Image Schemata

This paper focuses on the conception of metaphor in linguistics (the primary theoretical niche of the Handbook of Pragmatics), and, to a lesser extent, philosophical theories of metaphor (philosophy being the first field in which metaphor came to be looked at).
In the linguistic study of metaphor as a whole, two general aspects are important: (i) types of metaphors, i.e. the recognition and classification of different categories of metaphors as linguistic expressions; and (ii) theories of metaphor, i.e. the definition and explanation of metaphor as a linguistic process. This paper focuses on the first aspect, since extensive treatments of the different ways in which metaphors can be classified are relatively rare in the literature on metaphor, while distinctions and relations between theoretical frameworks have often been highlighted (cf. below), albeit not often in a comprehensive manner.
This paper is organized as follows. In section 2, the variation between major types of linguistic approaches to metaphor will cursorily be looked at. Section 3, which forms the greater part of this paper, discusses a number of different classifications of metaphor. After this discussion, these typologies of metaphor are placed in a larger framework explaining the variation between them (§ 4). The paper ends with a summary of a number of further issues which have come to be highlighted in relation to specific types of metaphors, or in relation to particular perspectives on the classification of metaphor types (§ 5).

The author studies the differences of conceptualization of some spatial concepts in English and Ukrainian languages. The article contains the juxtaposition of the spatial relations represented by the lexeme over and the schematization of similar spatial relations by Ukrainian prepositions. The cases of usage of the English preposition over and the partially corresponding Ukrainian prepositions через, над along with на and за are described from the perspective of the contents conceptualized in prepositional constructions due to the interaction of members.

"El artículo presenta los resultados de un estudio exploratorio en el que se identifican y caracterizan las metáforas cognitivas en
una muestra de cinco videos en lengua de señas colombiana (lsc). Para el análisis se tuvieron en cuenta las teorías de Lakoff y
Johnson (1980) sobre metáfora cognitiva y esquemas de imagen, y de Wilcox (2000) y Taub (2001) sobre el doble mapeo en la lengua
de señas. En los resultados se expone un análisis de frecuencia de aparición de los esquemas de imagen y las metáforas presentes
en las expresiones metafóricas en 5 relatos de Sordos congénitos. El estudio concluye que la lengua de señas cuenta con
metáforas cognitivas que le permiten a la persona Sorda hacer mapeos desde un dominio concreto hacia un dominio abstracto
para construir conceptos."

"This paper reports the results of an exploratory study whose purpose was to identify and characterize the metaphors in a sample
of five videos in Colombian sign language (in Spanish, lsc).The data were analyzed using theoretical contributions from Lakoff and
Johnson’s theories (1980) about cognitive metaphors and image schemata, and from Wilcox (2000) and Taub (2001) on double mapping
in sign language. The results show a frequency analysis of image schemata and the metaphors present into metaphorical
expressions in five autobiographical narratives by five congenital deaf adults. The study concludes that sign language has cognitive
metaphors that let deaf people map from a concrete domain to an abstract one in order to build concepts."

"O artigo apresenta os resultados de um estudo exploratório que identifica e caracteriza metáforas cognitivas em uma mostra de
cinco vídeos em língua de sinais colômbiana (lsc). Para a análise se-levaram em consideração as teorias de Lakoff e Johnson (1980)
sobre metáfora cognitiva e esquemas de imagem, e de Wilcox (2000) e Taub (2001) sobre o dobro mapeamento em língua gestual. Nos
resultados se mostra um análise de frequência da apariçaão dos esquemas de imagem e as metáfotas presentes nas expressões
metafóricas em 5 histórias contadas por surdos congenitos. O estudo conclui que a língua de sinais tem metáforas cognitivas que
permitem que as pessoas surdas façam mapeamentos desde um domínio concreto a um domínio abstrato para construir conceitos."

El presente artículo se propone avanzar en una definición semántica de los relacionantes españoles en y dentro de brindando una visión más detallada de estos términos según el enfoque cognitivo prototípico. Tras una presentación introductoria de las descripciones existentes en la literatura de especialidad, se estudia la adecuación de la relación continente-contenido para caracterizar ambos marcadores. A este respecto, nuestro trabajo analiza especialmente el comportamiento de en y dentro de con lexemas que denotan contenedores prototípicos (entidades y lugares) tales como carpeta y biblioteca. Sobre la base de un estudio de corpus, se concluye que, si bien ambos relacionantes comparten un número importante de empleos contextuales, expresan diferentes matices. La noción central para esta distinción es la de marcación de fronteras. En efecto, estas se ven definidas con más precisión por dentro de mientras que en proporciona una localización abstracta. Por último, se propone un estudio contrastivo de ambos marcadores con las preposiciones francesas en y dans.

The book addresses the problem of the relation between sentence stress placement and word order in English and Polish in view of 'definiteness' in both languages, with articles in English and their absence in Polish. Those phenomena are analysed in various syntactic structures (affirmative, negative and questions taking into account the fact that English is a fixed word order language, and Polish grammatically free word order language. One of the tentative conclusions is that sentence stress in neutral intonation depends on the contextual information value of nouns. Contextually new nouns are necessarily stressed, while "definite", contextually given  nouns must not be stressed. In the latter situation, the stress falls on any other category following the 'end-focus' principle.

Commemoration architecture and 3D art Cognitive linguistics has expanded its research scope beyond language: Kwiatkowska (2013) offers a systematic application of a number of cognitive linguistic tools to visual communication. We combine her approach with Krzeszowski's (1997) axiological semantics and embed them in the theory of collective memory. In particular, we take a look at two case studies: an analysis of a commemoration of a Jewish cemetery in an inner yard of a housing estate and an analysis of the 3D work of art "The Comfort and Service My Daddy Brings to Our Household" by Richard Dial. They allow us to examine the axiological potential of the container schema as applied to the memorial architecture and the axiology of the visual trope of a chair. The results show that while valuation is indeed inherent in conceptualization, its axiological charge is highly context-dependent.

Abstract:
The paper is related to a project based Design Research. The paper attempts to trace the embedded theoretical grounding related to the design project utilizing existing literature. The Design project is an initial learning exercise on 2D and 3D composition done for the First Year Architecture Students. It evolved to eradicate preconceived notions on expression they have on material quality and symbols. These notions seem to block the initial multi sensory meaning experienced at the inception of a design, being transferred to 2D, 3D expressions along the design process. In general the initial multisensory meaning or the design idea getting scattered along the middle ground of the design process seem to be a common problem among students. This introductory 2D and 3D composition project done for the first years provides an opportunity to focus, identify and elaborate on the most basic categorical qualities of meaning and related expression. The paper attempts to give explanatory evidences through literature on (1) how focus happens and with what devices, (2) how categorical multisensory meanings are initially grouped, picked and carried through along the design process towards its destination, the final 3D composition. 
The paper highlights how a metaphor becomes a focusing device by grasping meaning, and carrying its image schemata from the source domain to target domain. In a similar manner it highlights how the primary categorical multi sensory meanings are separately grouped and carried as classical elements (earth, fire, air, water) from design inception to the final 3D composition. Finally, paper dwell upon the fact that just as metaphor consists of images schemata and carry it from source domain to target domain, image schemata of classical elements or rather classical elements as image schemata carry its meaning from the source domain to the target domain. The task explores and utilizes the under utilized pre modern knowledge of classical elements with modern knowledge to let the meaning of a design idea, focused from inception to the final expression of the 3D composition along the design process.