Developmental Psycholinguistics

The word infant is derived from the Latin word infans, which means literally "unable to speak". Consequently, the acquisition of speech is often regarded as marking the end of infancy. However, deciding precisely when speech has appeared (and hence, when infancy has ended) is not an easy matter. This is because the early development of language takes place very gradually. Thus, during the months which follow the production of the first word, the infant might learn to produce only one, two or three new words per month (Benedict, 1979; Nelson, 1973). Consequently, during these early months of language development, the infant still relies much more heavily upon cries, actions, and gestures rather than  speech for the purposes  of communication (Lock, 1978,1980; Lock, Service, Brito, & Chandler, Chapter 10, this volume; Schaffer, 1977, Chapter 8, this volume; Zinober & Martlew, 1985a, 1985b). And even after the infant has come to rely upon words as a major medium of communication, that infant might still not be able to combine words together to form simple two-word utterances with any degree of regularity until several more months have passed (Bloom, 1973; Garman, 1979).
The present chapter describes these various linguistic developments which gradually draw the period of infancy to a close. The chapter is divided into three parts. The first part considers the first words which infants acquire, whereas the second part describes the subsequent linguistic developments that occur during the period of single-word speech. The third part considers how infants make the final transition into the multi-word speech of early childhood.

“語言與現代化”學術研討會
  2017年10月18-20日，澳門

主旨演講：
論語言與認知的跨學科研究成果與趨勢
—— 以工作記憶為視角

溫植勝博士、副教授
澳門理工學院語言暨翻譯學校

【摘要】：本文的目的旨在展示國內外認知科學界和語言學界圍繞工作記憶與語言學習所展開的跨學科研究所取得的最新成果，並藉此對今後的相關研究做出展望。文章首先扼要回顧總結認知（神經）科學界對工作記憶進行的多層面本體研究，然後將這些研究成果與語言學界研究界近年探討工作記憶對語言學習不同方面影響作用的實證研究結果想結合，繼而提出一個工作記憶與語言習得的創新性理論假設與研究框架。文章將結合現有的研究成果著重對今後的相關研究提出多方面的具體建議。



【演講者簡介】：溫植勝博士，現為澳門理工學院語言暨翻譯高等學校副教授，中國英漢語比較研究會心理語言學專業委員會理事。香港中文大學應用語言學博士，美國密歇根大學訪問研究學者。任教於粵港澳多所重點高校本科和研究生課程多年，在國內外重要學術期刊發表論文30多篇；近年致力於語言習得與認知科學等交叉學科的理論與實踐研究，其英文學術專著（2016）和編著（2015）由英國著名的Multilingual Matters出版。曾獲語言學界國際頂尖期刊《語言學習》2012年度頒發的“《語言學習》期刊圓桌會議專項研究基金”獎項資助。
(Contact: (853)8599-6389; Email: [email protected])

L’objectif de cet article est de montrer l’effet d’un enseignement des langues et de la culture kanak sur les compétences linguistiques en drehu (langue maternelle) d’élèves de l’école maternelle et sur leurs premières acquisitions dans la maîtrise du français oral et écrit (langue seconde). Soixante et un enfants de moyenne section maternelle (MSM) et 82 enfants de grande section maternelle (GSM) suivis au cours préparatoire (CP) ont été évalués à l’oral et à l’écrit, soit en tant que groupe expérimental (ayant participé à l’enseignement), soit en tant que groupe contrôle (n’ayant pas participé). Cet enseignement est efficace pour le drehu et ne produit pas d’effet négatif sur le français. Le groupe expérimental présente, en fin de GSM et en début de CP, des compétences supérieures à l’écrit à celles du groupe contrôle.

The aim of this study is to show the impact of a teaching of the Kanak languages and culture on the linguistic skills in drehu (mother tongue) of nursery school pupils and on their first acquisitions in the mastery of oral and written French (second language). Sixty-one children of the second year of nursery school and 82 children of the third year, were followed up to the first grade, and whose oral and written skills were assessed, either as an experimental group (having participated to the teaching) or as a control group (not having participated). This teaching is effectual for the drehu and brings out no negative effect on the French. The experimental group achieves, at the end of the second year and at he beginning of the first grade, written skills above those of the control group.

This research paper confers the importance of lullabies being sung to children, commencing from the pre-linguistic stage of language acquisition until the end of the first few years of the infancy.  Thus, this report deals with the contributory linguistic factors that lullabies bear in triggering the language acquisition of infants apart from the first language cues that they receive and perceive through the speech that the adults use to communicate with them. The intention of this is to determine the whole-scale linguistic significance of lullabies, which are a universally shared experience within the human race. This once again investigates whether lullabies are mere sleep inducing melodies or whether they possess distinctive traits that reinforce language cues to the highly absorbent infant brain. The research was conducted using two methodologies: Questionnaire in Sinhala language was issued to twenty eight mothers, who have children until the age of three years, to provide personal and authentic responses, and a linguistic analysis of a Sinhala lullaby was done using the linguistic knowledge of the researcher. However, there could be different theories regarding this since actual baby brain image in the presence of lullabies was absent in the course of this research. Consequently, the results reveal that lullabies enrich the child linguistic development and thereby suggest the necessity to diverge the linguistic eye on lullabies as a rich resource which evokes and feeds diverse linguistic skills. Lullabies do not reach the heights as parentese do, but they are a rich resource which ensures informal education of an infant’s first language. Hence, this research outlines the value of incorporating lullabies to communicate with children and assertively recommends their usage.       

KEYWORDS: enrich, language acquisition, linguistic development, lullabies, speech

This book presents a general overview of our current knowledge of language development in children. All the principal strands of language development are covered, including phonological, lexical, syntactic and pragmatic development; bilingualism; precursors to language development in infancy; and the language of children with developmental disabilities, including children with specific language impairment. This introductory chapter provides an introduction to the nature of the language acquisition process, and the sheer complexity of the developmental task in which the language-learning child is engaged. It also provides an overview of the chapters in the book.

This study aimed to investigate relationship between resilience as a personality factor defined in positive psychology and autonomous learning as a newly developed subject in learning and teaching (EFL area). This research employed resilience scale by Connor and Davidson (2003) and learner autonomy questionnaire by Spratt, Humphreys and Chan (2002) to evaluate EFL learners' resilience level and their autonomy. To meet the purpose of this study, about 150 male and female participants randomly selected among undergraduate students majoring English language translation. Collected data of two questionnaires were analyzed through Spearman's correlation and regression. Findings of the correlation analysis revealed that there is a significant relationship between resilience and autonomy (ρ = .29, n = 156, p < .01). Also, results showed that resilience is a strong predictor for autonomous learning.

This is a psycholinguistic dissertation that explores if the acquisition of vocabulary can be promoted during middle school (12-15 year olds) through a form of meditation known as imaginary journeys. Its aim is to find a creative way to learn a foreign language by closely linking the mental processes associated with learning a native language. To do so, the imaginary journeys required a connection between the target vocabulary and one’s personal associations and memories. The theoretical part of the dissertation elaborates on language acquisition and native- and foreign-language learning studies. The ways in which one’s memory functions, as well as meditation and cognition, are also explored. This dissertation shows that imaginary journeys contribute to the acquisition of vocabulary and to interesting working conditions in the classroom.

Günümüzde daha pek çok çalışmayı gerektiren dilbilim ve psikoloji alanına giren sorunlar, dil edinimi ile ilgili çalışmalardan gelecek verilerle aydınlanma bulmakta ve ortaya çıkan bilgi ise bir takım soruları beraberinde getirmektedir. Kavram mı yoksa sözcük mü önce edinilir? Dil gelişimi ile birlikte öğrenilen yeni kavramların zihinde örgütlenmesi, nasıl bir düzeni takip eder? Bu soruları merkezinde bulunduran Öntür Kuramı, ulamın dereceli bir içyapısı olduğunu öne sürerek ulam öğelerinin, bulunduğu ulamı en iyi temsil eden öğeler etrafında odaklandığını savunmaktadır. Dereceli bir üyelik söz konusu olunca, zihinden çağrılma ve kavranma zorluğu üzerinde kavramın öntürlüğü etkili olmaktadır. İşte bu çalışma, deyimlerin bileşen adlarının öntürlüğü ve deyimin anlamlandırılması arasında bir koşutluğun olup olmadığını sorgulamaktadır. Araştırma grubu, anasınıfı, 3. sınıf, 5. sınıf ve 8. sınıflardan çocukları kapsamakta olup ilk uygulamada BEDEN BÖLÜMÜ üst ulamına ait kavramların bu yaşlara göre öntürlük değerleri sormaca yöntemiyle belirlenmiştir. Ortaya çıkan verilerden yola çıkarak seçilen kavram adlarını bileşeni olarak bulunduran ad + eylem yapısındaki deyimler, ad bileşeninin öntürlüğüne göre derecelendirilmiş ve her biri bir öykünün sonuç tümcesi olarak verilmiştir. Deyimlerin ya değişmeceli ya da gerçek anlamlarını yansıtan ya da konu dışı olan resimler hazırlanarak, bir kavrama testi oluşturulmuştur. Çocuk katılımcılar, öyküleri dinleyip sonundaki deyimi duydukları anda, öyküden anladıklarına dayalı olarak resimlerden birisini seçmişlerdir. Verilen yanıtların doğruluğu ve tepki süresi dikkate alınarak, deyimlerin anlamlandırılmasında bir öntürlük etkisi olup olmadığına yönelik çözümleme yapılmıştır. Anasınıfı grubu, ağırlıklı olarak gerçek anlamı seçmiş olup, diğer gruplarda ise ilerleyen yaşla birlikte değişmeceli anlama bir yönelim gözlenmiştir. Deyimlerin anlamlandırılmasında öntürlük etkisinden bahsetmeyi mümkün kılan bu bulgular, deyimlerin kalıplaşmış ve tek parça sözcükler olduğunu dolayısıyla bileşen sözcüklerin deyimin değişmeceli anlamı üzerinde bir etkisi olmadığını öne süren varsayımlara karşıt veri niteliğindedir. Diğer bir deyişle, deyimlerin anlamlandırılmasında, değişmeceli anlama erişildiği durumda bile gerçek anlama bir şekilde erişim sağlandığına dair, alanda yaygın çalışılmış tanınırlık ve saydamlık kriterlerinden farklı olarak, öntürlük kriteriyle kanıt sunulmuştur.

The purpose of the qualitative research was to assess models of education developed for the study to investigate how and when to incorporate second and third languages into the curriculum to improve language acquisition. Research indicates that L3 enhances and reinforces L2 and L1. The stratified systematic grounded theory study explored the perspectives of neurolinguists, psycholinguists, sociolinguists, and interdisciplinary education researchers to derive variables for constructing a new model of education. The outcome of the Internet survey revealed that 100% of the participants agreed that education must change and that teacher training must improve. Variables from the cross-disciplinary data contributed to the construction of an integrated model of multilingual education consisting of four primary models and other models to serve as tools for designing curriculum, instruction, and assessment as well as determining demographics and student meta-analysis of language abilities and storage in the brain. The first model emerged from the data to offer multilingual principles of education. The other primary models are macro, meso, and micro models. The macro model represents schools, instruction, assessment, and the curriculum cycle. The meso model depicts the developmental domains of the individual learner and includes a cyclical equation. The micro model delineates multilingual processing in the brain based on neurolinguistic research, variables from the current study, and Kees de Bot's bilingual adaptation of Levelt's language processing model. Recommendations include the incorporation of notional-functional pragmatic-aesthetic concepts as depicted in the models developed for the study and enhanced by input from published researchers with unique language and research repertoires who were located on four continents.

The aim of this paper is to show shifts in the language development of deaf and hard of hearing children over the last 30 years. The paper presents an overview of Western and Polish studies on education and language development in deaf children in terms of psycholinguistics. Perceptions of the perceptual and cognitive capabilities of such children must be subject to revision and continual methodological reflection due to rapidly changing variables, such as technological progress, social and cultural conditions of primary socialization and the aims of deaf education. Now that an increasing number of deaf children undergo cochlear implantation, and digital hearing aids can provide 70-75 dB of gain, thus enabling the children to spontaneously develop speech, many of them function in a bimodal environment of the sign and the speech. However, they perform at different levels of educational and developmental success. This paper elucidates the issues of language flexibility in and heterogenization of children using hearing aids or implants on a daily basis.

This study focuses on the expressions which are forwarded to babies and small children on social media comments and internet forums. The results were also provided with more data and evidence through a parent questionnaire.
As theoretical framework, Aragon's 'Dimorphous Expression of Positive Feelings' approach was used. This is an approach in scientific field of psychology . Thus, this study provides interdisiciplinary results in linguistics and psychology intersection.

While usage-based approaches to language development enjoy considerable support from computational studies, there have been few attempts to answer a key computational challenge posed by usage-based theory: the successful modeling of language learning as language use. We present a usage-based computational model of language acquisition which learns in a purely incremental fashion, through online processing based on chunking, and which offers broad, cross-linguistic coverage while uniting key aspects of comprehension and production within a single framework. The model's design reflects memory constraints imposed by the real-time nature of language processing, and is inspired by psycholinguistic evidence for children's sensitivity to the distributional properties of multiword sequences and for shallow language comprehension based on local information. It learns from corpora of child-directed speech, chunking incoming words together to incrementally build an item-based "shallow parse." When the model encounters an utterance made by the target child, it attempts to generate an identical utterance using the same chunks and statistics involved during comprehension. High performance is achieved on both comprehension-and production-related tasks: the model's shallow parsing is evaluated across 79 single-child corpora spanning English, French, and German, while its production performance is evaluated across over 200 single-child corpora representing 29 languages from the CHILDES database. The model also succeeds in capturing findings from children's production of complex sentence types. Together, our modeling results suggest that much of children's early linguistic behavior may be supported by item-based learning through online processing of simple distributional cues, consistent with the notion that acquisition can be understood as learning to process language.

The article discusses the importance of acceptance of the multiple intelligence types as one of the key factor influencing the (language) teaching. It focuses mainly on the possibility to introduce art as a source of material for language teaching, providing a wide spectrum of possibilities to introduce different types of activities. The author understands art not only as a source for language teaching/learning but something more than that. For her, the art can be a source for presenting moral and aesthetic values and the material, which will develop learners as a complete personality. The art can bring ethics, culture, history to the language lesson and can help learners to understand the mentality and culture of the target language countr(ies) more deeply. The paper is the case study done at the secondary school (1st graders), using some materials and preparing them for achieving the states aim, by the author. This study was a space to learn more about the students’ perception of task based approach, what gave them a chance to experience a shift from ‘teacher-centred’ learning to ‘learner centred’ lesson.

Key words: Multiple intelligence, art, personality, task-based learning, learner centred lesson

First language acquisition has been studied in many kinds of angles. In this paper, my focus is to analyze the development of first language learning in multiple birth children—in this case is Song triplets Daehan, Minguk, and Manse. These three children of Song Il Kook, a Korean actor, has been paid so many attention in their variety show The Return of Superman. In the weekly videos uploaded in YouTube from 2014 to 2016, I found that these children have started the same level and developed nearly in the same pace. Their development can be seen through the videos by means the first language learning between multiple birth children is considered in similar pace among each other.

THIS STUDY HAS NOW EXPIRED. THE POST IS BEING KEPT HERE FOR PUBLIC OUTREACH PURPOSES. Research participants needed: L1-Greek adult native speakers of Greek for judgements study!

(This project has been granted Ethics approval by The University of Edinburgh PPLS REC: #429-1819/3.)

Babbling and Language Development

ABSTRACT

Although babbling in infants is often perceived as nonsensical utterances, in reality, the infant is engaged in an important psycho-linguistic exploration that facilitates the development of foundational language usage structures, as well as critical abstractions of the function of language. Babbling among infants is a vital precursor to first language development; however, its importance is far greater than a simple vocal practice which forms a bridge from pre-verbal utterances to coherent language structures. In the present study, the performative characteristics of vocal production provide a background in the exploration of the linguistic, meta-linguistic, and cognitive development which ultimately contribute to first language development. The study utilizes a longitudinal evaluation of language development in one Argentinian child for a period of thirty- six weeks. The methodology is qualitative, with first-person observations that were phonetically transcribed.

Keywords: first language acquisition, babbling, language development approaches, babbling empirical studies, babbling stages, case study, babbling and phonetic transcription.

Asperger Syndrome (AS) is often associated with social, cognitive, motor, and language problems, but an estimated number of AS bilingual individuals with this syndrome; especially those with social communication disorders (SCD) typically receive the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Consequently, such inaccurate diagnosis has negative effects not only at the linguistic level, but also at the level of treatment method where AS is merely a subgroup of ASD just like higher-functioning autism (HFA) or pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). Utilizing Peabody picture vocabulary test (PPVT-3) in Arabic and then in English to test an AS bilingual 12 year-old boy with SCD, the first aim of the current pilot case study was to investigate the cause-effect relationship between AS and pragmatics mechanism where these children, the researchers hypothesize, fail to crystallize implied meaning of the target language (L2), not the source language (L1), which will help identify what language and which of its aspect (s) is affected more. The study also compared two ASD diagnostic methods: Autism diagnostic observation schedule (ADOS) and Australian scale for Asperger's syndrome (ASAS). The purpose was to specify which of these two assessment tools suits more AS individuals with SCD where, again, the researchers claim the former to be more accountable than the latter as it depends on the explanatory approach unlike the latter that follows the exploratory approach. The tests were administered in light of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-V) and international classification of diseases and related health problems (ICD). To ensure the reliability and validity of the study, the researchers analyzed all case's monthly and yearly school exams of both English (Case's L1) and Arabic (Case's L2) language courses starting with the 1 st grade and culminating with the 7 th grade in addition to an intelligence quotient (IQ) test that has been given prior to the tests. In addition, series of interviews were held with the parent along with related individuals to the case. Of the two languages, outlined results show significant deterioration in meaning comprehension in both L1 and L2. Compared with ASAS, ADOS found to be more accountable as it provides specific authentic data of the social behavior, cognitive and motor functions and linguistic and communication abilities of AS bilinguals with SCD in standardized and well-documented contexts. Further research on multilingualism and other ASD subgroups using large number of population, different methods and additional clinical resources is needed to turn the study from individuality into commonality; therefore, replicate its findings and generalize its outcomes.

As children learn their mother tongues, they make systematic errors. For example, English-speaking children regularly say “mouses” rather than “mice.” Because children’s errors aren’t explicitly corrected, it has been argued that children could never learn to make the transition to adult language based on the evidence available to them, and thus that learning even simple aspects of grammar is logically impossible without recourse to innate, language-specific constraints. Here, we examine the role children’s expectations play in language learning, and present a model of plural noun learning that generates a surprising prediction: at a given point in learning, exposure to regular plurals (e.g., rats) can decrease children’s tendency to over-regularize irregular plurals (e.g., mouses). Intriguingly, the model predicts that the same exposure should have the opposite effect earlier in learning. Consistent with this, we show that testing memory for items with regular plural labels contributes to a decrease in irregular plural over-regularization in six-year-olds, but an increase in four-year-olds. Our model and results suggest that children’s over-regularization errors both arise and resolve themselves as a consequence of the distribution of error in the linguistic environment, and that far from presenting a logical puzzle for learning, they are inevitable consequences of it.

Translation is a means for conveying information from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL). So, for this to occur some adjustments, reduction, lost and gain are necessary during the translation process. House (2001, p. 247) mentions that translation is "re contextualization of a text in an SL by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in a TL. " Cohesive devices are tools which connect sentences with each other. So, the present research takes into account cohesive devices in an original English text and its Persian versions. Thus, the study is trying to identify the most frequent norms applied in translating cohesive devices from English into Persian in 2000 decades. To reach the goal of the study, three translations of the intended book were compared with each other. The findings of the study indicated that translators applied equivalent strategy in most cases and this was an evidence of the most frequent norms.

This chapter has as its principal focus the early acquisition of words and word meanings by young children. Young children typically acquire their first words round about nine to 12  months of age; by  the time that they are two or two and a half years old, they may have acquired up to 500 words or more. This chapter describes the principal phenomena which characterize this early period of lexical development, and also examines some of the main theoretical frameworks  which  have been used in attempts to explain these  phenomena.

Материал исследования – устные повествования, развернутые 5-летними дошкольниками с ослабленным и нормальным зрением. Опираясь на сложившуюся традицию, мы использовали серию картинок о поисках мальчиком пропавшей лягушки. Это стандартный материал для изучения связных монологов детей, осваивающих различные языки как в норме [Berman, Slobin 1994], так и при нарушении речевого и когнитивного развития [Norbury & Bishop 2003]. Рассказы русскоязычных детей дошкольного и младшего школьного возраста охарактеризованы достаточно подробно [Зырянова 2006; Овчинникова и др. 1999].  Выявлены особенности развертывания историй о лягушке в зависимости от нейропсихологического профиля ребенка [Ovchinnikova 2005].

There has been a growth in students with dyslexia attending university. These students commonly rate writing as one of their greatest problem areas. Our research set out to describe the effects of dyslexia on the writing skills of students compared to
age-matched peers and a spelling-skill-matched group. Generally, the texts of the students with dyslexia were poorer than age controls but not poorer than the spelling- skill controls. However, there were no major differences in “higher order” skills
such as ideas and organization with the chronological age controls, only in “lower order” transcription skills such as spelling and handwriting fluency. The students with dyslexia made more spelling errors in their essays than one would predict given their
dictated spelling skills.

In this chapter, we address the debate between single-system and dual-system models of language by looking at the processing of multi-word phrases. We present findings that challenge the distinction between ‘stored’ and ‘computed’ linguistic forms via two experiments. The first demonstrates parallels in the processing of words and phrases: frequent four-word phrases are processed more quickly than less frequent ones, without any evidence of a frequency threshold. The second experiment shows that idiomatic phrases prime their construction just as well as non-idiomatic phrases, suggesting that they are not stored as analyzed wholes, but instead have internal structure. Taken together, the findings undermine the empirical criteria traditionally used to distinguish between ‘stored’ and ‘computed’ forms: compositional phrases showed frequency effects, even though such effects are often thought to be a marker of lexical storage, while non-compositional forms (idioms) showed evidence of internal structure, unexpected if they are stored as unanalyzed wholes. The findings show that linguistic structures are processed in qualitatively the same way regardless of where they fall on the frequency and compositionality continua, and highlight the utility of models that deal with all linguistic experience in a qualitatively similar fashion, and allow for experience to influence the learning, representation and processing of all linguistic patterns.

What might the study of language processing look like if the canonical language user were assumed to be bilingual? In this chapter we offer some reflections on how the origins, assumptions and practices of psycholinguistics constructed a particular view of language and of the typical language user, with distinct consequences for the construction of bilingualism as an object of inquiry. We suggest that if psycholinguistics is to fully embrace its “bilingual turn” it will benefit from exploring new ways of conceptualizing and approaching the study of bilingual language processing rather than uncritically adopting questions and approaches that were initially framed to understand single language use. Specifically, we suggest that research designs that allow language phenomena to emerge rather than be expressly manipulated or restricted by researchers’ preconceived assumptions and that build in a broader range of variables and consider an expanded range of bilingual groups will advance our understanding of the bilingual mental lexicon in important ways.

The differing Child-Directed Speech (CDS) features of mothers and fathers have been gaining attention of researchers since thirty years. This study also tries to describe mother and father CDSs from the framework of addressing terms to children. The dimorphous verbal expressions uttered by Turkish mothers and fathers are compared on the basis of a data base created from interviews with fifty parent pairs (a hundred participants in total). Qualitative results from those parent interviews are described. According to the results, both mothers and fathers use positive verbal expressions which convey positive emotions to their children. Parents from two genders also use nicknames which can be considered as swearwords. Thirty mothers and fourteen fathers used dimorphous verbal expressions in their CDS; this can be interpreted that when compared to fathers, mothers reflect positive emotions to children in a reverse manner more often.



Çocuğa Yöneltilen Dil (ÇYD) kullanımlarında anne ve baba farklılıkları, son otuz yıldır araştırmacıların dikkatini çekmektedir. Bu çalışma da anne ve baba ÇYD kullanımlarını çocuklara seslenme biçimleri çerçevesinden betimlemeye çalışmaktadır. Türk anne ve babaların kullandıkları çift-biçimli sözel ifadeler, elli çift ebeveyn (toplam yüz katılımcı) ile yapılan görüşmeler sonrasında oluşturulan veri tabanı üzerinden karşılaştırılmıştır. Ebeveyn görüşmeleri üzerinden betimleyici sonuçlar çıkarılmıştır. Sonuçlara göre, hem anne hem de babalar çocuklarına olumlu duygular aktaran olumlu ifadeler ile hitap etmektedirler. Her iki cinsiyetten ebeveynler çocuklarına hakaret sayılabilecek türde takma adlarla da hitap etmektedirler. Otuz anne ve ondört baba ÇYD'lerinde çift-biçimli sözel ifadeler kullanmışlardır; bu, annelerin babalarla karşılaştırıldığında, olumlu duygularını çocuklarına daha agresif bir tavırla yansıttıklarını göstermektedir. Anahtar sözcükler: Çocuğa yöneltilen dil, çift-biçimli sözel ifadeler, anne-baba farklılıkları