8: The end of Welsh independence

But beneath the surface civilities there was much tension. In the parts of Gwynedd seized by the king, royal officials proved oppressive. The Welsh lords of Deheubarth found themselves enmeshed by the royal administration at Carmarthen and Cardigan.

Welsh opinion was flouted when major issues in Wales were decided by English rather than Welsh law. Even the King's ally, Dafydd, in his stronghold at Denbigh, became disillusioned. Indeed, it was Dafydd - 'the chiefest firebrand in this fatal combustion' as John Speed put it - who set in motion the events which led to the virtual extinction of his dynasty.

On Palm Sunday in 1282 Dafydd attacked Hawarden Castle, an act which sparked off revolt in much of Wales. Llywelyn hesitated. Several months went by before he joined the revolt. He did so, perhaps significantly, shortly after Eleanor died giving birth to Gwenllian, their only child.

In 1282 King Edward was determined to achieve total victory, although the cost in time, effort and money undoubtedly caused him dismay. Edward attacked Llywelyn from the south, from the east and from the sea.

The king's supporters had some successes. They impeded Edward's advance across the north east; in the Tywi Valley, Llywelyn's southern allies proved effective; his opponents' attempt to cross the Menai Strait on a bridge of boats proved disastrous.

Late in 1282, Llywelyn decided to rouse the men of the middle March, a region always central to his strategy. It was there, at Cilmeri near Builth, that he was killed on 11 December 1282.

Yet the struggle continued. Dafydd assumed the title of Prince of Wales. He was captured at the foot of Cadair Idris on 25 April 1283 and was executed at Shrewsbury.