Oryantalism

It is possible to say that the orientalist researchers who showed a particular interest in the early period of hadith and Islamic jurisprudence have written enough to form a significant literature on Muwatta'. Among these works, Norman Calder's Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence is worthy of note, for it discusses the period in which Muvatta' emerged and his book is widely discussed in many books, articles and reviews. In this article, the scientific and intellectual continuity within the orientalist paradigm will be discussed, as well as the possible mistakes caused by a generalist approach asserting that all orientalist researchers have the same mindset and each study made by them arrives at similar conclusions. The subject will be handled through the criticisms made researchers for Calder; especially Wael B. Hallaq and Harald Motzki. This article aims to present the idea that the only way to determine the approach of the Orientalist paradigm on any fundamental issue of the science of hadith, all of the studies ever done in that particular subject must be evaluated together. It also aims to provide a method and a perspective to researchers who want to benefit from orientalist literature.

Oryantalizmin güçlü ekollerinden birisi hiç şüphesiz Alman oryantalizmidir. İslâm’ın temel kaynaklarının tamamına hayli eleştirel yaklaşan ve Alman oryantalizmin öncülerinden kabul edilen Ignaz Goldziher (öl. 1921), Josef Horovitz (öl. 1931) ve Joseph Schacht’ın (öl. 1969) İslâm ilimleri alanında son asırlarda ciddi mesailer harcadıkları, fikir ve iddialarıyla önemli temsilciler yetiştirdikleri bilinmektedir. Özellikle kendilerinden sonraki araştırmacıları metodoloji, iddia, kaynakları kullanma
hususunda etkileyen bu ana akım oryantalistler dışında hem takip ettikleri yöntem hem de temel meselelere yaklaşım açısından farklı olan başka oryantalist araştırmacılar da vardır. Bu araştırmacılar arasında çalışmalarında uyguladığı metodoloji ve Müslümanların kaleme aldıkları eserleri etkin bir şekilde kullanmak suretiyle diğer oryantalistlerden ayrılan Macar asıllı Alman bilim adamı Miklos Muranyi’yi bilhassa zikretmek gerekir. Hadislerin konu edindikleri dönemler hakkında tarihî birer malzemeden ibaret olduğu yönündeki kabulüyle içinden çıktığı oryantalist gelenekten önemli izler taşıyan muasır araştırmacı Muranyi, selefleri kadar
şüpheci davranmamaktadır. Hicrî II. ve III. yüzyıllara ait yazma eserlerin ortaya çıkarılmasında büyük emeği bulunan Muranyi’nin kaleme
aldığı eserler, gerek hadis tarihi açısından gerekse fıkıh ilmine yönelik
hayli önemli sayılabilecek muhtevaya ve iddialara sahiplerdir. Bu çalışmada öncelikle Muranyi’nin içinden çıktığı gelenekten farklılaşan yönlerini tespit edilebilmek için Alman oryantalizmi hakkında kısaca bilgi
verildi. Daha sonra sırasıyla Muranyi’nin hayatı ve çalışmaları üzerinde
duruldu, onu oryantalist paradigma içerisinde farklı kılan hususlara temas edildi. Muranyi’nin mesaisinin büyük bir kısmını teksif ettiği erken
dönem musannefâtı hakkındaki görüşlerine yer veren bu makale, onun
incelemelerinin merkezinde konumlandırdığı Muvatta’ ve telifine dair
tespit ve kanaatleriyle son bulmaktadır.

Abstract

One of the strongest schools of Orientalism is undoubtedly the German
school. It is thought that Ignaz Goldziher (d. 1921), Josef Horovitz (d.
1931), and Joseph Schacht (d. 1969) -who are considered among the
pioneers of German Orientalism- have a highly critical perspective to
all kinds of canonical sources of Islam and they have spent serious
efforts in the field of Islamic sciences for the last centuries. They are
also known to educate key figures as their followers with these critical claims. There are orientalist researchers who are different, both in terms of the methodology they follow and approach for fundamental issues, apart from these mainstream orientalists who especially influenced the researchers after them in terms of methodology, theory,
and study of canonical sources. Among these researchers, the Hungarian-born German scholar Miklos Muranyi should be mentioned by differentiation from others on the methodology he applied in his studies and his ability to take an effective consideration to use of the works written by Muslims. On the contrary to his predecessors, Muranyi who bears important traces of the orientalist tradition from which he emerged with his acceptance that hadīths consist of historical material about the periods it belongs to, he is not as skeptical as they are. Miklos Muranyi’s
works, who had a great effort in revealing the manuscripts from the
second and third centuries after Hijra, loom large in both the history of
hadīth and the science of fiqh in terms of content and information. In
this study, firstly, German orientalism was explained briefly to notice
the differentiation of Muranyi from the tradition he was educated with.
Secondly, Muranyi’s life and works were emphasized, and the particular characteristic perspectives of him within the orientalist paradigm
were touched upon. This article covers Muranyi’s views on the early
period works which he has concentrated a large part of his work, concludes with his observations and assessment

During the last two centuries, universities and institutes in Europe have undergone serious research into the history of science. However, the number of Western scientists who make positive comments about the place of Islamic civilization in the history of sciences is very small. It is known that contemporary researchers engaged in the history of science in Islamic countries are limited and some of them work in European universities. One of these scientists were Professor Fuat Sezgin, who has passed away in the past years. F. Sezgin has gained a prominent place in the world with his specialized knowledge. He has copyrighted the contribution of Islamic science and technique to European civilization.  He has also published the main sources of Islamic science history. However, there are few researches about F. Sezgin in Turkey. Until 2019, there were very few monographs and even scientific researches about F. Sezgin's biography, scientific experience and studies. But the same year was declared as the Year of Professor Fuat Sezgin and it is remarkable that there is some scientific vitality on the subject. Conferences, symposiums and a series of panels about F. Sezgin have been organized in various cities and universities of our country. In addition, articles have been published in academic journals. However, the biography of the late F. Sezgin, who devoted almost all of his ninety-three years of life to the history of science, especially to the history of Islamic science, has not been fully addressed. The environment in which he grew up and his relationship with his teachers, who influenced and shaped his scientific attitude, were not evaluated. The idea of the Creative Age, which opposes the Renaissance perception dictated by Western-oriented historiography, is expressed superficially.
This research consists of a general evaluation of F. Sezgin's short biography and his views on the history of science, which makes important studies about Islamic history of science and contributes to the development of this field. For this reason, F. Sezgin's life will be examined firstly and then his views on the history of science have been discussed. Thus, it is aimed to interpret the memories that constitute the turning point of F. Sezgin's life with a scientific method and to provide short and clear information about his life to the researchers in an easily accessible manner. The article was prepared by taking advantage of F. Sezgin's anecdotes, memoirs, and his own works on the subject, which were published at various times. Where necessary, current research has been also applied

Belâgat ilminde manaya dayalı edebî sanatlardan tezat sanatı oldukça önemlidir. Tezat duyguya bağlı bir sanat olması sebebiyle şiirde coşku uyandırır, anlamı güçlendirir. Temelde bir mısra veya beyitte karşıt ibarelerin zikredilmesiyle oluşan tezat; ibarelerin tüm özelliklerine vâkıf olunmasını sağlaması açısından şairin ifade ettiği konu hakkında bilgisini gösterir, okuyucuyu da bilgilendirir. Ayrıca tezat sanatında şiirde karşıt ibareler ortak bir noktada toplanırken ibarelerin kendilerini tamamlayan kelime/kelimeleri barındırması sebebiyle tenâsübü de sağlar. Bu bağlamda örnek bir sûfî, şiirleriyle yüzyıllardır ölümsüzleşen şair ve hâce Yunus Emre Divanı’nda tezat sanatının ziyadesiyle gerçekleştiği tespit edilmiştir. Çalışmada Anadolu’da en zor şartlarda insanları şiirleriyle İslâm doğrultusunda bir arada toplayan Yunus’un Divanı’nda bulunan dört yüz on yedi gazel taranmıştır. Makalede taranan gazellerden elde edilmiş beyitlerden hareketle; şairin tezat sanatı çerçevesinde vermek istediği mesajların incelenmesi, ifade edilişlerine göre tezatın bölümleri ve tenâsüb, telmih arasındaki ilginin tespit edilmesinin yanında bu sanata benzeyen diğer edebî sanatın da belirlenmesi hedeflenmiştir. Çalışmada mezkûr sanat açıklandıktan sonra Yunus’un tezat sanatı dairesinde verdiği mesajlar sekiz bölümde tasnif edilmiştir. Makale tasnif edilen bölümlerin yorumlanması, bunların kullanım sıklığını gösteren tablolar, sonuç bölümü ile tamamlanmıştır.
Anahtar kelimeler: Tezat, Yunus Emre, divan.

Özet: Oryantalizm doğrudan Batı'nın Doğu'yu algılayış biçimiyle bağlantılı olarak XVIII. yüzyılda felsefi sistematik kazanmış ve Aydınlanma hareketlerinin uygulamaya koyduğu rasyonalitenin etkisiyle XVIII. yüzyıl sonrasında da Batı dünyasında büyük gelişim göstermiştir. Batı'nın, zihninde tasavvur ettiği Şark imajı İslam temelinde şekillenmiş ve bu imaj Arap ve Fars unsurlar ile birlikte Müslüman-Türk imgesi odağında Osmanlı insanını da belli bir tipolojiye yerleştirmiştir. Batı'nın Şark tasavvuru her ne kadar XVIII. yüzyıldan sonra felsefi bir hüviyet kazanmış olsa da, bu tasavvurun mazisi XII. ve XIII. yüzyıllara kadar uzanmaktadır. Bu da söz konusu edilen icat devrine bir hazırlık mahiyeti taşıyan keşif dönemini karşılamaktadır. Batı, Şark'ı önce keşfetmiş, ardından da istediği yönde icat etme sürecine girmiştir. Müslüman Doğu'nun keşfine dair XII. ve XIII. yüzyıllara kadar götürebileceğimiz çalışmaların ana omurgasını yazınsal anlatılar yani edebî metinler oluşturmaktadır. Bu dönemde mektup ve gezi yazıları şeklinde karşımıza çıkan bu kaynakların üstlendiği misyon XVI. ve XVII. yüzyıllarda da seyahatnameler nezdinde devam etmiş ve Osmanlı diyarlarında bulunan Batılı seyyahlar kaleme aldıkları seyahatnameler ile Batı aleminde malum Şarklı algısını yaratacak malzemeleri yargısal bir algı odağında işlemişlerdir. Bu çalışmanın amacı XVI. ve XVII. yüzyıllara ait Batılı seyyahlar tarafından kaleme alınan seyahatnamelerden on iki tanesi üzerinden, söz konusu edebî metinlerin XVIII. yüzyılda oryantalizm şeklinde sistem kazanacak düşünce yapısına kuramsal zeminde nasıl katkı sağladığını ortaya koymaktır. Abstract: Orientalism gained philosophical basis in 18 th century associated with West's perception of East and showed major progress in the Western world after 18 th century with the influence of the rationality which was introduced by the Enlightenment movement. The image in the mind of the West was shaped on Islamic basis, and it also connected together Muslim-Turkish (mainly Ottoman people in a certain typology) with the Arabic and Persian factors. Although the Orient perception of the West earned its philosophical identity after 18 th century, the history of the perception dates back to 12 nd and 13 rd centuries. This period coincides with the "exploration period", which is supposedly a preparation of the "invention period". The West, first explored the East, proceeded to the invention period. The main base of the studies dating back to 12 nd and 13 rd centuries about the creation of the Muslim East constituted of literary narratives, in other words, literary texts. The mission undertaken by these studies which are mainly letters and travel notes continued in 16 th and 17 th century travel books. The travel books written by Western pilgrims in the Ottoman region worked on the so called Orient perception in the West. The purpose of this study is to present how twelve travel books from 16 th and 17 th century written by Western pilgrims influenced the subsequent 18 th century orientalism mentality in theoretical ground.

From early ages, some verses of the Holy Qur’ān were translated into Greek and Latin in order to resist
Islam or for missionary targets, later its translation was carried out in Byzantium and later in Europe. Both
in Byzantium and the West, The Qur’ān aroused interest in rejecting the Prophet's prophethood. For this
reason, studies aiming only at the translation of the Qur’ān were carried out quite late. However, many
mistakes have been made in the translations of the Qur’ān due to reasons such as malicious intent,
insufficient knowledge of Arabic, not knowing Islamic concepts and literal translation. On the other hand,
Muslims did not write the articles on the Qur’ān, but only in their own language until the 20th century,
and they did not intend to translate the Qur’ān into foreign languages in order to appeal to non-Muslim
communities. Even, the Qur’ān was translated into the languages of some Muslim societies by non-
Muslims. In this article, the effects of the mistakes in the Qur’ān translations made in the East and the
West on the negative and unrealistic understanding of Islam and, the negative image of the Prophet based
on the translations of the Qur’ān have been examined. In our study, the first translations were taken into
consideration, and the studies after the Enlightenment period, when more objective Qur’ān translations
began to be seen, were excluded from the study. The aim of the study is to explain the wrong perception
about Islam and the Prophet caused by erroneous translations of the Qur’ān, and also to draw attention to
the necessity of the translation of the Qur’ān by Muslim translators in world languages and to write works
introducing the Prophet correctly against Islamophobia, which has increased all over the world. Because
today, unfortunately translations of the Qur’ān in many languages continue to be made by non-Muslims.

Slavery having existed for a long time had many sources in many cultures. In addition to main sources of enslavement like prisoners of war and the birth of slave children to slaves, there were some secondary reasons caused free-born people`s be sold as slaves through parents`s selling their children, debt slavery, child abandonment and selling kidnapped people. One of the fundamental differences between the age of Ignorance and the era of the Prophet Muhammad is observed on slavery system and especially the enslavement of free-born people. Slavery in Islam has been the object of studies for Western orientalists. Among many others, Prof. Dr. Irene Schneider`s article titled “Hadith-literature as a source on social history: the enslavement of free women in early Islamic times” has various conclusions in dispute and must be argued from different points. This article deals with the enslavement of free-born people in early Islamic times in the light of the historical records and aims to make an intense debate about Schneider`s article.
Tarih boyunca, hür doğmuş insanların, savaş ve köle bir anne ya da babadan doğma dışındaki bir takım sebeplerle köleleştirildiği bilinen bir husustur. Hz. Peygamber devri diğer pek çok alanda olduğu gibi genel olarak kölelik, özelde ise hür kimselerin köleleştirilmesi ile ilgili hususlarda Câhiliye’den farklı özellikler arzetmektedir. Prof. Dr. Irene Schneider, hadis kaynaklarındaki bazı rivayetlerden yola çıkarak, İslâm’ın ilk dönemlerinde hür kadınların köleleştirilmesi ile ilgili bir tebliğinde konuyu, İslâm’da kadın hakları bağlamında ele almaktadır. Bu makale, İslâm’ın ilk dönemlerinde hür kimselerin köleleştirilmesi ile ilgili tarihi rivayetler bağlamında, Schneider’in tebliğinde verdiği bilgilerin bir değerlendirmesini yapmayı hedeflemektedir.