LAB MANUAL

FOR
ENGINEERING WORKSHOP
FOR B.Tech I Year II Sem
(ME)
2013 - 14
CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatan (M),
R. R. Dist. Pin : 501 510, E-mail : [email protected]
Web : http://cvr.ac.in
ENGINEERING WORKSHOP
LAB MANUAL
PREPARED BY
P.PHANI KUMARI M.S
(ASST.PROF)
M.SHALINI M.TECH
(ASST.PROF)
CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatan (M),
R. R. Dist. Pin : 501 510, E-mail : [email protected]
Web : http://cvr.ac.in
LIST OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY 1
2. TOOLS & DESCRIPTION
I.HOUSE WIRING 7
II.FITTING 17
III.TINSMITHY 35
IV.CARPENTRY 41
3. EXCERCISES
I. HOUSE WIRING
Two lights controlled by one switch in series. 55
Two lights controlled by one switch in parallel. 56
One light controlled by 2 two way switches 57
(stair case connection)
II. FITTING
L-Fitting 58
V- Fitting 60
Half round Fitting 62
III. TINSMITHY
Rectangular Tray 64
Open Scoop 66
Funnel 67
IV. CARPENTRY
Cross Lap Joint 69
Dovetail Lap Joint 71
Mortise & Tenon Joint 73
4. TRADES FOR DEMONSTRATION
Metal cutting 75
Power Tools 80
INTRODUCTION
Workshop practice imparts basic knowledge of various tools and their
uses in diferent sections of manufacturing such as Fitting, Tin Smithy,
House Wiring, Carpentry etc. It is true that engineers are not going to
become carpenters or blacksmiths or skilled workers on the shop foor, but
by exposing themselves to all working trades, they get a bird eye view of the
basic practical activities associated with all sections of manufacturing. It
helps them, when they occupy managerial positions, in understanding the
activities and practical difculties, so that they can take appropriate
decisions.
Even when large amount of mechanical equipment is available for
producing or repairing parts, there are still some elements of work which
have to be performed by manual methods. However it must be borne in mind
that all workshops and work areas are places of some risk. A healthy regard
for rules and respect for all equipment being used reduces the risk of an
accident considerably.
Finally, the engineers must also be familiar with the frst aid
practices. In case some minor injuries in the form of cuts, burns, fractures,
fainting, electric shock etc occur in the shop foor, they should know how to
give frst aid to the victims.
WORKSHOP DRESS
1
SAFETY RULES AND UNSAFE PRACTICES
GENERAL SAFETY RULES
Remember that Accidents do not occur, they are caused. With
this in mind, strictly follow the general safety rules given below and safe
practices indicated in brief under each section.
1.Safety frst, works next.
2.Know your job and follow instructions.
3.Avoid wearing clothing that might catch, moving or rotating parts.
Long sleeves of shirts, long hair, neck tie and jewellery are defnite
hazards in the shop.
4.Wear safety shoes. Do not wear canvas shoes; they give no resistance
to hard objects dropped on the feet.
5.Keep the area around the machine or work clean.
6.Keep away from revolving work.
7.Be sure that all guards are in place.
8.One person only should operate the machine control.
9.Use tools correctly and do not use them if they are not in proper
working condition.
10.Wear safety goggles when working in areas, where sparks or chips of
metal are fying.
11.Never (a) operate a machine unless you are authorized to do so. (b)
Start a machine unless you know how to stop it. (c) Walk away and
leave a machine running. (d) Distract or interfere with any one,
operating a machine.
12.Get to know who in-charge of frst-aid is and where boxes are placed
and where the frst aid can be found in case of emergency
2
UNSAFE PRACTICES
3
4
5
6
HOUSE WIRING
Introduction:
Electrical wiring is defned as a system of electrical conductor,
components and apparatus, for conveying electric power from the source to
the point of use.
Electrical power is supplied to domestic installation through a phase
and a neutral forming a single phase A.C. 230V, two wire system. For
industrial establishment, power is supplied through 3-phase wire system to
give 440v. The fgure below shows the power tapping for domestic and
industrial purpose. The neutral is earthed at the distribution sub-station of
the supply.
Elements of house wiring:
1.Fuses and Circuit Breakers: These are devices designed to provide
protection to a circuit against excess current.
2.Electric Switch: This is a device that makes and breaks or
changes the course of electric circuit.
3.Plug: It is a device carrying two or more metallic contacts in the form
of pins intended for engaging with the corresponding socket contacts.
7
4.Socket outlet: It is a device carrying 2or 3 contacts designed for
engagement with corresponding plug pins and arranged for connection
to fxed wiring.
5.Lamp Holder: It is designed to hold lamps and connect them in the
circuit.
6.Main switch: This is a switch intended to connect or cut of the supply
of electricity to the whole of installation. It contains one or more fuses.
TYPES OF FUSES
CIRCUIT BREAKER
8
ELECTRICAL SWITCHES
WIRES
9
PLUGS AND SOCKETS
PARTS OF A LAMP AND LAMP HOLDER
MAIN SWITCH
10
Wiring methods
A circuit is a path along which the electric current fows the
negative side of the power source to the positive side. There are three
types of electrical circuits that are used for connecting devices or controls
to the power source i.e. series circuit, parallel circuit and combination of
the two.
The series circuit provides a single, continuous path through which
current fows. The devices are connected one after another and the
current fows through them until it returns to the power source. In
parallel circuit the devices are connected side by side so that, current
fows in a number of parallel paths.
Common House wiring connections:
One Lamp controlled by one-way switch:
Fig 1 shows the wiring diagram for a lamp controlled by a one-way
switch. This is the normal connection one comes across in house wiring.
Two Lamps controlled by one-way switch:
Two Lamps may be connected by one way switch in parallel for
bright glow or in series for dull glow in fg(2).
One Lamp controlled by 2 two-way switches: Fig-3.
It is sometimes desirable to control a lamp from 2 diferent
places. One may come across this situation with staircase, long corridors
or hall containing two entrances etc.
11
Fig 1
Fig 2
Fig 3
12
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
13
14
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1.For domestic use, power is supplied through aand
a.forming a single phase A.C, two wire system.
2.For industrial establishments, power is supplied through
phasewire system,
3.Electric switch..and.the electric circuit.
4.A plug engages with corresponding..contacts.
5.Main switch I only to cut-of the supply of electricity (T/F)
6.A lamp flament is made of..
7.A multi-core conductor consists of several cores..from each
other.
8.Wire sizes are specifed by the diameters /length of the wire.
9.The wire specifcation 14/36 indicates.stands of ..SWG.
10. In series circuit, when one device breaks down; the remaining
devices operate.(T/F)
11. In parallel circuit, if one device breaks down; the other devices
continue to operate.(T/F)
12. Regulator is used for controlling theof a fan.
13. While using a table fan, always use two/three core fexible wire
for connection.
14. Universal fans operate both on AC and DC
15. If the bulb on the handle of an automatic electric iron glows, it
means that the iron is cool/hot.
16. The intensity of the glow of an indicator lamp is a measure of
voltage/ current level.
15
ANSWERS
1.Phase, neutral.
2.Three, four.
3.Makes, brakes.
4.socket
5.False
6.tungsten
7.insulated
8.diameter
9.14,36
10. False
11. True
12. speed
13. Three
14. True
15. Cool
16. Voltage
16
FITTING
INTRODUCTION:
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster
rate, but there are occasions when components are processed at the bench.
The term bench work refers to the production of components by hand on the
bench, where as ftting deals with the assembly of mating parts, through the
removal of metal to obtain the required ft. Both the bench work and ftting
operations consists of fling, chipping, sawing, drilling, tapping etc.,
CLASSIFICATION OF TOOLS: The tools commonly used in ftting may be
classifed as
1.Holding tools
2.Cutting tools
3.Striking tools
4.Marking & checking tools
HOLDING TOOLS:
a.Bench vice
b.Pipe vice
c.Hand vice
d.Pin vice
e.Tool makers
f.Leg vice
g.C- clamp
BENCH VICE (OR) PARALLEL JAW VICE:
The bench vice is the work holding device. It has two jaws one of
which is fxed to the bench and other slides with the aid of square screw and
a box nut arrangement. The outer end of the screw carries a handle. The
jaws are made with hardened tool and the body is cast iron or cast steel. The
working faces of jaws are serrated to give additional grip for holding job. The
size of the parallel or bench vice is specifed by the jaws width.
17
BENCH VICE
V-BLOCK C-CLAMP
HOLDING TOOLS
18
CUTTING TOOLS:
Hacksaw:
I. Solid frame
II. Adjustable frame
The hacksaw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame,
which holds a thin blade frmly in position. Hacksaw blades have a number
of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per cm. Hacksaw blades are classifed as 1. All
hard and 2. Flexible type.
The teeth of hacksaw blade are staggered or bending alternatively are
known as a set of teeth. These make slots wider than the blade thickness
preventing the blade from jamming.
Power Hacksaw: It is similar to hacksaw, but has a large size blade and is
driven by motor.
Drills: Drills are cutting tools used for making holes. These are naturally
made of high speed steel tools. Drills have two cutting edges and two helical
grooves (futes). The futes admit coolants and also allow the chips to escape
during the drilling. Its cutting angle (lips) is grounded to 118. The shank of
twist drill may be either straight or taper.
Reamer: A reamer is used for fnishing a drilled hole to an accurate size and
to produce a good surface fnish. It is made of HSS. There are two types of
reamers.
1.Hand reamer
2.Machine reamer
Chisels: Chisels are used for removing excess material from large surfaces
and cutting thin sheets. These tools are made from 0.9 to 1.0 carbon steel
of octagonal or hexagonal. The cutting angle for the chisel for general
purpose is about 60. The recommend angles for cutting diferent materials
at cold state are:
19
Aluminum : 35
Mild steel : 55
Copper and brass : 40- 45
Cast iron : 60
Cast steel : 70
HACKSAW FRAME WITH BLADE
TWIST DRILL
20
PARTS OF A REAMER
CUTTING
TOOLS
21
The most commonly used chisels are:
1.Flat chisel
2.Cross cut chisel
3.Half round chisel
4.Diamond point chisel
5.Side chisel
Scrapers: Scrapers are used for producing fnished surface. It removes the
surface irregularities at selected spots on a surface. The scrapers are made
of tool steel. The cutting edge is hardened but not usually tempered. The
most commonly used scrapers are:
1.Flat scraper
2.Triangular scraper
3.Half round scraper
Striking tools: Hand hammers are striking tools. They are made of medium
carbon steel. The various types of hand hammers in common use are ball
peen hammer, cross pen hammer and straight peen hammer.
BALL PEEN HAMMER
CROSS PEEN HAMMER
22
STRAIGHT PEEN HAMMER
STRIKING TOOLS
Marking tools: Marking is a process of layout of sizes on work piece. The
following tools are used in marking operations.
1.Scriber
2.Divider
3.Jenny caliper
4.Scribing block
5.Angle plate
6.V-block
7.Punch
8.Try Square
9.Surface plate
Scriber: A scriber is a slender tool used to scribe or mark lines on metal
work piece.
Tap and Tap wrenches: A tap is hardened steel tool used for cutting
internal threads in a drilled hole. Hand taps are available in sets containing
three taps. Taper tap, Second tap, and plug or bottom tap.
Die and Die holders: Dies are cutting tools used for making external
threads. They are made of tool steel or high carbon steel.
Punch: It is made of tool steel and the various types of punches are
prick punch or dot punch, centre punch, number punch and letter punch.
23
Prick punch: It is also called as dot punch and used for marking small
dots along the layout lines. The point is tempered and grounded to an angle
of 60.
Centre punch: This is similar to dot punch, except that its point is
grounded to angle of 90. It is used for marking the location of the holes to be
drilled.
V- block: V blocks are made of cast iron or hardened steel. They are
provided with V grooves on the top and bottom and rectangle dots on two
sides for location of clamps.
Try square: It is used for checking squareness of small works. The size
of the try square is specifed by the length of the blade.
Surface plate: It is used for providing true surface support to the work
during marking. It is made of cast iron, hardened steel or granite and is
specifed by length width height grade.
Divider: This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out
perpendicular lines, bisecting lines etc.
Jenny caliper: This is also called as odd leg or hermaphrodite caliper.
It is used for marking parallel lines from a fnished edge and also for locating
the centre of round bars.
Scribing block: It is also known as universal scribing block. This is
used for scribing lines for layout and for checking parallel surfaces.
Angle plate: The angle plate is made of cast iron or hardened steel.
They are provided with v-grooves on the top and bottom and rectangular
slots on two sides for the location of clamps.
Vernier height gauge: It is clamped with scriber and is used when it
is required to take measurements from the surfaces on which gauge is
standing. The accuracy and working principles of this gauge is same as
vernier caliper.
Outside Micrometer: It is used for measuring external dimensions
accurately of 0.01mm.
24
Inside micrometer: This is used to measure inside dimension
accurately to 0.01mm. It consists of a measuring unit, a number of
interchangeable extension rods and a handle.
SURFACE PLATE ANGLE PLATE
UNIVERSAL SCRIBING BLOCK TRY SQUARE
SCRIBER SPRING CALIPERS
MARKING TOOLS
25
DIES & DIE HANDLE
TAP & TAP WRENCHES PUNCHES
FILE:
File is a cutting tool. A fle is a hardened steel tool having slant
parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its surface on the faces. The one
end of the fle is shaped to ft into wooden handle. The hand fle is parallel in
width and tapering slightly in thickness towards the tip. It is provided with
double cut teeth on the faces, single cut on one edge and no teeth on the
other edge which is known as safe edge.
26
Types of fles: Files are classifed according to their shape of cutting teeth
and pitch grades of teeth.
S.No Type of fle Uses
1 Hand fle It is used for fling a surface, at a right angle to an
already fnished surface.
2 Flat fle Used for general fle
3 Square fle Used for slots and key ways
4 Triangular fle Used for fling internal corners
5 Half round fle Used for fling concave surfaces and internal
corners
6 Round fle Used for fling concave surfaces and circular
openings
7 Swiss or needle Used for fling corners, grooves, slots etc., in
fle intricate work
Based on the coarseness or pitch of the teeth, fles are graded as follows:
a.Rough: It has 8 teeth per cm and it is used for rough work.
b.Baste red: It has 12 teeth per cm.
c.Second cut: It has 16 teeth per cm
d.Smooth: It has 20 to 24 teeth per cm
e.Dead smooth: It has 40 to 48 teeth per cm
PARTS OF FILE
27
TYPES OF FILES CUT OF FILES
MEASURING AND CHECKING INSTRUMENTS:
Measuring tools may be classifed as :
1.Linear measuring instruments
a.Steel rule
b.Caliper
c.Depth gauge
d.Vernier caliper
e.Micrometer
f.Gauge block
g.Dial indicator or dial gauge
2.Angular measuring instruments
a.Level protractor
b.Combination set
c.Sine bar
3.Surface measuring instruments
a.Spirit level
b.Straight edge
Steel rule: It is a strip of steel with graduation on its edges.
28
Calipers: They are used for transferring the dimensions both external
and internal. They are made either with frm joint or spring caliper.
Outside caliper: It is used for measuring outside dimensions of
cylindrical shapes.
Inside caliper: It is used for measuring the diameter of holes and
width of key ways.
Vernier caliper: It is used for measuring outside as well as inside
dimensions accurately. It may also be used as depth gauge.
Least count of vernier = 1 main scale division 1 vernier scale division
Combination set: It consists of rule, square head, centre head, and a
protractor and spirit level. This may be used as a rule, a square, depth gauge
for marking meters (45) for locating the centre on the end of the round bar
and for measuring and marking angles.
Gauges: Gauges are inspection tools used in production work to
control the size and shape of the components.
Feeler gauges: These are thin steel blades hardened and grounded to
various sizes. These are used to check the clearance between two mating
parts. The blade thickness varies from 0.03mm 1.0mm and the length of
the blade is about 100mm.
Screw pitch gauge: It is used to check the pitch of the screw. The
pitch of the screw is directly on the gauge.
Wire gauge: The wire gauge is used to check the diameter of the wire
from 0.1mm 10mm.
Plate gauge: Plate gauge (standard wire gauge) is used to measure
thickness of sheets of diferent thickness. Each slot is represented by
number (SWG number). As the number increases the thickness size
decreases. The most common gauge used in sheet metal has 21 slots with
gauge numbers ranging from 4 to 24.
Radius and fllet gauge: These are used to check the radii of
curvature of convex and concave surfaces.
29
Miscellaneous tools:
1.File card: It is a metal brush used for cleaning the fles to free them
from flings logged in between the teeth.
2.Screw driver: It is used for tightening and loosening the screws. It is
made of steel and its tip is hardened. It is made in a variety of sizes
and shapes.
3.Spanners: Spanners or wrenches are used for tightening and
loosening of nuts and bolts. They are made of forged steel. The size of
spanner denotes the size of the bolt on which it can work.
Types of spanners:
1.Single end spanner
2.Double end spanner
3.Ring spanner
4.Box end spanner
5.Adjustable spanner
Allen key: It is used for hallow sunk head bolts and screws.
4.Pliers:
i.Cutting pliers: It is used for holding work and cutting thin soft
wires.
ii.Nose pliers: It is used for holding and bending thin wires.
iii.Circlip pliers: It is used for locking and removal of Circlip and
are available in outside and inside pliers.
COMBINATION PLIER FILE CARD
30
SCREW DRIVERS NOSE PLIER
FLAT CHISEL
SINGLE HEADED BOX SPANNER
SINGLE HEADED SPANNER
DOUBLE HEADED SPANNER
OFFSET DOUBLE ENDED BOX SPANNER
31
OFFSET SOCKET WRENCH
ADJUSTABLE WRENCH
MONKEY WRENCH
ALLEN WRENCH
SPANNERS
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
Never wear loose clothes, wear the prescribed dresses while in work
shop.
Never enter the workshop without shoes.
Do not run or play in the shop foor.
Keep the foor clear of metal chips, curls, and waste pieces.
Concentrate on the work and dont talk unnecessarily while operating
the machine.
Do not operate the machine without getting conversant with the
machine.
32
Do not wear rings, watches etc., that could be caught in moving
machinery.
Do not attempt to oil, clean or adjust or repair any machine when it is
running.
When you switch of the machine, do not leave before it has completely
stopped running.
Keep your body behind the cutting edge of an edged cutting tool.
Never use a hammer with a loose head.
Wear goggles whenever there is a danger of fying matter or threat of
exposure of harmful light rays.
Do not clean chips with hands.
Do not try to stop the machine with your hands or body.
Keep all the hand tools in proper working condition.
Slippery foors, poor ventilation, poor lightening, and inadequate space
are the potential causes of accidents and hence should be avoided.
Install fre extinguishers at places prone to fre accidents.
Ensure availability of frst aid box with contents in the workshop.
33
VIVA VOCE
1.What is meant by ftting?
2.What is the use of vice and give the various types of vice?
3.State the diferent types of hammers used in ftting work.
4.What is the use of V- block?
5.What are the materials used for fles?
6.What are the methods of fling?
7.What is the composition of high speed steel?
8.What is meant by peening or swaging?
9.What are the diferent types of punches?
10.What is a wrench?
11.What is the material used for making hacksaw blades?
12.When should a blade with 32 teeth per inch be used?
13.What are the causes of breaking of hacksaw blades?
14.How to specify a vice?
15.What are the types of wrenches?
16.What is a torque wrench?
17.Name the material lout of which the vice is made.
18.Name the diferent types of drills used in ftting shop?
19.How can a tap drill step be determined?
20.What is the length of available steel rule?
21.What is the material used in making taps?
22.What is the use of tap?
23.Name the fles which are classifed based on
longitudinal shape and cross section.
34
TIN SMITHY
Introduction:
The metal plank having less than 2mm thick is called sheet metal.
Sheet metal work deals with the production of components in wide variety of
shapes and sizes with the aid of tools or machines. Some of the important
metals used in sheet metal work are described below.
Galvanized Iron: It is a sheet of soft steel, which is coated with zinc.
Zinc resists corrosion and improves the appearance of the metal galvanized
iron in one of the least expensive metals and is used for making pans,
buckets, ducts, gutters, tanks, boxes, etc.
Black Iron: It is an uncoated sheet of metal with bluish- back
appearance. It corrodes rapidly is not expensively due to difculties of
soldering the block iron sheet are used for parts that are to be painted.
Tin plate: Tin plate is an iron or steel coated with pure iron. It has
very bright silver appearance and is used for food containers, cans, pans.
Stainless steels: It is an alloy steel possessing corrosion resistance.
General type stainless steel contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent
nickel. This steel is commonly known as 18-8 stainless steel. These are
available various sizes and thickness. It is widely used for food containers,
dairy equipment.
Copper: It has reddish color and possesses good malleability, ductility
and resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
Aluminum: Sheet aluminum is never pure aluminum and it is always
allowed with small quantities of copper silicon, magnesium, and iron.
Tools and Equipment: The common hand tools used in sheet metal work
are, steel rule, wire gauge, dot punch, trammels, scriber, ball peen hammer,
straight peen hammer, cross peen hammer, Mallets, Snips and Soldering
Iron etc.
Snips: Hand shear or snips are used to cut sheet metal. Although
there are many types, the sheet metal works generally use straight snips and
curved snips.
a.Straight snips: Straight snips have straight blades and are used
for cutting along the straight lines and for trimming edges.
b.Curved snips: Curved snips has a curved blade and used for
cutting circles and irregular shapes.
35
Bench shears: Bench shear is used for cutting thick sheets. The lower
fxed blade is frmly secured by bracket at bottom. The movable blade is
pivoted at the rear end; the hand operating lever is attached to the front
end of movable blade link mechanism.
Stakes: Stakes are made of steel and forged in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Its working face is machined and polished to facilitate various
operations such as bending, seaming or forming.
The following types of stakes are mostly used.
a.Double seaming: These stakes has two horns and it is used to
make double seam for vessels.
b.Blow horn: These stakes have two horn tapering norms and it is
used to forming or seaming funnels.
c.Break horn: These stakes have a square tapered horn on one
side and a round tapered horn on opposite side. It is used for
shaping round and square surfaces, bending edges, and making
corners.
d.Conductor stake: These stakes has two cylindrical horns having
diferent diameters. It is used for forming pipes and cylindrical
pieces.
e.Funnel stake: It is used for forming conical shapes and for
making wire rings.
f.Hatchet stake: It has a horizontal sharp straight edge and can
be used for making straight sharp bends and for folding and
bending edges.
Wire gauge: The thickness of sheet metal is referred in number known
as standard wire gauge. The gaps in the circumference of the gauge are used
to check the gauge number as shown in fgure.
Sheet metal joints: Various types of joints are used in sheet metal
work to suit the varying requirements. Some commonly used sheet metal
joints and folded edges are shown below. These are self secured joints,
formed by joining together 2 pieces of sheet metal and using the metal itself
to form the joint.
Hand Hammers and Mallets: The sheet metal worker uses a wide
variety of hammers and mallet by forming shapes by diferent operations.
The most commonly used hammers are follows.
36
a.Straight-Peen Hammer: It has a peen end similar to its bottom
size round shape and its top side is straight point. Square,
slightly curved face and its peen is tapered, it is used for
riveting.
b.Cross Peen Hammer: It has a square fat face and it is tapered
on one side. It is used for setting down the edges for making a
double seam.
c.Mallet: Mallet is generally made of wood and plastic. It is used
whenever slight blows are required. Wooden mallets dont
damage the surface.
TRAMMEL
STANDARD WIRE GUAGE
37
TINSMITHY TOOLS
38
TYPES OF SEAMS AND FOLDED EDGES
Safety precautions:
Never carry tools on pockets.
Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
Do not remove any guards on squaring shears.
Care should be exercised when working on squaring shears.
Be sure that the fngers are away from the shearing blade.
Never use a soldering iron a loose handle.
Never touch a soldering Iron to see its hotness. The safety method to
touch the iron to solder. The melting of solder indicates the correct
temperature.
Be careful when cutting out a pattern. Remove scrap metal to avoid
injuries.
39
VIVA VOCE
SHEET METAL WORK
1.Defne sheet metal work?
2.What are the applications of sheet metal working?
3.What is the principle behind the sheet metal layout?
4.How do you identify the thickness of metal sheet?
5.What will be the result of the sheet thickness when increasing
the gauge number?
6.What are the metals used in sheet metal work?
7.Name the striking tools used in sheet metal work?
8.Name the fve tools and equipments which are used for cutting
sheet metal?
9.What is a snip?
10.What are the types of snips?
11.Defne punching operation?
12.Defne nibbling operation in sheet metal work?
13.How will you design the diameter of rivet for sheet metal work?
14.Name the various sheet metal operations?
15.What is hem?
16.What are the functions of hem?
17.What is seam?
18.Double seam isthan single seam
19.What are the diferent types of seam?
40
CARPENTRY
Introduction:
Carpentry deals with the processing of wood to obtain desired
shapes and sizes. The process dealing with the technique of making
wooden pattern is called pattern making.
Classifcation of carpentry tools:
1.Marking and measuring Tools
2.Cutting and planning tools
3.Drilling and boring tools
4.Striking tools
5.Holding tools
1.Marking and measuring tools:
Steel rule Marking knife
Steel tape Marking gauge
Folding rule Mortise gauge
Try square Wing compass
Bevel square Divider
Meter Square Trammel
2. Cutting and Planning Tools:
Saws: Cross cut saw (Hand saw)
Rip saw
Tenon saw
Chisels: Firmer chisel
Dovetail chisel
Mortise chisel
Outside chisel
Inside chisel
Planning Tools: Wooden jack plane
Metal jack plane
Smooth plane
41
3.Drilling & Boring Tools:
Gimlet
Ratchet brace
Hand drill
Auger
4.Striking Tools:
Warrington hammer
Claw hammer
Mallet
Straight peen Hammer
5.Holding Tools:
Bench Vice
Bar Clamp
G-Clamp
6.Miscellaneous Tools:
Screw driver
Wood rasp fle
Pincer
Marking and Measuring Tools:
Marking is one of the most important features of wood work and
success of completing a job accurately depends on accuracy of marking and
measuring.
Steel Rule: It is used for marking and measuring linear dimensions
and is specifed by its length.
Steel Tape: The steel tape is used for measuring longer dimensions.
They are available in diferent sizes running from 0.6 to 2.5 m. It is fexible
can be coiled and pressed in a case.
Folding Rule: Four fold box wood rule is made of 4 pieces of each15
cm length. They are hinged is such a way that they can be folded. It is
adapted to carpentry up to 60 cm length.
Try square: The try square is used for testing fatness of surface
marking parallel lines and also for marking and testing of right angles. It has
42
a steel blade ftted at right angles in wooden or cast iron stock. It is available
in various sizes ranging from 100 to 300mm.
Meter Square: It is used for marking and testing 45
0
. It consists of a
steel blade ftted in a wooden or metal stock at an inclination of 45
0
with
horizontal.
Bevel square: It is used for marking and testing of any angle between
0
0
to 180
0
. It has a slotted blade and stock. The blade can be fxed at any
position by means of a screw.
Marking knife: All dimensional lines marked with pencil are cut with
marking knife. It has a chisel edge at one end and sharp point at other end.
It is made of steel and generally used with a try square.
Marking gauge:-The marking gauge is commonly used when absolute
accuracy is required. It has a stem with a sharp pin at one end. It is used to
cut line along the grains and parallel to an edge. The distance can be
adjusted by sliding the stock (head) on a stem. This can be achieved by
thumbscrew.
Mortise Gauge: It has two sharp pins. One is fxed to the stem and
other to a brass slide, which can be secured at any position by a screw. It is
used to cut two parallel lines in a single stroke. It is particularly adapted for
marking in mortise and tenon joints.
Wing Compass: It is made of steel and consists of two pointed legs.
The legs secured in position by means of a setscrew and quadrant. It is used
for marking equal dimensions and for marking arcs and circles on the plane
surfaces of the wood.
Divider: It consists of two pointed legs. The points are hardened and
tempered to prevent wear. It is used for transferring the sizes and scribing
curves or circles on wooden surface.
Trammel: It is used for drawing very large circles and arcs which are
beyond the scope of a compass. It consists of a wooden beam on which the
two puns are located and the distance between them can be adjusted by
means of thumb screws.
43
STEEL RULE
STEEL TAPE
TRYSQUARE BEVEL
44
MARKING GAUGE
MORTISE GAUGE
COMPASS AND DIVIDER
45
Cutting and planning tools:
Cutting tools are used for cutting timber to approximate size, cutting
excess wood to obtain desired shape and accuracy. Planning tools are
intended to make smooth and accurate surface.
SAWS:
Cross cut saw: It is used for cutting the wood across the grains
(Hand saw). Its teeth are pointed. The pitch of the teeth is about 2.5 to
3.0mm and blade length is about 600mm. Its teeth have less set than
the rip saw.
Rip Saw: It is used for cutting the wood along the grains. Its
teeth have chisel edge. The pitch of the teeth is about 5 to 8mm and
length of the blade is about 700mm.The process of cutting the wood
along the grains is called ripping. Because of high fexibility of the
blade and also number of cutting points per cm (i.e., high pitch) it is
not suitable for cutting across the grains.
Tenon Saw: Tenon saw or back saw is used for cutting small
work. It is mostly adapted in joint work. It has a brass or steel back
which strengthens the blade, but it restricts the depth of cut. Its fne
teeth (6 to 8teeth/cm) and stif back permits the smooth, accurate
cutting for marking joints. The saw is available in diferent length
ranging from 250 to 400 mm.
Inside Chisel:
It is leveled inside and is used for marking curved profles.
Planning tools:
Planning tools are used for reducing and smoothing the surface.
Wooden jack plane: It consists of a wooden body or stocks in
which blade or stock cutter is fastened at an angle of 45 to the sole.
The plane is on (blade or cutter) and the cap iron (back iron) is
46
assembled and assembly is inserted in the mouth of plane along with
the wedge. The back iron supports the cutting edge and also breaks
the shavings so that they air away from the blade. The blade can be set
for taking deeper or shallower cuts. The length of the jack plane is
about 350to 425mm. The blade is made of high carbon steel and has a
width of 50 to 75 mm. Its cutting edge is tempered and ground to an
angle of 25 to 30 and it is slightly curved (Convex).
Metal jack plane: Its body is made of gray cast iron and it is
provided with a wooden handle at the back and a wooden knob at the
front for holding with both the hands. A fne screw is used for
adjusting the depth of cut i.e.; the thickness of shaving removed and a
level is used for lateral adjustment of the blade. It is very durable and
gives better fnish.
Chisels:
Chisels are used for cutting excess wood in shaping and joint
making.
Firmer chisel: The frmer chisel is capable of doing heavy work
and is used for jointing and shaping the wood, with or without mallet.
The chisel blade is made of rectangular section with beveled edge
length of the blade is about 125mm and the width of the edge varies
from 3 to 5mm.
Dovetail chisel: It is similar to frmer chisel but sides are
leveled so that it can cut sharp corners. It is used for cutting sockets
where the angles are less than a right angle.
Mortise Chisel: These chisels are robust, and can withstand
heavy blows. It has a thick stock and narrow cutting edge. It is used for
cutting mortises, and its width is ground to exact size of mortise to be
out.
Outside Chisel: It is level on outside and it is used for
making hallows.
47
CROSS CUT SAW TENON SAW
CROSS CUT TEETH RIP SAW TEETH
TYPES OF PLANES
48
PARTS OF CHISEL
CHISEL
S
49
Striking tools:
Striking tools are used to drive in nails and to operate chisels.
Warrington Hammer: It is mostly used for bench work and light work.
It is made of cast steel with tempered face and peen. The wooden handle fts
in the eye and steel wedge is driven in to form a rigid joint.
Claw Hammer: It is dual purpose hammer. It has a hammer face
which is used to drive in nails, and claw at the other end for pulling out nails
from the wood. It is designed by its weight and it varies from 375 to 675gms.
Mallet: It is used for operating the chisels and gauges. It is made of
hard wood and is provided with handle. The striking faces are made fat, and
may be in square or rectangular cross-section.
MALLET
WARRINGTON HAMMER
(PEEN HAMMER)
CLAW HAMMER
50
Drilling & Boring tools:
These tools are used for drilling and making holes in wooden jobs.
Gimlet: It is hand operated tool used for making small holes
for screws. It has a spiral futes with screw like point.
Hand drills: It is used for drilling small holes. A straight shank
drill is used with this tool. It is small, light in weight. The bit is
clamped in the chuck at its end.
Auger: It is used for producing long deep holes. It is a steel bar
with an eye at the top in which a handle is ftted. The bottom end is
provided with a screw point.
HAND DRILL AUGER BIT
GIMLET
51
Holding tools:
The vice and cramp are used to hold work while operations are carried out.
Bench vice: It is made of gray cast iron or steel, and it has two
jaws one of which is fxed to the side of a bench and other is movable.
The faces of jaws are lined with hard wood to prevent damage of work
surface. It is used for holding the work for planning, sawing and
chiseling on the bench.
Bar Clamp: It is used for holding wide work such as box of frame
constructions and jointed broads. It consists of a steel bar ftted with
two jaws, one of which is movable by a screw and other is fxed into
one of the spaced holes by fastening pin.
C-Clamp: It is used for holding small work on the bench. It
consists of a frame with a jaw at one end, and movable jaw, which is
operated by a screw and a thumb nut, at the other end.
BENCH VICE
BAR CLAMP
C-CLAMP
52
Miscellaneous Tools:
Screw Driver: These are used for driving the screws on the board
i.e., wood or unscrewing them from wood. The size is specifed by the length
of the blade.
Wood Rasp File: It is exclusively used for fnishing the wood surface.
It has sharp cutting teeth and it is used for fnishing small curved surfaces.
Pincer: It is used for pulling out nails and is more efcient then the
claw hammers.
SCREW DRIVER PINCER
WOOD RASP FILE
53
VIVA-VOCE
CARPENTARY
1.Defne Carpentry?
2.What is Timber?
3.Name the type of timbers and give examples?
4.What are the types of rules used for measuring?
5.What is the use of Try-square?
6.What is the need of Miter square and Bevel square?
7.What are the types of gauges used in carpentry?
8.What is the use of calipers?
9.What is the need of spirit level?
10.What is the chisel Material and types used in
carpentry?
11.What are the types of carpentry joints?
12.What is the need of Bench vice?
13.What is the need for seasoning the wood?
14.What are the types of plane?
15.What is setting of saw teeth?
16.What is the cutting bevel angle in a chisel?
17.What is the material used for making the chisel?
18.What is TPI?
19.What are the types of saws used in carpentry?
20.What are the uses of following joints?
(i) Mortise and Tenon joint (ii) Bridle joint
54
EXP NO: 1
TWO LIGHTS CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH
SERIES CONNECTION
Aim: To give connection to two lights controlled by one switch in series.
Tools required:
Wooden wiring board, one way switch, wooden round blocks,
batten lamp holders, connector screw driver, wires, wire clips,nails,wood
screws, poker, bulbs, wire stripper, Nose plier, cutting plier and pincer.
Sequence of operations:
1.The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
2.Clips are nailed the board, following the wiring diagram.
3.Wires are stretched and clamped with clips.
4.Wires are connected to the holders and switch, which are then screwed
onto the wiring board.
5.Bulbs are ftted to the holders.
6.The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.
Circuit Diagram:
NEUTRAL
230 V
50 HZ
PHASE
Result:
The electrical circuit, for two lights controlled by one switch in series
is thus made.
55
EXP NO: 2
TWO LIGHTS CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH
PARALLEL CONNECTION
Aim: To give connections to two lights controlled by one switch in parallel.
Tools required:
Wooden wiring board, one way switch, wooden round blocks,
batten lamp holders, connector screw driver, wires, wire clips,nails,wood
screws, poker, bulbs, wire stripper, Nose plier, cutting plier and pincer.
Sequence of operations:
1.The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
2.Clips are nailed the board, following the wiring diagram.
3.Wires are stretched and clamped with clips.
4.Wires are connected to the holders and switch, which are then screwed
onto the wiring board.
5.Bulbs are ftted to the holders.
6.The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.
Circuit Diagram:
NEUTRAL
230 V
50 HZ
PHASE
Observation:
1.The bulb in parallel glows brightly than in series.
2.If one bulb of the two is removed then also the other i.e. 2
nd
bulb glows.
Result:
The electrical circuit, for two lights controlled by one switch in series
is thus made.
56
EXP NO: 3
ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY TWO TWO-WAY SWITCHES
STAIR-CASE CONNECTION
Aim: To give connection to one light controlled by 2 two way switches.
Tools used:
Wooden wiring board, one way switch, wooden round blocks,
batten lamp holders, connector screw driver, wires, wire clips,nails,wood
screws, poker, bulbs, wire stripper, Nose plier, cutting plier and pincer.
Sequence of operations:
1.The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
2.Clips are nailed the board, following the wiring diagram.
3.Wires are stretched and clamped with clips.
4.Wires are connected to the holders and switch, which are then screwed
onto the wiring board.
5.Bulbs are ftted to the holders.
6.The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.
Circuit Diagram:
Result:
The electrical circuit, for one light controlled by 2 way switches is thus
made.
57
EXP NO: 4
L-FITTING
Aim: To make a straight ft L-ft from the given two M.S pieces.
Material: Two MS FLAT of size 50x50x5mm
Tools required:
150mm try-square, 250gm ball-peen hammer, dot punch, scriber,
chisel, 300mm hacksaw frame, 18TPI hacksaw blade, 250mm rough and
smooth hand fles, 6mm rough and smooth square fles, Bench vice and steel
rule.
Sequence of operations:
1.The burs in given materials are removed and the dimensions are checked
for 50x50x5mm with steel rule.
2.The pieces are clamped one after the other and outer mating edges are
fled and checked for their fatness, with the help of try-square.
3.The side edges of the two pieces are fled such that, they at right
angles to each other and widths are exactly 48mm.
4.Wet chalk is applied on surfaces of the two pieces.
5.The given dimensions of the L ftting are marked, by using jenny caliper,
steel rule scriber, and the surface plate.
6.The portion to be removed is then marked.
7.Using dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
8.Using the hacksaw, the unwanted portions are removed.
9.Now the potions are fled and burrs are removed by fling on the surfaces
of ftted job.
58
Precautions:
1.Never remove chips with hand use a wire brush.
2.Working tool should not be kept at the edge of table.
3.While sawing secure work rigidity.
Result: The required L-ft is thus made by following the above sequences of
operations.
59
EXP NO: 5
V-FITTING
Aim: To make a V-ft from the given two M.S pieces.
Material: Two MS FLAT of size 50x50x5mm
Tools required:
150mm try-square, 250gm ball-peen hammer, dot punch, scriber, chisel,
300mm hacksaw frame, 18TPI hacksaw blade, 250mm rough and smooth
hand fles, 6mm rough and smooth square fles, Bench vice and steel rule.
Sequence of operations:
1.The burs in given materials are removed and the dimensions are checked
for 50x50x5mm with steel rule.
2.The pieces are clamped one after the other and outer mating edges are
fled and checked for their fatness, with the help of try-square.
3.The side edges of the two pieces are fled such that, they at right
angles to each other and widths are exactly 48mm.
4.Wet chalk is applied on surfaces of the two pieces.
5.The given dimensions of the V ftting are marked, by using jenny
caliper, steel rule scriber, and the surface plate.
6.The portion to be removed is then marked.
7.Using dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
8.Using the hacksaw, the unwanted portions are removed.
9.Now the potions are fled and burrs are removed by fling on the surfaces
of ftted job.
60
Precautions:
1.Never remove chips with hand use a wire brush.
2.Working tool should not be kept at the edge of table.
3.While sawing secure work rigidity.
Result: The required V Fit is thus made by following the above sequences
of operations.
61
EXP NO: 6
HALF ROUND FITTING
Aim: To make a half round ftting from the given two M.S pieces.
Material: Two MS FLAT of size 50x50x5mm
Tools required:
150mm try-square, 250gm ball-peen hammer, dot punch, scriber, chisel,
300mm hacksaw frame, 18TPI hacksaw blade, 250mm rough and smooth
hand fles, 6mm rough and smooth square fles, Bench vice and steel rule.
Sequence of operations:
1.The burs in given materials are removed and the dimensions are checked
for 50x50x5mm with steel rule.
2.The pieces are clamped one after the other and outer mating edges are
fled and checked for their fatness, with the help of try-square.
3.The side edges of the two pieces are fled such that, they at right
angles to each other and widths are exactly 48mm.
4.Wet chalk is applied on surfaces of the two pieces.
5.The given dimensions of the Stepped ftting are marked, by using jenny
caliper, steel rule scriber, and the surface plate.
6.The portion to be removed is then marked.
7.Using dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
8.Using the hacksaw, the unwanted portions are removed.
9.Now the potions are fled and burrs are removed by fling on the surfaces
of ftted job.
.
62
Note: The centers of the half rounds are marked by a centre punch.
However,after marking the centre of the half round in the piece Y, the edges
of it is further fled, till half of the punch dot is left.
Precautions:
1.Never remove chips with hand use a wire brush.
2.Working tool should not be kept at the edge of table.
3.While sawing secure work rigidity.
Result: The semi circular ft is thus made by following the above sequences
of operations.
63
EXP NO: 7
RECTANGULAR TRAY
Aim: To make a rectangular tray using the given sheet metal(180x140)
Tools required: 300mm steel rule, try square, divider, scriber, straight snip,
mallet, ball peen hammer and hatchet stake.
Sequence of operations:
1.The size of given sheet is checked with the steel rule.
2.The layout of the tray is marked on the given sheet.
3.The layout of the tray is cut by using the straight snip as
shown in development.
4.Single hemming is made on the four sides of the tray.
5.The four sides of the tray are bent to 90.
DEVELOPMENT
RECTANGULAR TRAY
64
Precautions:
1.Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
2.Be sure that the fngers are away from the shearing bend.
3.Markings should be done carefully.
4.Cutting should be done carefully to avoid cross cutting.
Note:
The single hemmed vertical edges of the tray can either be riveted or
soldered to ensure stability of the joints.
Result:
The rectangular tray is thus made, from the given sheet metal.
65
EXP NO: 8
OPEN SCOOP
Aim: To make a open scoop as per the given dimensions.
Tools required: 300mm steel rule, try square, divider, scriber, straight snip,
mallet, ball peen hammer and hatchet stake.
Sequence of operation:
1.The size of given sheet is checked with the steel rule.
2.The layout of the Open scoop is drawn in the sheet and cut as shown
in the development.
3.Single hemming is made on the two sides of the scoop.
4.The two sides of the scoop are bent to 90.
5.Finally the third side is bent to 90 and seaming operation is done to
obtain the open scoop.
Precautions:
1.Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
2.Be sure that the fngers are away from the shearing bend.
3.Markings should be done carefully.
4.Cutting should be done carefully to avoid cross cutting.
Result:
The Open scoop is thus made, from the given sheet metal as per
dimensions.
66
EXP NO: 9
CONE
Aim: To make a cone as per the given dimensions.
Tools required: 300mm steel rule, try square, divider, scriber, straight snip,
mallet, ball peen hammer and hatchet stake.
Sequence of operation:
1.The size of given sheet is checked with the steel rule.
2.The layout of the cone is drawn in the sheet and cut as shown in the
development.
3.The allowance for folding and bending is added to the development.
4.The waste metal is cut away by using the straight and bent snips.
5.The development of the cone is folded by using the funnel stake, after
forming the single hemmed joint.
Note: The angle subtended by the arc of the sector is calculated from the
relation,

=

360x
Radius of thebasecircleof thecone
Slant Height
67
Precautions:
1.Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
2.Be sure that the fngers are away from the shearing bend.
3.Markings should be done carefully.
4.Cutting should be done carefully to avoid cross cutting.
Result:
The Cone is thus made, from the given sheet metal as per
dimensions.
68
EXP NO: 10
T- LAP JOINT
Aim: To make a T-Lap joint as shown from the given reaper of size,
65x35x300mm
Tools required: Carpenters vice, steel rule, jack plane, Try-square, marking
gauge 25mm frmer chisel, cross cut saw, Tenon saw, scriber and mallet.
Sequence of operation:
1.The given reaper is checked to ensure its correct size.
2.The reaper is frmly clamped in the carpenters vice and to
adjacent faces is planned by the jack plane and the two faces are
checked for squareness with the Try-square.
3.Marking gauge is set and lines are draw at 30 and 60mm, to
mark the thickness and width of the model respectively.
4.The excess material frst chiseled out with frmer chisel and then
planned to correct size.
5.The mating dimensions of the parts X and Y are then marked
using scale and marking gauge.
6.Using the cross- cut saw, the portion to be removed or cut in
both the pieces, followed by chiseling and also the parts X and Y
are separated by cross- cutting, using the tenon saw.
7.The end of both the parts are chiseled to the exact lengths.
8.A fne fnishing is given to the parts, if required so that, proper
ftting is obtained.
9.The parts are ftted to obtain a slightly tight joint.
69
Result:
The T-Lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of
operations.
70
EXP NO: 11
DOVETAIL JOINT
Aim: To make dovetail lap joint as per dimensions.
Materials required: Wood 65x35x300mm
Tools required:
1.Carpenters vice 6.Steel rule
2.Marketing knife 7.Metal jack plane
3.Firmer chisel 8.Mallet
4.Wood rasp fle 9.Try-square
5.Cross cut saw 10. Tenon saw.
Sequence of Operations:
1.The given wood is checked for dimensions.
2.One side is planned with metal jack plane and checked for
trueness by try-square.
3.The four sides are also planed.
4.The excess material is cut by cross cut saw.
5.Now the portions for lapping portion are marked.
6.After sawing remove the waste material by frmer chisel.
7.If the material is still remained in 2 or 3 mm, the remove by fling
by wood rasp fle.
71
Note:
Dovetail joint is widely used simple and efective joint. Generally an
angle of 1:6 ratios is adopted. It is partially used in joint between the sides
and back of drawers.
Precautions:
1.Do not keep the tools at the edge of the work bench.
2.Do not keep the plane horizontal in idle mode.
Result:
The dovetail lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of
operations.
72
EXP NO: 12
MORTISE AND TENON JOINT
Aim: To make Mortise & Tenon Joint as per dimensions.
Material Required: Wood 6535300 mm
Tools required:
1.Carpenters vice 6.Steel rule
2.Marketing knife 7.Metal jack plane
3.Firmer chisel 8.Mallet
4.Wood rasp fle 9.Try-square
5.Cross cut saw 10. Tenon saw.
Sequence of Operations:
1.The given wood is checked for dimensions.
2.One side is planned with metal jack plane and checked for trueness
by try-square.
3.The four sides are also planned.
4.The excess material is cut out by cross cut saw.
5.Now the positions for lapping portion are marked.
6.After sawing remove the waste material by frmer chisel.
7.If the material is still remained in 2 or 3mm, then remove by fling
by wood rasp fle.
73
Precautions:
1.Do not keep the tools at the edge of the work bench.
2.Do not keep the plane horizontal in idle mode.
Result:
The mortise and tenon joint is thus made by following the above
sequence of operations.
74
TRADES FOR DEMONSTRATION
METAL CUTTING
(WATER PLASMA)
Introduction:
Plasma may be defned as the charged particle which are close
together so that, each particle infuences many charged particles, rather
than interactive with nearby particles. Plasma is typically an ionized gas and
it is considered to be distinct state of matter, because of its unique
properties.
Water Plasma:
It is a multi-functional, portable and hand-held device. It is a
technological breakthrough in the area of metal cutting, welding, soldering,
tempering, spraying etc. as maximum efciency is achieved when plasma
technique is used. Usage of water plasma tool for welding in gas mode is
similar to the regular gas welding process. The diference is that electric
power and water are used instead of gas tanks to produce a high temperature
jet fame.
Plasma cutting:
It is a process that is used to cut steel and other metals of diferent
thicknesses (or sometimes other materials) using a plasma torch. In this
process, an inert gas (in some units, compressed air) is blown at high speed
out of a nozzle; at the same time an electrical arc is formed through that gas
from the nozzle to the surface being cut, turning some of that gas to plasma.
The plasma is sufciently hot to melt the metal being cut and moves
sufciently fast to blow molten metal away from the cut. Plasma cutters use
a number of methods to start the arc. In some units, the arc is created by
putting the torch in contact with the work piece. Some cutters use a high
voltage, high frequency circuit to start the arc. This method has a number of
disadvantages, including risk of electrocution, difculty of repair, spark gap
maintenance, and the large amount of radio frequency emissions.
75
CROSS-SECTION OF A PLASMA TORCH HEAD
The Electrode: The primary function of the electrode is to provide
power to the plasma arc. Electrode wear is detected by examining the insert
and measuring pit depth. Excessive electrode wear reduces cut quality and
can result in damage to the plasma torch. Premature electrode wear is most
often caused by a few common culprits, the most common being mismatched
torch parts. Other contributors may include incorrect gas fow settings, gas
leaks, moisture build-up and impurities in the plasma gas.
The Nozzle: The nozzle limits the plasma arc to a specifc diameter
through a perfectly round hole in its tip. It constricts the plasma gas,
increasing its velocity. The most common cause of nozzle damage is, once
again, mismatched torch parts. The electrode and nozzle should be changed
as a set to keep cut quality astatine its very highest.
The Shield: The shield surrounds the consumable stack, protecting
the parts from damage. It contains an identical, perfectly round hole as
the Nozzle. The most common trouble associated with the shield is damage
to the main orifce due to being plugged or clogged by dross or spatter.
The Swirl Ring: The swirl ring creates and controls the swirling action
of the gas as it fows around the electrode and nozzle. When inspected and
76
cleaned regularly, the swirl rings will outlive many electrode and nozzle
changes. A choked swirl ring will hamper gas fow, decrease cut quality and
shorten electrode and nozzle life.
Principle of operation:
The torch is activated by pressing the knob already flled with working
fuid. When the knob is pressed, movable cathode module slides forward and
touches the nozzle anode; and completes the anode cathode short circuit.
After releasing the knob, the cathode module moves back by means of the
return spring and an electric arc between the cathode tip and nozzle-anode.
PLASMA TORCH
77
Working of Plasma Cutter:
Plasma cutters work by sending an electric arc through a gas that is
passing through a constricted opening. The gas can be shop air, nitrogen,
argon, oxygen etc. This elevates the temperature of the gas to the point that
it enters a 4th state of matter. We all are familiar with the frst three: i.e.,
solid, liquid, and gas. Scientists call this additional state plasma. As the
metal being cut is part of the circuit, the electrical conductivity of the
plasma causes the arc to transfer to the work.
The restricted opening (nozzle) causes the gas passing through it to
squeeze by at a high speed, like air passing through a venturi in a
carburetor. This high speed gas cuts through the molten metal. The gas is
also directed around the perimeter of the cutting area to shield the cut.
PLASMA CUTTING
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Advantages:
1.Plasma tool is cost efective, portable and less power consumption.
2.Does not require lightening as the fame produces
efective illumination.
3.The device can be operated continuously.
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POWER TOOLS
Introduction:
A power tool is a tool powered by an electric motor, an internal
combustion engine, a steam engine, compressed air, direct burning of fuels
and propellants, or even natural power sources like wind or moving water.
Power tools are classifed as either stationary or portable, where portable
means handheld. They are used in industry, in construction, and around the
house for driving, drilling, cutting, shaping, sanding, grinding, polishing,
painting, and heating.
Stationary power tools for metalworking are usually called machine
tools. The term machine tool is not usually applied to stationary power tools
for woodworking, although such usage is occasionally heard, and in some
cases, such as drill presses and bench grinders, exactly the same tool is
used for both woodworking and metalworking. Stationary power tools are
prized not only for their speed, but for their accuracy. A table saw not only
cuts faster than a hand saw, but the cuts are smoother, straighter and more
square than even the most skilled man can do with a hand saw. Lathes
produce truly round objects that cannot be made in any other way.
Common power tools include the drill, various types of saws, the
router, the electric sander, and the lathe. The term power tool is also used in
a more general sense, meaning a technique for greatly simplifying a complex
or difcult task. Some safety tips are mentioned below:
1.Never operate any power equipment unless you are completely familiar
with its controls and features.
2.Inspect all portable power tools before using them. See that they are
clean and in good condition.
3. Make sure there is plenty of light in the work area. Never work with
power tools in dark areas where you cannot see clearly.
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4. Before connecting a power tool to a power source, be sure the
tool switch is in the OFF position.
Some examples of Portable Power Tools:
HAND DRILL POWER CUTTER
BLOWER CIRCULAR SAW
DISC GRINDER ROTARY HAMMER
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JIG SAW MARBLE CUTTER
ORBIT SANDER SAND POLISHER
SCREW DRIVER CHAIN SAW
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Some examples of Stationary Power Tools:
POWER HACK SAW
VERTICAL BAND SAW
CIRCULAR SAW
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