sea levels, significant environmental degradation, soil erosion, the exploitation and abandonment of land resources, the building and maintenance of field terraces, the rate and scale of human demographic growth, movement of peoples, access to scarce resources, which to a certain extent reflect impacts that seem to recur in time, irrespectively of scale and historic context. Anthony Pace Superintendent of Cultural Heritage (2003–18). xxiv Appendix 3 Deep core borehole logs Chris O. Hunt, Katrin Fenech, Michelle Farrell & Rowan McLaughlin Table A3.1. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina Deep Core. Core Depth (m) Sediments Interpretation 22 29.50–29.47 Creamy micritic limestone Rockhead: Globigerina Limestone 29.47–29.30 Yellowish-brown (10 YR5/4) to greyish-brown (10YR 4/3) very compact silty clay with sub-angular to rounded clasts. Clay skins present beneath clasts, a few clay-lined rootlet casts, occasional rootlets and very occasional land snail and charcoal fragments Palaeosol developed on colluvium (? Late Pleistocene interstadial) 29.30–29.17 Grey (10YR 5/1) to greyish-brown (10YR 5/2) very muddy sandy gravel with occasional land snail and charcoal fragments Fluvial gravel: poor sorting is consistent with deposition from muddy flow (? Late Pleistocene) 28.50–28.32 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 4/4) matrix-supported limestone gravel, clasts rounded to sub-rounded, micritic calcite skins under clasts, matrix showing some slickensiding 28.32–28.20 Very dark brown (10YR 8/2) clast-supported sandy to openwork gravel, clasts rounded to sub-rounded, micritic calcite skins under clasts Fluvial gravels with pedogenic features (? Late Pleistocene) 28.20–28.12 Very pale brown (10YR 7/3) mottled yellowish-brown matrix-supported cobbly gravel clasts rounded to sub-rounded, micritic calcite skins under clasts, matrix showing some slickensiding 28.12–28.04 Brown (7.5YR 4/3) silty sandy clay with rare small sub-rounded stones with blocky structure and hair-like micritic fills between peds, rare root pores 28.04–27.97 Yellowish-brown (10YR 5/4) clast-supported gritty sandy gravel 27.97–27.95 Dark greyish-brown (10YR 4/2) slightly sandy clayey silt with pronounced blocky structure and micritic fills between peds 27.95–27.78 Dark grey (10YR 4/1) and brown (10YR 4/3) slightly gritty silty clay, coarsening upward, crudely laminated and with occasional charcoal flecks 27.78–27.61 Brown (10YR 4/3) to dark brown (10YR 3/3) matrix-supported fine clayey gravel with small-scale trough cross-sets 27.61–27.58 Dull brown (10YR 5/3) muddy clast-supported gravel, fining upward 27.58–27.56 Brown (10YR 4/3) clay 27.56–27.53 Dark brown (10YR 3/3) matrix-supported gravel, sandy clay matrix, odd charcoal and land snail fragments 27.53–27.42 Brown (10YR 4/3) sandy clay with very occasional stones, small scale trough cross-sets, blocky structure with micritic joint linings and clay skins beneath pebbles. Some land snail fragments 21A 21B 21C 401 Fluvial deposits with pedogenic features (? Late Pleistocene) Fluvial deposits with pedogenic features (? Late Pleistocene or Holocene) Appendix 3 Table A3.1 (cont.). Core Depth (m) Sediments Interpretation 20A 27.00–26.96 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3/1) stony silty clay 26.96–26.93 Dull brown (10YR 5/4) muddy gravel 26.93–26.87 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3/1) slightly stony silty clay 26.87–26.70 Dark greyish brown (2.5Y 4/2) slightly muddy granules to fine gravel Shallow marine sediments, probably sub-littoral or upper delta-front (Holocene) 26.70–26.65 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3/1) slightly stony clay 26.65–26.56 Bluish-grey (10BG 4/1) shelly clay 26.56–26.46 Dark grey (N 4/1) silty clay, crudely laminated with sand lenses 26.46–26.38 Dark grey (N 3.5/1) shelly clay 26.38–26.25 Dark grey (N 3/1) fine muddy gravel 26.25–26.13 Dark grey (N 3.5/1) medium muddy sand 26.13–26.00 Dark grey (N 4.5/1) coarse muddy sand 26.00–25.95 Greyish yellow-brown (10YR 4.5/2) coarse gritty sand 20D 25.95–25.60 Dull yellowish-brown (10YR 4.5/3) slightly muddy gritty coarse sand 19A 25.50–25.28 Brownish-grey (10YR 4/1) silty clay 19B 25.28–24.85 Brownish-grey (10YR 4/1) silty clay, becoming slightly sandy upwards 19C 24.85–24.48 Dark grey (2.5Y 3.5/1) silty sandy clay and fine muddy sand, indefinitely laminated 20B 20C 19D 18A 18B 18C 24.48–24.18 Dark grey (2.5Y 3.5/1) slightly sandy silty clay 24.18–24.12 Dark grey (2.5Y 3.5/1) gritty sandy silty clay 24.00–23.80 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) clay 23.80–23.68 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty clay, indistinctly laminated, some shells 23.68–23.62 Grey (2.5Y5/1) muddy sand, some shells 23.62–23.36 Dark grey (2.5Y4/1 to 2.5Y3/1) silty clay, thickly but indistinctly laminated, odd shells 23.36–23.33 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) muddy sand, some shells 23.33–23.32 Light brownish-grey (5YR 7/2) sandy clay 23.32–23.19 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) muddy sand, some shells 23.19–23.10 Dark grey (2.5Y4.5/1) sandy mud with very abundant, mostly angular, wood fragments 23.10–23.09 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) muddy sand, some shells 23.09–23.06 Dark grey (2.5 Y4/1) mud with lenses of fine sand 23.06–23.02 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) very muddy sand 18D 23.02–22.70 Dark grey (2.5Y 4.5/1) clay, very plastic 17A 22.50–22.22 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) silty clay, laminated, shelly 402 Shallow marine sediments, probably delta-front Shallow marine delta front and proximal prodeltaic sediments, deposited mostly from gravity flows, interbedded with quiet water laminated sediments Deep core borehole logs Table A3.1 (cont.). Core Depth (m) Sediments 17B 22.22–21.83 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) to dark greenish-grey (2.5YR 4/1) silty clay and silty sand in three coarsening-up laminated units 17C 21.83–21.71 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty clay, indistinctly but finely laminated 21.71–21.63 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) sand and silty clay in fining-upward couplets 2–4 mm thick 21.63–21.52 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty clay, passing up into dark greenish-grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty and then sandy clay 21.52–21.43 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) fine sandy silty clay, indistinctly laminated 21.43–21.13 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3/1) to dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) sands, silty clays and clays, finely laminated 21.13–21.06 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3/1) silty clays interlaminated with olive-yellow (2.5Y 6/8) sands 16A 21.00–20.66 Dark grey (2.5Y 4.5/1) clayey sand and sandy clay, laminated 16B 20.66–20.43 Dark grey (2.5Y 4.5/1 to 2.5Y 5/1) slightly silty fine sandy clay with partings covered in bivalve fragments 16C 20.43–20.14 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1 to 2.5Y 5/1) silty clay, thinly laminated 16D 20.14–19.91 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1 to 2.5Y 5/1) silty clay, thinly laminated 16E 19.91–19.66 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1 to 2.5Y 5/1) silty clay with a little fine sand, thinly laminated 17D 15A Interpretation 19.50–19.36 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty clay 19.36–19.34 Very dark grey (2.5 Y3.5/1) sandy silty clay with abundant charcoal 19.34–19.10 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty clay, sandy silty clay and silty sand, in three coarseningupward units 15B 19.10–18.79 Dark grey (2.5Y 3/1 to 2.5Y 4/1) sandy silty clay and silty clay, laminated 15C 18.79–18.51 Dark grey (2.5Y 3/1 to 2.5Y 4/1) sandy silty clay and silty clay, laminated 15D 18.51–18.23 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) sandy silty clay, laminated 14A 18.00–17.64 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) sandy silty clay, odd shells 14B 17.64–17.39 Dark grey to grey (2.5Y 4/1 to 2.5Y 5/1) slightly sandy silty clay 14C 17.39–17.01 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) clayey silty sands and grey (2.5Y 5/1) silty clays in four finingupward units 14D 17.01–16.70 Grey (2.5 Y5/1) sandy silty clay and silty clays in three fining-upward units 13A 16.50–16.24 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) silty clay 16.24–16.20 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) fine sandy silty clay 403 Marine distal prodeltaic sediments, mostly deposited by small-scale gravity flows, interbedded with lower-energy quiet-water sediments Appendix 3 Table A3.1 (cont.). Core Depth (m) Sediments 13B 16.20–15.85 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) fine sandy silty clay with occasional sandy partings 13C 15.85–15.45 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) sandy silty clay and greyish-brown (2.5Y 5/2) silty clay in four fining-upward units 12A 12B 12C Interpretation 15.0–14.90 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty clay 14.90–14.68 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) sandy silty clay with shells 14.68–14.42 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) sandy silty clay 14.42–14.22 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) sandy silty clay 14.22–14.12 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) silty clay 14.12–13.98 Dark grey (5Y 4/1) silty clay 13.98–13.90 Dark grey (5Y 4/1) sandy silty clay with charcoal fragments 13.90–13.77 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty clay 11A 13.20–12.77 Dark grey (5Y 5/1) muddy gravelly sand 11B 12.77–12.41 Dark grey (5Y 4/1) gritty muddy sand with shells 12D 11C Shallow sandy marine shoal sediments, often deposited within wave-base, possibly eel-grass meadows 12.41–12.16 Dark grey (5Y 5/1) muddy sand with shells 12.16–12.11 Dark grey (5Y 4/1) muddy sand, very shelly 11D 12.11–11.81 Dark grey (5Y 4/1) sandy mud and muddy sand with some shell 10 11.60–11.31 Grey (10Y 4/1) silty sand with much shell 11.31–11.13 Grey (5Y 4/1) sandy mud with odd shells 11.13–11.05 Grey (5Y 4/1) sandy mud with abundant shell and eelgrass fibre, becoming more clayey upward 11.00–2.40 Shell gravel, hydro-collapsed and not sampled Shallow marine, high energy shoal sediments deposited within wave-base 2.40–0.00 Rubble and masonry Salt pan roadway and wall foundation 404 Deep core borehole logs Table A3.2. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina 4 core. Core Depth (m) Description Interpretation SA4-K 11.02–10.82 Dark greenish-grey (2.5GY 4/1) mud. Ag1, As3 10.82–10.7 Dark grey (7.5Y 4/1) mud with few shells. Gs1, Ga1, As2 Quiet-water estuarine, deposition mostly from suspension 10.7–10.67 Dark grey (7.5Y 4/1) sandy silty mud. Ga1, As3 10.67–10.47 Dark grey (7.5Y 4/1) shelly gravelly mud. Poorly sorted, no bedding. Lots of shells. Ggmin1, Ga1, As2 10.47–10.02 Olive-grey (7.5Y 4/2) sandy silty mud with shell fragments. No bedding. Lumps of humified material at 10.69–10.71 m. Ga1, As3 10.02–9.48 Grey (7.5Y 4/1) shelly sandy mud. Gs1, Ag1, As2 9.48–9.34 Grey (7.5Y 4/1) Ag1, As3 9.34–9.02 Grey (7.5Y 4/1) shelly sandy mud. Gs1, Ag1, As2 9.02–8.15 Dark greenish grey (5GY 4/1) muddy sand. Large shell at 8.86–8.875 m, stone at 8.34–8.37 m. Ag1, As3 8.15–8.02 Olive-grey (7.5Y 5/2) muddy sand. Ag1, Gs3 8.02–7.88 Grey (7.5Y 4/1) sandy mud. Gs0.5, As3.5 7.88–7.87 Grey (7.5Y 4/1) very sandy mud. Gs2, As2 7.87–7.58 Grey (7.5Y 4/1) sand. Ag1, As3 7.58–7.56 Grey (7.5Y 4/1) shelly sand. As1, Ag1, Gs2 7.56–7.02 Greenish-grey (2.5GY 6/1) sandy mud. As3, Gs1 7.02–6.86 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) poorly sorted sandy shelly silt with clay. Lots of broken shells, some herbaceous detritus. Gs3, Ga1, Dh 5–10% 6.86–6.38 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) silty clay. Trace amounts of sand, band of humified organic detritus at 6.785 m. No structures. Ag1, As3, Dh 5–10% 6.38–6.02 Olive grey (5Y 5/2) muddy sand. Slightly humified eelgrass at 6.32–6.29 m. Gs3, Ga1. 6.02–5.84 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) silty clay. Ag1, As3 5.84–5.80 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) sandy silty mud. Ag1, Ga1, As1, Gs1 5.80–5.78 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) silty clay. Ag1, As3 5.78–5.70 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) sandy mud. Poorly sorted. Gs3, Ag1 5.70–5.63 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) silty clay. Ag1, As3 5.63–5.43 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) muddy sand. Poorly sorted, some Fe staining. Gs3, Ga1 5.43–5.39 Grey (2.5Y 6/1) sandy mud. Gs1, As3 5.39–5.02 Grey (2.5Y 6/1) well sorted medium to coarse sand. Gs4 5.02–4.90 Olive-grey (7.5Y 5/2) silty clay with some organic detritus. Ag1, As3, Dh 5–10% Sharp upper boundary 4.90–4.38 Grey (7.5Y 5/1) sandy silt with some large shells at 4.76 m. Moderately sorted, traces of Dh detritus. Shell fragments present. Gs4 4.38–4.02 Missing/liquified SA4-J SA4-I SA4-H SA4-G SA4-F SA4-E 405 Estuarine sediments. Coarser layers reflect flood input of sediment from upstream, finer layers are suspension deposits between major floods Appendix 3 Table A3.2 (cont.). Core Depth (m) Description SA 4-D 4.02–3.47 Greyish-olive (7.5Y 6/2) silty clay with lump of very humified organic material at 3.77 m. Eelgrass (humified) at 3.54 and (humified) at 3.72 m 3.47–3.38 Olive-grey (5Y 5/2) sandy silty clay 3.38–3.36 Olive-black (7.5Y 2/2) silty clay with moderately humified eelgrass at 3.37 m 3.36–3.26 Olive-grey (5Y 5/2) sandy silty clay 3.26–3.18 Olive-black (7.5Y 2/2) silty clay with slightly humified eelgrass at 3.18–3.25 m 3.18–3.02 Olive-grey (5Y 5/2) sandy silty clay SA4-C SA4-B SA4-A Interpretation 3.02–2.70 Olive-grey (7.5Y 7/2) silty clay 2.70–2.52 Olive-grey (7.5Y 7/2) silty clay Lagoonal sediments 2.52–2.02 Olive-grey (7.5Y 7/2) silty clay 2.02–1.89 Greenish-grey (2.5GY 6/1) silty clay. Some charcoal and shells (very minor traces). No structures. Diffuse upper boundary. Ag1, As3 1.89–1.23 Very pale brown (10YR 7/3) silty clay (fine to medium silt). Fine textural laminations detected with scalpel (not visible). Fe stained. At 1.8 m transition to olive grey (2.5GY 6/1) silty clay. Slightly sharp upper boundary. Ag1, As3 1.23–1.16 Very pale brown (10YR 7/3) poorly sorted silty sand with some clay. Shell fragments. Gs2, Ag1, As1 1.16–1.02 Brown 10YR 5/3 silty clay darkening to dark grey (10YR 4/ at 1.095 m. Textural laminations detected with scalpel (not visible). Fe stained. Ag1, As3 1.01–0.89 Brownish-yellow (10YR 6/6) moderately well sorted clayey silt. Looks mottled, oxidized. Some broken shell fragments present throughout. Some coarse bedding. Silty-sand beds interdigitated throughout (at 0.99, 0.96, 0.94, 0.92 and possibly 0.90–0.89 m). Ag2, As1, Ga1 0.89–0.83 Light yellowish-brown (10YR 6/4) poorly sorted sandy silt with shell fragments. Massive, poorly structured. GS3, Ag1 0.83–0.58 Brownish-yellow (10YR 6/6) moderately well sorted clayey silt. Mottled, oxidized. Some broken shell fragments present throughout. Some coarse bedding (sedimentary structures). Ag2, As1, Ga1 0.58–0.51 Not recovered (made ground) Floodplain back-basin lagoonal sediments with coarse layers deposited during major floods Made ground 406 Deep core borehole logs Table A3.3. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina 2 core. Core Depths in core Lithology Interpretation SA2-7 (6.545.24 m) 6.54–6.47 m Dark grey brown highly organic sandy silty clay. Estuarine sediments. Mostly quietwater suspension deposits 6.47-6.36 m Grey shelly coarse sand High-energy shallow estuarine sediments 6.36-6.24 m Dark grey brown highly organic sandy silty clay becoming shelly upward. Burrowed upper surface with in-situ deep infaunal mollusc in burrow. Estuarine sediments. Mostly quietwater suspension deposits 6.24-5.68 m Grey shelly to very shelly very coarse sand with some organic fragments. Some bedding suggesting layers of about 5-8 cm thickness High-energy shallow estuarine sediments 5.68-5.24 Probably hydrocollapsed coarse shelly sand High-energy estuarine shoal sediments, very rapidly deposited 5.06-4.36 m Dark grey fine silty sand, gradually coarsening upward and with occasional shell, showing faint bedding 1-2 cm thick. Estuarine sediments. Mostly quietwater suspension deposits 4.36-4.12 m Grey, coarse, occasionally shelly sand with water-escape structures, possibly partly hydrocollapsed High-energy shallow estuarine sediments SA2-5 (4.043.26 m) 4.04-3.26 m Grey very coarse sand with very abundant shell and occasional organic matter, hydrocollapsed High-energy shallow estuarine sediments SA2-4 (3.192.35 m) 3.19-2.82 m Grey mottled strong-brown laminated sandy clayey silt with odd shell. Mottles probably mark the location of burrows. Estuarine quiet-water sediments. 2.82-2.78 m Grey and light grey laminated slightly silty clay. Erosive upper boundary Estuarine quiet-water sediments. High-energy shallow estuarine sediments SA2-6 (5.064.12 m) 2.78-2.72 m Grey fine shell gravel, fining upward into 2.72-2.49 m Grey very shelly slightly silty sand passing gradually upward into greyish-brown shell gravel. Sharp upper boundary 2.49-2.37 m Grey brown coarse shelly sand, fining upward 2.37-2.35 m Grey brown shelly sand SA2-3 (2.271.78 m) 2.27-1.78 m Light greyish brown coarse to very coarse shelly sand, with indistinct layering. Layers 5-6 cm thick are marked by differences in grain size and porosity High-energy shallow estuarine sediments SA2-2 (1.630.94 m) 1.63-1.27 m Light greyish brown coarse to very coarse shelly sand, but gradually fining upward to medium to coarse shelly sand, with indistinct layering. Layers 5-6 cm thick are marked by differences in grain size and porosity, Sharp but burrowed upper boundary High-energy shallow estuarine sediments 1.27-0.97 m Pale yellowish brown to brownish yellow coarse to medium sand High-energy littoral sediments 0.73-0.66 m Light greyish brown coarse shelly sand, coarsening up into fine shelly gravel. Sharp upper boundary High-energy shallow estuarine sediments 0.66-0.45 m Brownish-grey to dark brownish-grey organic fine shelly sand with indistinct layering 2-5 cm thick and occasional burrows picked out by colour variation, Occasional shallow infaunal bivalves in-situ. Sharp upper boundary Estuarine sandflat 0.45-0.19 m Very light brownish yellow coarse to medium sand with abundant shell, showing indistinct layering 6-8 cm thick, picked out by grain size variation High-energy littoral sediments SA2-1 (0.730.03 m) 407 Appendix 3 Table A3.4. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Xemxija 1 core. Core Depth (m) Description Interpretation XEM1-9 9.99–9.93 Brown (10YR 4/4) matrix-supported breccia of fairly uniform clasts of soil aggregates (mainly sub-angular) with occasional limestone grit. Slightly silty clay with grit and occasional shell fragments Mass-flow deposits composed of aggregates derived from eroded soil 9.93–9.81 Dark brown (7.5YR 3/3) coarse diamict with sub-rounded to sub-angular limestone clasts to 2 cm. Gritty clay matrix. Very gradual transition to 9.81–9.67 Dark brown (7.5YR 3.5/3.5) diamict with disordered sub-rounded to sub-angular limestone clasts in a matrix of sandy clay. Odd tiny mollusc fragments. 9.67–9.50 Brown (10YR 4.5/3) matrix-supported breccia of limestone fragments (mostly subangular) and soil aggregates. Gritty clay with particles all aligned in one direction. 9.50–9.39 Dark greyish-brown (10YR 4/2) breccia of clay soil aggregates (some sub-angular whereas in the rest of the core most are rounded). Mostly clast-supported but some matrix-supported. c. 20% limestone fragments at the bottom, c. 5% at the top 9.39–9.26 Brown (7.5YR 3/2) breccia of clay soil aggregates with occasional limestone fragments and charcoal. Relatively coarse at the bottom – appears to fine upwards. Transition to 9.26–9.21 Dark brown (7.5YR 3.5/2) breccia of soil aggregates up to 5 mm, and limestone grit (c. 30%, small, sub-rounded clasts). Mostly matrix-supported but odd voids around some clasts. Slightly silty clay. Transitional above and below 9.21–9.13 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) matrix-/clast-supported breccia of soil aggregates, size 2–5 mm. Rather clayey, possibly some silt. Odd limestone chips, occasional very small charcoal fragments, little bit of sand-sized limestone 9.13–9.09 Dark grey (10YR 4/1) breccia of 2–3 mm soil aggregates with small voids between some. Occasional brownish red (2.5YR 4/8) mottling. Tiny limestone chips and possible shell fragments A-B profile of a buried soil; very micritic indicating calcareous groundwater and seasonal drying, developed on mass-flow deposit of aggregates derived from eroded soil 9.09–8.97 Very dark greyish-brown (10YR 2.5/1) matrix-supported fine breccia of soil aggregates. Nearly 100% clay with tiny charcoal fragments and very occasional very small limestone chips Mass-flow deposit composed of aggregates derived from eroded soil 8.97–8.88 Brown (10YR 3/2) slightly silty clay, slightly fining upwards with dark red (2.5YR 3/6) mottling. Breccia of soil aggregates. Abundant small limestone fragments Truncated profile of a buried soil; developed on mass-flow deposit of aggregates derived from eroded soil 8.90–8.83 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) almost pure clay with odd shell fragments and little bits of wood 8.83–8.76 Black (2.5Y 2/1) to dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) clayey silt with clod of peaty organic matter (very highly humified with abundant ostracods). Occasional shell and wood fragments Freshwater marsh and shallow pool deposits, probably a lagoonal setting behind a bay-bar 8.76–8.56 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) clayey silt / silty clay. Very organic, full of very small gastropod fragments. Occasional wood and charcoal 8.56–8.46 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1 silty clay / clayey silt. Fairly abundant lumps of tufa (root encrustations?) and odd bits of charcoal and wood. Abundant freshwater gastropods 8.46–8.25 Dark grey (10YR 4.5/1) clay with possible slight silt component. Odd tufa lumps (one has a core of organic material suggesting they are encrustations around organic matter). Odd shell fragments (mainly gastropods). Rootlets preserved as very rotten organic matter, mostly near the top 8.25–8.09 Very dark grey (7.5YR 3/1) slightly shelly, slightly silty clay with occasional tufa lumps, charcoal fragments and little bits of organic matter. Gradual transition over c. 2 cm to 8.09–8.00 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) clayey silt with very high organic content and very occasional shell fragments. c. 1 cm thick light brownish-grey (2.5Y 6/2) tufa layers and 0.5 cm thick layers of brown mud XEM1-8 408 Deep core borehole logs Table A3.4 (cont.). Core Depth (m) Description Interpretation XEM1-7 7.80–7.67 Strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) becoming downwards brown 10YR 4/3 clayey silt/silty clay with occasional shells and large root casts from unit above. Perhaps more clayey with depth Deposits of a seasonally drying marsh 7.67–7.30 Dark greyish-brown (10YR 4/2) variably matrix-/clast-supported breccia of soil aggregates with occasional angular to sub-rounded limestone fragments, slightly silty clay. Occasional rootlets, a very little shell. Odd orange ironstone-like small pebbles. Potsherd present at 7.62 m 7.30–6.73 Greyish-brown (10YR 4.5/2) matrix-supported breccia of soil aggregates. Slightly silty clay with odd small limestone clasts and large rootlets (longest = c. 12 cm) 6.68–6.57 Very dark grey (7.5YR 3/1.5) slightly silty clay. Very fine matrix-supported breccia 6.57–6.38 Dark grey (10YR 4/1) mottled brown (7.5YR 4/4) and strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) clayey silt. Clast-supported breccia of soil aggregates Mass-flow deposits of aggregates derived from eroded soil profiles, from a series of grain/mud flow events, interrupted by phases of weak pedogenesis (at 6.03– 6.05 m and 6.7–6.85 m) indicating periods of some stabilization. 6.38–6.32 Brown (10YR 4/4) to brownish-yellow (10YR 6/8) very slightly silty clay. Clastsupported breccia of soil aggregates 6.32–6.15 Dark greyish-yellow (10YR 4/2) slightly silty clay. Partly matrix-, partly clastsupported breccia of soil aggregates 6.15–6.05 Dark greyish-yellow (10YR 4/2) clay silty clay. Clast-supported breccia of soil aggregates with occasional sub-angular limestones 6.05–6.03 Dark greyish-brown (10YR 4/2) clay. Matrix-supported breccia of soil aggregates 6.03–5.89 Dark greyish-brown (10YR 4/2) clast-supported breccia of clay soil aggregates. Less dense with more air gaps than unit above. Some brighter mottles (10YR 5/6) XEM1-6 XEM1-5 5.89–5.79 Brown (10YR 4/3) matrix-supported breccia of silty clays and fine soil aggregates 5.67–5.64 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3.5/1) shelly, slightly silty clay. Very distinct line of organic matter fragments at top of unit 5.64–5.36 Dark grey (10YR 4/1) to grey (10YR 6/1) slightly clayey silt containing organic matter. Contains tiny limestone and shell fragments. Patchy – contains little marly lumps 5.36–5.25 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) highly organic clay with little pockets of very humified organic matter. Contains one piece of sub-rounded limestone and odd little bits of shell 5.25–5.17 Brownish-grey (10YR 4/1) organic marl passing up into greyish-yellow-brown (10YR 6/2) very organic marl. Silty clay with abundant chunks of organic matter and occasional shell fragments. Banded, darkening upwards 5.17–5.12 Black (10YR 2/1) dense organic matter, slightly fibrous. Much more solid than previous ‘peat’ units. No inorganic matter. Humification H3. Tiny fragments of shell at 5.17 m – erosion surface? 5.12–4.98 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) slightly shelly, highly organic, silty clay with very abundant plant fragments. Less humified than previous layer 4.98–4.89 Black (N 2/0) highly organic, very well humified, slightly fibrous peat. Humification H9–10 4.89–4.85 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) slightly shelly silty clay, grades upwards into peat 4.85–4.79 Slightly shelly black (N 2/0) organic mud. Quite fibrous and very highly humified 409 Shallow freshwater lagoon, some clastic input Shallow freshwater lagoon, probably with much dense vegetation and minimal clastic input Appendix 3 Table A3.4 (cont.). Core Depth (m) Description Interpretation XEM1-4 4.60–4.53 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) shelly clay with odd bits of charcoal, no obvious roots. More shelly than other units 4.53–3.62 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) clay to very slightly silty clay. Odd fragments of vegetable material, charcoal, rootlets and darker streaks. Occasional sub-angular rocks Shallow freshwater lagoon and paludal marsh. Near permanent waterlogged conditions, and only minimal input of very fine sediment XEM1-3 XEM1-2 XEM1-1 3.55–3.40 Grey (5Y 5/1) slightly shelly clay with rootlets and odd charcoal flecks. 3.40–3.20 Grey (5Y 5/1) slightly shelly silty clay. Very vague laminations at 3.36–3.38 m. Slight transition to… 3.20–3.03 Reddish-grey (2.5 YR 5/1) shelly, very slightly silty clay with occasional irregular, weathered-looking limestone lumps. 3.03–2.92 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) slightly silty clay. Slightly shelly with occasional small stones. Mottles could be mud pellets again. Gradual transition to 2.92–2.65 Grey (2.5Y 6/1) slightly shelly clay with odd charcoal fragments and abundant iron mottling brown (10YR 5/3) and brownish-yellow (10YR 6/6). Mottles actually appear to be mud clasts from soil inwash 2.40–2.36 Grey (2.5Y 6/1) clayey fine to medium sand. Fines upwards slightly – sand coarser below 2.37 m. Estuarine shell fragments Storm runoff input to lagoon 2.36–2.25 Grey (2.5Y 6/1) sandy clay, slightly mottled with flecks of organic matter. Occasional rootlets and shell fragments Lagoonal sediments 2.25–1.99 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) silty clay with flecks of blackish organic matter. Some possible pieces of wood 1.99–1.92 Light brownish-grey (2.5Y 6/2) organic clay with c. 2 mm greyish-brown (2.5Y 5/2) laminations of more organic material showing current bedding. Occasional reed macrofossils and charcoal 1.92–1.80 ‘Transition zone’ light brownish-grey (2.5Y 6/2) clay with odd shell fragments. Very small black mottles throughout. 1.80–1.40 Light olive-brown (2.5Y 5/3) slightly clayey silt with c. 2 mm laminations in places and yellowish-brown mottles throughout. Black mottling along roots. Odd small shell fragments 1.42–1.33 Light reddish-brown (2.5YR 6/4) clay with light grey (10Y 7/1) mottles and occasional roots and sub-rounded small limestone clasts 1.33–1.23 Reddish-brown (5YR 4.5/4) with mottles black (5YR 2.5/1) and yellowish-red (2.5YR 4/8) diamict with sub-angular to sub-rounded limestone clasts in a silty clay matrix with manganese and iron oxide staining 1.23–0.75 Breccia of sub rounded pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4) limestone fragments in a matrix of crushed limestone Made ground 0.75–0.54 Light yellowish-brown (2.5Y 6/4) with occasional mottles of brown (7.5YR 5/4) and light olive-grey (5Y 6/2) slightly clayey silt light Overbank alluvium, gleyed 410 Deposits of a seasonal marsh Colluvium Deep core borehole logs Table A3.5. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Xemxija 2 core. Core segment Depth (m) Description Interpretation XEM2-8 9.33–8.99 Brown (10YR 4/3) breccia of clay soil aggregates. Occasional charcoal and limestone chippings. Some voids Mass-flow deposits of aggregates derived from eroded soil profiles, from a series of grain/ mud flow events 8.99–8.91 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3.5/1.5) clay with shell fragments and very finely comminuted charcoal 8.91–8.72 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) slightly gritty grey clay with limestone lumps, odd little tufaceous bits, very small shell fragments. Quite frequent charcoal Paludal marsh sediments. Marsh was episodically in receipt of distal mudflows or muddy floods 8.72–8.66 Black (10YR 2/1) highly organic slightly silty clay. Possible burrow, may also be soft sediment deformation structures 8.66–8.55 Dark grey (10YR 3.5/1) silty clay/clayey silt with shell fragments and odd tiny limestone particles. Lots of very waterlogged wood 8.22–7.89 Dark greyish-brown (10YR 4/2) breccia of soil aggregates up to 5–6 mm across. Quite a lot of void space. Very occasional shell fragments, occasional limestone chippings. Very slightly silty clay 7.89–7.63 Brown (10YR 4/3) breccia of soil aggregates, mostly matrix-supported but some slightly clast-supported. Slightly silty clay with possible dark soil mottles. Odd tiny charcoal flecks and limestone bits 7.63–7.38 Greyish-brown (10YR 4.5/2) diamict. Slightly silty clay matrix, mostly in the form of sub-rounded soil aggregates. Quite stony (up to 2 cm irregular limestone lumps). Occasional charcoal 7.38–7.26 Dark greyish-brown (10YR 4.5/2) clay with tiny black flecks (probably charcoal), odd limestone pebbles and charcoal/wood. Fairly dense, not much structure, occasional quite large voids 7.17–6.88 Dark grey (10YR 4.5/1.5) clay with occasional charcoal and limestone fragments. Very little shell compared with units above. Some quite large (c. 8 cm) rootlets, some containing very rotten organic matter. Mottling at top of unit. Small patches where pellets of soil (peds) are present – soil aggregates? Marshy soil with input of aggregates from eroded soil profiles 6.88–6.81 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) slightly silty clay with odd shells, piece of charcoal, small mud pellet 6.81–6.69 Dark grey (10YR 4/1) slightly tufaceous clay with odd shell fragments and occasional vegetable matter Freshwater lagoon with declining clastic input through time 6.69–6.53 Black (10YR 2/1) highly organic slightly clayey silt. Contains mollusc fragments, at least one seed and rather decayed wood/charcoal 6.53–6.22 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) highly organic slightly silty clay with occasional tufa lumps, some freshwater molluscs, tiny organic chunks (wood/charcoal). Vague layering in places, particularly at bottom 6.12–6.05 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) silty clay with abundant tufa lumps. Also contains molluscs and black organic matter (wood/charcoal). Denser than layer above 6.05–5.72 Grey (10YR 4.5/1) clay with definite lumps of charcoal, wood fragments and tufa lumps 5.72–5.64 Grey (10YR 5/1) highly organic clay with plant fragments. Odd limestone fragments and shell, much comminuted organic matter 5.64–5.62 Grey (10YR 4.5/1) smooth clay with tiny shell fragments 5.62–5.59 Dark grey (5YR 4/1) silty clay with much finely divided organic matter. Little bits of charcoal/wood and shell 5.59–5.43 Yellowish-brown (10YR 5/5) clay with occasional tufaceous lumps and limestone pebbles, odd shell fragments and bits of charcoal/wood 5.43–5.28 Brownish-grey (10YR 4/1) very organic-rich clay with occasional shells, some plant fibres, lumps of tufa and wood/charcoal. Limestone pebble. Slightly gritty (sand-sized limestone) 5.28–5.23 Black (10YR 2/1) very rich silty clay. Drawn down in burrow-like structure to 5.33 m XEM2-7 XEM2-6 XEM2-5 411 Mass-flow deposits of aggregates derived from eroded soil profiles, from a series of grain/ mud flow events Appendix 3 Table A3.5 (cont.). Core segment Depth (m) Description XEM2-4 5.03–4.26 Brownish-grey (10YR 5/1) highly organic slightly silty clay. Occasional slightly tufaceous lumps, little bits of shell and limestone chippings, small fragments of wood and/or charcoal, very occasional molluscs. Large rock at 4.63–4.58 m. Possibly was another at 4.40–4.36 m. A c. 5 mm thick blackish band at 4.71 m. Slightly tufaceous band at 4.88 m 4.26–4.24 Black (10YR 2/1) laminated fibrous organic matter, humification H7 interspersed with a very thin clay layer (5 mm). Very pasty macrofossils, small lump of tufa 4.24–4.18 Brownish-grey (10YR 4/1) slightly silty clay with shell fragments and organic matter fragments (possibly wood) 4.18–4.11 Black (10YR 2/1) organic matter, humification H7, with plant macrofossils. Very little structure 4.02–3.34 Grey (5Y 5.5/1) slightly shelly clay with occasional limestone fragments 3.34–3.26 Brown (2.5Y 5/2) silty clay with occasional tiny limestone fragments and shell fragments. Gradual transition to 3.26–3.15 Grey (2.5Y 5/1) clay with odd limestone pebbles and some very finely divided charcoal. Gradual transition to 3.03–2.96 Grey (5Y 4.5/1) slightly shelly clay. Appears to have faint partings – may well be laminated 2.96–2.87 Grey (2.5Y 6/1) slightly shelly clay with yellowish (10YR 5/4) mottling and odd charcoal fragments. Indefinite transition over c. 2 cm to 2.87–2.85 Greyish-yellow-brown (10YR 5/2) very shelly clay 2.85–2.64 Black (2.5Y 5/1) silty clay with very abundant shells (freshwater snails?), charcoal and plant fragments 2.64–2.60 Grey (10YR 5/1) very shelly clay with odd charcoal fragments 2.60–2.52 Light brownish-grey (2.5Y 6/2) very shelly clay containing chunk of wood. Gradual transition to 2.52–2.46 Black (2.5Y 5/1) slightly clayey sand with abundant shell fragments (estuarine gastropods). Becomes siltier downwards 2.46–2.23 Black (2.5Y 5/1) slightly silty clay with some charcoal and plant fibres, very occasional wood and shell fragments 2.23–2.15 Brown (10YR 5/3) clay with odd bits of charcoal. More oxidized form of unit above 2.15–2.10 Light brownish-grey (2.5Y 4/2) pure clay with occasional grassy fibres, small charcoal fragments and small piece of wood. 2.10–1.98 Olive-brown (2.5Y 4.5/3) mottled with brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) silty clay 2.03–1.87 Dull yellowish-brown (10YR 4.5/3) silty clay with odd smears of black (manganese or charcoal?) and some definite charcoal fragments 1.87–1.73 Dull yellowish-brown (10YR 5/4) fairly uniform clay with poorly developed pedogenic structures 1.73–1.52 Dull orange-brown (10YR 5.5/4) with mottles of yellowish-brown (10YR 5/8) silty clay with rusty mottles (probably alongside root voids). Occasional angular limestone particles and charcoal 1.52–1.36 Orange (2.5Y 6/6) clay with very occasional limestone clasts and black charcoallike smears. 1.36–1.33 Yellowish-brown (10YR 5/6) slightly gritty slightly pebbly silty clay 1.33–1.17 Limestone rubble XEM2-3 XEM2-2 XEM2-1 Interpretation Lagoon of variable salinity Seasonal lagoon passing upwards into pedogenically altered overbank floodplain Pedogenically altered colluvium Made ground 412 Deep core borehole logs Table A3.6. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Wied Żembaq 1 core. Core Depth (m) Description Interpretation WZ1-5 5.48–5.23 Black (10YR 2/1) clay with minor sand component. Occasional shells and root channels. Core stopped by stone at 5.48 m Salt marsh 5.23–4.84 Dark grey (10YR 4/1) clay, less sandy than unit above. Dark-stained root channels, small shells and stones (c. 2–3 mm) present 4.84–4.54 Dark brown (10YR 3/3) slightly sandy orange clay with occasional shells and small stones. Particularly stony layer 4.69–4.74 m 4.51–3.71 Dark grey (10YR 4/1) clay, slightly organic. Occasional shells, small stones and root channels. Black (10YR 2/1) organic band 4.0–4.2 m 3.71–3.64 Dark brown (10YR 3/3) lightly sandy smooth brown clay. 3.64–3.51 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 3/4) sandy clay with occasional shells, dark staining along root channels and small limestone fragments WZ1-3 3.49–2.51 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 4/4) sandy clay with occasional shells, dark staining along root channels and small limestone fragments, darkening at base WZ1-2 2.42–2.36 Brown (10YR 4/3) slightly sandy orange clay containing small limestone fragments and shells 2.36–2.16 Weathered limestone 2.16–1.74 Dark brown (10YR 3/3) clay with black mottling along several root channels. More shelly than unit above 1.74–1.42 Yellowish-brown (10YR 5/4) slightly sandy orange clay containing small limestone fragments and shells. Large stone at 1.45–1.52 m 1.42–1.28 Yellowish-brown (10YR 5/4) sandy clay 1.28–1.16 Compact brown (7.5 YR 4/4) clay with occasional limestone grit WZ1-4 WZ1-1 Colluvium on the fringes of a floodplain Salt marsh with input of colluvial sediments Alluvial overbank Table A3.7. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Wied Żembaq 2 core. Core segment Depth (m) Description Interpretation WZ2-5 5.13–5.03 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) clay. Large limestone boulder at 5.05–5.19 m, below this is almost pure clay 5.03–4.89 Very dark greyish-brown (10YR 3/2) same as lowest unit in WZ2-4, but more brownish hue Salt marsh in receipt of occasional colluvial sediment 4.90–4.82 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) slightly sandier clay with occasional small shells and stones. Slightly organic? Transitional zone over 2 cm 4.82–4.74 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 4/4) clay. Less sandy with occasional small stones. Sharp boundary 4.74–4.71 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 4/4) sandy clay with small (2–3 mm) limestone fragments. Sharp boundary 3.95–3.85 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) clay with higher sand content 3.85–3.18 Very slightly darker than unit above. More frequent dark staining along root channels 3.18–2.95 Sandy dark brown (10YR 3/3) clay with occasional small rotten limestone fragments (2–3 mm). Some dark staining along root channels WZ2-4 WZ2-3 WZ2-2 WZ2-1 2.95–2.89 Dark brown (10YR 3/3) silty clay 2.89–2.65 Large pieces of rotten limestone 2.65–2.21 Brown (10YR 4/3) slightly sandy clay with occasional small shells and limestone fragments (2–3 mm) 1.95–1.35 Brown (10YR 5/3) varying to (10YR 4/3) slightly sandy clay with occasional small shells and limestone fragments (2–3 mm) 1.35–1.31 Brown (7.5YR 4/2) darker brownish-red clay 1.31–1.15 Compact brown (7.5 YR 4/4) clay. Large stone at base 413 Shallow possibly seasonal saline lagoon with marine connection and input of colluvial sediment Appendix 3 Table A3.8. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Mgarr ix-Xini core. Core segment Depth (m) Description Interpretation MGX1-K 7.43–7.21 Pale brown (2.5Y 7/4) gravel fining up to silt. From base to 7.375 m clasts are subangular to angular with a size range 42 x 33 mm to 20 x 19 mm; clast at 7.28–7.32 m is sub-rounded and 48 x 46 mm. Rest of unit consists of granules and fine gravels in a slightly clayey sandy silt matrix. Very compacted. Ggmax2, Ggmin1, Gs1, Ag 2%, As 5% 7.21–7.12 Light greyish-brown (2.5Y 6/3) coarse and fine sands with some broken shell fragments. Gs4, Ggmin 2% Estuary subjected to high-energy flood events delivering coarse clastics as gravity flows, interspersed with finegrained sediments from fall-out 7.12–6.93 Grey (10Y 4/1) slightly silty clay. As3, Ag1 6.93–6.84 Breccia. Ggmax2, As1, Ag1 6.80–6.75 Light yellow (2.5Y 7/4) very consolidated slightly gravelly sand with coarse silt. Poorly sorted, no bedding. Clasts sub-angular to sub-rounded. Gs2, Ga1, Ggmin 1 6.75–6.60 One or two large gravel clasts, some mud but mostly missing. No Troels-Smith description possible. Probably openwork gravel. 6.60–6.45 Yellowish grey (2.5Y 5/1) poorly sorted muddy sand with gravel. Shell fragments throughout. Gs2, Ga1, Ggmin1 6.45–6.21 Not recovered 6.17–5.82 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3/1) slightly clayey fine sandy silt with some gravel. Cryptic plane bedding. Some plant remains. Ag2, Ga1, Gs1, As c. 5% 5.82–5.72 Very dark grey (2.5Y 3/1) slightly gravelly silt. As3, Gs1, Ggmin 2–5% 5.72–5.58 Olive-yellow (5Y 6/4) gravel with one very big clast (30 x 26 mm). Gs3, GGmin1, Ggmax c. 2% 5.38–5.33 Dull yellow (2.5Y 6/4) gravelly coarse sand with some shell fragments. Grains subrounded and poorly sorted. Gs3, Ggmin1 5.33–5.06 Grey (5Y 5/1) (at 5.295 m grading to yellowish-grey (2.5Y 4/1) shelly sand. Bedding shown by sharp colour changes. Ag2, Ga1, Gs1, Ggmax 2–5%, Ggmin 2–5% 5.06–4.95 Dull yellow (2.5Y 6/3) at 5.01 m grading to grey (5Y 5/1) gravelly sandy mud. Poorly sorted, no bedding. Ggmin1, Ag1, Gs2, Ggmax 1–2% 4.91–4.69 Bright yellowish-brown (2.5Y 7/6) coarse sand, fining upward into medium sand with a mud drape of sandy silty clay. Gs3, Ga1 4.69–4.65 Greyish-yellow (2.5Y 7/2) gravel, with large angular to sub-angular clasts with some sand and silt. Ggmax3, Gs1, Ga c. 5% 4.65–4.60 Grey (10Y 5/1) coarse to medium sandy clayey silt with a little gravel. Gs1, Ga1, Ag2 4.60–4.56 Greyish-yellow (2.5Y 7/2) poorly sorted coarse sand with some granules and a gravel clast. Gradual transition into overlying unit. Ggmax1, Ggmin1, Gs2 4.56–4.46 Grey (10Y 6/1) poorly sorted sandy silty mud. Gs1, Ga1, Ag1, Ggmin 2–5% 4.46–4.32 Light yellow (2.5Y 7/3) poorly sorted gravels. One large (c. 15 x 46 mm) gravel clast). Gs2, Ggmin1, Ggmax1 4.28–4.15 Greyish-olive (7.5Y 5/2) massive fine to medium silt with shell fragments and slightly humified plant remains throughout. Some complete shell tests. 4.24–4.25 m: poorly sorted silty gravelly sands. Ag3, Gs1, Ggmin c. 5%, shell fragments c. 10% 4.15–3.97 Pale yellow (2.5Y 8/4) fine to coarse gravel. Ggmin3, Ggmax1 3.97–3.78 Light yellow (2.5Y 7/4) silty gravelly coarse shelly sand. Lots of broken shell fragments. Clasts fairly angular. Ga1, Gs3 3.78–3.69 Not recovered MGX1-J MGX1-I MGX1-H MGX1-G MGX1-F 414 Deep core borehole logs Table A3.8 (cont.). Core segment Depth (m) Description MGX1-E 3.65–3.62 Grey (5Y 5/1) moderately well sorted sandy mud with some granules and gravel. Some shells. As1, Ag1, Ga1, Gs1 3.62–3.57 Grey (5Y 5/1) sandy gravelly mud/muddy sand with broken shell fragments. Sharp upper boundary; more diffuse lower boundary. Gs2, As1, Ag1 3.57–3.55 Grey (5Y 5/1) moderately well sorted sandy mud with some granules and gravel. Some shells. Sharp upper boundary. As1, Ag1, Ga1, Gs1 3.55–3.37 Light grey (10Y 7/1) very well lithified sandy muddy micrite with manganese nodules. Bedded, friable. No Troels-Smith description possible 3.37–3.33 Grey (5Y 5/1) sandy mud with some shell fragments and manganese nodules; fewer plant remains. As2, Ag1, Gs1, Dl 2–5%, Dh 2–5%, Ggmin 2–5% 3.33–3.30 Light olive-grey (5GY 7/1) almost pure massive clay with some roots present. As3, Ag1 3.30–3.09 Grey (5Y 5/1) gravelly sandy mud with some shell fragments. Woody (?) plant macrofossil at 3.24 m. As2, Ag1, Gs1, Dl 2–5%, Dh 2–5%, Ggmin 2–5% Estuarine sediment 3.09–3.06 Light greenish-grey (5GY 7/1) almost pure massive clay with a few roots. As3, Ag1 Short-lived palaeosol 3.02–2.98 Not recovered 2.98–2.95 Grey (7.5Y 4/1) clayey silt with sand, trace of organic detritus. As1, Ag1, Gs2 2.95–2.82 Grey (10Y 6/1) clayey, sandy silt. As1, Ag2, Gs1 2.82–2.69 Grey (10Y 4/1) clayey, sandy silt. As1, Ag2, Gs1 2.69–2.60 Grey (10Y 6/1) clayey, sandy silt, As1, Ag2, Gs1 2.60–2.43 Greyish-olive (5Y 5/2) gravelly sand, poorly sorted, well rounded clasts. Gs3, Gg(min)1, Lim. 3 2.39–2.14 Light olive grey (2.5GY 7/1) massive slightly gravelly silty clay. Some humified plant detritus and broken shells. Ag1, As3, Dl c. 10%, Dh c.5%, Ggmin c. 2–5%. 2.14–1.91 Greyish-olive (7.5Y 5/2) poorly sorted shelly gravelly sand. Shell mostly fragmentary. Gs3, Ggmin1 1.91–1.80 Not recovered 1.76–1.49 Greyish-olive (7.5Y 6/2) coarse slightly gravelly sand with some shell fragments and humified detritus Gs4, Dh 5%, Gg(min) 5% 1.49–1.39 Greyish-olive (5Y 4/2) sandy coarse gravel. Gs1, Gg(max)2, Gg(min)1, Lim. 3–4 1.39–1.26 Not recovered 1.26–1.17 Light yellow (2.5Y 7/4) very poorly sorted gravelly sand Gs3, Gg(min)1, Gg(max)10%, Lim. 4 1.13–0.93 Pale yellow (2.5Y 8/4) poorly sorted gravelly sand with some shell fragments. Ggmin1, Gs2, Ga1 0.93–0.54 Dull yellow (2.5Y 6/4) massive slightly stony sandy clayey silt. As1, Ag2, Gs2, Ggmin 5–10% MGX1-D MGX1-C MGX1-B MGX1-A Interpretation 415 Palaeosol with calcrete developed on estuarine sediments suggesting a strongly seasonal climate and several hundred years of emergence above sea level. Estuary with fine deposits from fallout interspersed with coarse clastics deposited from gravity flows originating as catchment floods Appendix 3 Table A3.9. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Marsaxlokk core (a second core, MX2, was attempted but was blocked at 2 m). Core Depth (m) Description Interpretation MX1-4 3.86–3.53 Pale pinkish-brown (10YR 8/4) calcitic silt; dense amorphous calcium carbonate Palaeosol: rather muddy plugged calcrete horizon 3.53–3.32 Pinkish-brown (10YR 7/4), calcitic silty clay loam with common weathered limestone Palaeosol: B horizon 3.32–2.92 Brown to reddish-brown (5YR 4/4) silty clay loam Palaeosol: in situ terra rossa topsoil; Early to mid-Holocene 2.92–2.86 Light yellowish-brown (10YR 6/4) fine gravel and coarse sand with marine shell fragments Probable ancient beach 2.86–2.45 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 4/4) silty clay loam with frequent fine limestone pebbles Lagoon with abundant terrestrial clastic input 2.45–1.92 Yellowish-red (5YR 4/4) silty (clay) loam with occasional fine limestone pebbles 1.92–1.86 Pale brown (10YR 6/3) fine gravel and coarse sand Salt marsh in receipt of abundant terrestrial clastic sediment 1.85–1.70 Light brownish-grey (10YR 6/2) very fine sandy/silt; possibly microlaminated; laminar humified and amorphous sesquioxide replaced plant remains MX1-3 MX1-2 MX1-1 1.70–1.65 Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) organic silt mud 1.65–1.55 Brownish-yellow (10YR 6/6) fine gravel and coarse sand 1.55–0.86 Light grey (10YR 7/1), calcitic, very fine sandy silt 0.86–0.50 Light yellowish-brown (10YR 6/4) silt loam 0.50–0.12 Pale brown (10YR 6/3) fine sandy/silt loam with fine limestone fragments 416 Deep core borehole logs Table A3.10. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Marsa 2 core (after Carroll 2007). Core segments Depth (m) Munsell colour Description 11 9.25–8.8 7.5YR5/6 Strong brown stony sandy silty clay, below Riverine braidplain sediments 8.95 m sandy clayey gravel. Rockhead at 9.25 m 10 8.8–8.2 7.5YR5/6-5YR3/4 Strong brown stony sandy silty clay, then at 8.5 m dark reddish brown very stony sandy silty clay, with a large rock between 87.5 and 8.8 m Riverine braidplain sediments 9 8.2–7.6 7.5YR6/6-7.5YR5/67.5YR4/6-5YR3/4 Reddish-yellow gravel, then at 7.85 m strong brown silty sand, then at 8.05 m dark reddish brown sandy silty clay Riverine braidplain sediments 8 7.6–7.0 7.5YR6/8-7.5YR5/67.5YR6/6 Reddish-yellow gravel, then at 7.15 m strong brown stony silty sand, at 7.25 m strong brown clayey silty sand, at 7.50 m reddish yellow clayey silty sand Riverine praidplain sediments 7 6.8–5.9 2.5YR4/1-7.5YR3/35YR3/2-10YR4/310YR5/4-10YR5/3 Dark grey silty clay with marine shell, with a sharp change at ~6.28 m to dark brown sandy clay, then at ~6.42 m brown and yellowish-brown silty sand, then at 6.5 m yellowish-brown stony silty sand grading into gravel, then at 6.75 m brown stony silty sand Quiet-water estuarine sediments. Below 6.28 m riverine braidplain sediments, possibly of Late Pleistocene age 6 5.2–4.2 2.5YR4/1 Dark grey sandy silty clay with marine shell Quiet-water estuarine sediments 5 4.2–3.2 2.5YR5/1-2.5YR4/1 Grey sandy silty clay with marine shell becoming dark grey below 3.85 m and increasingly sandy below 4.05 m Quiet-water estuarine sediments, with some distal fluvial input below 4.05 m 4 3.2–2.55 7.5YR5/6-5YR3/4 Grey sandy silty clay with some marine shell, large rock and some stones between 2.55 and 2.7 m Quiet-water estuarine sediments with a density-flow deposit between 2.55 and 2.7 m 3 2.2–1.7 2.5YR6/1-2.5YR5/1 Grey silty sand, passing into grey sandy silty clay below 1.85 m Estuarine sediments 2 1.2–0.8 10YR5/4-10YR 5/2 Yellowish-brown sandy silt becoming greyish brown below 0.95 m Overbank and colluvial sediments 1 0.3–0 10YR6/4 Yellowish-brown sandy silt Overbank and colluvial sediments Interpretation 417 Appendix 3 Table A3.11. Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Mellieħa Bay core. Core MB1-E MB1-D MB1-C MB1-B MB1-A Depth (m) Description Interpretation 5.44–5.36 Not recovered 5.36–5.15 Light grey (2.5Y 7/2) silty clay, with pocket of relatively well-sorted sand at 5.26–5.28 m, grading to very dark greyish-brown (10YR 3/2) at bottom. Shell fragments present throughout. Sharp upper boundary. Ag1, As3 Offshore suspension deposits, below wave-base. Sand layer probably relates to storm sedimentation 5.15–4.44 Medium to coarse grey (5Y 6/1) sand with traces of gravel at c. 5.38 m and granules at c. 5.27 m. Grains sub-rounded. Organic material and shell fragments present throughout. Gs3, Ga1, Ggmin 2% Shallow marine sands, probably within wave-base 4.44–4.27 Coarse grey (10Y 6/1) slightly clayey well-sorted sand with shell fragments. Diffuse upper boundary. Gs3–4. 4.27–4.24 Light grey (10Y 7/1) slightly silty fine to medium sand with shell fragments. Sharp upper boundary. Gs3, Ga1 4.24–4.23 Light grey (10Y 7/1) poorly sorted fine gravel and very coarse sand with shell fragments. Sharp upper boundary; slightly diffuse lower boundary. Gs3, Ggmin1 4.23–3.44 Pale yellow (7.5Y 8/3) moderately sorted slightly gravelly medium to coarse sand. (c. 2–5% fine gravel). Grains sub-angular to sub-rounded. Eelgrass noted at 4.17–4.18 m; macroscopic charcoal at 4.08 m. Slight colour change and fining upwards towards top of unit – diffuse transition from c. 3.74 m. More shell fragments present from 30–36 cm. Gs3, Gg1 (whole unit) 3.35–3.18 Grey (5Y 5/1), darkening to very dark grey (10YR 3/2) by 3.19 m, very shelly clay with some coarse sand. As3, Gs1 3.18–3.14 Grey silty clay (5Y 5/1). Ag3, As1 3.14–2.44 Pale brown (2.5Y 7/3) slightly clayey slightly gritty silt (~90% silt) transitioning to grey (5Y 5/1) silt at 2.53 m. Gs4, Ggmin 5%, Lim. 2 2.44–2.01 Grey (5Y 5/1) slightly gravelly, gritty coarse to medium sand with shell fragments. Grains sub-rounded to sub-angular. Some laminations apparent at 2.28–2.305 m. Some very faint possible structure below this. Diffuse upper boundary. Gs4, Ggmin 1–2%, also shell fragments Shallow marine sands, probably within wave-base 2.01–1.60 Pale brown (2.5Y 7/3) medium sand, well-sorted. Fewer shell fragments than previously. Grains mainly sub-rounded. Some fine silt content (c. 10%). Some structure visible – bedding at 1.81–1.92 m. Slightly diffuse upper boundary. Gs3, Ga1 Beach or shallow marine within wave-base Suspension deposits below wave base 1.60–1.48 Light yellow (5Y 7/3) fine sandy silt. Well-sorted. Gs2, Ga2 Lagoon 1.48–1.44 Light yellow (5Y 7/3) well-rounded to sub-rounded medium to coarse sand with some shell fragments Beach 1.44–1.42 Large clast of ~35 mm 1.44–1.24 Greyish-brown (2.5Y 5/2) sand becoming paler (2.5Y 7/3) at 1.265 m; medium to coarse, sub-rounded to rounded. Gs4 1.24–1.19 Greyish-brown (2.5Y 5/2) sand with clay and silt, noticeable root material present. Gs2, Ag1, As1, Dl5% Paludal marsh or shallow lagoon 1.19–1.08 Pale brown (2.5Y 7/3) coarse to very coarse sand with angular to sub-angular grains; 62–73 Beach 1.08–0.66 Pale brown (2.5Y 7/3) medium sand with sub-angular to sub-rounded grains Dune sand 0.66–0.64 Black (N1) organic clay mud, ~ 6 mm thick layer Dune slack 0.64–0.44 Pale brown (2.5Y 7/3) medium to coarse sand with angular to sub-angular grains. Top 15 cm collapsed and unconsolidated. Gs4 Dune sands 418 Deep core borehole logs Table A3.12. Key to the scheme for the description of Quaternary sediments, modified to exclude categories of organic sediments not encountered (after Troels-Smith 1955). Class Detritus Argilla Grana Code Element Description Dl Detritus lignosus Fragments of woody plants > 2 mm Dh Detritus herbosus Fragments of herbaceous plants > 2 mm Dg Detritus granosus Woody and herbaceous plant remains < 2 mm and > 0.1 mm As Argilla steatodes Particles of clay < 0.002 mm Ag Argilla granosa Particles of silt 0.06 to 0.002 mm Ga Grana arenosa Mineral particles 0.6 to 0.2 mm Gs Grana saburralia Mineral particles 2.0 to 0.6 mm Gg(min) Grana glareosa minora Mineral particles 6.0 to 2.0 mm Gg(max) Grana glareosa majora Mineral particles 20.0 to 6.0 mm 419 Temple landscapes The ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project (Fragility and sustainability in small island environments: adaptation, cultural change and collapse in prehistory, 2013–18), led by Caroline Malone (Queens University Belfast) has explored issues of environmental fragility and Neolithic social resilience and sustainability during the Holocene period in the Maltese Islands. This, the first volume of three, presents the palaeo-environmental story of early Maltese landscapes. The project employed a programme of high-resolution chronological and stratigraphic investigations of the valley systems on Malta and Gozo. Buried deposits extracted through coring and geoarchaeological study yielded rich and chronologically controlled data that allow an important new understanding of environmental change in the islands. The study combined AMS radiocarbon and OSL chronologies with detailed palynological, molluscan and geoarchaeological analyses. These enable environmental reconstruction of prehistoric landscapes and the changing resources exploited by the islanders between the seventh and second millennia bc. The interdisciplinary studies combined with excavated economic and environmental materials from archaeological sites allows Temple landscapes to examine the dramatic and damaging impacts made by the first farming communities on the islands’ soil and resources. The project reveals the remarkable resilience of the soil-vegetational system of the island landscapes, as well as the adaptations made by Neolithic communities to harness their productivity, in the face of climatic change and inexorable soil erosion. Neolithic people evidently understood how to maintain soil fertility and cope with the inherently unstable changing landscapes of Malta. In contrast, second millennium bc Bronze Age societies failed to adapt effectively to the long-term aridifying trend so clearly highlighted in the soil and vegetation record. This failure led to severe and irreversible erosion and very different and short-lived socio-economic systems across the Maltese islands. Editors: Charles French is Professor of Geoarchaeology in the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge. Chris O. Hunt is a Professor in the School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool. Reuben Grima is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Conservation and Built Heritage, University of Malta. Rowan McLaughlin is Senior Researcher in the Department of Scientific Research at the British Museum and honorary research scholar at Queen’s University Belfast. Caroline Malone is a Professor in the School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University Belfast. Simon Stoddart is Reader in Prehistory in the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge. Published by the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK. Cover design by Dora Kemp and Ben Plumridge. ISBN: 978-1-902937-99-1 ISBN978-1-902937-99-1 978-1-902937-99-1 ISBN 9 781902 937991