Characterization and Making Techniques of Calcareous Construction Materials for Phaya Thon Zu Temple in Bagan Historical Area, Myanmar
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Conservation and Classification of Materials
2.2. Analytical Specimens
2.3. Research Methods
3. Results and Interpretation
3.1. Textural Characteristics
3.2. Mineralogical Compositions
3.3. Thermal Analyzes
3.4. Geochemical Analyzes
4. Discussion
4.1. Material Considerations
4.2. Provenance Considerations
4.3. Interpretation of Making Techniques
5. Conclusions
- The calcareous materials used in the construction of the Phaya Thon Zu temple in Bagan, Myanmar, are mortars, plasters, and stuccos, which were utilized as joint filler, plaster, and decorative elements inside and outside the temple. In the study, specimens of each calcareous material that fell off were collected by classifying their uses and production time, and their material characteristics and making techniques were discussed through mineralogical and geochemical analysis.
- As a result of the integration of the material scientific characteristics of the studied calcareous specimens, the stuccos and plasters had lime-mixture characteristics due to their high content of CaO along with calcite. At the same time, the mortar was confirmed to have similar characteristics only in the new mortar used for repair. When their geochemical behavioral characteristics are examined, the clayey materials used in the construction were sourced from soils distributed in the temple site.
- The calcareous auxiliary materials of the Phaya Thon Zu temple are a mixture of soil-based clay and lime paste, to which organic materials have been added. As a result of thermal analysis, in the firing of limestone performed during the process of obtaining the lime used to produce the calcareous materials, pyrolysis was found to have ended at around 750 °C. Therefore, relatively low-quality lime was obtained due to an incomplete decarbonization reaction while securing quicklime.
- The aggregates mixed in producing the calcareous auxiliary materials were largely of two types. Although the original mortars generally had a composition close to the soil, other calcareous materials were produced with a higher lime content mixed with clay and organic matter. In particular, stuccos had the highest range of lime and organic matter among the calcareous materials and was combined with the most homogeneous selected aggregate. This reflects increased durability against weathering and ease of carving by considering its unique feature of being continuously exposed to the external environment.
- If research on the clear provenance interpretation of the raw materials for calcareous auxiliary materials and investigation on the mixing ratio of clayey materials were to be carried out in the future based on the results of this study, it would be possible to establish conservational measures to maintain the outstanding universal value, authenticity, and integrity of the Phaya Thon Zu temple as a World Heritage Site.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Barry, M.B. Bagan: Temples and Monuments of Ancient Burma; Paths International: Bedford, UK, 2003; pp. 1–76. [Google Scholar]
- UNESCO. Decisions Adopted during the 43rd session of the World Heritage Committee, Baku; UNESCO: Baku, Azerbaijan, 2019; 254p. [Google Scholar]
- Jeon, B.H.; Kim, Y.J. Korea-Myanmar cultural heritage ODA project and archaeological significance of Phaya Thone Zu temple excavation in Bagan (Myanmar); Sogang Institute for East Asian Studies (SIEAS): Seoul, Republic of Korea, 2020; Volume 39, pp. 147–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cha, J.S. Meet in Beautiful the Myanmar. Hist. Space 2013, 90–109, 220–359. (In Korean) [Google Scholar]
- Amadori, M.L.; Fermo, P.; Raspugli, V.; Comite, V.; Mini, F.M.; Maekawa, Y.; Lin, K. . Integrated scientific investigations on constitutive materials from temple n.1205a Bagan valley (Myanmar). In Proceedings of the IMEKO International Conference on Metrology for Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, Lecce, Italy, 23–25 October 2017; pp. 387–392. [Google Scholar]
- Amadori, M.L.; Fermo, P.; Raspugli, V.; Comite, V.; Mini, F.M.; Maekawa, Y.; Russa, M.L. Integrated scientific investigations on constitutive materials from Me-taw-ya temple, Pagan valley Burma (Myanmar). Measurement 2019, 131, 737–750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amadori, M.L.; Mengacci, V.; Vagnini, M.; Casoli, A.; Holakooei, P.; Eftekhari, N.; Lin, K.; Maekawa, Y.; Germinario, G. Organic matter and pigments in the wall paintings of Me-Taw-Ya temple in Bagan valley, Myanmar. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hudson, B. Restoration and reconstruction of monuments at Bagan (Pagan), Myanmar (Burma), 1955–2008. World Archaeol. 2008, 40, 553–571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pichard, P. Pagan, Burma’s ancient city of 2000 pagodas damaged by a violent earthquake. UNESCO Cour. 1976, 29, 14–19. Available online: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000049529 (accessed on 24 November 2023).
- Weise, K. Safeguarding Bagan: Endeavours, challenges and strategies. J. Cult. Herit. 2016, 1, 68–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, J.S.; Chun, D.Y.; Galloway, C.; Lunsford, R.L. The mural of Phaya Thon Zu temple. Korea Herit. Agency 2018, 5, 142. (In Korean) [Google Scholar]
- Schwartzbaum, P.M.; Zari, D.; Tint, U.B.; Lazzarini, L. The conservation of the mural paintings and external carving of the temples of Pagan. Tokyu Congr. Prepr. Conserv. Far East. Art 1988, 33, 103–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, S.H.; Lee, C.H. Interpretation of material characteristics and making techniques for lime soil mixture on tomb barrier of Pyeongtaek Gungri site in Joseon Dynasty. Econ. Eoviron. Geol. 2018, 51, 49–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, S.H.; Lee, S.O.; Hong, S.G.; Kwon, Y.H. Historical and scientific investigations into the use of hydraulic lime in Korea and preventive conservation of historic masonry structures. Sustainability 2019, 11, 5169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, C.H.; Jo, J.H.; Kim, J.Y. Interpretation of limestone provenance, materials and making characteristics for lime-soil mixture on tomb barrier of the Yesan Mokri site in Joseon Dynasty. J. Conserv. Sci. 2016, 32, 471–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, C.H.; Eo, E.I.; Shin, S.C. Analysis on composition and strength of lime-soil mixture tomb barrier at Guri Galmae site in Joseon Dynasty. J. Conserv. Sci. 2017, 50, 40–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, C.H.; Kang, S.H. Evaluation of physical properties and strength interpretation for lime-soil mixture on barrier tomb of Pyeongtaek Gungri site in Joseon Dynasty. J. Conserv. Sci. 2018, 34, 97–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, G.Y.; Park, J.H.; Lee, C.H.; Lee, S.M.; Lee, K. Mechanical and structural investigation of traditional masonry systems with diverse types of bricks and hydrated lime mortars. Int. J. Archi. Hert. 2023, 18, 871–893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nam, B.J.; Noh, S.K.; Kim, E.K.; Ahn, S.A.; Kang, S.Y. Initial behavior and shrinkage properties of lime mortars forc restoration of cultural heritage according to the mixing ratio. J. Conserv. Sci. 2020, 36, 456–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, B.Y.; Yang, H.R.; Lee, C.H. Evaluation of physical properties and material characterization for structural frame at the stained glass windows to Gongju Jeil church of the registered cultural heritage in Korea. Econ. Environ. Geol. 2023, 56, 103–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Choi, I.K.; Yang, H.R.; Lee, C.H. Consideration of procurement system and material homogeneity for lime and clay using the tombs within the King Muryeong and the Royal Tombs in Gongju, Korea. Econ. Environ. Geol. 2022, 55, 447–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nockolds, S.R. Average chemical compositions of some igneous rocks. GSA Bulletin. 1954, 65, 1007–1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Govindaraju, K. Compilation of working values and samples description for 272 geostandards. Geostand. Newsletter. 1989, 13, 3–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, S.R.; McLennan, S.M. The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution; Blackwell Scientific Publications: Oxford, MI, USA, 1985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pearce, J.A. Role of sub-continental lithosphere in magma genesis at active continental margines. In Continental Basalts and Mantle Xenolith; Hawkesworth, C.J., Norry, M.J., Eds.; Shiva: Bristol, UK, 1983; Available online: https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/8626 (accessed on 24 November 2023).
- Hlaing, C.S.S. Scientific analysis and utilization of plant and fruit samples for conservation of ancient decorative arts. In Proceedings of the Asia Cooperation Program for Conservation Science ACPCS, Daejeon, Republic of Korea, 1 April–31 August 2018; National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage: Daejeon, Republic of Korea, 2018; p. 2727242023. Available online: https://nrich.go.kr/ichc/programUsrList.do?menuIdx=2727 (accessed on 24 November 2023).
- Lou, L.; Zhou, P.; Zhu, H.; Zhang, B.; Hu, Y. A thorough detection of the mortar materials for Buddhist buildings in Bagan, Myanmar. EPJ Plus. 2023, 138, 151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luján-Lunsford, R. Guidance Note in Approaches for Conservation of Mural Paintings and Architectural Decorative Works at Pagán; Internal UNESCO Report; UNESCO: Rome, Italy, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Noh, J.H.; Lee, H.C. Applied mineralogical characterization for the quick-lime manufactured from fine grained domestic limestones. J. Miner. Soc. Korea 2009, 22, 261–277. [Google Scholar]
Type | Group | Sample No. | Location | Use |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mortars | PMO | PMO-1 | On the outside surface of Phaya Thon Zu | Original mortars |
PMO-2 | ||||
PMO-3 | ||||
PMN | PMN-1 | New mortars | ||
PMN-2 | ||||
PMN-3 | ||||
Plasters | PPO | PPO-1 | On the outside surface of Phaya Thon Zu | Original plasters |
PPO-2 | ||||
PPO-3 | ||||
PPO-4 | ||||
PPN | PPN-1 | New plasters | ||
PPN-2 | ||||
Stuccos | PST | PST-1 | Near the Phaya Thon Zu temple | Original stuccos |
PST-2 | ||||
PST-3 | ||||
PST-4 | ||||
PST-5 | ||||
PST-6 | ||||
PST-7 | ||||
PST-8 | ||||
PST-9 | ||||
PST-10 | ||||
PST-11 | ||||
Soils | PS-1 | Near the Sulamani temple | Clayey soil | |
PS-2 | Near the Htilominlo temple | Sandy soil | ||
PS-3 | Brick factory in the Thu Htay Kan | Clayey soil | ||
PS-4 | Sandy soil |
Sample | Si | Al | Fe | Ca | Mg | Na | K | Ti | O |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mortar 1 | 20.67 | 9.11 | 2.48 | 1.50 | 1.84 | 0.93 | 1.45 | - | 62.02 |
Plaster 2 | 16.57 | 2.48 | - | 16.42 | 3.52 | - | 1.39 | - | 0.43 |
Stucco 3 | 10.74 | 4.77 | 2.27 | 20.94 | 3.87 | - | 1.13 | - | 56.28 |
Sample Name | Weight Loss | Sample Name | Weight Loss | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mortar | Original | PMO-2 | 3.31 | Plaster | Original | PPO-2 | 12.28 |
PMO-3 | 5.48 | PPO-4 | 20.48 | ||||
New | PMN-1 | 14.02 | New | PPN-1 | 8.27 | ||
PMN-2 | 15.19 | PPN-2 | 17.29 | ||||
Stucco | Original | PST-1 | 21.52 | Stucco | Original | PST-6 | 19.45 |
PST-4 | 21.51 | PST-10 | 21.33 |
No. | Mortar | Plaster | Stucco | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PMO-2 | PMO-3 | PMN-1 | PMN-2 | PPO-2 | PPO-4 | PPN-1 | PPN-2 | PST-1 | PST-4 | PST-6 | PST-10 | |
SiO2 | 78.66 | 76.64 | 60.63 | 59.42 | 61.62 | 48.58 | 59.27 | 51.78 | 43.98 | 44.83 | 49.17 | 45.87 |
Al2O3 | 8.72 | 8.60 | 5.47 | 5.24 | 5.4 | 4.88 | 12.33 | 5.54 | 5.64 | 4.71 | 5.01 | 4.71 |
Fe2O3 | 2.69 | 2.73 | 1.18 | 1.12 | 1.52 | 1.57 | 5.08 | 1.92 | 2.66 | 1.51 | 1.62 | 1.47 |
MnO | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.19 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.10 |
MgO | 0.59 | 0.72 | 0.66 | 0.74 | 2.96 | 3.46 | 1.60 | 3.29 | 3.99 | 1.23 | 1.33 | 1.20 |
CaO | 0.78 | 1.12 | 14.59 | 14.78 | 11.92 | 17.99 | 10.05 | 15.76 | 20.53 | 24.18 | 21.62 | 23.70 |
Na2O | 0.71 | 0.70 | 0.80 | 0.79 | 0.73 | 0.57 | 1.02 | 0.79 | 0.54 | 0.41 | 0.43 | 0.41 |
K2O | 2.58 | 2.46 | 2.08 | 2.12 | 2.97 | 1.82 | 2.01 | 2.72 | 1.59 | 1.74 | 1.94 | 1.67 |
TiO2 | 0.39 | 0.37 | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.23 | 0.23 | 0.60 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.23 | 0.25 | 0.23 |
P2O5 | 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.71 | 1.18 | 0.58 | 0.18 | 1.13 | 0.59 | 0.46 | 0.63 | 0.52 |
LOI | 3.26 | 5.35 | 14.60 | 14.98 | 12.11 | 20.14 | 8.13 | 17.14 | 20.66 | 21.31 | 18.67 | 20.84 |
Total | 98.51 | 98.84 | 100.30 | 100.10 | 100.70 | 99.91 | 100.40 | 100.40 | 100.60 | 100.70 | 100.70 | 100.70 |
Ba | 390 | 362 | 326 | 322 | 327 | 295 | 351 | 287 | 272 | 317 | 317 | 330 |
Be | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Cd | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Co | 7 | 6 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 18 | 6 | 11 | 9 | 6 | 6 |
Cr | 177 | 156 | 87 | 83 | 105 | 109 | 204 | 125 | 115 | 93 | 116 | 97 |
Cu | 7 | 9 | 3 | 4 | 18 | 13 | 25 | 17 | 15 | 11 | 11 | 10 |
Hf | 4 | 3.4 | 2.6 | 2.1 | 3.2 | 3 | 4.3 | 3.2 | 2.4 | 3.9 | 3.1 | 2.5 |
Ni | 38 | 41 | 17 | 16 | 26 | 27 | 92 | 36 | 48 | 24 | 27 | 23 |
Pb | 18 | 21 | 15 | 15 | 12 | 11 | 19 | 13 | 11 | 10 | 11 | 11 |
Rb | 130 | 130 | 80 | 110 | 100 | 70 | 120 | 60 | 40 | 60 | 30 | 30 |
Sc | 5.7 | 6.0 | 2.8 | 2.7 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 12.1 | 4.3 | 4.9 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 3.5 |
Sr | 104 | 119 | 305 | 316 | 446 | 352 | 395 | 502 | 420 | 321 | 344 | 345 |
V | 57 | 64 | 21 | 20 | 27 | 33 | 88 | 36 | 49 | 34 | 33 | 31 |
Zn | 28 | 32 | 13 | 14 | 59 | 37 | 70 | 60 | 44 | 31 | 38 | 32 |
Zr | 125 | 113 | 79 | 67 | 90 | 103 | 148 | 99 | 91 | 105 | 103 | 101 |
La | 34.3 | 26.8 | 16.0 | 15.7 | 20.6 | 21.0 | 31.0 | 21.5 | 19.0 | 20.2 | 21.5 | 22.5 |
Ce | 62 | 51 | 29 | 34 | 37 | 35 | 62 | 37 | 33 | 34 | 31 | 37 |
Nd | 18 | 15 | 8 | 16.0 | 16 | 7 | 22 | 20 | 18 | 11 | 13 | 15 |
Sm | 3.5 | 3.5 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 2.7 | 4.7 | 3.0 | 2.7 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.7 |
Eu | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.6 |
Tb | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Yb | 1.5 | 1.7 | 1.0 | 0.7 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 2.1 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.9 |
Lu | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.30 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.08 |
Sample No. | Mo | M | Ho | Ka | Af | Q | He | Pl | Her | Ca | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Soil | PS-1 | - | * | - | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | - |
PS-2 | - | * | * | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | - | |
PS-3 | * | * | * | * | ** | *** | - | * | - | - | |
PS-4 | * | * | - | * | ** | *** | - | * | - | - | |
Original Stucco | PST-1 | - | * | * | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | ** |
PST-4 | - | - | - | - | ** | *** | - | - | - | ** | |
PST-6 | - | * | - | - | ** | *** | - | - | - | ** | |
PST-10 | - | - | - | - | * | *** | - | - | - | ** | |
Original Mortar | PMO-2 | - | * | * | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | - |
PMO-3 | - | * | * | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | - | |
New Mortar | PMN-1 | - | * | - | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | ** |
PMN-2 | - | * | - | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | ** | |
Original Plaster | PPO-2 | - | - | - | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | ** |
PPO-4 | - | - | - | - | ** | *** | - | - | - | *** | |
New Plaster | PPN-1 | - | * | * | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | ** |
PPN-2 | - | - | - | - | ** | *** | - | * | - | ** |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Yang, H.R.; Lee, G.H.; Kim, D.M.; Lee, C.H. Characterization and Making Techniques of Calcareous Construction Materials for Phaya Thon Zu Temple in Bagan Historical Area, Myanmar. Materials 2024, 17, 4294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17174294
Yang HR, Lee GH, Kim DM, Lee CH. Characterization and Making Techniques of Calcareous Construction Materials for Phaya Thon Zu Temple in Bagan Historical Area, Myanmar. Materials. 2024; 17(17):4294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17174294
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Hye Ri, Gyu Hye Lee, Dong Min Kim, and Chan Hee Lee. 2024. "Characterization and Making Techniques of Calcareous Construction Materials for Phaya Thon Zu Temple in Bagan Historical Area, Myanmar" Materials 17, no. 17: 4294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17174294