Phonetics and Phonology

This paper presents a comprehensive phonetic and phonological description of Northern Sangtam, an essentially undescribed Tibeto-Burman language of central Nagaland belonging to the Aoic subgroup. It is a noteworthy language from a number of phonological perspectives, not least because its phoneme inventory contains two of the world's rarest phonemes: a pre-stopped bilabial trill, and a doubly-articulated labial-coronal nasal. These unique segments are described in detail, and an attempt is made to determine how they might have developed their phonemic status. The tone system is also of interest, as it demonstrates evidence of debuccalization resulting in the development of a new high tone. Following a systematic description of the syllable and word structure, the tone system, and the segmental phonology, some observed age-related differences in the phoneme inventory are discussed. The paper is linked to an online repository containing the audiovisual data and transcribed word lists of approximately 900 items, based on the recorded utterances of eight speakers.

This study describes the phonology of the Orma language. Orma is a member of the Oromo language cluster, which belongs to the East-Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. The Orma language is spoken by at least 69,000 Orma people. Most of them live in the Tana River district of Kenya’s Coast province. Orma has a five-vowel system, each of which may be long, short, or voiceless. Voiceless vowels only occur word-final. There are four syllable patterns permitted in Orma: V, VC, CV, and CVC. These are clearly seen in the orthography since the Orma community leaders chose to avoid digraphs. Orma morphophonemics is rather complex. Suffixation described includes verb inflectional and derivational suffixes and certain case endings. Prefixation described includes reduplication and the use of common bound morphemes. Orma has tone, but its functional load is minimal and not marked in the orthography.

This textbook is designed to teach Japanese in just the matter of 30 weeks (60-120 hours). One of the greatest merits of teaching with the Pana-Lingua method is to have students conjugate more than 10,000 Japanese verbs correctly and automatically by simply memorizing the table of 19 model verbs.  Students are led continuously to synthesize new materials and merge what was learnt before together with more materials. This will become a large amount, that is obtainable exponentially within a short period of time.  More detail is here. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhYy5KKJpP8

The program begins by 30 lessons for conversations, and another 30 lessons with the second volume, Japanese in 30 weeks II kana-kanji course.  There is no single program similar to ours, and you will begin to see the value of learning in depth within a short period of time.  Importantly, on the backend of the program, students will express self-selected themes and topics in Japanese language and know the culturally acceptable boundary. It is expertise content suitable from high school to beyond college education. For free trial lessons, please click here.  https://calendly.com/info-10707?month=2019-11

Attention! The related software (PANM script) can be downloaded from here:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B4QKykn2bzqQa0JQRTZtU08yZWs?resourcekey=0-kYz6XS59uRJCKj4YuhaqhQ
Background: This study aimed to introduce a low-cost system measuring nasalance, which can often be performed with high-cost systems, and to present the normative nasalance values for adults using this system.
Materials and Methods: This study included 96 standard native Turkish-speaking literate volunteers who had no hearing and speech problems or nasal obstruction. Nasalance values were measured using the system developed by the principal author, which is called the Praat-Assisted Nasalance Meter, using speech materials and related methods.
Results: The participants were 18-65 (average, 33.7) years old. They were divided into three groups according to their age: 18-25, 26-40, and 41-65. A significant difference was found in the nasalance values between the genders. For nearly all speech materials, higher nasalance values were measured in women than in men.
Conclusion: There is no generally accepted rule to ascertain if a speaker’s resonance is abnormal according to nasalance values. Therefore, the proposed threshold values should not be considered absolute values but should be decided with perceptual evaluation.

Amaç: Bu çalışmanın amacı, genellikle yüksek maliyetli sistemlerle gerçekleştirilebilen nazalans parametresi ölçümü için kullanılabilecek kendi geliştirdiğimiz düşük maliyetli bir sistemi tanıtmak ve bu sistem kullanılarak erişkinler için belirlenen normatif nazalans değerlerini sunmaktır.
Gereç ve Yöntemler: Standart Türkiye Türkçesi konuşan ve okuma yazma bilen 96 gönüllü çalışmaya dahil edildi. Deneklerin işitme ve konuşma problemi, burun tıkanıklığı yapan herhangi bir hastalığının olmamasına dikkat edildi. Birinci yazar tarafından geliştirilen ve Praat Yardımlı Nazalans Ölçer (PYNÖ) adı verilen sistem yardımıyla aşağıda belirtilen konuşma malzemesi ve yöntem kullanılarak nazalans ölçümü yapıldı.
Bulgular: Çalışmaya katılan 96 konuşmacının yaşları 18 ile 65 arasında değişiyordu (ortalama 33,7 yıl). Katılımcılar yaşlarına göre 18-25, 26-40 ve 41-65 şeklinde üç gruba ayrılarak incelendi. Elde edilen değerler cinsiyet grubuna göre karşılaştırıldığında aradaki farkların istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olduğu görüldü. Hemen her konuşma malzemesi için kadınlarda erkeklerden daha yüksek nazalans değerleri elde edildi.
Sonuç: Bir konuşmacı üzerinde ölçülen nazalans ölçüm sonuçlarının anormal olduğunu söylemek için genel kabul gören bir kural yoktur. Bu nedenle, bu çalışmada önerilen eşik değerler mutlak değerler olarak düşünülmemeli, algısal değerlendirmeyle birlikte karar verilmelidir.

New instances of palato-alveolars have been reported in various regions and countries of the English-speaking world over the past few decades. Those new instances of /ʃ, tʃ, ʒ, dʒ/, which I propose to bring together under the common name of Instances of Contemporary Palatalisation (henceforth, ICPs), are the results of processes of palatalisation. I argue that ICPs can be seen as the products of a phonological process that finds its roots in the context of significant post-World War Two social and political changes, both within and beyond the British Isles. What is common to all four ICPs is not the input but the output of the process, that is to say systematic palato-alveolars. The phonological view adopted is therefore that Contemporary Palatalisation expresses product-oriented, rather than source-oriented generalisations (cf. Bybee, 2001: 126). I argue that ICPs are the continuation of a historic pattern endemic to English, which has systematically yielded palato-alveolars throughout the history of the language. This paper presents selected results of a corpus study based on a PhD project undertaken at the University of Lyon.

African languages are on the verge of extinction because they are given less primacy as the foreign languages, and have not been standardised by developing their orthographies and phonemic systems. The need to arrest this drift is what has led to the emergence of this study. Given the fact that English is a major global language, comparing it with the Gwandara language enables the researchers to appreciate some striking similarities and, or differences capable of elevating the Gwandara language to a higher level. It is hoped that the reader will find this descriptive research work useful for its contribution to the development of one of the Nigeria’s local languages to a standard level.

This study presents two experiments aimed at investigating tune-to-text alignment and pitch scaling in Lifou French, a variety spoken by bilingual speakers of French and Drehu. Descriptions of New Caledonian French have focussed on language use of European descendants or the variety spoken in the urban region, neglecting emergent varieties spoken by the indigenous population in rural areas, like the island Lifou. Due to the reduced inventory of pitch accents, dialectal variation in French intonation has proved to be difficult to detect, which has led to the assumption that French has a relatively homogeneous intonation system across its varieties. This study shows that fine-grained phonetic differences in speaking tempo and at the level of tonal alignment as well as in the scaling of AP-final peaks can be attributed to dialectal variation.

During the early semesters of the English B.A. programme at the University of Veracruz (UV) Language Department, students learning English as a Second Language have to concentrate on becoming familiar with all aspects of the language: new grammar structures, syntax and vocabulary, and phonology, or principles and rules that describe the sound system of the language. Many features of English pronunciation are difficult for Spanish-speaking students, and this may slow down their acquisition of the language because others may not understand them, even if they are using the right grammar. It is not about pronunciation that results in a foreign accent, because that is very normal in adult learners. Rather, it is about pronunciation problems that interfere with communication and, therefore, make interaction difficult. For this reason, it is very important to include the teaching of pronunciation early on when studying English. This research is focused on how much students develop pronunciation skills in a few classrooms, and to the students’ experiences in understanding and learning pronunciation skills and also to the instructor’s intervention in the task. There is also a comparison on how pronunciation is taught, based on the current methods encountered at the time of the research.

El presente trabajo de fin de máster tiene como objetivo identificar cuáles son los principales obstáculos en la pronunciación española a los que se enfrentan los estudiantes japoneses cuya segunda lengua extranjera es el inglés y establecer una metodología adaptada a ellos que pueda resolver esas dificultades. Para ello, el trabajo se ha dividido en dos secciones: el marco teórico y el estudio de caso. En la primera sección se han realizado una descripción y un análisis contrastivo de los sistemas fonológicos del japonés, el inglés americano y el español. Además, a través de una serie de lecturas se ha recogido información acerca de los principales errores fonológicos que otros profesores de español han encontrado en sus alumnos japoneses. Después de la parte teórica, se ha llevado a cabo la parte empírica en la que participó un exalumno de la Universidad de Rikkyo y que se dividió en tres fases: a) se examinaron las principales dificultades del participante después, b) se intentó corregir algunos de esos problemas mediante una metodología adaptada al alumno y c) se analizaron los resultados finales comparándolos con los de la primera fase. Finalmente, se exponen las conclusiones que se han extraído tras la realización del estudio.
[ENG]
The purpose of the present Master’s Dissertation is to identify which are the main obstacles in the Spanish pronunciation Japanese students whose second foreign language is English confront and to stablish a methodology adapted to them which can solve those difficulties. To achieve that, the project has been divided into two sections: the theoretical framework and the case study. In the first section we have carried out a description and a contrastive analysis of the Japanese, the English and the Spanish phonological systems. In addition, through a series of readings we have collected information about the main phonological mistakes Spanish teachers have found in their Japanese students. After the theoretical part, we conducted the empirical part in which a Rikkyo University alumni participated and which was divided into three phases: a) we examined the main difficulties of our participant b) we tried correcting some of those problems through a methodology adapted to him and b) we analysed the final results comparing them to those obtained during the first phase. Finally, we present the conclusions we deduced after the realization of the study.

This paper focuses on the perception and production of the English alveolar stops (/t / and /d/) in syllable coda by Brazilian learners of English. In the production test, the participants read a list of English sentences containing alveolar stops in word-final position. The preceding and following phonological contexts were controlled, so that the effect of context on the production of the alveolar stops could be analyzed. The perception test consisted of an oddity discrimination task where the target obstruents were either unreleased, aspirated, palatalized or produced with a paragogic vowel. The results of the production investigation show that the learners tended to unrelease the obstruents, but several tokens were aspirated, palatalized or produced with a paragogic vowel. As regards the relationship between perception and production of word-final /t / and /d/, a positive correlation was found between the discrimination and production rates. Index Terms: L2 perception/production...

This study takes a close look at the link between English sounds as realized in normal speech. Sounds are discrete entities that carry in them abstractions which is the import of phonology in every language. The physical properties of sounds which are realized in speech production undoubtedly have an interrelation with this discrete nature of sounds. The researcher adopted a purely analytical approach in viewing this topic, with little reliance on literature. It may be described as a purely scientific study as the researcher uses practical examples and correlates to drum home the interconnection between abstract sounds and their physical properties. The study notes that a letter of the English alphabet, for instance ‘y’, has different production realisations as both a vowel and a consonant based on the articulatory nuances a phonetic analyst associates with it. And secondly, the study finds that English speech sound may or may not have the same physiological identification with its ...

RESUMO As investigações experimentais no campo da perceção da fala demonstraram, a partir da segunda metade do século XX, a natureza categorial do processamento dos sinais acústicos da fala. O fonema passou então a ser concebido não só como uma unidade teórica da descrição das línguas, mas também como uma categoria percetiva. Neste estudo, veremos como, sem a fundamentação metodológica dos estudos experimentais, correntes de pensamento mais tradicionais em linguística-como a fonética tradicional britânica e a fonologia distribucionalista norte-americana da primeira metade do século XX-haviam adiantado já algumas propriedades desta conceção categorialista do fonema. Defenderemos que uma visão mais abrangente desta unidade descritiva e de processamento, combinando informação oriunda de diversas disciplinas e de quadros teóricos alternativos, permite uma melhor explicação não só dos sistemas fonológicos e do seu processamento, mas também da inter-relação entre estes dois objetos de estudo. PALAVRAS-CHAVE Fonema. Categoria. Perceção da fala. Perceção categorial. Fonética e Fonologia. ABSTRACT Experimental studies in the field of speech perception have demonstrated, since the 1950s, that speech perception is, fundamentally, an instance of categorical processing. Accordingly, the phoneme has been conceived of as a theoretical-descriptive linguistic unit and, simultaneously, as a perceptual category. In this paper, we shall see that, even before the more recent experimental methods, traditional views-such as the British school of descriptive phonetics and the American first structuralists-had anticipated some important aspects of the categorical perspectives on the phoneme. We shall defend that a broader view on this unit, based on the combination from different subdisciplines and theoretical frameworks, could offer us stronger explanations of phonological systems, phonetic processing and the interrelation between both objects of study. (*) Unidade de investigação financiada pela FCT-Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT-UIDB/00022/2020).

The phonological behavior of ejectives and implosives as well as their relation with other glottalic sounds pose a number of serious problems to current phonological theories. This paper reveals some of these deficiencies and presents an alternative representation of these segments based on the notion of phonological complexity, as proposed in Sagey (1986) and tentatively applied to glottalized sounds in McCarthy (1989).

The life cycle of sucking, swallowing and breathing has causes and consequences, the purpose of this document is to provide and disseminate it. It is written to respond to step mothers and some health professionals. El ciclo vital de succión, deglución y respiración tiene causas y consecuencias, el proposito de éste documento es el de dar a conocerlo y difundirlo. Esta escrito para dar respuestas a las madres y de paso a algunos profesionales de la salud.

The present cross sectional study aimed to delineate the phonological development across 2 ½ to 6 ½ years of typically developing Hindi speaking children. A total of 80 children from Mumbai who were further sub divided into 4 groups i.e. 2 ½ - 3 ½ years, 3 ½ -4 ½ years, 4 ½ -5 ½ years and 5 ½ - 6 ½ years with each group constituting 10 females and 10 males participated in the study. The inclusion criteria for the children was native Hindi speaking with normal oral peripheral mechanism, attending Hindi medium school and with no associated problems. The Photo articulation test in Hindi was administered on all the children. A total of 16 vowels, 30 consonants and 11 blends were assessed. The children responses were recorded using Sony digital audio recorder and further transcribed in broad IPA by the researcher. A phoneme acquisition criterion of 80% and above was selected for all the phonemes to be considered as acquired. The data was subjected to descriptive statistical analysis to i...

Bilingual language development might be characterized by transfer, deceleration, and/or acceleration, the first two being relevant for the language impairment diagnosis. Studies on bilingual children’s productive phonology show evidence of transfer, but little is known about deceleration in this population. Here, we focused on phonological transfer and deceleration in L1 speech of typically developing Polish-English bilingual children of Polish migrants to the United Kingdom (aged 4.7–7). We analyzed L1 speech samples of 30 bilinguals and 2 groups of Polish monolinguals, matched to the bilinguals on age or vocabulary size. We found that bilingual children’ speech (both simultaneous and early sequential) was characterized by transfer, but not by deceleration, suggesting that while phonological deceleration phases out in children above the age of 4.7, transfer does not. We discuss our findings within the PRIMIR model of bilingual phonological acquisition (Curtin et al., 2011) and show...

The present article studies the question of vowel reduction in contemporary Mexican Spanish. Key terms such as language variant, pluricentric language, and standard norm are clarified. We analyze the vowel characteristics of the Mexican variant of Spanish, and look at a certain variation in vowel quantity, as well as in the formant structure. We examine vowel reduction as a main particularity of the variant and conclude that, even though the phenomenon of vowel reduction cannot be left out when painting a broad picture of contemporary Mexican Spanish, vowel reduction is still not to be considered characteristic of the standard norm of the variant.

Phonetic convergence is the process by which a speaker adapts his/her speech to sound more similar to his/her interlocutor. While most studies analysing this process have been conducted amongst speakers sharing the same language or variety, this experiment focuses on imitation between non-native and native speakers in a repetition task. The data is a fragment from the ANGLISH corpus designed by Anne Tortel (Tortel, 2008). 40 French speakers (10 male intermediate, 10 male advanced, 10 female intermediate and 10 female advanced learners) were asked to repeat a set of 20 sentences produced by British native speakers. Segmental (vowel quality), suprasegmental (vowel duration) and voice quality were analysed. Level of proficiency, gender and model talker were taken as independent variables.
Level appeared not to be a relevant parameter due to a high amount of inter-individual variability amongst groups. Somewhat contradictory results were observed for vowel duration and F1-F2 distance for male learners converged more than female learners. Our hypothesis that low vowels display a higher degree of imitation, and especially within the
F1 dimension (Babel, 2012), was partially validated. Convergence in vowel duration in order to sound more native-like was also observed (Zając, 2013).
Regarding the analysis of voice quality, and more particularly of creaky voice, observations suggest that some advanced female learners creaked more than the native speakers and more in the reading task, which indicate, both linguistic idiosyncrasy and accommodation towards the native speakers. Low vowels seem also to be more likely to be
produced with a creaky voice, especially at the end of prosodic constituents.

Indigenous dance & music across the world has long been an important topic of sociocultural studies conducted by people from various related fields and Indian tribes are no strangers to this ethno musical single dimensionality of their society. Since the advent of Ethnomusicology during late 19th century the holistic investigations of music as well as dance has opened doors for psychologists and linguistic scientists to study indigenous behavior & language.

The methodological approaches to this include collection of audio-visual recordings that along with the contextual information supplied helps linguistic scientists and psychologists to produce an analytically derived qualitative analysis of the ancestral dance & music of the tribal groups in India.

This paper further accentuates the above mentioned aspects of Psychology & Linguistics of Indian aboriginal music & dance, firstly, by highlighting the Psycho Acoustic effects of indigenous dance or music performed during ceremonies, especially the after life rituals and secondly, by emphasizing on the Phonetic Characteristics of the indigenous songs, that is an important factor in discovering the mother language of the currently spoken Indian indigenous languages.

The paper elaborates on both these points by using theoretical references from different associated fields and by the means of fieldwork done via participant observation during the course of Ethnographic Filming amongst the Gond Tribes of Bastar.

RRESUMO: Os objetivos deste estudo são apresentar e analisar os resultados da aplicação de um material
didático com foco em aspectos fonéticos do Inglês e mostrar resultados da produção do gênero oral
limerick. O referencial teórico utilizado conta com as contribuições de Cristófaro-Silva (2005), Brinton et. al.
(2010), que discutem o ensino da fonética do inglês, e Marcuschi (2010), Cristóvão(2005), que discorrem
sobre o uso de gêneros textuais em sala de aula. Como metodologia são utilizados os tipos de pesquisa de
campo, bibliográfica, descritiva, experimental e analítica. As implicações deste estudo mostram que os
alunos puderam fazer uso da organização sonora do inglês para sua aplicabilidade oral. Apesar das
dificuldades encontradas durante a aplicação do material, como falta de estrutura e poucas aulas para
aplicação, os alunos participantes da pesquisa tiveram condições de produzir o limerick de forma mais
adequada às características desse gênero.

Purpose: The aim of this tutorial is to support speech-language pathologists (SLPs) undertaking assessments of multilingual children with suspected speech sound disorders, particularly children who speak languages that are not shared with their SLP. Method: The tutorial was written by the International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children’s Speech, which comprises 46 researchers (SLPs, linguists, phoneticians, and speech scientists) who have worked in 43 countries and used 27 languages in professional practice. Seventeen panel members met for a 1-day workshop to identify key points for inclusion in the tutorial, 26 panel members contributed to writing this tutorial, and 34 members contributed to revising this tutorial online (some members contributed to more than 1 task). Results: This tutorial draws on international research evidence and professional expertise to provide a comprehensive overview of working with multilingual children with suspected speech sound disorders. This over...

Although previous research has demonstrated the efficacy of recasts on second language (L2) morphology and lexis (e.g., Li, 2010; Mackey & Goo, 2007), few studies have examined their effect on learners' phono-logical development (although see Saito, 2015; Saito & Lyster, 2012). The current study investigates the impact of recasts on the development of lexical stress, defined as the placement of emphasis on a particular syllable within a word by making it louder and longer, in oral synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) and face-to-face (FTF) interaction. Using a pretest-posttest design, intermediate learners of English were randomly assigned to one of four groups: FTF recast, SCMC recast, FTF control, or SCMC control. Pre-and posttests consisted of sentence-reading and information-exchange tasks, while the treatment was an interactive role-play task. Syllable duration, intensity, and pitch were used to analyze learners' development of stress placement. The statistical analyses of the acoustic correlates did not yield We would like to thank Laura Gurzynski-Weiss, Avizia Yim Long, and Megan Elisabeth Solon for their comments and suggestions on earlier versions of this article. We are also grateful to Alison Mackey and Jenifer Philp for their insightful guidance on the research on which this article is based, and to Sam Kirkham for his assistance with analysis. Finally, we would like to thank the anonymous SSLA reviewers for their valuable suggestions and feedback.

This paper classifies dipping tones in the framework of the Multi-Register and Four-Level Model, using new, firsthand acoustic data. Seven dipping types are identified. Four of them are produced in normal clear voice and affiliated with the Modal Register: (1) Central Dipping, typologically transcribed as /323/, (2) Back Dipping /523/, (3) Front Dipping /324/, and (4) Double Circumflex /4343/. The remaining three are produced with non-clear voice qualities: (5) Slack Dipping /213/ in L Register, (6) Creaky Dipping /202/ in the Lower Register, and (7) Fortis-Creak Dipping /405/ in the Upper Register. Each of the seven dipping tones contrasts with one or another with four distinctive features [± RgM, RgL, Hfront, Hback].

Nicaraguan Spanish is characterized by the reduction of coda /s/ to glottal
frication, elision, and glottal constriction, but the latter variant has never been
explored in depth. The present study fills this void by analyzing the word-final,
intervocalic /s/ environment in sociolinguistic interviews, reading tasks, and
image identification tasks conducted with 36 Nicaraguans with the goal of
detailing the social patterning of glottal constriction. I find that glottal constriction
patterns like sibilance, a hyperarticulated variant, and a statistical analysis
reveals two distinct hyperarticulation strategies in formal tasks based on age
and education. Given their differing responses to formality, I propose that more
educated and younger speakers with more exposure to prescriptive norms apply
sibilance, a global hyperarticulation strategy, to signal their education and power
on an international scale, while less educated and older speakers utilize glottal
constriction to construct an identity associated with regional articulateness.

Abstract: This brief communication summarises the main differences between the phonological systems
of the European and Brazilian varieties of Portuguese, which especially regard the occurrence of
neutralisations between phonemes and the consequent appearance of archiphonemes and macrophonemes.

In production, word-initial voicing contrast of plosives in Tokyo Japanese is not robustly based on VOT, since young speakers tend to devoice previously voiced plosives. Meanwhile, speakers rely heavily on f0. The present study aims to examine the role of VOT and f0 cues in perception. We conducted an identification test using resynthesized stimuli along a VOT continuum (-60 to +40 ms) orthogonal to an f0 continuum. Results suggested a categorical perception of VOT, while f0 was especially useful when VOT was around 0 ms. Higher f0 contours affected the response rate more than lower f0 contours , suggesting that the perceptual role of f0 raising was more important than f0 lowering. Hence, plosive devoicing in production is not preceded by listeners' misparsing of low f0 and pre-voicing. Their misattribution of high f0 to voiceless-ness may play a more important role in the shift of VOT-f0 cue weighting in perception and production.

As in every language, there are many words of foreign origin in the Turkish language. Arabic and Persian loanwords are the most numerous. During the period of reformation known as Tanzimat (starting in 1839), words from Western European languages and especially French began to enter the Turkish language. After World War II, the impact of the English language on the world has grown, leading to a wider introduction of English words into the Turkish language. This phenomenon has intensified especially in recent years through the Internet and other mass media. Because of the differences in the phonetic systems in the two languages, the English words are subject to some phonetic changes in order to adapt to the phonetic system of the Turkish language and to respond to the articulation habits of the Turkish speakers.

This paper compares the phonetic systems of English and Turkish. The loanwords which contain sounds and syllable patterns not typical for the Turkish language are subject to phonetic changes which are shown in the paper.

Keywords: adaptation, English loanwords, sounds, syllable patterns.

This paper examines intrinsic vowel pitch (IF0) in Moroccan Standard Arabic and Belgian Standard Dutch in order to investigate the hypothesis that IF0 may depend on the size of the vowel inventory. The results of a production task with 11 Moroccan native speakers of Standard Arabic and 10 Belgian native speakers of Dutch reveal that IF0 in Arabic is significantly smaller (1.28 ST) than in Dutch (2.78 ST). These results are suggestive of a possible influence on IF0 of the size of the vowel inventory in a language. The effect of speaker sex on IF0 was not significant, while the front-back distinction in the articulation of vowels was significant in Belgian Dutch.

English and Punjabi are languages which do not belong to the same families of languages. English is one of the West Germanic languages whereas; Punjabi is a part of the Indo-Aryan family. Punjabi is spoken by various nations on the globe, especially Pakistan and its province Punjab as well as in Indian Panjab. Both English and Punjabi manifest themselves through various dialects on the basis of diversified geographical areas. English is used as the first language by 379,007,140 speakers and further 753,359,540 speakers use it as a second language in more than 104 nations. So, the total speakers of English around the globe are 1,132,366,680 (Ethnologue, 2019). The importance of Punjabi cannot be denied being the 10th most widely used language on the globe (Ghai & Singh, 2013). According to Ethnologue (2019), the total number of Punjabi speakers is 125,326,840. In Pakistan, it is the language of the majority of the people residing in the most populous province of Pakistan, Punjab. It ...

Nuestro estudio aborda el fenómeno de velarización en shipibo, tomando como marco explicativo los presupuestos planteados por la fonología generativa no lineal. El fenómeno de velarización supone la aparición de un segmento complejo con segunda articulación velar, a partir de la confluencia de sonidos labiales con la vocal central alta no redondeada) de naturaleza fonológica en shipibo. El aporte del marco generativo en la explicación de este proceso es medular en la medida en que se establece una relación de mayor afinidad entre los rasgos fonológicos y los segmentos descritos.