Tokharians

This work focuses on the populations of South Siberia during the Eneolithic and Bronze Age and specifically on the contribution of uniparental lineage and phenotypical data to the question of the genetic affinities and discontinuities between western and eastern populations.
We performed molecular analyses on the remains of 28 ancient humans (10 Afanasievo (3600–2500 BC) and 18 Okunevo (2500–1800 BC) individuals). For each sample, two uniparentally inherited systems (mitochondrial DNA and Y‐chromosome DNA) were studied, in order to trace back maternal and paternal lineages. Phenotype‐informative SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) were also analyzed, along with autosomal STRs (Short Tandem Repeats).
Most of the Afanasievo men submitted to analysis belonged to a single sub‐haplogroup, R1b1a1a, which reveals the predominance of this haplogroup in these early Bronze Age populations. Conversely, Okunevo individuals carried more diverse paternal lineages that mostly belonged to Asian/Siberian haplogroups. These differences are also apparent, although less strongly, in mitochondrial lineage composition and phenotype marker variant frequencies.
This study provides new elements that contribute to our understanding of the genetic interactions between populations in Eneolithic and Bronze Age southern Siberia. Our results support the hypothesis of a genetic link between Afanasievo and Yamnaya (in western Eurasia), as suggested by previous studies of other markers. However, we found no Y‐chromosome lineage evidence of a possible Afanasievo migration to the Tarim Basin. Moreover, the presence of Y‐haplogroup Q in Okunevo individuals links them to Native American populations, as was suggested by whole‐genome sequencing

In the second part of our multivolume work we continue to present materials to give a detailed characteristic  of the Chemurchek cultural phenomenon – the complex of West European megalithic traditions spreaded over the foothills of the Mongol Altai (from the Russian Altai region to Trans-Altai Gobi) in 3rd – early 2nd millenium BC (Ковалев 2011, 2012б; Kovalev 2011). The first volume included reports on excavations carried out by Russian, Mongolian and Kazakh scholars in 1998-2010 (Ковалев и др. 2014; Ковалев, Эрдэнэбаатар 2014а; 2014б ). In the present volume we place the reports on excavations of Chemurchek sites, undertaken by the Altai State University and the Khovd University in the central part of the Mongol Altai. Thirteen Chemurchek barrows with dolmen-shape chambers and circumjacent multi-layer cairns were excavated there in 2007-2014 under the conduction of A.A.Tishkin, S.P.Grushin, Ch. Munkhbayar and D.Erdenebaatar (Тишкин и др 2011; 2012а; 2012б; 2013а; Грушин и др.  2014). During a number of seasons these researches were carried out under orders of the St.-Petersburg State Museum-Institute of Rhoerihs.
In 2015 the Museum-Institute of Roerichs in collaboration with the Altai State University and Khovd University organized an expedition to excavate a unique Chemurchek sanctuary in Khar Chuluut locality in the headstream of the Khovd river. We considered it necessary to include a report on the results of this investigation into the present volume, because a comprehensive publication of the site may possibly take several years. We also tried to gather and recapitulate all the available data on Chemurchek-type sites and finds in Xinjang, even short and deficient publications of Chinese scholars and desultory information from popular books and documentaries.
A true notion of the Chemurchek cultural phenomenon can not be completed without an information concerning it's surrounding. Thereby we undertook a publication of a data on a previously unknown culture of the Early Bronze Age (contemporaneous with Chemurchek) namely the Saensayi culture of the Eastern Tien Shan. People of this culture most probably migrated to the Inner Asia from the North-Western Caspian region, and preserved a rite of burial in “shaped pits” with ritual vehicle. The Saensayi culture had close relations with Chemurchek population of East Kazakhstan, that is corroborated by the discovery of the traces of the same burial rite there, for example in the Kopa 2, Kopa 3 barrows (Ковалев и др. 2014 ).
The results of excavations of Ust’-Kamenka-2 mound in the Zmeinogorsk area of the Altai region of Russia, discovered by S.P.Grushin, gave a clear evidence that people bearing the Chemurchek cultural phenomenon had spread hundreds kilometers to the North, to the region of Yelunino (Elunino) culture distribution. The architecture of this burial construction corresponds with a standard of Chemurchek mounds, that is unique for the Bronze Age of Russian Altai.
Original photographs and drawings of pictures on stone slabs of Chemurchek burial and ritual constructions, represented in this volume, are of special importance for solving the problem of the origin of Chemurchek cultural phenomenon. Geometrical-shape paintings of slab-chambers of barrows Belen Usny Denj, Khuurai Salaany Am 1 in the Khovd aimag, and of those in Toganbay 2 M2 and Kopar in Xinjang supplement a series of analogous evidences from Chemurchek mounds of Bulgan sum (Ковалев, Эрдэнэбаатар  2014a). Now we can state with even more reasons, that the general set of compositions of Chemurchek paintings is a peculiar reproduction of  leading motifs of the decorative art of megalithic cultures of France, Spain, Ireland, Switzerland. Rhombs and chevrons inscribed into each other, parallel              multi-triangle festoons, sloping net, net with cells filled with roundish spots, meander-shaped and volute-shaped curves, flat areas chaotically covered with broken lines – all these in the aggregate are distinguishing characteristic of the art of “Atlantic Megalithism” (Twohig 1981; Robin G. 2009; Ковалев 2012б: 52-53). Small shale plates with geometrical ornament, discovered in Khar Chuluut also find their West-European propotypes (Lilios 2008). Fantastic creatures with parabolic or rectangular bodies and different-shaped antennae, which occupy central place in the pictures of Khar Chuluut sanctuary, meet their analogies only in megalithic monuments of France (Ковалев 2012a: 155-156, fig. 4).

In year 2015 joint Russian-Mongolian expedition headed by A.Kovalev (Institute of Archaeology RAN) and Ch. Munkhbayar (Khovd University) firstly excavated outstanding ritual complex of Chemurchek (Qiemuerqieke) kulture ca.100 km from centre of this culture (from the Qiemuerqieke village to this site is mountain trail), at an attitude of 2600 m above sea level. The construction represents a rectangular stone platform measuring 25 by 35 m, the walls of which are composed of vertical slabs. From eastern side the massive stela was erected and large ritual corridor was built. In ancient times, slabs in fence were decorated from the outside with peculiar images of deities, demons (ancestors?), animals, different signs. More than 300 slabs and slab’ fragments with images were discovered. All stones with images were copied and were transferred to Khovd University museum. Some compositions of figures were preserved by soil or restored by investigators. In the centre of the fence some large massive flat stones were opened, each of which was decorated by scenes from the life of mythical personages. These compositions were exposed inside ritual area like in art gallery. During the excavation "treasure" of 79 engraved and not-engraved miniature stone plaques was found. Entgraved plaques have anthropomorphic features with geometric ornamentation. This ritual complex by now is only one investigated from the similar structures: two similar fences were discovered by expedition nearby. Similar (not so large) rectangular fences of ritual purposes without pictures but with stone stelae were excavated by A.Kovalev, D.Erdenebaatar and Ch. Munkhbayar in this region in 2004. Same images of deities and demons were found in neighbouring rock art complexes: Shatar chuluu, Baga oigor and Shiveet khairkhan. Compact spreading of these images and ritual fences in montanious region in the vicinity of Chemurchek (Qiemuerqieke) valley show that this region used as ritual area of Chemurchek culture people. Some images are similar to megalithic art in France, a series of images are similar to the petroglyphs of Kazakhstan and the Altai Mountains. The closest analogies of engraved stone plaques are engraved anthropomorphic plaques from megalithic monuments of the Iberian Peninsula (31-27 c. BC.), as well as statues-menhirs of Sion-Aosta type (29-27 c. BC.). The repertoire of images allows us to trace the broad connections of  Chemurchek (Qiemuerqieke) kulture and reinforces the idea of the origin of this culture from Western Europe.