Impulsivity

Introduction: Depression is the most common psychiatric disorder throughout life. One of its major consequences is an increase in suicide rates and suicide attempts. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effectiveness of holographic reprocessing and dialectical behavioral therapy on cognitive flexibility and impulsivity in depressed patients who have attempted suicide.

Materials & Methods: This experimental study was conducted based on a pre-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population of this study included all depressed patients who attempted suicide in Ilam during 2018. In total 45 participants were selected through a simple random sampling and assigned randomly into three groups of holographic reprocessing, dialectical behavior therapy, and control group (15 cases per group). The data were collected using Denis and Vendoral Cognitive Flexibility Scale and The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale. The data were analyzed in SPSS software (version 21) through a multivariate analysis of covariance and the Bonferroni test. Ethics code: Ee/98.24.3.57583/SCU.ac.ir

Findings: The results obtained from the multivariate covariance analysis showed a statistically significant difference between the experimental groups (i.e., holographic reprocessing group and dialectical behavioral therapy group) and the control group (F=132.141, P<0.001) regarding the cognitive flexibility and impulsivity. Moreover, according to the results of the Bonferroni test, the dialectical behavior therapy reduced the amount of impulsivity of depressed patients who attempted suicide more than the holographic reprocessing group (P<0.001). However, there was no significant difference between the dialectical behavioral therapy group and the holographic reprocessing group in terms of the level of cognitive flexibility (P>0.447).

Discussion & Conclusions: Both holographic reprocessing and dialectical behavior therapy can have remarkable effects on the treatment of depressive disorders. In addition, they are considered useful and can be employed as interventions in critical situations in which individuals attempt to commit suicide.

Trait novelty seeking has been consistently implicated in substance use, yet the origins and mechanisms of novelty seeking in substance use proneness are unclear. We aimed to characterize novelty seeking as a phenotypic marker of substance use proneness in adolescence, a critical period for drug use experimentation. To this end, we parsed novelty seeking’s two constituent subdimensions – exploratory excitability (drive for novel experience) and impulsiveness (careless decision-making) – and explored the individual relations of these dimensions to: (1) the use of a variety of licit and illicit substances, (2) family history of substance use, and (3) subjective drug effects. Five hundred eighty five adolescents (mean age = 14.5 years) completed surveys of key variables. Results indicated that, when accounting for the covariation among exploratory excitability and impulsiveness, impulsiveness emerged as the more salient correlate of substance use and was independently associated with i...

Responses to delayed rewards vary widely across individuals and have important implications for personality and temperament. Animals may avoid delayed rewards because the future is uncertain. Therefore, expectations about receiving a future reward should influence the response to delayed payoffs. Here, we offered bonobos (Pan paniscus) a delayed gratification task in which food accumulated over time. Once subjects chose to consume the reward, food stopped accumulating. We tested their willingness to wait with a reliable and an unreliable experimenter to vary the subjects’expectations that they would receive the food. Subjects waited less often with the unreliable experimenter but showed individual differences in the degree to which reliability generalized across experimental tasks. These data suggest that the expectations generated about the likelihood of receiving future rewards influence how individuals balance current and future needs.

The aim of the present study was to examine the existing association between mindfulness, impulsivity, moral disengagement, and bullying experiences at school. Longitudinal data were collected in three points in time (T1, T2, T3) with 6 months interval between them. Participants were 558 adolescents attending secondary schools in Cyprus, with their ages ranging from 14 to 17 years (M = 15.3; standard deviation = 0.69). Through structural equation modeling, it was found that mind-fulness at T1 had a significant negative effect on both impulsivity and moral disengagement at T2 and these, in turn, had a positive effect on bullying and victimization at T3. Thus, mindfulness had an indirect effect on both bullying and victimization, fully mediated by impulsivity and moral disengagement.

Self-expression values are at an all-time high, and people are increasingly relying upon social media platforms to express themselves positively and accurately. We examined whether self-expression on the social media platform Twitter elicits positive and accurate social perceptions. Eleven perceivers rated 128 individuals (targets; total dyadic impressions = 1,408) on their impulsivity, self-esteem, and attachment style, based solely on the information provided in targets’ 10 most recent tweets. Targets were on average perceived normatively and with distinctive self-other agreement, indicating both positive and accurate social perceptions. There were also individual differences in how positively and accurately targets were perceived, which exploratory analyses indicated may be partially driven by differential word usage, such as the use of positive emotion words and self- versus other-focus. This study demonstrates that self-expression on social media can elicit both positive and accurate perceptions and begins to shed light on how to curate such perceptions.

We investigated whether losses of inhibitory control could be responsible for some friendly-fire incidents. Several factors are commonly cited to explain friendly-fire incidents, but failure of inhibitory control has not yet been explored. The Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) could be a valid model for inhibition failures in some combat scenarios. Participants completed small-arms simulations using near infrared emitter guns, confronting research assistants acting as friends or foes. In Experiment 1, seven participants completed three conditions with three different proportions of foes (high, medium, low). In Experiment 2, 13 participants completed high-foe (high-go) and low-foe (low-go) versions of a small-arms simulation as well as comparative computer tasks. Participants made more friendly-fire errors (errors of commission) when foe proportion was high. A speed-accuracy trade-off was apparent, with participants who were faster to fire on foes also more likely to accide...

We live in a ‘‘binge-consuming’’ culture. Indeed, a certain compulsion to consume seems to characterize not only the way in which people relate to the object world of luxury goods, but also the way we relate to other people, institutions and society in general. In this sense, the term ‘‘binge’’—usually associated with addictions—may be also useful in identifying our consuming culture. The aim of this article is to discuss how the same psychological processes that are taken into account to explain binge compulsions may be applied to binge as a consumerist and utilitarian way of relating to others. In particular, four aspects characterizing binge addictions—present-time orientation, impulsiveness, the crisis of the relationship with authority and narcissism—may also be recognized in the ‘‘normal’’ way of approaching life and society.

Objectives
The present study investigates the differences in personality and
perception and management of anger and impulsivity, between
subjects that lost points on driving license and those did not,
among members of the Automobile Club d’Italia.
Methods
Pamphlets, sent to 500 subjects, contained: a questionnaire investigating
personal data and driving history, the Barratt Impulsiveness
Scale-11 (BIS-11), the State and Trait Anger eXpression
Inventory (STAXI) and the Temperament and Character
Inventory (TCI). The BIS-11 investigates general impulsivity and
other aspects like attentional, motor and nonplanning impulsivity.
The STAXI gives information about experience, expression
and control of anger. The TCI, informed on Cloninger’s
temperament and character theory of personality, consists of
seven scales: Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence,
Persistence, Self-Directness, Cooperativeness and
Self-Transcendence.
The differences between the two groups (subjects with/without
lost points in driving licence) were tested using t-Student test.
To evaluate the association between the loss of points and the
variables examined in the questionnaires, we calculated odds
ratios using logistic regression models. We used simple Correlation
to investigate the dependence between the several scales of
different tests.
Results
112 pamphlets were sent back, 36 of which reported loss of
points. No significant difference emerged between this two
groups according to age, sex, education, loss of points, type of
traffic violation, and years of driving.
Simple correlation (Table I) demonstrates a wide dependence between
the scales of different tests. The t-Student test indicated that
the subjects that committed traffic offences has a lower mean in
Harm Avoidance (13.83 vs. 16.72; p = 0.027), T-Anger (18.22 vs.
20.4; p = 0.062), and T-Anger/T (6.22 vs. 7.19; p = 0.061) than
those not reporting any offence. These results have been confirmed
by logistic regression (Table III). HA turned out to be a protection
factor for the loss of points (OR = 0.062; p = 0.031).
Conclusions
No psychopathological aspect emerged from our analysis, but
some temperamental profiles turned-out to influence traffic behavior.
Harm Avoidance proved to be a protection factor, in
other words people with high HA are less predisposed to engage
in risky driving. New findings of this study, compared to current
literature, are both the choice to investigate traffic violations
rather than accidents, and the sample, which is not selected
on the basis of committing violations nor by education; higher
mean age (45.96) ensured appropriate integration and modulation
of impulsivity and aggressiveness.

Key words: psychoactive substances, impulsivity, family conflict, teenagers, high school. The results shows that impulsivity was a predictor of drug consumption, users of psychoactive substances had high impulsivity in comparison of non users, for wich it is necessary to design interventions that favor the management of emotions and decision making in adolescents. Also family conflict correlate with the use of psychoactive substances, users had a high level of situations of conflict in their family, however this factor was not a predictor of consumption in all the sample only in the group of women, who presented a higher consumption of alcohol, tobacco and other substances. Impulsivity and family conflict correlated, which supports theoretical aspects that suggest that the family has a fundamental role in the control of impulses. En esta investigación se estudia la impulsividad y los factores de conflicto en la familia como predictores del consumo de sustancias psicoactivas en adolescentes de telesecundarias. Se utilizó una metodología cuantitativa, mediante un estudio de corte transversal, observacional y correlacional, para el cual se aplicó un cuestionario conformado por: indicadores de características sociodemográficas, escala de relaciones familiares disfuncionales perteneciente al DUSI (Tarter, 1990), escala de Impulsividad de Plutchik (1989), el test AUDIT (Bush, Kivlahan, McDonell, Fihn, y Bradley, 1998) y Fagerström (Fagerström, 1978) que exploran el consumo de bebidas alcohólicas y tabaco respectivamente, indicadores para identificar consumo de otras sustancias psicoactivas y su patrón de consumo. Participaron 344 estudiantes de tres telesecundarias del municipio de Emiliano Zapata ubicado en el estado de Veracruz, México. Los resultados revelan que la mitad de los participantes alguna vez había consumido bebidas alcohólicas, casi una cuarta parte había consumido tabaco alguna vez y un 9% había consumido otras sustancias psicoactivas. Si bien la mayoría de los usuarios son experimentales, se encontraron casos de consumo moderado y alto. Los hallazgos indican que la impulsividad disfuncional es un factor predictor del uso de sustancias en los adolescentes, lo que hace evidente la necesidad de diseñar intervenciones que favorezcan el manejo de emociones y toma de decisiones. Del mismo modo, el sexo y la ocupación fueron predictores, en el grupo de mujeres se observó un mayor consumo de sustancias; de igual manera, quienes indicaron que además de estudiar se dedican a trabajar también presentaron un mayor consumo. Cabe señalar que el conflicto familiar en términos estadísticos solo fue un factor predictor en el grupo de las mujeres; sin embargo, se encontraron correlaciones entre el conflicto familiar y el consumo de sustancias, también el grupo de usuarios presentó mayores puntuaciones en la escala de relaciones familiares disfuncionales. La impulsividad y el conflicto familiar tuvieron una correlación, que a pesar de ser baja fue estadísticamente significativa.

Il seguente studio si pone l'obbiettivo di indagare le correlazioni tra le dimensioni di impulsività e aggressività in un campione di pazienti con patologia psichiatrica. In letteratura vi è un comune accordo nel considerare l'aggressività come significativamente associata all'impulsività (Barratt, et. al. 1991; 1998; Critchfield, et. al. 2004; García-Forero, et. al. 2009), entrambi i costrutti, anche se distinti, condividono le medesime strutture cognitive (Coccaro, 1992; Antonucci, et. al. 2006), il risultato è una forte compartecipazione di entrambi i costrutti nelle manifestazioni cliniche e sintomatologiche in ambito psichiatrico.

Impulsivity and compulsivity are transdiagnostic features associated with clinically relevant aspects of psychiatric disorders including addictions. However, little research has investigated how impulsivity and compulsivity relate to hypersexuality and problematic pornography use. Thus, the aims of the present study were to investigate (a) self-reported impulsivity and compulsivity with respect to hypersexuality and problematic pornography use, and (b) the similarities and possible differences between hypersexuality and problematic pornography use in these domains. Utilizing structural equation modeling in a large community sample (N = 13,778 participants; female = 4,151, 30.1%), results indicated that impulsivity (β = .28, β = .26) and compulsivity (β = .23, β = .14) were weakly related to problematic pornography use among males and females, respectively. Impulsivity had a stronger relationship (β = .41, β = .42) with hypersexuality than did compulsivity (β = .21, β = .16) among males and females, respectively. Consequently, impulsivity and compulsivity may not contribute as substantially to problematic pornography use as some scholars have proposed. On the other hand, impulsivity might have a more prominent role in hypersexuality than in problematic pornography use. Future research should examine further social and situational factors associated with problematic pornography use.

The DSM-V diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) focus on indicators of impulsive aggressive phenotype (IAP), such as reckless, aggressive, or law-breaking behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). However, concentrating primarily on behavioral data casts a wide diagnostic net, enabling criteria to describe various individuals with little in common aside from a history of rule-breaking (Hare, Hart, & Harpur, 1991). Other diagnoses, including borderline personality disorder (BPD) and intermittent explosive disorder (IED), and clinical constructs, such as psychopathy, are associated with and often comorbid with ASPD, due to some shared symptoms of IAP, although the three clinical constructs differ in many ways (APA, 2013; Lenzenweger, Lane, Loranger, & Kessler, 2007). Due to the poor discriminant validity of ASPD criteria, these clinical populations are at risk of conflation under the ASPD umbrella due to shared IAP, with little consideration that underlying factors and other symptoms may differ and thus have different clinical implications. This review describes distinguishing structural and functional neural traits of psychopathy, BPD, and IED and discusses how these differences produce distinct subjective experiences contributing to IAP. The article additionally discusses potential harmful consequences of failure to differentiate these clinical populations, including heterogenous research populations that yield nongeneralizable results, limited or inappropriate treatment of some psychiatric patients, and general mischaracterization of the disorders (Hare, 1996; Hare et al., 1991). To illustrate these differences, the paper includes an entertaining thought exercise involving a dispute amongst three very different, but equally aggressive, characters at their local pub.

Aim:This study sought to explore the role of the elusive non-cognitive skill set known as grit, or the resolve and determination to achieve goals regardless of impediments, on student success in online education. It represents an area of exploration where there is a dearth in the available literature and reports the results of a study conducted at a Mid-Atlantic minority-serving university that examined the relationship between grit and student performance in fully online courses.

Methodology: Students were administered the standard 12-Question Grit Scale with the addition of a series of validated questions that sought to measure perceived self-learning efficacy. Additionally, student performances in online courses were recorded and correlations conducted. Basic statistical analyses such as mean, mode, standard deviation, variance, and confidence interval were calculated. Two hypotheses were introduced as part of this study and tested with Anovas and crosstabulations.

Results: This study found that higher grit scores correlated progressively to both self-discipline and self-efficacy but that a positive relationship to student achievement in fully online courses as measured with a p value of greater than .05 could not be confirmed.

Conclusion: As online education continues to grow, providing opportunities to foster and strengthen student success in online courses and programs is increasingly important. E-learning success requires that students exhibit strong self-regulation, self-discipline, resilience, dutifulness, conscientiousness, and low impulsivity all of which are attributes of grit. As such, grit is presented as a promising area of exploration for increasing student achievement in online education.

Research demonstrating the ability of music to reach the older parts of the brain responsible for emotional processing make a case for utilising specific musical compositions to deliver treatment to people with Borderline Personality Disorder. BPD has been linked to an increased risk of Cardiometabolic Syndrome (CMS), as traumatic experiences in childhood predict adverse mental and physical health in adulthood including Personality Disorders. BPD sufferers who develop CMS as a result of impulsive lifestyle choices may have their recovery inhibited by the effects of CMS. Dieting may be particularly difficult for people with BPD as food serves as a way to soothe emotional pain and depression. Emotional pain leads to making choices which increase the chances of developing health conditions which research has shown negatively affect mood and memory function. Remission of BPD requires maintaining a reduction in impulsive lifestyle choices. Traditional treatments such as CBT require the patient to utilise their own degree of cognitive abilities (willpower), which may not be functioning well due to poor health. A direct line to brain areas such as the amygdala could circumnavigate the necessity to use slower cortical areas when reprogramming the patient towards healthier decision-making. This presentation will provide suggestions for how to integrate therapy into tailored songs.&quot;

Traditional viewpoints held by academic and non-academic professional groups of the white-collar crime offender profile(s) are that they are non-violent. Yet research has begun to unveil a sub-group of white-collar offenders who are violent, referred to as red-collar criminals, in that their motive is to prevent the detection and or disclosure of their fraud schemes through violence. This article is the first to discuss the origin of the red-collar crime concept developed by this author coupled with debunking white-collar offender profile misperceptions that have persisted for decades by offering current research on the anti-social qualities displayed by this offender group that predates their violence. Secondly, the article applies behavioral risk factors, such as narcissism and psychopathy, which contributes to our understanding of why some white-collar offenders may resort to violence while other white-collar offenders do not. Case analysis also draws upon gender distinctions, workplace violence and homicide methods used to illustrate that red-collar criminals are not an anomaly to ignore simply because they may not reflect the street-level homicides typically observed by society, investigated by law enforcement and studied by academia.
Keywords: red-collar crime, narcissism, psychopathy, fraud detection homicide, white-collar crime

The present study is an attempt to assess internet addiction, impulsivity and psychological distress among university students. The sample in the study consisted of one hundred fifty university students out of which 75 were males and 75 were females who were selected on the purposive basis from the main campus of Kashmir University. Young’s Internet Addiction
Scale (IAT), Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10), Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) and Demographic Data
sheet were used to collect research data from informants. The obtained data were analysed by frequency method, Pearson
correlation method and t-test. The results revealed that male university students experienced more internet addiction,
impulsivity and psychological distress as compared to the female university students and a significant positive correlation
was found between internet addiction and psychological distress; and internet addiction and impulsivity among university students. Moreover, the results also indicated that rural university students experienced more internet addiction and psychological distress as compared to urban university students.
Keywords: Internet Addiction; Impulsivity; Psychological Distress; University Students.

هدف البحث الحالى إلى التعرف على العلاقة بين الضغوط الاكاديمية والأسلوب المعرفي التروي / الاندفاع لدي التلاميذ ذوى صعوبات التعلم فى المرحلة الابتدائية حيث  تكونت العينة من (13 متروى ، 10 مندفع) تلميذ وتلميذة من ذوى صعوبات التعلم و وتراوحت أعمارهم من 8 أعوام و11 شهراً الى 11 عام وشهرا ، وكانت الأدوات المستخدمة فى هذا البحث اختبار رافن للمصفوفات المتتابعة ، مقياس بندر جشطلت البصري الحركي ، استمارة المسح السريع، اختبار القراءة الصامتة ، مقياس الضغوط الأكاديمية ، اختبار تزاوج الأشكال المألوفة لأطفال المدرسة الابتدائية للتعرف على التلاميذ المندفعين والمترووين حيث أظهرت النتائج أنه توجد علاقة ذات دلالة إحصائية بين مستوى الضغوط الأكاديمية و الأسلوب المعرفى الاندفاع /التروى لدى التلاميذ ذوى صعوبات التعلم،لا توجد فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية بين متوسطي رتب درجات الذكور والإناث على مقياس الضغوط الاكاديمية، توجد فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية بين متوسطي رتب درجات المندفعين والمتروين على مقياس الضغوط الاكاديمية.

Associations between specific motivations for animal cruelty, particular methods of animal cruelty and different facets of impulsivity were explored among 130 undergraduate students. Participants completed an adapted version of the Boat Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences (BIARE) which asked participants to state whether they had intentionally harmed or killed an animal, the species of animal(s) involved, their motivations for harming or killing the animal(s) and the method(s) used. Participants also completed the Impulsive Behavior scale (UPPS-P) which assesses five facets of impulsivity. Over half of the sample (55%) reported committing at least one act of animal cruelty, and dogs were the most commonly abused species of animal. The most frequently reported motivations were Prejudice, Amusement, Control (of an animal), and Retaliation (against an animal), and the most frequently reported methods were Beating/Kicking, Squashing, Throwing an object at an animal, Shooting, Drowning and Burning. Significant associations were found between particular motivations and methods, as well as between particular methods of animal cruelty and facets of impulsivity. Findings have implications for theoretical models of animal cruelty perpetration as well as offender assessment and treatment.

Aims To estimate the pooled prevalence of compulsive buying behaviour (CBB) in different populations and to determine the effect of age, gender, location and screening instrument on the reported heterogeneity in estimates of CBB and whether publication bias could be identified. Methods Three databases were searched (Medline, PsychInfo, Web of Science) using the terms 'compulsive buying', 'pathological buying' and 'compulsive shopping' to estimate the pooled prevalence of CBB in different populations. Forty studies reporting 49 prevalence estimates from 16 countries were located (n = 32 000). To conduct the meta-analysis, data from non-clinical studies regarding mean age and gender proportion, geographical study location and screening instrument used to assess CBB were extracted by multiple independent observers and evaluated using a random-effects model. Four a priori subgroups were analysed using pooled estimation (Cohen's Q) and covariate testing (moderator and meta-regression analysis). Results The CBB pooled prevalence of adult representative studies was 4.9% (3.4–6.9%, eight estimates, 10 102 participants), although estimates were higher among university students: 8.3% (5.9–11.5%, 19 estimates, 14 947 participants) in adult non-representative samples: 12.3% (7.6–19.1%, 11 estimates, 3929 participants) and in shopping-specific samples: 16.2% (8.8–27.8%, 11 estimates, 4686 participants). Being young and female were associated with increased tendency, but not location (United States versus non-United States). Meta-regression revealed large heterogeneity within subgroups, due mainly to diverse measures and time-frames (current versus lifetime) used to assess CBB. Conclusions A pooled estimate of compulsive buying behaviour in the populations studied is approximately 5%, but there is large variation between samples accounted for largely by use of different time-frames and measures.

This study examined the relations between impulsivity and decision-making as assessed by the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). A total of 73 nonclinical adolescents were administered self-report measures for trait impulsivity and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) to assess cognitive impulsivity. We found significant correlations between trait impulsivity and WCST performance among adolescents exhibiting poor performance on the IGT, and no such correlations for those adolescents
performing well on the IGT. We recommend that researchers should assess performance on the IGT at the individual level in terms of learning.

We examine the construct of impulsivity using an organismic-developmental approach. Trait impulsivity was assessed by means of both the Impulsiveness Questionnaire (I7 or I5) and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11 or BIS-11-A). Cognitive impulsivity was assessed by means of a computerized Matching Familiar Figures Test, the Porteus Maze Test, the Trail Making Test, a computerized Wisconsin Card Sorting Task,
and Circle Tracing. Our data were collected from a total of 182 individuals, ranging in age between 14 and 22 years, divided into two groups. Participants were tested individually, and completed the tests in one session lasting approximately 1.5 h. We were able to substantiate our prediction that the multi-faceted construct of impulsivity becomes more differentiated with age: factor analysis revealed two impulsivity factors in the younger age group (primarily ages 14 and 16), and three impulsivity factors in the older group (primarily ages 20 and 22).
Keywords: Impulsivity; Venturesomeness; Construct validity; Organismic-developmental approach

The DSM-V  diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) focus on indicators of impulsive aggressive phenotype (IAP), such as reckless, aggressive, or law-breaking behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). However, concentrating primarily on behavioral data casts a wide diagnostic net, enabling criteria to describe various individuals with little in common aside from a history of rule-breaking (Hare, Hart, & Harpur, 1991). Other diagnoses, including borderline personality disorder (BPD) and intermittent explosive disorder (IED), and clinical constructs, such as psychopathy, are associated with and often comorbid with ASPD, due to some shared symptoms of IAP, although the three clinical constructs differ in many ways (APA, 2013; Lenzenweger, Lane, Loranger, & Kessler, 2007). Due to the poor discriminant validity of ASPD criteria, these clinical populations are at risk of conflation under the ASPD umbrella due to shared IAP, with little consideration that und...

The aim of this article is to investigate the role of the grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in the economic game. One widely employed paradigm in this field of experimental economic games is the prisoner's dilemma-used to examine competitive versus cooperative behaviour. In the present study a prisoner's dilemma game was ad-ministrated to individuals (N = 320), along with measures of grandiose narcissism, vulnerable narcissism and impulsivity. Specifically, our results show that vulnerable narcissism has a significant positive effect on defecting behaviors, while grandiose narcissism has a significant positive effect on cooperation in the initial round. However, while the game proceeded, grandiose narcissism started to have a positive effect on defecting behaviors too. This suggests that grandiose narcissists have, at least initially, positive qualities to them which can make them popular, but in the long run they lose their positive reputation and their likeability and willingness to cooperate decrease.

The tendency to make unhealthy choices is hypothesized to be related to an individual's temporal discount rate, the theoretical rate at which they devalue delayed rewards. Furthermore, a particular form of temporal discounting, hyperbolic discounting, has been proposed to explain why unhealthy behavior can occur despite healthy intentions. We examine these two hypotheses in turn. We first systematically review studies which investigate whether discount rates can predict unhealthy behavior. These studies reveal that high discount rates for money (and in some instances food or drug rewards) are associated with several unhealthy behaviors and markers of health status, establishing discounting as a promising predictive measure. We secondly examine whether intention-incongruent unhealthy actions are consistent with hyperbolic discounting. We conclude that intention-incongruent actions are often triggered by environmental cues or changes in motivational state, whose effects are not parameterized by hyperbolic discounting. We propose a framework for understanding these state-based effects in terms of the interplay of two distinct reinforcement learning mechanisms: a " model-based " (or goal-directed) system and a " model-free " (or habitual) system. Under this framework, while discounting of delayed health may contribute to the initiation of unhealthy behavior, with repetition, many unhealthy behaviors become habitual; if health goals then change, habitual behavior can still arise in response to environmental cues. We propose that the burgeoning development of computational models of these processes will permit further identification of health decision-making phenotypes.