AN EVALUATION OF MAIMONIDES' ENUMERATION OF THE 613 COMMANDMENTS,

WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE POSITIVE COMMANDMENTS

by
Albert D. Friedberg
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations
University of Toronto
Copyright by Albert D. Friedberg 2008
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AN EVALUATION OF MAIMONIDES' ENUMERATION OF THE 613 COMMANDMENTS,
WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE POSITIVE COMMANDMENTS
Doctor of Philosophy
2008
Albert D. Friedberg
Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations
University of Toronto
Abstract
The TaRYaG count, that is the traditional enumeration of the 613
commandments contained in the five Mosaic books (Torah), has gained a
prominent place in Judaism. The count is based on a dictum found in the
Babylonian Talmud and attributed to R. Simlai, a Palestinian rabbi of the
late third century. No one did more to see this count achieve the importance
it has than Moses Maimonides, the prominent 12
th
-century Jewish
philosopher and perhaps the most important post-talmudic jurist of all times.
M. offered an impressive methodology, made up of rules of individuation,
identification and interpretation - in all, fourteen rules - to support his
ii
proposed enumerative scheme and used it to critique all previous such
attempts.
By his own account, Maimonides undertook this project with the sole
aim to provide a comprehensive outline for his upcoming Code of Jewish
Law. This thesis demonstrates the enormous difficulties inherent in such a
project - difficulties that could not have passed unnoticed by such an
accomplished author - and seeks to uncover any other reason or reasons that
may have prompted him to adopt such a constraining count. The thesis
concludes by speculating that Maimonides may have found it convenient to
use the TaRYaG scheme in order to introduce into the list of commandments
the beliefs in the existence of God and in His unity - beliefs that had
previously not been considered commandments.
An ancillary product of the dissertation is the discovery that many of
the commandment designations proposed in the enumerative scheme are
abandoned in the Halakhot, a discovery that was noted, albeit only partially,
by less than a handful of scholars over the past eight hundred and fifty years.
The dissertation examines the proposed solutions and rejects them on a
number of counts. A systematic analysis of these occurrences suggests a
more consistent solution and reveals an aspect of Maimonides that has not
been sufficiently appreciated, Maimonides the exegete and legal
philosopher.
The agenda-oriented research also examines some of the important
innovations contained in M' s list of positive commandments, the
hermeneutics behind them and the politico-philosophical ideas that may
have informed them.
iii
To the memory of my father, z "l, a man of unusual foresight, a generous
dose of skepticism, a trader's decisiveness and clear and uncomplicated
thinking.
To my mother, may she live and be well, to whom I will be forever indebted
for sending me away to further my Jewish education at the cost of great
sacrifice.
iv
Acknowledgements
This journey began more than 45 years ago, while I was attending
yeshivah in Baltimore. There I had the privilege to study under Rabbi Jacob
Weinberg z"l, who was later to become the dean of the school. He initiated
me in Rambam studies and fired up my young spirit with titillating insights
and brilliant inferences drawn from whatever text was in his ken, be it
Tanakh, Talmud, Rambam or another rishon. He taught me how to read. He
taught me that to listen to a text one must silence all other sounds. He taught
me that what a text did not say was as important as what it said. Alas, to my
chagrin I was too young to learn all that he could offer, even if that had been
possible.
After I got married and moved to Toronto, I had the fortune to meet
up again with old friends from yeshivah days, disciples as it happens of
Rabbi Weinberg z"l. First, my old roommate and closest friend, R. Uziel
Milevsky, z"l, with whom I studied rabbinic works be-havruta. A few years
later he left Toronto to become the chief rabbi of Mexico. Through the years
of physical separation we kept in regular contact and reunited again in
Toronto, not long before his untimely passing away. His creative and
analytic mind were a constant inspiration; his enjoyment at hearing a
hiddush was contagious, his intellectual generosity exemplary. I truly miss
him.
Second, my present havruta, R. Moshe Hochman, yibadel le-hayim,
with whom I have been studying on an almost daily basis for close to forty
years. A good part of these years has been spent studying Rambam, and in
particular the Sefer ha-Mitsvot and the Mishneh Torah. Held back by our
Sages' counsel to tone down our praises of those who are present, I will say
v
only that it has been a privilege and a supreme joy to spend many thousands
of hours with him poring over texts. From him I learned the meaning of
intellectual honesty, humility and patience, and from him I acquired a love
for research. I know that he did not agree with me on many points of this
dissertation and therefore I want to exonerate him of any criticism. And yet,
I want to give him credit for what the reader finds pleasing and right in this
work. Even where it may not represent his direct input, it certainly is the
fruit of our daily engagement.
I also would like to single out R. Asher Turin, another friend from
yeshivah days and an extraordinary talmid haham, who patiently reviewed
with me an earlier draft of the entire dissertation. He not only helped me
sharpen many an argument but also corrected outright errors that only a true
talmid haham like him could detect on first reading. If any errors remain it is
only because I did not wish to burden him with reviewing the later drafts.
There are many other people to whom I owe a debt of gratitude. In the
first instance, I must acknowledge Fuerh Tang, who worked tirelessly on all
the technical aspects of the dissertation, from filing, editing and keeping
track of the various versions to the creation of a bibliography and its linkage
to footnotes. Given my very poor computer skill, I seriously doubt that this
dissertation could have come into being without her assistance. To Josie
Parks, for editing and smoothing over my deplorable writing style while still
making sure that the text retained the original meaning. To Sharon Moss for
her attention to detail in the never-ending job of finding and correcting
typographical errors if the work still has typos it's because I did not give
her enough time to review it. To Andrew Moss for his ability and
perseverance in searching for and obtaining difficult to find research
material. To Effy Lev for his quick response to my cries of help whenever
vi
my computer acted up. In general, to all my office co-workers, whose extra
effort and dedication covered the many hours and days when I was absent,
busy with courses, exams and research, and in particular, Henry Fenig,
Danny Gordon, Rick Zauderer, Yakov Friedman and Brenda Lev.
My deep appreciation goes to my sons-in-law, Avi Horowitz and Dan
Scheiner, for their patience in listening to my ramblings and for the many
interesting and valuable suggestions that they made.
A very special thank you goes to Professor Yakov Elman. The final
shape of this dissertation owes a great deal to his early intervention. Despite
his busy schedule, he was gracious enough to read the entire manuscript in
its final form, to which he offered many valuable suggestions. Thank you to
David Sklare and Haggai ben Shammai for generously helping me
understand some critical Judeo-Arabic terms, and to Jim Diamond and Hindi
Najman for their interest and constant encouragement.
For grace under extreme time pressure, I must acknowledge Paul
Nahme and Eva Mroczek, who prepared the comprehensive Index of Cited
Passages of Maimonides' Works in just two days.
Anna Souza, Graduate Administrator, and Jennie Jones, Assistant to
the Chair and Office Manager, were instrumental in helping me navigate the
administrative landscape. On more than one occasion, Anna went out of her
way to help me with administrative matters that threatened to overwhelm me
due to my limited capacity to follow bureaucratic instructions.
I am grateful to David Novak and Menahem Kellner for their valuable
philosophical insights, to Tirzah Meecham for her innumerable observations
on proper form and for her early constructive skepticism and to Herbert
Basser, my external examiner, for his animadversions. Their observations
and criticisms enabled me to refine my argument and helped me avoid many
vii
errors and omissions. I was privileged to write this dissertation under Harry
Fox. I profoundly appreciate his input and, in particular, his sage counsel in
matters of methodology and structure. I could not have asked for more.
Every writer must acknowledge by necessity the important role played
by his wife, especially in a project that demanded the amount of time and
attention that this one did. I wish here not only to acknowledge her
contribution but, more humbly, to ask her forgiveness for eight years of near
neglect. And yet, her contribution does not end with her selfless devotion.
Nancy is also a wonderful listener, a gentle and intelligent critic and a great
admirer. She is a true ezer ke-negdo. May God bless the fruit of her hands
forever and may we see together grandchildren and great-grandchildren
follow the enlightened and compassionate ways of our ancestors.
viii
Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
Early Medieval Exegetes and the 613 Commandments 6
M. ' s Avowed Purpose in Enumerating the Commandments 12
The Central Problem 16
The Thesis 19
Ancillary Products of the Thesis 24
Chapter 2. Some Important Definitions and Concepts 31
2.1 Mitsvah 31
2.1.1 Mitsvat 'aseh and mitsvat lo ta 'aseh 39
2.2 Claims, Data or Evidence, Warrants 42
2.3 Entry 46
2.4 Individuation 47
2.4.1 Individuation Rules 50
2.5 The Construct mitsvat in the Composite Term mitsvat-X 62
Chapter 3. Typology of Mitsvot 68
3.1 Unconditional Obligations, Also Called Absolutely Obligatory or
Compulsory Commandments (mitsvot hekhrehiyot) 78
Chapter 4. Non-Compelling Individuations: Minuses and Pluses 81
4.1 Non-Compelling Individuations 83
Chapter 5. Innovations 108
5.1 Examining the Evidence 112
5.1.1 Strong evidence 113
5.1.2 Inconclusive evidence 119
5.1.2.a Hovah, Be-al Korho, Hayav, Yakhol...Talmud lomar 120
5.1.2.b Use of Scripture's self-referential allusions to
the action being ' commanded' 124
5.1.2.c De-oraita, min ha-Torah 127
5.1.2.d Exegesis in the Manner of Asmakhtot 130
ix
5.1.2.e Plain Scriptural Evidence 135
5.1.2.f Exegetical Transfers and Extensions 144
5.2. Conclusion of Part 1 166
5.3 Innovations (Part 2): The Introduction of Dogma into Halakhah 167
5.3.1 "Uncertainty" Surrounding Dogma and its Place Among the Mitsvot 167
Chapter 6. Mishneh Torah: Towards a More Cautious Reconstruction... 194
6.1 The Enumeration According to the Halakhot 194
6.1.1 Using the term mitsvat 'aseh: an example of studious precision 208
6.2 The Hai-Raqah's Thesis 210
6.3 A Redefinition of mitsvat 'aseh 215
6.3.1 Three reversals from the list of the 60 unconditional obligations..222
6.4. Revisiting Individuation 235
Chapter 7. Peshateyh di-Qra 247
7.1 Rule 2 and the Broad Meaning of divre sofrim 250
7.2 Peshateyh di-qra, ein miqra yotse mi-yede peshuto 257
7.3 M.' s Understanding of peshateyh di-qra 264
7.4 "They learned it from the oral tradition" (mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah lamdu)... 275
7.5 The Presentation of a Positive Commandment in the Halakhot 288
Chapter 8. Correct Practices 290
Chapter 9. Mitsvah 315
9.1 The Term Mitsvah in the Halakhot 315
9.1.1 Mitsvah versus mitsvat 'aseh 319
9.2 Hypothesis 321
9.3 Actions that Lack Specificity 322
9.4 Mitsvah as a Commendable Deed 381
9.5 Absolute Reversals 407
Summary and Conclusion 414
Excursus 1: An estimate of the number of entries that Maimonides omitted from
Qayyara's list of positive commandments and possible reasons for these omissions .. 429
Excursus 2: Cross Cultural Influences and the Possible Role of Competition in the
Selection of Some Commandments 434
x
Excursus 3: Peshateyh di-qra and Scripture's Original Intent 440
Excursus 4 453
Appendix 458
Bibliography 478
Index of Texts from the Works of Maimonides 509
Tables
Table 1 198
Table 2 415
xi
Abbreviations, citations, translations and transliterations.
EC Eight Chapters
GP Guide of the Perplexed
HD Hilkhot De ot
M. Maimonides
MnT Moshe ibn Tibbon's translation of ShM (the base text in
Heller's and Frankel's editions).
MT Mishneh Torah
PhM Perush ha-Mishnayot
SE "Short Enumeration of the Commandments" (minyan ha-
qatsar)
ShM Sefer ha-Mitsvot
P, N Positive, Negative commandment, according to
Maimonides
Pq, Nq Positive, Negative commandment, according to Qayyara
Ps, Ns Positive, Negative commandment, according to Saadia
R. Rabbi
b Babylonian Talmud
m Mishnah
t Tosefta
y Palestinian Talmud
xii
Editions Used
The Sefer ha-Mitsvot, Nahmanides' Hasagot, and the commentaries Megillat
Esther, Qinat Sofrim and Lev Sameah are cited to the Frankel edition, either
by page or by the particular commandment under discussion. The Mishneh
Torah and its traditional commentaries are cited to standard printed editions;
references are to treatise, chapter and halakhah. The Eight Chapters of
Maimonides on Ethics (Shemonah Peraqim) is cited to Joseph I. Gorfinkle
edition.
The midreshe halakhah are cited to the following:
Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael ("'Mekhilta"), eds. H.S. Horowitz and Y.
Rabin;
Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai ("Mekhilta de-RaSHBY"), eds. Y.N.
Epstein and A.S. Melamed;
Sifra ("Sifra"), ed. I.H. Weiss;
Sifre al Sefer Bamidbar ve-Sifre Zuta ("Sifre Numbers"; "Sifre Zuta"), ed.
H.S. Horowitz;
Sifre al-Sefer Devarim ("Sifre Deuteronomy"), ed. L. Finkelstein.
For all the above works I provide page numbers besides the chapter or
pisqa for ease of reference.
References to a particular commandment in Qayyara's enumeration
follow Naftali Tsvi Hildesheimer, Haqdamat Sefer Halakhot Gedolot
(Jerusalem: 1986), while numerical references to Saadia's commandments
follow Yeruham Fischel Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, 3 vols.
(Jerusalem: Hotsaat Reset, 1973).
xiii
Translations and transliterations
Quotations of lemmas from the Short Enumeration or Minyan ha-
Qatsar are from Hyamson (Mishneh Torah: According to the Bodleian
(Oxford) Codex,1965). For the Sefer ha-Mitsvot I used the English
translation of C. Chavel (The Book of Commandments, 1984). For the
Guide of the Perplexed, I used the 1962 edition by Pines and cited it by
book, chapter, and page (in italics). For the Eight Chapters (EC) of
Maimonides on Ethics I used Gorfinkle's English translation. I have
followed all of these translations quite faithfully; where I (infrequently)
amended any of them, I noted it so. In contrast, the English of the MT is for
the most part a free adaptation of the Yale University edition.
For scriptural quotations, I used the Soncino's Pentateuch, edited by
Dr. J.H. Hertz, to conform to Chavel's use of biblical passages in his own
translation of the Sefer ha-Mitsvot. There will be instances, however, when
exegetical derivations will not quite conform to these scriptural translations.
This is inevitable due to the fact that the language of Scriptures is rich in
nuances and ambiguities. I did my best to adapt these translations so that the
reader will follow the interpretation, though I am afraid I did not always
succeed.
By Sages (with a capital "S") I refer to the authorities in the Talmudic
period.
The proliferation of transliteration systems found in scholarly works is
nothing short of bewildering. Preferences are often a function of the
scholar's academic and geographical background. For example, a student in
Lithuanian yeshivot will differentiate the tav (t) from the spirant variety (th).
An Israeli student, on the other hand, accustomed to the modern Sephardic
pronounciation will not. And so on. Biblical studies, because of their
xiv
emphasis on grammatical and morphological features have tended to use the
scientific or academic system. This work, however, is halakhic in nature, not
so much concerned with the biblical meaning of passages as with particular
idioms of the interpreters, the Sages and medieval rabbis. I give the reader a
Hebrew word or sentence where the translation given may leave doubts as to
the precise intention of the original rabbinic text. With the exception of
commonly used spellings, I have therefore adopted what I considered the
simplest transliteration system, the "general-purpose style" of the SBL
Handbook of Style (1999). Even then, I adopted some slight modifications
and ignored the spirants gh, dh, f and th, preferring instead to use g, d, f, and
t.
Throughout the dissertation I use the terms MT and Code of Law
interchangeably though I am aware of the debate over whether MT
represents a "code" in the technical sense of the word. Where I use Code of
Law my purpose is to draw special attention to the (ostensible) genre of the
work rather than simply the work itself. On the other hand, I draw a
conscious line between MT and Halakhot. By the former I mean the entire
work, including the Introduction (s) and the Headings to each treatise. When
referring only to the text of the MT, I use the term Halakhot. I capitalize
Headings because they ought to be treated as a separate work. While no
doubt the Headings derive from the "Short Enumeration" and the Sefer ha-
Mitsvot they contain many important differences in formulation. These, in
turn, have legal and exegetical implications.
xv
Chapter 1. Introduction
The TaRYaG
1
count that is, the traditional enumeration of the 613
commandments contained in the five Mosaic books (Torah) has gained a
prominent place in Judaism. The tradition, as we shall see below, is based on
a midrash found in the Babylonian Talmud and, with some variants, in
Midrash Tanhuma. No one has done more to see this count achieve the
importance that it has than Moses Maimonides (M.), who used his own
reconstruction of the list to frame the Mishneh Torah (MT), possibly the
most important, and certainly the most comprehensive, code of law in
Jewish history.
The Talmudic passage reads as follows:
R. Simlai when preaching said: Six hundred and
thirteen precepts were communicated to Moses, three
hundred and sixty-five negative precepts,
corresponding to the number of solar days [in the
year], and two hundred and forty-eight positive
precepts, corresponding to the number of the members
of man's body. Rav Hamnuna said: What is the
[biblical] text for this? It is, Moses commanded us
torah, an inheritance of the congregation of Jacob
['Torah' being in letter-value, equal to six hundred and
eleven], I am and Thou shalt have no [other Gods]
[not being reckoned, because] we heard from the
2
mouth of the Mighty [Divine].
1
TaRYaG is a mnemonic whose Hebrew letters when read numerically stand for 613
(T=400, R=200, Y=10, G=3).
bMakkot 23b-24a. M., when quoting the midrash, does not give the attribution, as is
customary with him in his halakhic works, as if to underscore unanimity. See Sefer ha-
1
M. cites this midrash in his introduction to the Sefer ha-Mitsvot (ShM)
and then adds,
[b]y way of interpretation [the Sages] have further said
about [the number of] positive commandments
corresponding to the number of limbs [in the human
body], that it is as if each and every limb says to the
person, 'Perform a commandment with me'; and about
[the number of] negative commandments
corresponding to the number of days in a solar year,
they said, it is as if each and every day says to the
person, 'Do not do this day a transgression.'
R. Simlai was a second-generation Palestinian Amora fpl. Amoraim,
rabbis of the Talmudic period, 220 C.E. to the end of the fifth century C.E.)
who lived around the late third century of our era. Did this midrash reflect a
unanimous tradition? And were the tannaim aware of such an enumeration?
Nahmanides, M.'s most prominent critic and the author of the Hasagot
("Critiques") on the ShM, was one of the first scholars to struggle with this
question. Pointing out that the tannaim never seemed to take into account the
number of commandments in their talmudic disputations, Nahmanides
wondered whether in fact the tannaim agreed with the count. Perplexed by
this observation, Nahmanides concluded that R. Simlai's count was the
product of his own reckoning and that, in effect, not everyone agreed with
Mitsvot, trans. Moshe ibn Tibbon, ed. Hayim Heller (Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav Kook,
1981) Note 51. This, of course, is relevant to the question raised by Nahmanides, as we
shall soon see, of the normative character of the midrash. Secondly, M. ' s version of the
midrash reads, "Six hundred and thirteen precepts were communicated to Moses at
Sinai," and that is how he quotes it in the introduction and in the beginning of Rule 3.
3
This expansion is found in Midrash Tanhuma, ki-Tetse and in a number of other
medieval sources, with slight variants. See Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. Heller, p. 4, n.53.
2
his exegesis and his count. Nevertheless, he agreed that the count was
normative because a number of talmudic passages and midrashim cited the
number TaRYaG in their arguments. He concluded that "because of the
widespread nature of this count.. .we will say that it was a tradition handed
down from Moses at Sinai."
4
On the other hand, Yeruham Fischel Perla,
while agreeing with Nahmanides' conclusion, found it "somewhat strange"
that "nowhere do we find mention of the TaRYaG count, not in the Mishnah,
nor in the Tosefta and nor in the Sifra.. .and neither this count nor any other
count is mentioned in the entire Palestinian Talmud." He reviews some of
the midrashim cited by Nahmanides as proof of the pervasiveness of the
count but finds that variant readings of these same midrashim seem to make
a deliberate point of avoiding the number TaRYaG. Nevertheless, he too
concludes that the tannaim of the Mishnah, Tosefta, Sifra, Sifre and Talmud
Yerushalmi probably did not disagree with the TaRYaG count since we do
not find an explicit alternative propounded.
5
On the other hand, E.E.Urbach
declares categorically that "in the tannaitic sources this number [i.e., 613] is
unknown, and in the passages where it appears in the printed editions it is
only an interpolation that is wanting in the MSS."
6
After a careful review,
David Henshke finds no trace of the count in the manuscript witnesses to the
midrashim that in the printed versions make mention of TaRYaG. From this
silence, Henshke concludes that the exercise of counting mitsvot was an
4
Hasagot to Rule 1, Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. S. Frankel (Jerusalem: 1995), pp. 13-15.
5
Perla, Yeruham Fischel, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, 3 vols. (Jerusalem: Hotsaat Qeset,
1973) Introduction, p. 6.
6
Urbach, Efraim E., The Sages, Their Concepts and Beliefs, trans. Israel Abrahams
(Cambridge, Mass: 1997) p. 343.
3
amoraic affair ("following perhaps upon their systematizing approach"),
though he grants that the TaRYaG tradition may have traveled orally from
earlier times. He adds that one could safely conclude that the "TaRYaG idea
was not part of the mainstream of tannaitic consciousness."
7
To be sure, there is some evidence that the tannaim engaged in
counting mitsvot, though without providing fixed totals for the entire
Pentateuch. An interesting example can be found in the following Pesiqta
de-Rav Kahana:
R. Yohanan said in the name of R. Shimon b. Yohai:
Moses wrote for us three chapters (parashiyyot, pl. of
parshah) in the Pentateuch, each containing sixty
commandments (mitsvot). These are: parshat Pesahim,
parshat Neziqin and parshat Qedoshim. R. Levi said in
the name of R. Shila of the city of Tamarta: these
chapters contain seventy commandments. R. Tanhuma
said: They do not disagree, for he who proposes
seventy commandments in parshat Pesahim, includes
in it the parshah of phylacteries (tefillin); he who
proposes 70 commandments in parshat Neziqin
includes in it the parshah of the year of remission
(shemitah); and similarly he who proposes 70
commandments in parshat Qedoshim includes in it the
parshah of forbidden relations (ervah).
7
Henshke, D., "Did the Tannaim Reckon with a Fixed Number of Commandments
[Hebrew]," Sinai 116 (1995) While arguments from silence are generally thought to be
demonstratively weak, in this case they take on more significance. This is because all
these midrashim could gainfully use the TaRYaG count in their arguments; its absence
appears to be deliberate, a point that Perla alluded to when he called their silence
"somewhat strange." Interestingly, in his conclusion Perla relies on the talmudic principle
that "one does not [gratuitously] increase disputes."
Pesiqta de-Rav Kahana, ed. S. Buber (Lyck: 1868) repr. Jerusalem (1983), parshat ha-
Hodesh, Pisqa 5, siman 164, p. 51b. In Midrash Rabbah on Leviticus, chapter 24, the
4
A number of ingenious theories were advanced to identify the
proposed number of mitsvot, but none of the solutions came close to
matching the 60 mitsvot that ostensibly were embedded in every parshah.
Bloch, who reviewed these solutions, was forced to conclude that the
statement "Moses wrote to us three chapters.. .each containing 60
commandments" could not be taken in a rigorously precise manner.
9
In the
end, it was not difficult for Bloch to arrive at this conclusion, since the
Pesiqta's midrash provided sufficient measurable information claiming
sixty mitsvot within three clearly identified and limited pericopes.
Unfortunately, as R. Simlai's statement cannot be put to such a controlled
test, no similar conclusion can be reached.
The above discussion raises important issues with regard to the
antiquity, fundamental character and even normativeness of R. Simlai's
midrash of 613 commandments. In the end, it is more likely that the midrash
of 613 commandments reflected only the individual count of an amora,
conveniently packaged into an edifying homily.
dictum is attributed to R. Yudan in the name of R. Shimon b. Yohai. This midrash can
also be found in the Yalqut Mishpatim, remez 307, which reads orlo instead of ervah.
9
Bloch, Moise, "Les 613 Lois," REJ 1 (1880) P. 201, note 2, cites a number of attempts.
For example, Shlomo b. Eliezer ha-Levi in his Shlomo b. Eliezer ha-Levi, 'Avodat ha-
Levi (Venice: 1546) [incorrectly referenced by Bloch as Sefer Huqe Eloqim, Venice
1546], counts, following the enumeration proposed by M., seventeen commandments in
parshat Pesahim, forty-one in Neziqin and forty-six in Qedoshim. Slightly different
results were obtained by Hagiz, Moses b. Jacob, Sefer Elleh ha-Mitsvot (Amsterdam:
1713) And Gabriel J. Polak in Huqe ha-Eloqim (Amsterdam: 1831). S. Buber, in his
notes to the Pesiqta de-Rav Kahana, suggested that mitsvot stood for verses. To find the
sixty verses, Buber commenced and finished the parashiyyot in a totally arbitrary fashion,
replacing one problem for another. Others suggested that the midrash referred to details
of the laws, which, as we shall see, runs counter to the definition of commandment.
5
Yet this midrash prompted the greatest halakhic and philosophical
authority of the Jewish medieval world to write a reasoned treatise on the
correct method of enumerating the commandments. Why?
Early Medieval Exegetes and the 613 Commandments
We saw that Nahmanides resolved his doubts about considering the
TaRYaG tradition to be normative, and thus a worthy object of study, once
he had established that the tradition was found, uncontested, in a relatively
wide number of talmudic midrashim. Other medieval scholars were not so
persuaded. In their estimation, the TaRYaG count was inconsistent with an
appropriate definition of mitsvah and how such a list of mitsvot should be
presented.
The great Spanish exegete Abraham ibn Ezra (1089-1164), in a book
composed for the express purpose of discussing and listing the laws of the
Torah, gave the following opinion:
I need to raise a methodological point before I deal
with the mitsvot because I saw scholars count 613
mitsvot in many different ways. There are those who
count the boiling of a kid [in its mother's milk] as one
mitsvah and there are those who count it as three
mitsvot on account of the fact that it is written in the
Torah three times and that our Sages expounded each
of those instances. There are many such instances.
There are those who count the particulars and the
general, sometimes the particulars by themselves and
sometimes the general by themselves. And there are
those who count as one mitsvah that which is
formulated in two ways but whose intent is the same.
Truly [ve-al derekh mehqar ha-emet lit.,
"according to the way of true inquiry"], there is no
limit to mitsvot, as the psalmist says, I have seen that
6
all things have their limit, but your commandment is
broad beyond measure (Psalm 119:96). On the other
hand, if we count only the general, the fundamental
ones (ve-ha-iqarim) and the commandments that are
binding for all time, the mitsvot do not add up to
[ 'asuyot, lit., "are not made to be"] 613.
10
Abraham ibn Ezra is one of the earliest exegetes, if not the first, to
critically raise methodological concerns. For example, how does one define
"commandment"? Implicit in his commentary lies a rejection of the tradition
of TaRYaG; it is simply impossible to arrive at R. Simlai's total without first
agreeing on a definition of mitsvah. In Ibn Ezra's opinion, the number of
commandments is indefinite; the count could range from fewer than 613 to
many multiples of 613. Unfortunately, Ibn Ezra does not say what one is to
make of R. Simlai's exposition.
Judah ibn Balaam, another prominent eleventh-century Spanish
exegete, was more explicit. Commenting on a dispute between two
Babylonian geonim, Hefetz b. Yatsliah and Samuel b. Hofni, on whether the
verse And you shall return to the Lord, your God (Deuteronomy 30:2)
commands one to repent or is merely a wishful hope or a prediction, Ibn
Balaam stated:
10
Abraham ibn Ezra, Yesod Mora ve-Sod Torah, eds. Joseph Cohen and Uriel Simon
(Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002), Second Gate, pisqa 3-4, pp. 91-2. Some
texts read asirit "one tenth," instead of 'asuyot, "made," the sense being that the
commandments do not add up to one tenth of 613, or approximately sixty-one. See ibid.,
notes on line 24. Harry Fox has suggested to me that the number sixty-one may not be as
implausible as it sounds: cf. M' s list of sixty obligatory commandments (see section 3:1).
It is not clear what Ibn Ezra meant by "the general, the fundamental ones and the
commandments that are binding for all time." Are the last two descriptions a sub-set of
the general? If not, in what respect are the general different from the fundamental
commandments?
7
However, Hefetz, may his soul rest in Eden, was
forced to bring this [mitsvah] in the count of mitsvot in
order to fill the number mentioned by the early
scholars in the dictum, "R. Simlai when preaching
said: Six hundred and thirteen precepts the Israelites
were commanded." To my mind, the dictum was said
only as an approximation.
11
Ibn Balaam's position was also based on a methodological rationale.
He asserted that there are two basic categories of mitsvot. One category is
made up of historical or contingent commandments; these need not be
reckoned with after their time has passed. Good examples are the mitsvot
associated with the Passover lamb offered in Egypt and the mitsvot related to
the building of the portable Tabernacle in the desert. A second category is
made up of commandments that are binding for all time. Ibn Balaam argued
that the latter total "does not reach 613. This is the reason why Hefetz was
forced to include in his count commandments that were not given at Sinai
[and] commandments that were abrogated soon after the time of their
performance."
Here then was another exegete who believed that the "countable"
mitsvot could not total the number proposed by R. Simlai if they were
subjected to rational criteria of selection. In his opinion, the countable
number, i.e., commandments binding for all time, did not reach 613 (though
we have no way of knowing how close they came). Note that Ibn Balaam
was apparently not willing to include commandments given outside of Sinai,
as for example those given in the plains of Moab, which include all the new
11
Harkavy, Abraham E., "Zikhron ha-Gaon Shmuel ben Hofni u-Sefarav," Zikaron le-
Rishonim ve-gam le-Aharonim, vol. 2 (St. Petersburg: 1880), pp. 41-42. Also cited by
Perla in his Introduction to Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG.
8
commandments found in Deuteronomy. This is not unreasonable if one
considers that R. Simlai stated that "six hundred and thirteen precepts were
communicated to Moses at Sinai."
1213
The opinion of the two above-named exegetes matters for our
appreciation of M.' s work. M. had a high regard for Ibn Balaam's exegetical
abilities, as we gather from a comment he makes in the Essay on
Resurrection: "I was anticipated by the keen commentators on the meaning
of the passage, men like.. .Ibn Balaam... ."
14
Though we have no way of
knowing whether M. had seen Ibn Balaam's comment regarding the number
of countable mitsvot in the Torah, it is not unlikely that he was aware of it.
With regard to Ibn Ezra, Perla has suggested that M. had seen and adopted
12
I assume this is why Ibn Balaam rejected Hefets' view that And you shall return to the
Lord, your God is a commandment, since it was stipulated in the plains of Moab. As for
the words "at Sinai," see our note above on the midrash of R. Simlai.
13
Two post-Maimonidean medieval scholars, Levi ben Gersonides (1288-1344) and
Simeon ben Tsemah Duran (1361-1444), also impugned the precision of R. Simlai's
dictum. The latter stated,
we do not rely on his [R.Simlai's] interpretation in deciding the
halakhah.The reason why this number is mentioned
everywhere is that we find no other Sage who counted them,
and so we have accepted his enumeration, and even if it misses
or exceeds the enumeration, it approximates it (holekh sevivo,
lit., goes around it)...(final comments in Duran, Simeon ben
Tsemah, Zohar ha-Raqia (im perush Ziv ha-Zohar), ed. D.
Abraham (Jerusalem: 1987), p. 225.
For the former, see RaLBaG' s Commentary to the Pentateuch, Exodus, Bo, p. 194,
where he points out that M. went through "great stress" to arrive at the exact count of
613, but that this number contains only a "small approximation," and R. Simlai "did not
care to be precise about his exposition (lo hashash bo, lit., was not anxious about it)."
Also see Berner, Baruch, "Yahaso shel ha-RaLBaG le-Darko shel ha-RaMBaM be-
Minyan ha-Mitsvot," Tyyunim u-Biurim be-Divre ha-RaMBaM, vol. 12 (Ma' aleh
Addumim: 1998), pp. 228-242.
14
Essay on Resurrection, in Epistles of Maimonides: Crisis and Leadership, trans. A. S.
Halkin, ed. David Hartman (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1993), p. 222.
9
some of Ibn Ezra's principles; if so, he also must have been aware of Ibn
Ezra's dismissal of R. Simlai's count.
15
R. Simlai's division of
commandments into positive and negative was not popular among the early
medieval halakhic taxonomists. As they saw it, the Law contained many
sorts of indications besides positive and negative commandments, normally
viewed as unconditional obligations. One could find for example indications
of neutral, optional and supererogatory acts as well as many laws that were
strictly contingent on circumstances. In fact, Hefetz b. Yatsliah, who used
these broader categories, was forced to re-interpret R. Simlai's and Rav
Hamnuna's dicta, saying that "both positive and negative [mitsvot] are the
more common and the more explicit. We find many like these in
15
Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, pp. 15-16. But see Twersky, I., "Did Ibn Ezra
Influence Maimonides? [Hebrew]," Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra, Studies in the Writings of a
Twelfth-Century Jewish Polymath, eds. Isadore Twersky and Jay M. Harris, Harvard
Judaic Texts and Studies (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993) pp. 21-48, to the
contrary. Fox, Harry, "Maimonides on Aging and the Aged in Light of the
Esoterist/Harmonist Debate," The Thought of Moses Maimonides, eds. J. Robinson, L.
Kaplan and J. Bauer (Lewiston NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1990), pp. 319-83, in particular
p. 341 and notes 123, 124 and 126 argues that M. may have been familiar with Ibn Ezra' s
commentaries at least in the last years of his life. He bases this on the fact that M.
recommends Ibn Ezra' s commentary to the Torah in a section of a will that he believes
can authentically be attributed to M.. I show throughout this paper a number of examples
of the affinity in exegetical methods and outlook that exists between M. and Ibn Ezra,
which of course may simply be accounted for by their common Spanish intellectual
legacy. It appears that those exegetes who exhibited philological independence and were
the least beholden to talmudic interpretation also espoused a more systematic approach to
counting mitsvot. The incompatibility of R. Simlai's count with their systematic thinking
and their independent exegetical approaches led them to deny authoritative status to R.
Simlai's exposition. It also appears to me that, at least according to the account of Ibn
Balaam, the Gaon Samuel b. Hofni dismissed the normative worthiness of R. Simlai's
count, since he did not see the need to increase his count to achieve the 613 total. As we
shall see, the systematic application of a number of rules to the popular geonic count left
M. with fewer than 613 mitsvot. Unlike Abraham ibn Ezra or Judah ibn Balaam,
however, M. worked to restore R. Simlai's full count by introducing innovative
commandments.
10
Scripture."
16
In other words, in Hefetz' opinion, R. Simlai's and Rav
Hamnuna's count contained more than just positive and negative
commandments those understood to be obligatory and the midrashic
dictum was a convenient oversimplification.
Though the 613 total was preserved in all these cases, the two-part
classification of commandments based on the 248+365 metaphors was
ignored by the Sages in the geonic period, in particular Simeon Qayyara,
Isaac al-Bargeloni, Solomon ibn Gabirol and Saadia Gaon. They adopted a
four-part classification divided into punishments (onshin), negative
commandments, positive commandments and sections (parashiyyot). The
four-part classification may have originated in a no-longer-extant amoraic or
post-amoraic tradition. This can be inferred from a statement that Qayyara
makes in the homiletic introduction to his list, opening with a formula that is
17
typical of baraitot. : "Our Sages have taught (shanu hakhamim): sixty-five
sections (parashiyyot) are the essence of Torah, and each section was
explicated by the Sages of I sr ael . , " To some extent, the four-part
classification better suited many of the types of commandments that came to
be included.
In closing, I should note that R. Simlai's midrash of TaRYaG spawned
a remarkably extensive body of TaRYaG lists throughout the Jewish world
16
From the introduction to Hefets ben Yatsliah, A Volume of the Book of Precepts, ed.
B. Halper (Philadelphia: Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning, 1915,) p.
20.
17
This is unlikely though not impossible since baraitot tend to be tannaitic and there is
little evidence, as we saw earlier, that tannaim engaged in a detailed mitsvah count. See
Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. I, p. 7 for an allusion in Midrash Tehillim to this
division, and see Guttmann, Y. M., Behinat ha-Mitsvot u-Behinat Qiyyum ha-Mitsvot
(Breslau: 1978), p. 22, who points to sources for the use of parashiyyot.
11
of the ninth through thirteenth centuries, many of which have been lost to us.
Systematic attempts to classify the commandments were made by the
geonim Saadia Gaon, Hefetz b. Yatsliah and Samuel b. Hofni, but we are not
aware of any serious attempts to develop comprehensive criteria on which to
construct these lists. Abraham ibn Ezra's methodological comments were
never put to use, as his Yesod Mora treats commandments rather loosely,
without any sort of numerical constraint. It is also hard to discern any sort of
halakhic significance attached to these types of lists. Most of the literary
creativity associated with the composition of TaRYaG was channeled into
liturgical poems (piyyutim) called azharot, which were read in synagogues
on the Festival of Weeks (Shavu 'ot). Possibly this fact alone accounted for
the extraordinary popularity of the TaRYaG count.
M.'s Avowed Purpose in Enumerating the Commandments
What occasioned M.'s interest in the TaRYaG enumeration? M. tells
us in the introduction to ShM that
after having completed our previous well-known work,
wherein we included a commentary to the whole
Mishnah (Perush ha-Mishnayot, PhM)...I deemed it
advisable to compile a compendium which would
include all the laws of the Torah and its regulations,
nothing missing in it.
M. then proceeds to tell us that in the new work he would omit
"differences of opinion and rejected teachings," as well as attributions, and
that he would compose the compendium in the language of the Mishnah, "so
that it would easily be understood by most of the people." He tells us further
that "brevity with completeness" would be the goal of this work,
12
so that the reader thereof might encompass all that is
found in the Mishnah and Talmud, Sifra, Sifre, and
Tosefta, and more than that, all decrees and ordinances
of the later Geonim, of blessed memory, as well as all
that they have explained and commented upon
concerning the prohibited and permissible, unclean
and clean, invalid and valid, liable and free, pay and
not pay, swear and free from swearing.
In an outburst of authorial pride, M. declares, "Outside of this work
there [is] to be no need for another book to learn anything whatsoever that is
required in the whole Torah, whether it be a law of the Scriptures or of the
rabbis."
After discussing the arrangement of the work that will follow M.
finally explains why he needs a list of all scriptural commandments. He
says:
Now, on account of this plan I deemed it advisable to
enumerate first in the introduction to that work the
number of all commandments, positive and negative,
so that the scope of the work embraces all of them, not
one commandment being left without being fully
di scussed. .
The sense here is that M. wishes to cover every one of the scriptural
commandments and their derivations and can assure himself of doing that
only by listing them all. When he composed the MT, M. shuffled this list of
commandments, following a different topical arrangement, placing a
pertinent group of commandments at the head of each treatise. A little later
on, M. says: "All this [I would do] in order to guard against omitting any
topic from discussion, for only by including them in the enumeration of the
commandments [heading the various treatises] would I insure against such
13
omission" (my emphasis). While the earlier statement appears to say that M.
wished to make sure that he covered every one of the commandments, this
statement says instead that the commandments heading the various treatises
would serve as a reminder for all halakhic topics. In other words, the list of
commandments would serve as a comprehensive writer's outline.
It is difficult to countenance, however, the idea that M. intended
the list of scriptural commandments to act as a comprehensive outline. For
one thing, the MT has a number of treatises that deal with rabbinically
ordained laws only, such as Hilkhot Eruvin and Hilkhot Megillah ve-
Hanukkah. No mention of any of the scriptural commandments could have
insured against the omission of these halakhot. Much the same can be said
about three other treatises that deal with purely rabbinically conceived
legislation, such as Hilkhot Zekhiyah u-Matanah, Hilkhot Shekhenim,
Hilkhot Sheluhin ve-Shutafin. Finally, from a practical point of view, the
enormity of the material, most of it rabbinically derived or rabbinically
ordained, should have led M. to create a far more comprehensive outline if
he was truly concerned about the possibility of overlooking a topic.
M. proceeds to discuss this list and now assumes without further
justification that the list of commandments is identical to the TaRYaG
enumeration. But this does not appear to be a compelling assumption. As we
shall see, other scholars who preceded him downplayed its significance.
M.'s own testimony reveals that the TaRYaG enumeration flourished in a
non-juridical environment,
Similarly, whenever I heard the many azharot [lit.,
admonitions, functionally liturgical poems] which
have been composed among us in the land of Spain My
pangs have come writhing upon me [Dan 10:16],
because I saw how popular and disseminated these
14
were. True, these authors are not to be criticized; they
are poets, and not Rabbis, and as far as their art is
concerned namely, well balanced expressions and
beauty of rhyme they have performed with
perfection.
Still, M. claims, these poets have all followed Qayyara, the tenth-
century Babylonian Gaon and author of the Halakhot Gedolot, "and some of
the later rabbis," most probably referring to the Babylonian Gaon Hefetz b.
Yatsliah.
18
For all its apparent importance, Qayyara's enumeration is a
laconic, apodictic, and oftentimes very ambiguous list of commandments
and, as we shall see, one that could hardly have constituted an authoritative
legal source.
Having entered the TaRYaG fray, M. is overcome with a
"feeling of distress." He says, "Scholars engaged in enumerating the
commandments, or in writing anything whatsoever on this topic, have all
come forward with the strangest of theories that I could hardly describe their
magnitude." The more he thinks "about their fantasies counting as they
did matters which even on first thought would appear that they should not
have been included," the more he feels the "ill fortune" that has befallen his
people. M. further complains that
. knowi ng . h o w widely accepted is this [Qayyara's]
enumeration among the people, I knew that if I were
just to list the true and proper enumeration, without
[advancing] proofs for it, the first person that will
chance to read it will suppose that this is a mistake
18
In the contemplated second part of this work I plan to briefly survey some of the earlier
enumerators and attempt to determine which ones were read by M. It is clear, however,
from what he says here that he cared little about their differences and preferred to group
them all together as followers of Qayyara. In effect, Qayyara became M. ' s strawman.
15
his proof being that this is contrary to what some
author had written.
As a result, M. set out to write a special treatise (maqqalah), the ShM.
Written in an argumentative form, this treatise would spell out, so claimed
M., the methods that ought to be followed to produce a logically correct and
consistent enumeration. In it, M. would also identify and document each of
the commandment claims he was making. Quite clearly, the reconstruction
of the original list of commandments was no simple task.
The Central Problem
At this point, we must ask ourselves if the effort that M. was about to
expend on the enumeration of the commandments was worth the result of
having a list that would "guard against omitting any topic from discussion."
Arguably, M. could have far more easily produced a systematic and
complete outline that simply sidestepped the constraint of a particular
number of commandments. This is especially so given that he was planning
to write a comprehensive code of law that would at any rate mention every
one of the commandments. Recall that the TaRYaG midrash does not
provide a list of the commandments, with the exception of the two that were
heard directly from the Lord, and give no indication as to what might
constitute a commandment. Anyone who attempted to reconstruct such an
enumeration, if indeed one existed, would have to create an absolutely
original set of criteria for selection. It is only by coincidence that an
enumeration thus reconstructed could replicate the enumeration that the
authors of the midrash had in mind.
16
There is also the matter of the midrash itself. The explanation given
for the number 613 makes it clear that we are dealing with a homily
(aggadah), not a normative tradition. In effect, the commandments are
compared to the days of the solar year (365) and the number that was
thought to represent all human limbs and organs (248), essentially to express
ideas of constancy and dedication. It need not be said that a homily is hardly
an appropriate basis for a serious jurisprudential work.
Our amazement grows when we consider that a list of
commandments, any list, requires the compiler to decide on a set of
individuating criteria, rules that would divide the totality of material
constituting the legal portions of the Torah into separate units. By necessity,
such individuation is subjective, certainly not sufficiently compelling to
justify M.' s hyperbolic claim that his enumeration is "founded upon clear
proof beyond a doubt" and that "the reader will see the mistake of all those
who counted in a way contrary to ours."
19
We shall see that Nahmanides, in
his critique, tackled some of the many potentially thorny individuation
issues. Though erudite and powerful, Nahmanides's critique is not
sufficiently systematic. He leaves unchallenged a great many more
questionable, or at least non-compelling, individuations. In fact, it is clear
that Nahmanides accepted M.'s overall scheme.
20
M.' s four major
19
From the introduction to the ShM, with almost the exact same words in Responsum
#355, in Responsa of Moses b. Maimon, ed. and trans. Joseph Blau, 4 vols. (Jerusalem:
Meqitze Nirdamim, 1960), vol. 2, p. 631. See also M. ' s letter to R. Efraim of Tyre, in
Iggerot ha-RaMBaM, trans. and ed. I. Shailat, 2 vols. (Maaleh Addumim: Ma' aliyot
Press, 1987-88), p.223.
20
In his own summary at the end of his critique, Nahmanides tells us that he removed
altogether 26 entries from M.' s list of positive commandments, though not all of them the
result of disagreements on individuation. Rosanes, Y., "Derekh Mitsvotekha," Sefer ha-
17
traditional apologists, Isaac de-Leon ("Megillat Esther"), Abraham Alegre
("Lev Sameah"), Hananiah Cases ("Qinat Sofrim") and Aryeh-Leib Segal-
Horowitz ("Marganita Taba") did their best to uphold M.' s scheme in its
entirety against the attacks of Nahmanides, never once calling into question
the subjectivity of M.'s individuation scheme.
Of the early critics of M.' s enumeration, special mention should be
made of RaBaD's (R. Abraham ben David of Posquieres) acerbic and short
glosses to the MT, and Daniel ha-Bavli's objections, appearing in a
collection of queries sent to M.'s son, Abraham. Their critical comments are
not numerous enough to undo M.'s structure but are clearly worth
considering when assessing M.'s absolute claims. I shall have occasion to
cite them.
Of all scholars after Nahmanides, Y. Perla is most successful in
raising serious objections against M.'s edifice, some dealing with source
documentation, some with interpretation of these sources and some with
simple logic and individuation. Because Perla's main concern is justifying
and supporting Saadia's enumeration, his sympathies clearly lie with Saadia
and against M. and other enumerators. His frequent criticism of M.'s
position is extraordinarily erudite, lucid, and thorough, though again, less
than systematic if only because M.'s enumeration represents only an indirect
concern. Though not totally apologetic with regard to M., given his interest
Mitsvot, ed. S. Frankel (Jerusalem: 1995), argues that, to be consistent, Nahmanides
meant to subtract as many as 32. At any rate, the number of deletions is minor compared
with the potential differences that can arise from reasonably different individuation
decisions. As an aside, it is worth noting that M.' s enumeration became the definitive
work of this genre. In one way or another all subsequent enumerations either incorporated
it in toto, as for example the Sefer ha-Hinukh of Aaron of Barcelona, or adopted it with
only minor changes, such as Sefer Mitsvot ha-Gadol authored by Moshe b. Yaakov mi-
Coucy.
18
in Saadia, Perla slips frequently into ad hoc and somewhat convoluted
attempts to reconcile difficulties that often leave the more systematic reader
less than satisfied. His massive three-volume, 2,000-page work, written in
small cursive characters, presents a formidable reading challenge and is
therefore not easily accessible to the general reader. I shall have many an
occasion to cite him. Finally, returning to the question of individuation, I
must not pass up an observation of Halbertal, who noted that
the creation of organizing categories is a very complex
issue, constrained by what Scripture as well as what
tradition say, and the categorizing criteria [itself]
. . Th e demarcation between the particular and the
organizing commandment is problematic and
complex.
21
I dedicate part of chapter 2 (sections 2.4 and 2.4.1) to problems in
individuation. The examples given all have a significant bearing on the
targeted number of commandments to which M. wishes to arrive. The
absurdity of hitting on a firm and absolute list of commandments is so
obvious that one must question whether M. truly believed that he could
compile such a list. This suspicion leads us to look beyond the simplistic
rationale offered by M. in the introduction to the ShM, to possibly a more
fundamental agenda.
The Thesis
I shall argue that M.'s interest in TaRYaG, more specifically in R.
Simlai's midrash of the 613 commandments, was due to one very special
21
Halbertal, Moshe, "Maimonides' Book of Commandments: The Architecture of the
Halakhah and its Theory of Interpretation (Hebrew)," Tarbiz 59.3-4 (1990), p. 461-2, n.
8.
19
reason: the need to demonstrate that the belief in the existence of a divine
Lord defined as the First Cause of all existents and the belief in His unique
Oneness constituted scriptural commandments.
At first, this is puzzling, as it would hardly appear to be an innovation.
After all, if there is one thing we know for certain from R. Simlai's dictum,
it is that the belief in God and the belief in His oneness are part of the
TaRYaG (though, as we shall see, not in the philosophical form presented by
M.). Yet, it is a fact that neither Qayyara nor any of the composers of the
azharot included these two articles of faith in their enumeration. Recall that
these authors worked out of a slightly different TaRYaG tradition, one that
saw the commandments classified into four categories positive
commandments, negative commandments, punishments and sections. This
tradition was clearly not based on R. Simlai's dictum, which as we saw,
divided the universe of commandments into positive and negative
commandments only. In light of the classificatory imprecision, it may just be
that these geonim discarded R. Simlai's dictum as being irrelevant from a
jurisprudential point of view. Or, they may simply have passed it over
because of its homiletical character. In either case, they would not have paid
serious attention to Rav Hamnuna's suggestion that I am and Thou shalt
have no [other gods] stood for two commandments. A case can be made that
the geonim's neglect of R. Simlai's dictum and Rav Hamnuna's exegesis
can be attributed to an even more fundamental reason, specifically, the
question whether the Torah commands one to believe and/or acknowledge.
In my discussion of this question in section 5.3, I show that prior to
M.'s writings, the prevailing opinion was that commandments generally
applied only to actions and not to beliefs. I infer this from comments made
by a pre-Maimonidean and widely read theologian, Bahya ibn Paquda,
20
author of one of the most popular Jewish works of piety, The Duties of the
Heart. I shall show that, on M.' s own account, the status of dogmas as
objects of commandment was a matter of great controversy among
theologians/jurists. Notwithstanding this controversy, M. defended the
notion that the acquisition of correct metaphysical notions is also a matter
that can be commanded. Nevertheless, while the Simlai midrash provided
the necessary halakhic support, Rav Hamnuna's proof-text only went as far
as to affirm the belief that the god represented by the Ineffable Name was
the Israelites' god and that it was He who took them out of Egypt. M. went
well beyond the plain sense of the text when he re-interpreted this statement
to be declaring the belief in a First Cause. I shall have occasion to discuss in
the same section this bold and unexpected transformation and the profound
theological truth that M. believed lay hidden in Rav Hamnuna's explanation
of R. Simlai's dictum.
In chapter 3, I discuss the types of commandments that are contained
in M.' s enumeration and the kind of assumptions that M. had to make to
include these types under the heading of mitsvot 'aseh, essentially,
obligatory commandments. We discover that besides the obligatory
commandments his list includes contingent commandments, procedural
commandments and mere descriptions, each category ever more removed
from what one may reasonably call a mitsvat 'aseh. We take special note of
the critics' objections regarding "descriptive" commandments, especially
Nahmanides', and we dismiss Levinger's and Horowitz's attempts to justify
these claims. Toward the end of that chapter, I demonstrate that M. is keenly
aware of the relativity of his enumeration by presenting a list of sixty
obligatory commandments (mitsvot hekhrehiyot) that he created and attached
to the end of his section on positive commandments. The list is fashioned
21
around a man's obligations, as opposed to a woman's, who lives "in normal
conditions". The sixty obligatory commandments act as a foil to the larger
list of 248 positive commandments, which is constructed upon a much
broader understanding of the term mitsvat 'aseh than which is commonly
assumed. It also provides the key to our understanding of the way M.
presented the commandments in the Halakhot, as I discuss a little later on.
I conclude that M. is not interested so much in the number of
commandments that were legislated at Sinai as in the fact that the list of
commandments contained the two fundamental beliefs of the religion. It is
worth noting that M. was not the first scholar to propose that belief in God's
existence and His unity --- and in what those beliefs entail --- represent
formal commandments. The distinction belongs to the Babylonian gaon
Hefetz b. Yatsliah, who put it this way:
The first precept enjoins us to unite our mind and
thoughts on the truths of the matter; to make our
Creator exist in our heart, and to consider Him Lord of
all things without a shadow of doubt, and without any
other thought; to know that He is truth; as it is written:
Know therefore this day, and lay it to thy heart, that
YHWH is Eloqim, there is no-one else besides Him
22
[Deuteronomy 4:39].
Hefetz explains the two divine terms and points to the end of the verse
as proof that "He is one and that there is no other." Hefetz later adds that he
22
Hefets' description of the first commandment was preserved for us by Judah b.
Barzilai in his twelfth-century commentary on the Book of Creation, Judah ben Barzilai,
Perush Sefer Yetsirah (Berlin: S. J. Halberstamm, 1885), pp. 55-56. For the partial quotes
I have used Halper' s translation in Hefets, A Volume of the Book of Precepts.
22
is obliged to explain his proof that He exists in his own words "that He is
one and that there is no other" so that one "may be strengthened in the belief
that He is one, and is the creator of all things." Unlike Hefetz, however, M.
was able to demonstrate the halakhic validity of these claims by resorting to
an explicit rabbinic warrant.
I argue that M. needs to show in the ShM that he can compete with the
geonic principally, Qayyara's scheme and so he gamefully engages in
an enumeration that he knows fully well cannot be absolute. He does this, as
we said, in order to displace the reigning geonic scheme and replace it with
R. Simlai's scheme. M. is now able to commence his legal magnum opus
with the unchallenged claim that the beliefs in the First and Necessary
Existent and the oneness of this Existent are positive commandments
(Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 1:1-1:7). A sign of M.'s extraordinary success is
the fact that all halakhic authorities who follow him found it natural to
include these two fundamental beliefs in their enumerations.
23
In the first part of chapter 5, I discuss a number of other interesting
innovations that M. introduces in his work vis-a-vis the previous
enumerators. I divide these innovations into those for which M. adduces
strong rabbinic evidence, such as a midrash that will state specifically that
such and such is a commandment, and those for which M. offers scant
evidence for the commandment claim that he makes. I focus on some of the
latter and suggest that extra-rabbinic factors ethical and philosophical
considerations may have influenced their enumeration. I take issue with
23
It is worth noting that after first defending rather strenuously Qayyara's omission of the
First commandment (Hasagot to the first positive commandment), Nahmanides concedes
that the belief in the existence of God ought to be enumerated "as opined by the Master"
(Hasagot to the first negative commandment).
23
Twersky, who takes the 613 commandments as a given and then tells us that
"the remaining task is completely deductive," that is to say, one can
logically assign each one of these commandments to one of the three ethical,
political and philosophical goals that M. outlines in GP. Such is Twersky's
confidence that he asserts, "We could have undertaken to reconstruct the
correlation between each commandment and the three goals" without
perhaps considering whether the goals might have come before the
commandments.
Ancillary Products of the Thesis
In chapter 6, I deal with a derivative of the principal thesis of the
dissertation. If my thesis is correct, we ought to find evidence of M.'s
relaxed attitude to the TaRYaG in his later writings, and in particular, in the
Halakhot of the MT.
24
In fact, we do.
M. heads the treatises of the MT with short captions, all taken from
the Short Enumeration (SE) and the ShM, that is the list of 613
commandments. M. shuffles the original list, allowing negative and positive
commandments to mix (as opposed to the division of the TaRYaG list into
positive and negative commandments that we find in the SE and ShM) and
groups the commandments topically. The Headings to the treatises, in
aggregate, constitute exactly 613 commandments. Yet, when we move to the
actual Halakhot we find that, in a great many cases, M. fails to designate a
particular commandment as such. We start by noting that a declaration of
24
While our interest here lies with the MT, it is worth noting that M. never once mentions
the 613 commandments in his lengthy survey of the biblical laws in the Guide, a work
that postdates even the MT. My thanks to Harry Fox for this observation.
24
commandment appears at the beginning of each commandment under
discussion. These are formulaically expressed, such as "It is a positive
commandment to such and such" or sometimes, "It is a positive
commandment of (or from) the Torah to such and such." This formulaic
device is absent in the Halakhot in as many as 109 instances of the
commandment claims previously made in the ShM a surprisingly large
number.
Masud ben Aaron Hai Raqah (1690-1768), later followed by Kafih,
detected a number of such failures to designate, but unfortunately did not
widen their investigations sufficiently to cover the entire Halakhot. I
demonstrate that, as a result of this, Raqah offered an invalid solution to the
problem. I then subject the material to a systematic investigation and find
that one of the keys to understanding these failures to designate lies in the
realization that M. effectively changed his criteria for what represents a
mitsvat 'aseh. I conclude that M. designates far fewer commandments as
mitsvoth 'aseh in the Halakhot of the MT than he did in the SE/ShM because
he treats mitsvot 'aseh in the Halakhot as unconditional obligations as well
as obligations that are contingent on the ordinary life of an ordinary person. I
suggest that this criterion was already foreshadowed by the list of the sixty
obligatory commandments discussed earlier. This change, along with other
changes, such as new individuations, explains a substantial portion of the
structural anomalies evident in the Halakhot. While these explanations carry
little juridical, exegetical or theological implications, the unexplained
balance of the 109 commandments does.
In chapters 7 and 8, I attempt to solve the remaining failures to
designate. In the process, I offer what I believe are some groundbreaking
suggestions regarding M.'s legal theory and scriptural hermeneutics. In
25
chapter 7, I propose that we take M.' s innovative discussion of what
constitutes divre sofrim in Rule 2 to its ultimate and logical conclusion: a
scriptural commandment can be derived only from a scriptural verse read in
the light of its plain meaning (peshateyh di-qra). This conclusion follows a
thorough review of the usage of the term peshateyh di-qra in the rules
section and in the brief commandment descriptions of the ShM. This
hermeneutic explains why a number of commandments previously
designated as such in the SE/ShM are no longer viewed as scriptural
commandments. I suggest that M. reclassified these commandments and
moved them to the category of divre qabbalah, and more generally, divre
sofrim. The halakhic status of divre sofrim is briefly discussed; I ask, are
they to be treated as scriptural laws or merely as rabbinic laws? While I do
not take sides in the (still) ongoing dispute, I point to an already substantial
bibliography on the question. Nevertheless, on the assumption that at least
some divre sofrim legislation has scriptural status, it behooves us to know in
what practical way are commandments classified as divre sofrim distinct
from scriptural commandments, if at all, and how M.' s re-classification
would have affected these commandments. This is clearly a complex issue
and remains a desideratum for further research. Suffice it to say for now that
at least one instance
25
can be found where M. makes a distinction between a
purely scriptural law, i.e. one that is explicitly found in the scriptural text,
and one that is not (even as it may enjoy scriptural force), and that is the case
of "the bullock offered for the unconscious transgression of the
congregation." M. rules that
25
But see also Hilkhot Shehitah 5:3 and the commentary ad loc. of Maggid Mishneh
(R.Yehudah Kelz).
26
If the court erred and gave a ruling such as would
uproot some main principle of the Law (guf mi-gufe
torah), and all the people acted on their authority, the
court are exempt and everyone who so acted is liable
to a fixed sin offering . T h e court never becomes
liable unless they so rule as partly to annul and partly
to sustain matters not explicit and plainly stated in the
Law, whereupon the court becomes liable to the
offering and they who act on their authority are not
liable. (My emphasis; Hilkhot Shegagot 14:1-2).
In chapter 8, I take note of M.'s special use of the participle. The
participle is a common mishnaic grammatical form, not particularly well
suited to convey obligations. As Daube has noted, "it is in this function, as
an expression of the course to be taken in accordance with proper
interpretation and custom, that the participle became the typically rabbinic
form of legislation." Daube offers that participles describe "correct
practices." We add: These correct practices probably originate in some
remote past, impossible to precisely locate along the continuum of the oral
tradition, and are the result of "scribal" or rabbinic activity. Often, they were
meant to define scriptural metaphors. In this light, we can identify correct
practices with divre sofrim. Not coincidentally, M. tends to use participles
when discussing commandments that were presented in the SE/ShM as
scriptural commandments but that can no longer be categorized as such
because they lack support in peshateyh di-qra. Some of the more dramatic
examples of correct practices are: the recitation of the Shema, the precept to
learn Torah and to teach it, the precept to bind phylacteries on the head and
on the arm and the precept to affix a mezuzah.
27
In chapter 9, we deal with commandments that were previously
designated as such in the SE/ShM and that M. chooses now, in the Halakhot,
to denote as simply mitsvah. I suggest that he does so to better reflect their
more subtle standing of counsel rather than obligation. We note that behind
each of these re-denominations stands one or more hermeneutic difficulty
that would not permit M. to designate the commandment a mitsvat 'aseh.
Among the handful of precepts that M. calls mitsvah rather than mitsvat
'aseh we find the counsels to love God, to fear Him and to imitate His ways.
In all these cases, I suggest that M. has refined the scriptural message,
creating a sort of ethical or intellectual imperative that falls just short of an
obligation. Finally, I discuss two previously designated commandments that
disappear from the radar, so to speak, in the Halakhot. In these two
instances, it is clear that M. totally reverses his previous enumeration and
does not label them as obligations, traditionally correct practices or counsels.
We suggest hermeneutic considerations that may have led to these reversals.
As the title suggests, I have chosen to deal exclusively with the
positive commandments. My interest in the positive commandments arose
from the fact that it is far more difficult to identify positive than negative
commandments. Let me explain. Negative commandments can be identified
by two markers: scriptural language and punishment. In Rule 8 M. tells us
that negative commandments can be identified linguistically by Scripture's
use of four terms: lo, al, pen and hishamer. He then warns us that, despite
this well defined characteristic, one must still be careful to distinguish
between a negative particle that reflects a prohibition and a negative particle
that simply reflects a negation (shelilah). This he says requires "that the
reader understand the context of the passage (inyane ha-maamar)", at which
point he will "quickly" make the proper distinction. Crucially, there are no
28
linguistic markers when it comes to positive commandments (see below,
section 2.1). For this reason M. must lean heavily on rabbinic warrants that
demonstrate that a particular scriptural sentence denotes an obligation (see
below section 2.2 and the entire section 5.1, where I show how M. struggles
with confirming evidence for his claims).
There is a second marker that enables one to identify and individuate
negative commandments, and that is the presence of a punishment. In Rule 9
M. identifies/individuates an important number of negative commandment
claims by adducing rabbinic evidence that state that these violations are
liable to lashes. Conversely, he eliminates a significant number of
prohibitions from being considered negative commandments because they
are not punishable with lashes and considers these prohibitions simply
reinforcing exhortations. In Rule 14 M. tells us that the presence of karet and
mitat bet din are also markers of negative commandments (except for milah
and pesah). Admittedly, while the presence of a punishment for a
transgression is a sign that we are in the presence of a scriptural prohibition,
i.e. a negative commandment, the converse is not always true as there are a
number of exempting principles, such as lav ha-nitaq le- 'aseh, lav she-bi-
kelalot and lav she-eyn bo ma'aseh. Nevertheless, the overarching principle,
that all negative commandments are punishable, greatly facilitates their
identification. This explains why M. in the Halakhot often can refer to
negative commandments by simply stating that one who transgresses a
certain scriptural prohibition is to receive lashes, without first stating that the
transgressor violates a negative commandment. By contrast, individuals who
trespass by not fulfilling positive commandments are not punishable. The
precise nature of these commandments must therefore be spelled out clearly.
29
As suggested earlier, an explanation must be sought for such instances in
which the Halakhot fail to do so.
In sum, the positive commandments allowed me to ask about them a
number of interesting questions, namely, how did M. identify them? In the
absence of punishments, are there various shades of positive
commandments? If there are, can one discover them from the way M.
formulates them?
One final point. On a number of occasions throughout the dissertation
I raise certain problems and point out that M.'s hermeneutical enterprise
would be best understood if we knew the precise order by which he wrote
the various 'treatises', specifically, the Rules (of the ShM), the ShM, the SE
and the Headings. This knowledge would allow us to observe M.'s train of
thought and perhaps many of the reasons for shifting positions. In the
absence of evidence from manuscripts and, more importantly, consistent
cross references, one is guided by conjectures as well as simplistic
assumptions on the way M. 'ought' to have written these treatises. While I
have drawn some highly tentative conclusions along the way, these remain
just that, tentative, conjectural and intuitive. A methodical and systematic
analysis of this problem remains an important desideratum for those wishing
to understand M.'s halakhic oeuvres and the development of his ideas.
30
Chapter 2. Some Important Definitions and Concepts
In this chapter I want to discuss certain terms that will become
important for a fuller understanding of M.' s project. The terms are mitsvah
(cs. mitsvat, pl. mitsvot), mitsvat 'aseh, claims, data, warrants, entries and
individuation.
2.1 Mitsvah
In a recent article, Jacob Chinitz insightfully states,
The Torah, for all its emphasis on law and legality, has
a surprising lack of consistency in legal terminology. If
it used just one term for obligation or command, such
as mitsvah, and spoke only of such commands and the
punishments for lack of compliance, it would have
been seen as a systematic and consistent code of law.
But such is not the case. The Pentateuch uses no fewer
than 10 terms for 'law,' and there seems to be no
particular, permanent meaning to these terms, except a
degree of tendency in one direction or another.
1
In the Pentateuch, mitsvah is used to mean a commandment of God, as
for example Deuteronomy 6:25 (referring to the assemblage for the Passover
rituals), 8:1 (prefaced by "all," referring to all the commandments), 15:5
(referring to the seventh-year release) and so on. It is sometimes used as an
injunction, as for example, the commandments (mitsvot) of the Lord
1
Chinitz, J., "Ten Terms in the Torah for Teachings, Commandments and Laws," Jewish
Bible Quarterly 3.2 (2005). The ten terms that he lists are din, tsedaqah, davar,
mishmeret, mitsvah, torah, mishpat, hoq, 'edut, ot.
31
specifying actions not to be taken (Leviticus 4:2), and sometimes it refers to
a related group of positive and negative commandments, as in Deuteronomy
7:11 with reference to what is discussed in 7:2-5. Mitsvot (in the plural form)
is used to represent a group of commandments, sometimes not clearly
referenced (as in Numbers 36:13). Outside of the Pentateuch, mitsvah is also
used as a commandment issued from a human. In the construct form we find
mitsvat ha-leviim (Nehemiah 13:5) in the sense of that which is lawfully due
to the Levites (and comparable in this usage to mishpat ha-Bekhorah,
Deuteronomy 21:17).
Scriptural commandments can generally be identified by their
grammatical form. They are expressed either in the imperative or in the
imperfect. This, however, is not always the case. An 11
th
century Babylonian
Gaon who showed a great interest in the taxonomy of commandments,
Samuel b. Hofni, struggled with this question. The no-longer extant chapters
nine and ten of his Treatise on the Commandments are described as follows
in the table of contents: "Concerning the imperative, the words used for
expressing an imperative, and that which makes an imperative to be an
imperative," and "Concerning the form of the prohibition, the words used for
expressing a prohibition, and that which makes [a prohibition be a
prohibition]".
2
In this particular and exceptional, one might add case,
2
Sklare, E. David, Samuel ben Hofni Gaon and his Cultural World (Leiden: E. J. Brill,
1996), p.197. In the accompanying footnote 70, Sklare notes that the chapters are
concerned with the linguistic forms through which imperatives and prohibitions are
expressed, and that a sense of what might have been included can be gathered from the
beginnings of question nine of his Ten-Questions, translated on pages 285-294. He
further notes that "the question of how ' command' and 'prohibition' are expressed in
Scripture, through the grammatical imperatives and other modes, is an important topic in
usul al fiqh works."
32
the Gaon did not work from within the rabbinic tradition and was clearly
influenced by Kalam rhetoric and logic. Nevertheless, his concerns clearly
highlight the difficulty of using grammatical modes to identify scriptural
commandments.
The talmudic rabbis, too, differed in their interpretations, not only on
what constituted a commandment but, even more important, about the type
of commandment that Scripture intended. While multiple examples exist, a
few interpretative controversies are sufficient to make the point:
1) (bSotah 3a):
[To turn to] the main text: And he be jealous of his
wife [Numbers 5:14] this is voluntary (or, optional,
Hebrew reshut) in the opinion of R. Ishmael, but R.
Akiva says it is obligatory. For her he may defile
himself [Leviticus 21: 3] this is voluntary in the
opinion of R.Ishmael, but R.Akiva says it is
obligatory. Of them shall ye take your bondmen for
ever [ibid. 25:46] this is voluntary in the opinion of
R. Ishmael, but R. Akiva says it is obligatory.
Naturally, their exegetical differences were far from capricious, as
Amoraim explain. The point, however, is that Scripture required
interpretation; it is not certain whether one may perform an action or must
perform it.
2) In our next example, Scripture discusses a case where an
involuntary manslayer goes out of his city of refuge. The verse (Numbers
35: 27) states: And the blood-avenger comes upon him outside the limits of
the city of refuge, and the blood avenger kills [ve-ratsah goel ha-dam] the
manslayer, there is no blood-guilt on his account. The translation has
33
already rendered an interpretation, reading ve-ratsah goel ha-dam as "and
the blood avenger kills." But by taking the vav of ve-ratsah as conversive
rather than conjunctive, we can alter the meaning significantly, having it
now read, the avenger shall kill the manslayer. This difference in
interpretation forms the basis for a tannaitic dispute (bMakkot 12a):
Our Rabbis taught: And the avenger of blood shall slay
the manslayer, this means that it is an obligation for
the blood-avenger [to slay the vagrant murderer]; if
there be no blood-avenger, it is permissible for anyone
[to do so]: these are the words of R. Yose, the
Galilean. R. Akiva says [it means] that it is permissible
for the blood-avenger [to slay the murderer], and
everyone [else] is [not] responsible for him.
3) In our final example, we read If your kinsman is in straits and has
to sell part of his holdings, his nearest redeemer shall come and redeem
[vegaal] what his kinsman has sold (Leviticus 25:25). Again we find the
same grammatical form, vav prefixed to a past tense of the verb "to redeem."
This gives rise to another tannaitic dispute (bQiddushin 21a):
For it was taught: [If your kinsman is in straits and has
to sell part of his holdings, his nearest redeemer shall
come] and redeem [vegaal] what his kinsman has
sold: that is an option. You say, an option: yet perhaps
it is not so, but an obligation? Hence it is taught: And if
a man have no kinsman (Leviticus 25:26). But is there
a man in Israel who has no kinsman? Hence it must
refer to him who has [a kinsman,] who [however]
refuses to repurchase it, [thus showing] that he has
[merely] an option. These are the words of R. Joshua.
R. Eliezer said: and he [shall] redeem what his
kinsman has sold [implies] an obligation. You say, an
obligation; yet perhaps it is not so, but an option?
Hence it is taught: and in all . . . you shall effect a
redemption [ibid. 25:24].
34
As we move into the interpretative realm, we find that the rabbinic
designation mitsvah has a number of possible meanings:
a. It can designate an absolute requirement, one that is
indispensable for the performance of a ritual. This applies primarily to
matters related to offerings and sacrifices. An example can be found in
bMenahot 9a:
It was stated: If the meal offering was mixed outside
the walls of the Temple court, R. Yohanan says, It is
invalid; Resh Laqish says, It is valid. 'Resh Laqish
says, it is valid,' for it is written, And he shall pour oil
upon it, and put frankincense thereon, and then, he
shall bring it to Aaron's sons the priests; and he shall
take out his handful [Leviticus 2:1,2]; hence from the
taking of the handful begins the duty of the priesthood
(mitsvat kehunah).
b. Even when placed in apposition to an indispensable or essential
act (le-aqev) in sacrificial matters, mitsvah can still connote an obligation, as
in bZevahim 37b. mZevahim 4:1 discusses the number of blood sprinklings
that is required for a sin offering to be efficacious. The House of Shammai
maintains that two sprinklings are required in the case of a sin offering,
while the House of Hillel maintains that one sprinkling is sufficient. The
Talmud proceeds to examine their positions:
Rav Huna said, What is Bet Shammai's reason? The
plural form qarnot [horns] is written three times,
denoting six [applications], [thus intimating that] four
are prescribed (le-mitsvah) while two [at least] are
essential (le-aqev). But Bet Hillel [argue]: [The written
forms are] qarnat [singular] twice, and qarnot [plural]
once, which denotes four, implying that three
[applications] are prescribed (le-mitsvah), while [only]
one is essential (le-aqev).
35
Le-mitsvah does not mean that the sprinkling is preferable or
commendable, as is often the case when the preposition lamed is prefixed to
the term mitsvah. A later sugyah (80a) notes that one who fails to apply the
necessary number of sprinklings transgresses the injunction not to diminish
God's commandments. The implication is that le-mitsvah here stands for
obligation.
3
c. It can stand for a preference (mitsvah le-khathilah), one that
does not interfere with the execution of the commandment. Our first
example concerns a betrothed woman who commits adultery. Scripture says
then they shall bring out the damsel to the door of her father's house, and
the men of her city shall stone her with stones so that she dies (Deuteronomy
22:21). mKetubbot 4:3 deals with a number of such cases and then states:
One who had a father but no door to her father's house
or a door to her father's house but no father, is
nevertheless subject to the penalty of stoning, [for the
regulation stating] the door of her father's house was
only intended as an [independent] precept (le-mitsvah).
That is to say, the verse indicates a preference, not an indispensable element
of the penalty.
4
Our second example deals with a person who, having enticed
another Jew to practice idolatry, is to be killed by stoning. Scripture,
addressing the enticed person, says: Let your hand be the first against him to
3
Entsiklopedyah Talmudit, ed. Meir bar-Elan (Jerusalem: 1947-2007), s.v. hovah, note
93. In this section I have made use of a number of other examples presented in this entry.
4
Note that Tosafot ad loc. s.v. en la petah struggles with the tanna' s liberal interpretation
of the explicit stipulation and finds other cases where this is not done.
36
put him to death, and the hand of the rest of the people thereafter
(Deuteronomy 13:10). Sifre Deuteronomy, Reeh pisqa 89 (p. 152) says: "It
is a mitsvah that he be killed by the enticed person, thereafter by the rest of
the people," which should be understood that it is preferable that the enticed
person be the one to execute him; failing that, the enticer is executed by the
people.
5
Aware of the possible misunderstanding, the rabbis at times
designate such a mitsvah as a mitsvah be-alma, "merely a mitsvah," i.e.
without significance.
6
d. mMenahot 10:5 states that after the bringing of the first sheaf of
barley cut in the harvest (omer), which was offered sometime before noon,
the new grain was permitted forthwith. In connection with this mishnah, the
Talmud makes the following comment:
R. Yohanan and Resh Laqish both stated that even
when the Temple stood, the [arrival of] daybreak [of
the sixteenth day] rendered [the new grain] permitted.
But is it not also written, Until you have brought [the
offering of your God]? (Leviticus 23:14) This is
only a recommendation [le-mitsvah].
5
So RaSHi in his commentary to the Pentateuch, (RaSHi, (R. Solomon ben Isaac),
"RaSHi: Commentary on the Pentateuch," Torat Chaim Chumash (1993)), paraphrasing
the Sifre.
6
Similarly, bHullin 106a, in connection with the rabbinic ordinance of washing hands
before eating fruits:
Raba, however, said to them: It is neither a duty [hovah] nor a
meritorious act [mitsvah] but it is merely optional (reshut). This
opinion [of Raba] differs from that of R. Nahman, for R.
Nahman said: Whoever washes his hands for fruit is of those
that are haughty in spirit (gassut ruah).
In this hierarchy, mitsvah stands here as something desirable but clearly less than
obligatory and clearly more than optional.
37
Le-mitsvah here is not understood as a preference (mitsvah le-
khathilah) but as a supererogatory act (mitsvah min ha-muvhar).
e. Mitsvah may be interpreted as simply a good deed. Miriam's act of
waiting to see what would happen to Moses at the bank of the Nile after
Moses' mother had deposited him there is referred to as mitsvah ze 'ira
(small mitsvah), and "for a small deed one will receive a great recompense."
8
Until now, no value judgment was attached to any of the forms of
mitsvah. The connotation of mitsvah as a good deed can create great
confusion at times, even among learned jurists. An interesting example can
be found in Hilkhot Bikkurim 12:1, in connection with the commandment to
break the neck of the firstling of an ass (P82). M. rules that "there is a
positive commandment (mitsvat 'aseh) for every Israelite to redeem the
firstling of an ass with a lamb. If one wishes not to redeem it, it is a positive
commandment (mitsvat 'aseh) to break its ne c k. . " This formulation
prompts one of his sharpest critics, RaBaD, to exclaim,
On my life, this comes neither from dialectics nor from
calm reasoning that this should be considered a
mitsvat 'aseh?!?...It is a transgression, and he is called
a damager [maziq] and a destroyer of the property of a
pr i est . .
In the ShM, M. proves that breaking the neck (' arifah) is a
commandment from the fact that the Sages used the expression mitsvat
7
See Tosafot, bMenahot 5b, in Babylonian Talmud (Bavli), 20 vols. (Vilna, Poland:
Romm, 1898), s.v. heir ha-mizrah matir: nirah de-eyno ela mitsvah min ha-muvhar be-
alma ve-afilu 'aseh leika.
Targum Neofiti, Numbers 12:16.
38
'arifah. RaBaD thinks that this expression was used only to parallel the
redemption term, mitsvat pediyah ("the duty to redeem") but that the rabbis
never intended to call 'arifah a mitsvah.
9
This is because he understood the
term mitsvah to mean a good deed. M., on the other hand, used the term
mitsvat 'aseh simply to signify an obligation, and did not intend to attach to
it any type of value judgment.
2.1.1 Mitsvat 'aseh and mitsvat lo ta'aseh
In addition to the use of the plain term mitsvah in rabbinic sources, we
also find the related terms mitsvat'aseh and mitsvat lo ta 'aseh and their
abbreviated forms 'aseh and lo ta 'aseh or merely the negative particle "no"
(lav, lo). These terms, which constitute the subject matter of our
investigation, are commonly translated in the English language as positive
and negative commandments. While I will continue to use this translation
for reasons of familiarity and elegance, the terms positive and negative do
not accurately convey what is behind these rabbinic appellations. In effect,
mitsvat (construct of mitsvah; pl. mitsvot) 'aseh should literally be rendered
as a "commandment of 'do,'" while mitsvat lo ta'aseh should literally be
rendered as a "commandment of 'do not do.'" More idiomatically, one ought
to translate them as "obligations" and "prohibitions."
There are certain scriptural charges that, on rabbinic interpretation, are
charges in form but not in substance. These are positive injunctions that do
not enjoin the stated action but simply prohibit the contrary of that action.
9
See Yosef Qurqus' interesting rebuttal of RaBaD, ad loc.
Qurqus, Yosef, "Commentary," Mishneh Torah, ed. S. Frankel (Bne Brak: Hotsaat
Shabse Frankel, 1975-2006).
39
The Sages treated these statements as positive commandments even though
they convey only a prohibition (lav ha-ba mikhlal 'aseh, 'aseh; they are also
called issur 'aseh in recognition of the fact that they are actually prohibitions
derived from an 'aseh). In the ShM, M. made occasional use of this
hermeneutic for the purpose of advancing commandment claims. His main
critics, RaBaD and Nahmanides, objected strenuously, arguing that these
formal positive commandments did not represent direct obligations.
10
For
example, the High Priest is enjoined to marry a virgin by virtue of the verse
He shall take a wife in her virginity. Yet the Sages interpreted the verse as
prohibiting the High Priest from marrying a woman who was not a virgin.
This did not deter M. from arguing that the law calling on a High Priest to
marry only a virgin is a positive commandment (P38):
The Talmud says explicitly: 'Rabbi Akiva held that
even [the offspring of a union which was merely]
contrary to a positive commandment was a bastard.'
As an example of a union which is merely contrary to
a positive commandment they give the case of a High
Priest who has a connection with a woman who is not
a virgin. This is so because it is an accepted principle
that a negative commandment which is derived from a
positive commandment has the force of a positive
10
See RaBaD' s glosses on P7, P60, P146, P149-52, P198 in MT, the Enumeration of the
Commandments, Introduction to Sefer ha-Madd'a. RaBaD saw the Short Enumeration of
the Commandments ("SE") but did not see the ShM and so could only guess as to where
M. made use of the lav ha-ba-mikhlal 'aseh hermeneutic. In the ShM we find M. using
this principle explicitly only at P38, P60, P84 (explained at N89), P92, and implicitly at
P149, P150/P151/P152. Nahmanides' strictures first appear in the Hasagot to Rule 1 (pp.
40 and 48) and are given full vent in the Hasagot to Rule 4 (p.111) and to Rule 6 (pp.
131-2). See below. I have dealt with this issue on a number of separate occasions in this
paper; see section 5.1 in comments to P84, P142, P146 and P149-52; section 6.1.1; and
section 6.4. The issue deserves a fuller and more systematic treatment. I anticipate here
my general conclusion: that M. ceased using formal positive commandments in the
Halakhot as full-fledged positive commandments.
40
commandment. It is thus clear that this is a positive
commandment.
There is no obligation on the part of the High Priest to marry a virgin;
instead, he must refrain from marrying a non-virgin. Nevertheless, because
the prohibition is derived from a positive commandment, it is considered a
positive commandment. This then is a mitsvat 'aseh in form but not in
substance.
Can these strictly formal positive commandments be counted as
regular positive commandments? The idea that a positive commandment
implies directing an individual to do something and is not simply a
prohibition dressed up as a positive statement was put forth by Nahmanides,
based on the very same midrash of the 613 commandments that M. used to
support his project. The extended version of the midrash cited by M. in the
introduction to the ShM links the number of positive commandments to the
number of limbs and organs in the human body: "It is as if each and every
limb says to the person, 'Perform a commandment with me'"; and links the
number of negative commandments to the number of days in a solar year: "It
is as if each and every day says to the person, 'Do not do this day a
transgression.'" The implication is that positive commandments can
comprise only acts of commission. Furthermore, an inferred prohibition is
simply an act of omission. As such, it constitutes a negative commandment.
It should only be counted as a negative commandment, argues Nahmanides,
41
if it contains a fresh prohibition, one not covered by a standard, negatively
phrased, negative commandment.
11
Finally, it is useful to point out at this point that while the term mitsvat
'aseh is normally understood to represent an unconditional obligation, it can
just as easily be applied to a conditional obligation. For example, one is
under no obligation to acquire a house. If one were to acquire a house,
however, one would be obligated to build a parapet for its roof. The building
of a parapet can be called a mitsvat 'aseh even though it is only a conditional
or contingent obligation.
Scripture uses a casuistic formulation to describe such contingencies.
Scriptural pericopes are introduced by the particles ki or im, generally
translated as "if" or "when." The Talmud takes note of these formulations
and, after listing a number of these casuistic sections, declares that "when
the mitsvah comes into your hands, you are bound to perform it [atah zaquq
la- 'asotah], and if it does not [come into your hand] you are not bound to
12
perform it." The relativity of the term mitsvat 'aseh will become critical in
our evaluation of M.'s enumeration; I ask the reader to keep it in mind.
2.2 Claims, Data or Evidence, Warrants
M. tells us in the introduction to the ShM that if he were to list just
"the true and proper enumeration without [advancing] proofs for it, the first
person that will chance to read it will suppose that this is a mistake his
11
Nahmanides, Moses, "Hasagot ha-RaMBaN," Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. S. Frankel
(Jerusalem: Bne Brak, 1995), end of Rule 6, arguing on behalf of Qayyara for omitting
some of these entries.
1 2
Tractate Derekh Eretz Zuta, pereq ha-shalom, 4, cited in the Entsiklopedyah Talmudit,
s.v. hovah, n. 236.
42
proof being that it is contrary to what some author has written." M.
emphasizes the need to provide proof in a later paragraph, stating that in
order to explain the enumeration of the commandments, he would "bring
proofs from the verses of the Torah and from the words of the Sages, of
blessed memory, concerning their interpretation.."
Little attention has been paid to this particular aspect of the treatise.
The majority of old and new commentators have concentrated on the merits
of the Rules as valid criteria and on definitions. One exception is Peritz, a
German scholar of the late nineteenth century who, in section V of his
monograph Das Buch der Gesetze,
13
appropriately entitled Der Nachweis,
das die angefuhrten Bibelstellen wirklich Gebote oder Verbote sind und
mitgezahlt werden mussen, describes M.' s exegetical effort and catalogues a
number of key linguistic markers and sources that M. used in his arguments.
For example, Peritz notes M.' s use of the terms mitsvat 'aseh (P173,
198), 'aseh (P4, 22, 31, 60, 204), mitsvah (P29, 37, 90 and P188 "milhemet
mitsvah"), thepu' al participle metsuveh ("it is commanded"; p38, 185) and
mitsvah 'alenu ("it is incumbent on us"; P157), all referring to positive
commandments that M. adduced from Midreshe Halakhah and Talmud to
support his claims. M. finds and makes similar use of terms to support
negative commandments, such as mitsvot lo ta'aseh (N66, 154 and P198), lo
ta 'aseh (N229) and lav (N210) by themselves, and over al ("transgresses")
in N201. M. also makes argumentative use of the term "obligation" (hovah),
as in P20, 44, 158 and 197, "from Scripture" (de-oraita) as in P175, 213, or,
13
Bacher, W., "Zum Sprachlichen Charakter des Mischne Thora," Moses ben Maimon:
Sein Leben, Seine Werke und Sein Einfluss, eds. W. Bacher, M. Brann and D. Simonsen,
vol. 1 (Leipzig: 1908), pp.471ff.
43
"from the Torah" (min ha-torah) as in P201 and 203. Peritz also notes M.' s
use of composite terms such as mitsvat qiddush yadaim ve-raglaim (P24, the
commandment of sanctifying of the hands and feet), mitsvat hatavat ha-
nerot (P25, the commandment of trimming the lamps) and mitsvat bigde
kehunah (P33, the commandment regarding the priest's clothes).
14
Peritz points to M.'s use of even more remote and indirect
terminology in the Midreshe Halakhah, such as the expressions al korho
("against his will"; P23) and ke-meqayem gezerat ha-melekh ("fulfilling the
decree of the king"; P33) for proof that we are in the presence of an
obligation. Peritz notes that
from the words 'Though the Torah has ordained an
appointed time for the reading of the Shema, the Sages
have appointed a time for prayer,' M. concludes that
not only the recital of the Shema is a commandment
but that the obligation to pray is of scriptural force
(P10), though times for prayer are rabbinic.
Finally, Peritz points to two instances (N194 and P9), where, absent
some special linguistic marker, M. nonetheless draws complex inferences to
deduce the existence of positive commandments.
While the exegetical variforms used by M. deserve a deeper and more
careful study, Peritz's remarks had the merit of highlighting the
argumentative character of the ShM. As we saw earlier, M. expected to be
challenged on the claims that he made, thus the need for justification. This
means that the ShM is first and foremost a rhetorical work. The elements of
its justificatory apparatus follow the outlines of a simple model, which I take
14
These last two terms cannot be found in the talmudic literature.
44
from the basic argumentation theory developed by Toulmin.
15
I resort to the
model primarily for terminological rather than analytical reasons.
According to Toulmin, one can discern three elements in any basic
argument: claim, data and warrant. In the ShM, M. puts forward claims, here
called commandments. That these claims are often nuanced differently from
the way they are enunciated in his other compositions, the SE, the heading to
the treatises of the MT and the Halakhot themselves need not concern us at
this time as we are now focused on the argumentative apparatus behind the
claims made in the ShM.
M.' s first line of defense is, of course, the scriptural proof-text, what
Toulmin calls data or evidence in his model. The scriptural proof-text would
answer the question, on what is this claim based? We note that in a very
small number of cases M. does not go beyond the data, as for example P15,
P26, P27 and P39. I conjecture that the reason is because the scriptural
proof-text is obvious enough or, alternatively, because a contemporary
scholarly consensus may have developed around these commandments, even
though we may no longer be aware of it today.
Very often the data are not sufficient because the scriptural proof-text
is ambiguous, and M. needs to resort to authoritative interpretation. That is,
he needs to answer the question, how does the scriptural proof-text lead to
the claim being made? Here we come to the heart of the ShM's
argumentative presentation, the warrant. Warrants act as a bridge between
the data and the claim. In the ShM, warrants take the form of rabbinic
statements, drawn from midrashim (principally midreshe halakhah),
15
Toulmin, Stephen E., The Uses of Argument (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2003), pp. 87-134.
45
Mishnah, Tosefta or the two talmudim. It is crucial to note that M. operates
under the assumption that the rabbinic interpretations of Scripture are
determinative of the Law's intentions and that his audience accepts this
premise.
While generally " . da t a are appealed to explicitly, warrants
implicitly,"
16
this is not always so in our case. M. appeals to these warrants
both implicitly, as for example when he cites a general principle (e.g., an
inferred prohibition is to be treated as a positive commandment (P38); a
positive commandment overrides a negative commandment (P112)), and
explicitly, as when he resorts to a midrash for a particular interpretation or a
statement that such-and-such verse is a mitsvat 'aseh. In this last instance, a
warrant will functionally resemble data/evidence. Rather than trying to
distinguish functionally between data and warrant, I have decided to use the
terms "proof-text" for scriptural evidence and "warrant" for all rabbinic
evidence.
2.3 Entry
An important and basic distinction must be made at this point between
M.' s work and that of Qayyara (or for that matter, the composers of
azharot). While M. made claims, Qayyara merely listed entries in the form
of quotes or paraphrases of scriptural verses. Qayyara and the authors of the
azharot never articulated the claims that lay behind these quotes. The
"deciphering" of these entries gave rise to a highly creative genre of works.
16
Toulmin, The Uses of Argument , p. 92
46
The best known of them are: Zohar ha-Raqia, on the azharot of Ibn Gabirol,
by Simeon b. Tsemah Duran (1361-1444); a commentary in the introduction
to the 1548 edition of the Halakhot Gedolot (Venice), by Abraham S. Traub;
Netiv Mitsvotekha (Livorno, 1841), on the azharot of Yitshaq al-Bargeloni
and Gabirol, by Shaul Cohen; and, more recently, a monumental
commentary on Saadia's Sefer ha-Mitsvot, by Yeruham Fischel Perla (1846-
1934), entitled Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, which engages as well all the
extant azharot and M.'s works. In the end, however, these deciphering
attempts represent no more than highly speculative exercises, with little hope
of ever achieving certitude in authorial intent. Moreover, little or no
consensus was achieved for a large number of entries. Ironically, while M.
engaged Qayyara with great zeal, one can never be absolutely sure, nor
could M., that Qayyara meant what he was made to claim.
2.4 Individuation
We now come to a concept that by necessity underlies the efforts of
all the enumerators of commandments, the principle of individuation. In
what follows I quote from the excellent treatment of the subject by Hanina
Ben-Menahem:
A theory of individuation [in the legal context]
proffers a mode of dividing the totality of material
constituting a legal system into separate units: Because
of the vast amount of legal material which constitutes
one legal system, we need to divide it into smaller
units called laws in order to be able to refer to them. It
is for legal philosophers to decide on principles of
individuation. The division, undertaken by the legal
philosopher to allow for exposition of the legal order,
has prima facie, no practical consequences for the
47
addressee of the law. It does not determine how the
law is to be applied, and is, in essence, purely
theoretical.
17
Ben-Menahem refers to this type of individuation "as meta-legal
individuation" and adds that meta-legal individuation "is constrained
primarily by theoretical and aesthetic considerations." It is important to note
Ben-Menahem's statement that "[a]ny metaphysical theory that seeks to
classify the components of the system and determine their interrelations
presupposes a division of the whole into distinct units amenable to
categorization."
18
While the subject of our study is the distinct units called
commandments, it is worth noting that there exists at least one other
enumeration whose distinct units were not the commandments but the Ten
Articles (dibberot, misnamed the Ten Commandments) given at Sinai. We
refer here to the enumeration system used by Saadia Gaon in his azharot}
9
This highly stylized poem divides the 613 commandments unevenly and
17
Hanina Ben-Menahem, "Maimonides' Fourteen Roots: Logical Structural and
Conceptual Analysis," Jewish Law Annual 13 (2000), pp. 3-4. The quote that begins with
the words "Because of the vast" is from Raz, Joseph, "Legal Principles and the Limits of
Law," Yale L. J. 81 (1972), p. 831. Ben-Menahem acknowledges drawing on the classic
jurisprudential works of Bentham and Raz.
18
Hanina, "Maimonides' Fourteen Roots: Logical Structural and Conceptual Analysis,"
p.5.
19
The azharot, beginning with the words "a fire consumes and lights more than all
lights" (esh okhla ve-noheret mi-kol noharot), are found in the prayer book of R. Saadia
Gaon interposed between the fourth blessing of the Amidah, called "holiness of the day"
(qedushat ha-yom), and the fifth blessing. Saadia Gaon, Siddur, eds. I. Davidson, S. Assaf
and B. I. Joel (Jerusalem: Meqitze Nirdamim, 1985), p. 184 and pp. 191-216.
48
allocates them, in response to some thematic affinity, to each one of the ten
articles of the Decalogue.
20
M. was to his material what Aristotle had been to his biology, a
21
philosopher and logician in the service of taxonomy. Yet, unlike Aristotle,
M. was constrained to arrive at an exact number of distinct units. Inevitably,
this led M. to occasionally "game" the exercise, counting distinct units
where it might not be compelling to do so. Moreover, while M.'s rules of
individuation, as we shall soon see, were eminently logical, they were not
always warranted by the rabbinic material. In the pursuit of his objective, M.
would go so far as to impose on the material a logic and a teleology that was
22
foreign to the rabbinic mind, as his critics would note. We shall come
20
Saadia may not have been the first scholar to have arranged the mitsvot in such a
manner. See the discussion in Kasher, Menachem M., Torah Shelemah, 44 vols.
(Jerusalem: 1992-95), Exodus, vl. 16, pp. 203-13. It should be noted that this pattern was
common among Karaite jurists and exegetes and may have had a polemical aim in sight.
Saadia's azharot attained semi-canonical status; they are cited by RaSHi and Ibn Ezra in
their comments to Exodus (24:12 and 20:1, respectively).
21
I am grateful to Dr. David Novak who pointed me in this direction. For an interesting
overview of the important place that biology played in Aristotle's philosophy, see
Gotthelf, Allan and James G. Lennox, ed., Philosophical Issues in Aristotle's Biology
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). According to the editors, Aristotle's
three main biological works, History of Animals, Parts of Animals, and Generation of
Animals, comprised 58, 74 and 146 Bekker pages,or approximately 25% of the surviving
Aristotelian corpus (p.5). That M. was acquainted with Aristotle's zoological works can
be ascertained from a quote found in his Moses' Medical Aphorisms. He may even have
been the author of a summary of Aristotle's Zoology. See Zonta, Mauro, "Maimonides as
Zoologist? - Some Remarks on Aristotle's Zoology Ascribed to Maimonides," Moses
Maimonides (1138-1204): His Religious, Scientific and Philosophical
Wirkungsgeschichte in Different Cultural Contexts, eds. G. K. Hasselhoff and O. Fraisse,
Ex Oriente Lux. Rezeptionen und Exegesen als Traditionskritik (Wurzburg: Ergon-
Verlag, 2004).
22
See in particular Perla's sharp criticism of Rules 7 and 11, in his Introduction to Sefer
ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 1, pp. 31-33, and 40-41, as well as his discussions on Ps 76
and Ps 101-102, vol. 1, pp. 581-6, and pp. 680-688, respectively. (Ps stands for the
49
across some of these points in later sections when we take up the analysis of
individual claims.
2.4.1 Individuation Rules
The individuation rules, as defined by M. in the introduction to the
ShM, constitute nine out of a total of fourteen rules, the others being rules of
23
identification (Rules 1,2 and 3) and rules of interpretation (Rules 5 and 8).
The descriptions of the individuation rules that follow are accompanied in a
few cases by some brief remarks. More on these rules will be discussed
when we examine individual commandment claims. For a full discussion of
the rules and relevant examples of their application, the reader is referred to
the text of the Rules in the ShM.
Rule 4 -"We are not to include charges that cover the whole body of
the commandments of the Torah." That is to say, a commandment must
enjoin one to do something specific. A statement like Ye shall be holy
(Leviticus 19:2) should, M. notes, be taken to mean that one must fulfill the
entire Torah, no specific action is being enjoined. As a result, it is incorrect
positive commandments according to Saadia's enumeration). For a contrary view,
namely, that teleological thinking (usually assumed to be Aristotelian only) is already
found in the Babylonian Talmud among some of the later Amoraim (especially Rava),
see D.Novak, Natural Law in Judaism, pp. 95-105.
23
I follow here Ben-Menahem' s arrangement, with the exception of Rule 10, which I
prefer to call a rule of individuation. The rules of identification, Ben-Menahem says,
identify the halakhic material that is to be itemized by
specifying which material is to be excluded on external
grounds, rather than because of the nature of the material itself,
as in the case of the rules of interpretation, which exclude non-
imperative material.
Hanina, "Maimonides' Fourteen Roots: Logical Structural and Conceptual Analysis," p.
10.
50
to consider Ye shall be holy a commandment as some of his predecessors
have done.
In the ShM, M. contends with the possibility that the commandments
to fear God (P4) and to worship Him (P5) violate this constraint. His son,
Abraham Maimonides, was asked whether the commandment to walk in
God's ways (P8) may not be a charge that covers the whole of the Torah.
24
Abraham ibn Ezra appears to have anticipated M. here, calling this inclusive
kind of statement a "high principle" (kelal gavoha), but because of his
refusal to engage in an enumeration of commandments we cannot state with
certainty that he meant to eliminate the "high principle" from being
considered a commandment.
25
The fact that M. eliminates general charges from the count of
commandments does not mean that he considers these charges as lacking
any value. For example, at the end of Rule 4, M. states that, in keeping with
the enunciated principle, neither And ye shall circumcise the foreskin of your
heart (Deuteronomy 10:16) nor and be no more stiffnecked (ibid.) ought to
be enumerated, as apparently some of his predecessors did. M. explains that
the former stands for "humble yourself and listen to all the commandments
24
Maimonides, Abraham, "Teshuvot Rabbenu Abraham ben ha-RaMBaM le-Sheelot
Rabbi Daniel ha-Bavli be-Inyane Sefer ha-Mitsvot," Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. S. Frankel
(Jerusalem: 1995), p. 218. See our discussion of this commandment in chapter 7.
25
Abraham ibn Ezra, Yesod Mora , the Second Gate, p. 93. He also uses the expression
"inclusive commandment" (mitsvah kolelet) on p. 112. In Gate Seven, Ibn Ezra calls the
verse that enjoins one to fear God a "verse that includes all the commandments." The
description is undoubtedly correct, but does it carry enumerative implications? I am not
sure; therefore I am not confident about Perla's claim that "he [Abraham ibn Ezra]
anticipated him [M.] in this type of work [i.e., methodology for counting commandments]
in his book Yesod Mora." Perla, Introduction to Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, section 6,
p.15.
51
which He has previously mentioned" and the latter for "do not rebel against
accepting anything I have commanded you, and do not transgress it." We
meet these very same verses again in GP III:33, where M. says:
To the totality of purposes of the perfect Law there
belong the abandonment, depreciation and restraint of
desires in so far as possible, so that these should be
satisfied only in so far as this is necessary... .Similarly,
to the totality of intentions of the Law there belong
gentleness and docility; man should not be hard and
rough, but responsive, obedient, acquiescent, and
docile. You already know His commandment
[mitsvatoh], may He be exalted: Circumcise therefore
the foreskin of your heart, and be no more stiffnecked
[Deuteronomy 10:16] ....
Now, the reference to commandment (mitsvatoh) misled an otherwise
astute reader of M., who argued that M. had contradicted himself from what
he had stated in Rule 4.
26
The true sense of M.' s words, however, is
unmistakable. What M. is referring to here is the Law's intentions, as he
explicitly says at the beginning of the discussion, and not the Law's
commandments. In the Maimonidean hermeneutics, non-specific charges
can be seen to denote intentions or goals towards which one must strive.
27
At
other times, as we shall have occasion to see, general, non-specific charges
26
See Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG , vol.2, Ps 49, p. 98. Surprisingly, Perla leaves
the question unanswered.
27
Nachum L. Rabinovitch points out that goals can have halakhic implications. See his
comments in Hilkhot Qeriyat Shema 1:3, page 21, Mishnah Torah Hu ha-Yad ha-
Hazaqah le-Rabbenu Moshe b. Maimon: Sefer Ahavah im Perush Yad Peshuttah, ed. and
annotated Rabinovitch , Nachum L. (Jerusalem: Hotsaat Maaliyot, 1984), Rabinovitch
expanded on this idea in an article entitled "Tsivvuyyim, Hiyuvim u-Mattarot."
Rabinovitch, Nachum L., "Tsivvuyyim, Hiyyuvim u-Matarot," Studies in Maimonides
(Hebrew) (Jerusalem: 1998). Rabinovitch may not have been aware that M. already made
explicit reference to this concept of goals in the passage that we quoted from the Guide.
52
nudge or arouse a person to do something that does not come under the
rubric of obligation but that nonetheless may be commendable to do.
Rule 6 - "Where a commandment contains both a positive and a
negative injunction, its two parts are to be counted separately, the one
among the positive commandments, and the other among the negative."
Rule 7 -"The detailed laws of a commandment are not to be counted
[among the commandments]." M. called Rule 7 "' a central pillar' to lean on
in the subject of our engagement." Rule 7 forms the basis for a useful
definition of what M. may consider a divine commandment, as proposed by
David Novak:
a specific prescription, having a number of particular
details, which is commanded for the sake of a more
general reason. Thus the more particular details
(diqduqim) are subsumed under a specific
commandment, and the specific commandment is
subsumed under a more general reason (ta 'am).
2
Rule 9 - "The enumeration is not to be based upon the number of
times a particular negative or positive injunction is repeated in Scripture, but
instead is to be based upon the nature of the action prohibited or enjoined."
Rule 10 "Acts prescribed as preliminary (to the performance of a
commandment) are not to be counted."
Rule 11 - "The different elements which go together to form one
commandment are not to be counted separately," - or, restated perhaps more
precisely, when the commandment calls for an assemblage of elements, then
28
See Novak, David, Natural Law in Judaism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1998), p. 96. The more general reason is not to be counted as a commandment according
to Rule 5.
53
the elements, individually, should not be called commandments. Rather, the
commandment is the purpose desired and must encompass all the elements
that fulfill that purpose. For example, the ritual cleansing of a leper is to be
accomplished by the leper bringing six elements and applying them as
prescribed. The rule says that we are in the presence of one commandment,
the cleansing of the leper, irrespective of the actions and number of elements
that have to be brought. A second example deals with the signs of
recognition of leprosy demanded from a leper: His clothes shall be rent, and
the hair of his head shall go loose, and he shall cover his upper lip, and
shall cry: Unclean, unclean (Leviticus 13:45). The purpose of this collective
action, avers M., is that "the leper is to be made recognizable so that we may
keep away from him." The third example he gives deals with the
commandment of the palm-branch (lulav), which I hope to take up in a later
chapter. For purposes of the present discussion, suffice it to say that M.
believes that where the rabbis say the misperformance of one element
impairs (meaqev) the validity of the entire assemblage, then "in such cases it
is clear that they constitute one commandment." Similarly, "wherever it will
be made clear to you that the desired goal [of a commandment] is not
obtained by any one of its elements, it is also obvious that it is their totality
that is to be counted." Such would be the case if, for example, the leper rent
his clothes but did not perform the other three requirements. It is clear, M.
says, that the leper "has accomplished nothing; his being distinguishable is
not achieved until he has done all (the things mentioned)." This may be clear
to M. but it is a point totally overlooked by the main enumerators that
preceded him. Indeed, neither Qayyara, Saadia nor Gabirol make any
mention of the components or the whole of this requirement, even as they
discuss the cleansing/purification of the leper.
54
M. acknowledges here, however, that there is a point of "great
difficulty entailed in grasping this Rule." Specifically, that is "when the
Sages say concerning the elements of a certain commandment that 'they do
not impair the validity of each other.'" The example he gives is the
commandment of fringes (tsitsit). The Sages stated, "The absence of the blue
thread in the tsitsit does not impair the validity of the white nor does the
[absence of the] white impair the validity of the blue." Do they constitute
two separate commandments? Not if you are sensitive to their telos, insists
M, who indeed counts tsitsit as one commandment (P14). He bases his
conclusion on a Mekhilta exegesis on the verse And it shall be unto you for a
fringe, which appears to indicate that one purpose is still indicated.
29
In sum, where an assemblage of elements is enjoined, one must look
for purpose, and it is that purpose that is the commandment. No single
element can be considered a commandment. M.'s teleological approach to
the classification of commandments stands out here quite clearly.
Rule 12 - "The successive stages in the performance of a
commandment are not to be counted separately." From a categorizing point
of view, this rule is eminently logical. For example, the rituals prescribed for
the burnt offering sacrifice, that the animal be slaughtered, flayed, cut into
pieces, its blood be sprinkled in such-and-such a manner, etc., constitute a
totality and can reasonably be counted as one but one what? Is there any
rabbinic warrant that would lead us to think that this ritual is to be
considered one commandment? If there is, M. does not tell us. And what
29
Nahmanides declares in amazement: "Did then the tanna [of the Mekhilta] come now
to enumerate 248 positive commandments and to teach us that fringes (tsitsit) does not
count for more than one entry? This is something about which it is not fitting that we
make a mistake." Hasagot to Rule 11.
55
about, for example, the successive offerings brought during the day
should they be considered one commandment the Order of the Daily
Sacrifices?
Rule 13 - "Where a certain commandment has to be performed on
more days than one, it is not to be counted once for each day." This rule
implies that, for example, all the Additional Offerings of the New Moon
ought to be counted as one, and so too all the Additional Offerings of the
Sabbath and the Additional Offerings for each of the festivals even
though not all the Additional Offerings are different. There is some logic to
this categorization, but, by the same token one could classify all Additional
Offerings - taking Sabbath, New Moon and festivals together - as one, as for
30
example Qayyara did, emphasizing their common denomination and
disregarding any differences in the type and number of offerings that exist
amongst them. Aside from problematic issues of individuation, it is not clear
what these categories represent. Simply put, how do we know that mitsvot
'aseh equate with categories and not with individual components
independent offerings in this case? No rabbinic warrant was adduced that
would designate these neat categories as individual and separate mitsvot
'aseh.
Rule 14 - "The modes of punishment are to be counted as positive
commandments (and not each particular punishment)." For instance, M.
argues that counting each flogging separately, as for eating nevelah (N180)
or wearing shatnez (N42), would imply that there are as many positive
commandments as there are negative commandments (which ordinarily
30
See our comments to P41, section 4.1.
56
subject the transgressor to flogging), resulting in more than four hundred
positive commandments! This argument, however, contains a fallacy, as
Nahmanides pointed out.
31
It is tradition, rather than the Torah, that
stipulates flogging for the great majority of infractions that involve
transgressions of negative commandments. In fact, we find only one explicit
reference to flogging in the Torah and that is at Deuteronomy 25:1-3, in
connection with punishing the guilty party in a litigation (see P224, N300).
There are also stipulations relating to other punishments, including excision
and the death penalty, for a limited number of offences. It is therefore not
unreasonable, for an enumeration driven by textual references rather than
logic, to treat all these punishments as separate commandments, even if they
were categorized as punishments and not as positive commandments. This is
precisely what Qayyara and other geonim did by creating a section of
punishments (onshin) in the TaRYaG enumeration.
M. cited two reasons for refusing to go along with the geonic scheme,
one substantive and one aesthetic. The substantive objection to a logic that
M. describes as "still more perplexing," is that some of the punishments are
not meted out by the human courts but by God. As a result, they cannot be
considered commandments in the formal sense of the term. One of the
proponents of including punishments in the enumeration was the Gaon
Hefetz b. Yatsliah, author of a Sefer ha-Mitsvot. M. quotes from the first
chapter of Hefetz' book, where he describes the section of punishments:
31
Hasagot to Rule 14, p. 194.
57
32
"Among these are thirty-two subjects wherein He informs us that He,
blessed be He, is in charge of executing, not us. And they are all guaranteed
[ve-kulam ne'eravim, lit., they are all being vouched for]." M. understands
this last statement to mean that "the Lord has assured us that He will mete
out extinction to this (sinner) and death to that one." This reading seems a bit
ingenuous, perhaps deliberately so, since Hefetz had earlier told us that "He
informs us that He is in charge of executing." Be that as it may, M. thinks
that it is absurd to believe that heavenly punishments (excision, death by the
hand of Heaven) can be counted among commandments since they clearly
involve no judicial action. At first glance, this seems to be a serious
objection.
Perla, however, has suggested a different and more charitable reading
of this cryptic passage, one that would remove the logical objection. In this
reading, Hefetz argues that while it is true that excision and death by the
hand of Heaven are totally in God's hands, the human courts can nonetheless
interpose its own punishment, such as flogging the transgressor, and thus
exempt him from the more serious consequences of his misdeeds. This,
suggests Perla, is the correct interpretation of Hefetz' statement: by
commanding the community and its courts to flog the transgressor, the
33
community becomes surety for the punishment. Viewed from this
perspective, these punishments retain their character of commandments.
32
Hefets explains further on that the 32 subjects comprised 23 cases of those liable to
excision (karet) and nine liable to death by the hand of Heaven (mitah bi-yede
shamayim).
33
Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG , vol. 3, Onshin, pp. 37-45.
58
M.'s second objection is both aesthetic and practical. The geonic
scheme resulted in some transgressions being listed twice, once as an
admonition and once as a punishment, as for instance, the prohibition to
profane the Sabbath and the punishment of death by stoning for one who
profanes it. At first this suggests that M.'s concern is that we may end up
over-counting commandments, exceeding the count of 613, an objection
raised earlier. But this is not the case. The objection now has to do with
aesthetics:
Only [it is necessary to point out] that the reason for
this error is that in counting the punishments as
commandments they become entangled: sometimes
counting them alone, and sometimes counting the
punishment and also the action for which that
punishment is incurred, establishing them all as
negative commandments without contemplation.
Recall Raz's observation (cited by Ben-Menahem) that meta-legal
individuations are "constrained primarily by theoretical and aesthetic
considerations." It is clear that M. is also driven by aesthetic considerations
in his schematic presentation of the commandments.
Yet, one might entertain the possibility that M. insinuated here a
second rationale, one based on totally practical considerations. To wit, M.
did not want to become "entangled" when drafting his Code of Law; the
geonic format was likely to confuse and lead to the double counting of
commandments. While it is true that M. wrote an extensive section in the
MT (Hilkhot Sanhedrin 18 and 19) dealing with punishments, the
punishment provisions and stipulations were not considered commandments
and did not interfere with his commandment-based headings to each
Treatise. Since the count of mitsvoth is relatively malleable, as we shall see
59
in chapter 4, it ought to be able to accommodate infringements subject to
whipping and death penalties, the 'punishment' commandments. One must
therefore look elsewhere for reasons to reject the inclusion of punishments in
the TaRYaG list. M. insinuates here that the reason is indeed a practical one,
to wit, that it would mess up the outline on which he hopes to construct an
ordered and systematic Code of Law.
Individuation issues are complex and do not accept unique solutions.
To borrow a mathematical term, one might think of the enumeration of
commandments as an undetermined system. As we move to the following
chapters we shall question the theoretical viability of obtaining a numerical
target like 613.
An interesting example of such difficulties is foreshadowed in one of
the observations that M. makes in his discussion of Rule 14. With respect to
capital punishment M. says: "As for counting them [in the enumeration of
the commandments] we shall count the four death penalties inflicted by the
courts as four positive commandments." To support this claim, M. cites the
following rabbinic warrant:
Such indeed is the language of the Mishnah: 'This is
the commandment of those that are to be stoned
[mitsvat ha-nisqalin, lit., the command of the stoned
ones].' Similarly [the Sages of the Mishnah] say: 'In
what manner is the commandment of burning
performed [mitsvat ha-nisrafin, lit., the command of
the burned ones]?'; 'In what manner is the
commandment of strangling [performed] [mitsvat ha-
nehenaqin, lit., the command of the strangled ones)?';
'In what manner is the commandment of beheading
60
[performed](mitsvat ha-neheragin, lit., the command
of the beheaded ones)?'.
34
Without going here into great detail, Nahmanides argues that, in his
considered opinion, the obligation imposed on the courts to deal out justice
and extirpate evil, covered under the command Thus you will sweep out evil
from your midst (Deuteronomy 13:6), is the more encompassing category
and that this category should be the enumerated commandment. Nahmanides
dismisses M.'s warrant, claiming that mitsvat ha-nisqalin, etc., is not
intended to designate a cardinal number as for purposes of an
enumeration but rather to introduce the manner of handling each
execution, basically answering the question "how." In fact, this seems
always to be the meaning of the rabbinic idiom made up of the construct
form mitsvat attached to some particular command, as we shall discuss
below.
M. appears to subvert a mishnaic expression to attain an unlikely
individuation. The lack of a decisive warrant to support his claim
35
makes
34
mSanhedrin 7:1,2,3,4. M. inverts the order of the last two. In the SE/ShM these
punishments are counted as P226-229.
35
We should note that M. makes here a second attempt to individuate each of the death
penalties. He quotes Mekhilta Vayaqhel,(p.347) on the verse You shall kindle no fire
throughout your habitations (Exodus 35:3): "Lighting fire, which is included in the
categories of work prohibited on the Sabbath" is singled out for special mention to teach
us that just as the Sabbath laws cannot be disregarded in the specially-mentioned form of
execution by burning (ahat mi-mitot bet din), so they cannot be disregarded in the case of
the other forms of judicial execution (kol she-ar mitot bet din)." While it is true that this
passage individuates execution by burning, it does not make it an individual mitsvat
'aseh. Beneviste comes to the same conclusion, but only after he emends a passage in the
Palestinian Talmud that at first appears to provide some support to M.' s claim. This
passage is not found in our editions of the Palestinian Talmud. (Beneviste, H., Dina de-
Hayy, Constantinople (1742-7), 2 volumes, Reprinted with citations of the SMaG, ed.
Moses Batzri, 4 vols. (Jerusalem: Makhon Ketav, 1997), positive commandments #99,
61
Nahmanides' argument appear the stronger. The point, however, is not who
has the better argument but that neither enumeration appears to be
compelling. On the other hand, a writer of a code of law would clearly
choose to break down the various punishments, much as mSanhedrin had
done earlier, to allow himself a detailed discussion of each of the forms of
execution.
M. appears to be pursuing two objectives at the same time: a table of
contents that is as detailed as possible for his Code of Law as he alluded to
in the introduction to the ShM; and a precise numerical reconstruction of R.
Simlai's 613 commandments. These objectives do not always correspond
(indeed, why should they?), resulting in inconsistency, redundancy, the
mistaking of species for genus and other problems. Confirming this
impression, Halbertal notes that
the creation of organizing categories is a very complex
issue, constrained by what Scripture as well as what
tradition say, and the categorizing criteria [itself]
. . Th e demarcation between the particular and the
organizing commandment is problematic and
complex.
36
2.5 The Construct mitsvat in the Composite Term mitsvat-X
We saw in the example above that M. made use of the phrases mitsvat
ha-nisqalin, mitsvat ha-nisrafin and so on, to individuate the four capital
punishments (P226-229). Nahmanides criticized the use of these phrases for
the purpose of individuation because, he argued, they were never meant as
p.578. It may still be that all four executions are part of one single positive
commandment, as Nahmanides asserts.
36
Halbertal, "Maimonides' Book of Commandments:," p. 461-2, n.8.
62
such. Rather, these composite phrases were used to characterize the specific
manner in which certain commandments, details of commandments or
rabbinic ordinances are to be carried out. So for example, mSanhedrin 7:2
says: "The ordinance of them that are burnt (mitsvat ha-nisrafin) [is this]:
they set him in dung up to his knees and put a towel of coarse stuff within
one of soft stuff and wrap it around his neck;" and so on. Mitsvat-X would
then best be rendered as "the proper way of doing X." It is crucial to note
that these activities need not be limited to the description of commandments
in the sense given by M. As we shall see, they could represent details
(diqduqim) of commandments, the sort that M.'s rules were designed to
disqualify.
The capital punishment case is not the only instance in which M.
makes use of this composite phrase mitsvat-X for purposes of individuation.
He does so, for example, at P82, where he claims that breaking the neck of
the firstling of an ass (' ari f ah) is an individual commandment, at P217, to
justify the commandment claim that obligates the ritual of taking-off-the-
shoe (halitsah) and at P233, to justify the commandment claim that one
facilitate the redemption of a Hebrew maidservant (pediyah).
37
For all three
cases, M. adduces mBekhorot 1:7 that refers to 'arifah, halitsah and pediyah
as mitsvat 'arifah, mitsvat halitsah and mitsvat pediyah. With this warrant,
M. trumps the logic of Rule 7, which would look at these commands as no
more than details of the general commandments of redemption of the
firstling (pediyah), levirate (yibbum) and marriage to the maidservant
37
Formally made at P234. Both mitsvat yi'ud and mitsvat pediyah are mentioned in
mBekhorot 1:7. Note that Scripture favors pediyah over 'arifah, yibbum over halitsah and
yi'ud over pediyah.
63
(yi'ud). One gathers from these examples that this expression held a special
significance for M., functioning for him as a warrant, as it were, for
individuation. It is therefore surprising to find across a wide range of
rabbinic literature the mitsvat-X expression used in connection with
commands that M. would clearly not designate as commandments.
We begin our investigation with the very same mishnah (mBekhorot
1:7) that M. used to demonstrate the validity of his claims of 'arifah,
halitsah and pediyah just discussed. The end of the mishnah states: "The
duty of redeeming [mitsvat geulah] [an unclean beast that was dedicated to
the Temple] falls upon its owner before all other me n . . " This duty was
never enumerated in the list of commandments. Why would this case not
lead M. to question the value of the expression mitsvat-X as an individuating
marker?
38
Following are some further counter-examples:
1. mSukkah 4:5: "How was the rite of the willow-branch fulfilled?"
(mitsvat 'aravah ketsad?)
Comment: In the Halakhot, M. calls this mitsvah a halakhah le-Moshe
mi-Sinai and even uses the mishnaic expression (ketsad haytah mitsvatah?)
Not only is mitsvat 'aravah not a positive commandment (Hilkhot Lulav
7:20-21) but it is not even scripturally mandated.
38
In Hilkhot Arakhin (5:1, see also 5:3), M. formulates this halakhah as follows: "In the
case of one who consecrates an ahuzzah field, it is preferable (mitsvah) that he redeems it,
for the owner has priority." The principle is held valid for ahuzzah fields and unclean
beasts according to b 'Arakhin 27a.
64
2. mMenahot 7:2: " . I f a man removes the sinews of the hip he must
remove all of it. R. Judah says: Only enough to fulfill the command to
remove it (kede le-qayem bo mitsvat netilah)."
Comment: The opinion of R. Judah is not normative one must
remove all of it. Nevertheless, the dispute is centered only on how much
needs to be removed and not on the fact that there exists a command to
remove the sinews (mitsvat netilah). There is, however, no positive
commandment to remove the sinew, just a prohibition against eating it.
3. mNegaim 14:6: "The command of the cedar wood [mitsvat ets
erez]: It should be one cubit in l engt h. . "
Comment: In P110 M. subsumes the command of the cedar wood
under the general commandment dealing with the purification of the leper.
That is, the command of the cedar wood is treated only as a detail of the
general commandment. Yet here, the mishnah refers to it as mitsvat ets erez.
Should M. have individuated this command? Interestingly, the Halakhot also
use here the expression mitsvatoh when referring to the cedar wood (Hilkhot
Tumat Tsara 'at, 11:1).
4. mParah 11:9: "The command of the hyssop [mitsvat ezov]: It should
be made up from three st al ks. "
Comment: M. enumerates the commandment to prepare the water for
sprinkling (P105) but does not enumerate the manner in which, or the
instruments with which, the sprinkling is carried out. Should it have been
individuated? Not according to Rule 12, yet the rabbis called it mitsvat ezov!
65
5. Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon b. Yohai (on Exodus 21:6): "I might
think that he should pierce [his ear] on the doorpost [mezuzah], and one can
reason as follows: A door, on which one does not perform the command of
mezuzah, yet one performs on it the command of piercing [mitsvat retsi'ah],
a doorpost, on which one performs the command of mezuzah, surely one
should perform on it the command of piercing [mitsvat retsi'ah]!"
Comment: M. enumerates the commandment of the Hebrew slave
(P232). Clearly, mitsvat retsi 'ah is subsumed under the general law of
Hebrew slaves in accordance with Rule 7. Should M. have set aside Rule 7
in the face of the expression mitsvat retsi 'ah? M. bases halakhah 3 of
Hilkhot 'Avadim 9 on this midrash, making it almost certain that he was
aware of the expression mitsvat retsi 'ah.
The next and final example suggests a different individuation scheme:
6. Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael on Exodus 12:16: " . Fr o m here they
said: the command of phylacteries (mitsvat tefillin), the four sections [that
go] on the arm are one bundle, the four sections (that go on, or belong on]
the head are four divisions (totafot).."
Comment: M. counts putting on each tefillin as two separate
39
commandments (P12, P13) and provides proof for this decision.
Admittedly, this midrash deals with the making or description of the tefillin,
not the wearing of them. Nevertheless, it refers to both tefillin as mitsvat
39
See Nahmanides, Hasagot to Rule 11, who argues that M. should have treated tefillin
as one commandment if he had followed the logic he applied to the commandment of
fringes.
66
tefillin. Should M. have changed his individuation and considered tefillin as
one commandment?
In addition to the above, there are a number of rabbinic ordinances
referred to by the expression mitsvat-X, suggesting that the term need not
even refer to scriptural commandments. Examples include mitsvat megillah
(tMegillah 2:9), mitsvat miun (tYevamot 13:1), mitsvat ha-ner (Avot de-
Rabbi Natan, B version, 9) and mitsvat hanukkah (bShabbat 21b).
This discussion highlights the extraordinary complexities inherent in a
project of meta-legal individuation, made many times more difficult by
introducing into it rabbinic terminology and its inconsistent treatment of
what constitutes a commandment.
67
Chapter 3. Typology of Mitsvot
We saw earlier that mitsvat 'aseh stands in general for an
unconditional obligation, a command to perform a certain action. What gives
the term this meaning is the imperative form 'aseh, literally "do!" appended
to the construct form mitsvat. Recall also that R. Simlai's midrash referred
unequivocally to 248 mitsvot 'aseh. Thus, if we wished to reconstruct such a
list of commandments we would be advised to find 248 unconditional
obligations, as well as conditional obligations that become unconditional
under certain circumstances, as we have allowed above. Surprisingly, M.' s
list of commandment claims presented in the ShM looks more like a
catalogue of laws than a list of unconditional obligations. Indeed, the so-
called positive commandments represent a variety of types: unconditional
obligations, specific laws that specify a particular procedure but not an
obligation, broad laws that contain a number of provisions and which again
are not obligations, and finally descriptive laws, mere definitions of the
referents of other commandments.
The geonic enumerations, starting from a different tradition with
respect to the numerical composition of TaRYaG, attempted in their unique
way to separate some of these types. Positive commandments were called
mitsvot qum 'aseh, literally 'get up and do' commandments.
1
Generally,
1
In Talmudic literature this term is quite common, see e.g. mMakkot 3:4, tHullin 10:15,
bSanhedrin 59a. According to the Rome MS., Qayyara sums up the section thus: "These
then are two hundred positive commandments (mitsvot qum 'aseh), that for each one
individually reward is granted (she-al kol ahat ve-ahat nottlin sekhar)." For a discussion
of the structure of commandments according to Qayyara and the importance of this
mention of reward, see Guttmann, Behinat ha-Mitsvot pp. 36 ff.
68
these commandments represented unconditional obligations even if at times
they were contingent on some situation. Parashiyyot, or sections, on the
other hand, numbering 65 laws, listed procedures and broad laws containing
many provisions, entries that could not properly be considered unconditional
obligations.
2
In his remarks at the concluding section of positive commandments,
M. defines the various types of positive commandments in the following
fashion. For better comprehension, I follow a slightly different order than the
one he uses. M. explains that there are commandments that
are absolutely obligatory on every man, at all times,
everywhere, and in all circumstances, as for instance,
[those regarding] the fringes, the phylacteries, and the
observance of the Sabbath. These we call
unconditional commandments, because they are of
necessity incumbent upon every adult Israelite at all
times, everywhere, and in all circumstances.
2
Modern commentators, among them Guttman, Perla and Zucker, maintain that the
parashiyyot dealt only with obligations that are the responsibility of the community (or
the courts). This view, however, does not easily explain a number of entries. While Perla
for one justified these questionable entries through a brilliant display of pilpul, the
tortuousness of such explanations is evident. See Perla's lengthy introduction of
parashiyyot in Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 3. For examples of such forced
arguments, see Perla's discussion of the beautiful captive (vol. 1, 578), of the Nazirite's
obligation to shave on cleansing (vol. 1, 680) and on shemitah (vol. 1, 554). In all these
cases, parashiyyot can better be understood as laws that are applicable under certain
conditions only rather than, and in apposition to, the immediate and unconditional
obligations called mitsvot qum 'aseh. It is worth noting that neither M. nor Nahmanides
thought that parashiyyot dealt with communal obligations. M. makes some approving
comments in his discussion of Rule 7 with respect to Qayyara's use of parashiyyot since
they resemble his own din or law formulation. This is the view I take here. Subsequently,
M. criticizes Qayyara because "this matter was not completely clarified or apprehended
by him; hence he counted among these sections matters he had already enumerated
before, without being aware of [the repetition]." Nahmanides notes that Qayyara's
"understanding of parashiyyot is not properly explained and I will not expand on it"
(Hasagot to Rule 10).
69
These unconditional commandments are of special significance, and I
shall discuss them in some depth once we have dealt with the other types of
commandments.
The next, and not so obvious, type of positive commandment is the
contingent commandment. We came across these commandments in our
discussion on mitsvah and indicated that these commandments are often
introduced in the Torah by casuistic formulations beginning with the particle
ki or im. In M.'s words, some commandments are
obligatory on the individual who has performed a
certain act, or to whom something has happened, as for
instance the [commandments relating to] the sacrifices
offered by one who has sinned unintentionally, or by a
zav; and it is possible for a man to go through life
without doing or experiencing any of these things.
Again, there are among these commandments, as we
have explained, certain laws, like the law of a Hebrew
bondsman, of a Hebrew bondsmaid, of a Canaanite
bondsman, of an unpaid bailee, of a borrower, and
others mentioned above, which may never be
applicable to a particular man, and which he may
never be liable to carry out, throughout the whole of
his life. Other commandments are binding only during
the existence of the Temple....Others are binding only
on owners of property.. .and it is possible for a man to
be exempt from them because he has no propert y. .
Akin to these contingent commandments are commandments that
prescribe a procedure that must be followed under certain circumstances.
The classic example of such a commandment is perhaps the law of divorce
(P222), which M. formulates as follows: "We are commanded that divorce
of a woman whom we wish to divorce must be accomplished by a bill of
70
divorcement, and not otherwise." The first opportunity that M. has to discuss
procedure-commandments is at P95, where he claims that "we are
commanded (Ar., al-amar) to apply the rules [laid down in Scripture]
regarding the revocation of vows, that is, the rules (Ar. al-tashria) that we
were taught to adjudicate these laws." Immediately thereafter, M. explains:
This commandment, however, does not mean that we
are bound in all cases to revoke vows. You must
understand that precisely the same is true of every law
that I enumerate: it is not necessarily a commandment
to do a certain thing, but the commandment is that we
must deal with the matter [in question] in accordance
with this law.
3
M. feels compelled to explain the logic of procedure-commandments
once again, this time in connection with his discussion of the commandment
of immersing in a ritual bath (P109). The commandment reads: "We are
commanded to immerse ourselves in the waters of a ritual bath, and thus be
cleansed of any of the kinds of uncleanness with which we may have been
affected." Then M. explains:
3
M.' s point, that a certain law, teaching or procedure can also be called a commandment
"because we must deal with the matter in question in accordance with this law" left a
mark in the special terminology that he used, al-amar in the first explanation of the
commandment and al-tashria in the second. Aware that al-amar represents a command
and al-tashria does not, R. Yehoshua ha-Nagid, M.' s grandson, suggested that M.
deliberately used the two terms to signal that, just like the annulment of vows is a
teaching or instruction, not a direct order, and yet must be carried out (mitsvah hiyuvit),
so too any and all entries that contain the term al-tashria (e.g. P108, 114-5, 117, 145,
149, 190) must be carried out even though they are only teachings. The practical equation
al-amar=al-tashria exhibited in P95 illuminated, according to R. Yehoshua ha-Nagid, all
future uses of al-tashria. In talmudic parlance, P95 stood as a binyan av for all similar
entries.
See Yehoshua ha-Nagid, Teshuvot, ed. and trans. Yehudah Ratzaby (Jerusalem: Makhon
Mishnat ha-RaMBaM, 1989), p49.
71
In treating immersion as a positive commandment
we do not mean that every unclean person is bound to
immerse himself, as anyone who wears a garment is
bound to put fringes on it, or as anyone who has a
house is bound to make a parapet [for its roof]; my
meaning is only that by the law of immersion anybody
who wishes to cleanse himself from his uncleanness
cannot accomplish this purpose except through
immersion in water, after which he becomes clean.
It is unclear what made M. explain here the significance of this type of
commandment after he had already explained the meaning of all such
procedure-commandments at P95.
4
It should be clear, however, that these
types of commandments, be they contingent or procedural, are obligatory
under certain circumstances anyone who owns a Hebrew slave must let
him go free after six years; in order to divorce, one must hand over a bill of
divorcement to the woman concerned; one must build a parapet for a house
soon after acquiring it; and so on. This is what we earlier called the relativity
of positive commandments.
4
It should be borne in mind that the need to immerse in a ritual bath was a matter of
contention between the Rabbanite and the Karaite communities. In fact, M. was forced to
issue a strong court order to uphold the Rabbanite practice. See Iggerot ha-RaMBaM,
Ed. Shailat, vol. 1, pp. 175-85 for the taqanah and the background to it. Traces of the
polemic can be detected even here, where M. says that "the book of truth [i.e. Scripture]
makes it clear that whoever has been unclean and undergoes immersion is rendered
c l e a n. . " Though Karaites rejected the Oral Law, they followed Scripture diligently.
M. ' s appeal to the "book of truth" is more rhetorical than real, as the requirement to
immerse is not plainly stipulated. M. may have wanted to dwell on the point that
immersion was a procedure and not an obligation, to counter Karaite accusations that the
Rabbanites were misconstruing Scripture by arguing, as some did, that there was an
obligation. Or M. may simply have wanted to emphasize his disagreement with his own
coreligionists. For example, other enumerators, including Qayyara (Pq 171), counted
"immersion in the proper time" (tevilah bizmanah) a qum 'aseh.
72
I digress for a brief moment to present a dissenting view. Ben-
Menahem argued that M. clung to an imperative model. He suggested that
M. was aware that commandments like P222, the law of divorce, were
"exceptional in not imposing an obligation on the individual." Yet, rather
than regard them as suggestions or guidelines, M. "regarded them as court-
addressed commands to follow these guidelines." Ben-Menahem thought
that P95, dealing with the revocation of vows, "could, perhaps, still be
construed as an imperative addressed to courts that pass judgment on
violators." Finally, noting that M. struggled with the problem, he argued that
M. nonetheless clung to the imperative model even with regard to the claim
of immersing in a ritual bath (P109), where it is "far more difficult to explain
away the non-imperative, advisory nature of the precept." Ben-Menahem
concluded that
the thesis advanced by Hart, that the law should be
individuated so as to reflect the fact that it directs and
guides, not only through commands and prohibitions,
but also by outlining the means for achieving desired
ends, is not upheld by M.
5
In the second section of this paper, where I deal with M.' s changing
conception of (some) commandments in the Halakhot, I shall try to marshal
evidence that M. indeed believed that in certain cases the law "directs and
guides, not only through commands and prohibitions, but also by outlining
the means for achieving desired ends."
5
Hanina, "Maimonides' Fourteen Roots: Logical Structural and Conceptual Analysis,"
pp. 28-29.
73
Leaving aside this question, I believe that Ben-Menahem's reading,
namely that M. clung to the imperative model in the ShM with regard to
those commandments that I have deemed procedure-commandments
(divorce, revocation of vows, immersion in ritual bath) and regarded them as
"court-addressed commands to follow these commands," is stretched and
unnecessary. It is simpler, in my opinion, to argue that M. adhered to a
relativistic position, that all commandments (except, as we shall see, the
kinds of uncleanness) are obligatory under certain conditions.
The fourth and last type of commandment that one finds in the ShM
enumeration is best called descriptive, rather than prescriptive. In effect,
these commandments define the referents of other commandments. Unlike
those previously discussed, this type never imposes an obligation, regardless
of circumstances. A total of thirteen commandments, all dealing with the
kinds of uncleanness (P96-108), fall into the descriptive category. M.
introduces them as follows:
The fact that we count each of the various kinds of
uncleanness as involving a positive commandment
does not mean either that it is an obligation, or that it is
forbidden, to become unclean in one or other of these
ways, as though this would entail a [violation of] a
negative commandment. What we mean is that when
the Torah says that one who touches this or that kind
[of uncleanness] becomes unclean, or that this or that
object makes one who touches it unclean in a certain
way, this constitutes a positive commandment: that is
to say, this law that we are bidden to observe is a
commandment to declare that one who touches a
certain thing when it is in a certain condition becomes
unclean, but if it is in a different condition, he does not
become unclean. The actual becoming clean is
optional: if a man wants to become unclean, he does,
and if he does not, he does not.
74
In one of the fiercest attacks on M.'s claims to be found in his entire
critique, Nahmanides exclaims that, M.'s prolixity apart, he could not see his
way clear to bringing the kinds of uncleanness into the count. The reason, in
his own words, is that "they are optional (reshut) from all angles, they have
no connection to mitsvah (ein ba-hem inyan mitsvah) that they should
deserve to be counted." By "optional from all angles," Nahmanides no doubt
means to point out, as we did earlier, that there is no possible circumstance
that would compel one to carry out these directives. As M. put it, "if a man
wants to become unclean, he does, and if he does not, he does not."
Nahmanides develops the argument further and states that what the Torah
forbids is to come into the sanctuary and/or to touch holy objects while in a
state of impurity; in connection with these prohibitions, the Torah describes
what kinds of things make one unclean and what kinds of things do not. This
is comparable, he continues, to the prohibitions against bringing blemished
animals to the altar (P91-95), which clearly require a special knowledge of
what is and what is not considered a blemish. Yet, quite correctly,
Nahmanides argues that M. did not enumerate the kinds of blemishes that
are relevant with respect to these prohibitions. Why, then, count the kinds of
uncleanness? In different words, kinds of uncleanness and blemishes are
referents of certain types of prohibitions; they cannot themselves constitute
commandments.
75
Jacob Levinger suggests that these types of commandments are
distinct in that they are intended merely to establish certain legal concepts.
6
He calls these legal concepts the products of positive law, handed down at
Sinai, like all other commandments; they have no basis in the physical world
(like blemishes, for example) or in metaphysics. "Certainly," Levinger
opines, "it is this unique conceptualization of uncleanness that justifies their
being called commandments." He adds that this is also the reason a qabbalist
like Nahmanides, who takes a more ontological approach to uncleanness,
would not accept them as commandments. Levinger argues for a rather far-
fetched interpretation of M.'s position; nevertheless, this still does not help
him deal with Nahmanides' objection ("they are optional from all angles").
Moreover, while Nahmanides may indeed consider uncleanness to be more
ontological than conceptual, his strictures are stated unambiguously; there is
no room for equivocation or need to ascribe to him philosophical/theological
positions in the understanding of uncleanness to justify or motivate his
differences with M.
Other scholars have offered solutions to this conundrum but with little
success. Horowitz has suggested that this group of commandments had a
specific goal in mind, to wit, to caution the person who came into contact
with uncleanness to be conscious of not coming into the sanctuary, eating
sanctified food and causing others to become unclean.
7
Though he admits
that M. has already enumerated a number of full-fledged negative
6
Levinger, Jacob, Darkhe ha-Mahshavah ha-Hilkhatit shel ha-RaMBaM (Tel Aviv:
1965) Pp. 73-74. But then, rather inexplicably, he compares them to P109, which, as we
saw, M. treats as a procedural commandment.
Horowitz, I.S., Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-Levi (Jerusalem: 1926), p. 117b.
76
commandments prohibiting the faithful from entering into the sanctuary
(N77) and from eating sanctified food while in a state of uncleanness, he
maintains that there is room for a positive commandment, to reinforce a
special guardedness. This is undoubtedly a stretch. For one thing, the idea
that a positive commandment should denote the exact same thing as a
negative commandment has no precedent in the ShM, even when taking into
account mirror-image commandments discussed in Rule 6, and would no
doubt violate the spirit of Rule 9. More importantly, there is nothing in M.' s
discussion to suggest that he intended this special guardedness. If he did, he
would have spelled it out since that is the point of the whole injunction.
Finally, Horowitz argues that blemishes are of a "fixed nature and they do
not possess such a wide diversity of provisions." This attempt to
differentiate animal blemishes, which M. did not enumerate, from states of
uncleanness is weak as well. We might ask, is a corpse or a carcass a more
complex matter to identify or adjudicate than blemishes? And even if
blemishes can be easily spotted and comprehended, why would we not be
told what to do about them is awareness a matter of complexity or a
matter of gravity?
9
Other than to ascribe to M. an almost unacceptable fault
8
He fails to note that there is an additional positive commandment to remove unclean
persons from the camp (P31).
9
Somewhat similar defenses are offered by de-Leon, Isaac ben Eliezer, "Megillat
Esther," Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. S. Frankel (1995) and Alegre, Abraham, "Lev Sameah,"
Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. S. Frankel (Jerusalem: 1995), pp. 248-250. Specifically, it is
argued that the various kinds of uncleanness impose a duty to behave in concordance
with the laws of each of them, like secluding oneself, keeping away from the area of the
sanctuary, not touching or eating holy objects and so on. It is interesting to note that Lev
Sameah concedes the value of Nahmanides' argument ("while his words here are good
and correct"), yet manifests little conviction of what he is about to say by conceding that
"it is possible to defend M. . " In my opinion, Nahmanides' objection retains its full
force.
77
the lack of comprehension of elementary taxonomic logic
Nahmanides' acute observation blows a potentially fatal hole in the body of
M.' s construct: if the kinds of uncleanness are not commandments, what are
they? Increasingly, I submit, commandments come to resemble an
organizing outline of a comprehensive Code of Law, one that finds it
convenient, for example, to deal with the detailed laws of uncleanness in a
separate treatise (Book of Cleanness - Sefer Taharah) rather than with the
laws of priestly services (Book of Temple Service - Sefer 'Avodah). It
appears that M.' s true objective, creating an outline, clashes with the alleged
objective, that of reconstructing and validating the TaRYaG count. As we
saw, M. was forced to define the terms mitsvat 'aseh and mitsvot qum 'aseh
in a totally unconventional manner so as to be able to come up with 248
positive commandments. If all M. wanted to do was create an outline for the
Code, what reason would there be for him to propose such a complex,
unconventional and logically difficult to defend reconstruction of the
commandments of the Torah? I shall return to this question towards the end
of this study.
3.1 Unconditional Obligations, Also Called Absolutely Obligatory or
Compulsory Commandments (mitsvot hekhrehiyot)
Earlier I broached the subject of absolutely obligatory commandments
and promised to return to them because of their special significance.
At the very end of his concluding remarks on positive commandments
M. offers a list of these commandments. In the original version of the ShM
the commandments were only referred to by their place in the enumeration;
78
one of the translators and the printers supplied brief captions, but mistakes
crept in the printed editions of the ShM. J. Levinger investigated the textual
history of this list, diligently compared MSS. and printed editions, and
affirmed the correctness of a certain group of MSS. It is thanks to him that
one can study this important document with confidence. It is also to his
credit that he highlighted the significance of this list and some of its
implications in the area of halakhah and jurisprudence.
10
This list of only sixty commandments demonstrates the truly
contingent nature of the term obligatory or compulsory. M. makes this quite
clear when he says that the list is predicated on a man, as opposed to a
woman, who lives "in normal conditions: that is to say, that he lives in a
house in a community, eats ordinary food, namely bread and meat, pursues a
normal occupation, marries and has a family." M. calls these commandments
"compulsory commandments," a term that is likely identical to the rabbinic
hovah and that enjoys wide usage in rabbinic literature. He does not call
them mitsvat 'aseh; even less does he claim that these are genuine mitsvot
'aseh in contrast to the other ones enumerated in his list. It is clear that one
would not expect him to do so after having made such a strenuous effort to
assemble and justify a collection of commandment claims that belong to a
broad typology of commandments. I would submit, however, that this
excursus reveals a degree of unease in M.' s mind about the proposed
enumeration and leads the way to a reaffirmation of our conventional
understanding of the term mitsvat 'aseh, literally a command to do, to
10
Levinger, Jacob, Ha-RaMBaM ke-Filosof u-ke-Poseq (Jerusalem: Mosad Bialik, 1989)
Chapter 6 "The absolutely obligatory commandments (applicable) all the time." As our
discussion unfolds I hope to show the value of the list in our quest for understanding M.' s
changing conception of the term mitsvat 'aseh.
79
perform a particular action, as we saw earlier. On this account, a mitsvat
'aseh is not a theoretical concern, as a procedural commandment may be. It
is certainly not a definition of a referent in another commandment. It is, as
M. says, a commandment that is "absolutely obligatory on every man, at all
times, everywhere, and in all circumstances, as for instance, [those
regarding] the fringes, the phylacteries, and the observance of the Sabbath."
In addition, a mitsvat 'aseh could also be a contingent commandment, one
contingent on events that occur to ordinary people in the ordinary course of
life.
80
Chapter 4. Non-Compelling Individuations: Minuses and Pluses
M.' s methodological observations and strictures, spelled out in
systematic fashion in the Rules, had the effect of dramatically reducing
Qayyara's total count. Based on a number of assumptions and conjectures, I
estimate that the application of M.' s rules reduced Qayyara's total of 200
1 2
positive commandments by approximately 64 entries. This means that M.
had to "create" 112 positive commandments, 64 to replace the ones he had
eliminated and 48 new ones, to arrive at the 248 positive commandments
indicated in R. Simlai's midrash. I certainly do not wish to imply that M.
went about drafting his own list of commandments by revising Qayyara's
list. For all we know, M. began with a blank slate and proceeded without
reference to Qayyara's lists, though I have reason to suspect that indeed
Qayyara held M.'s "center of vision" throughout his work. It is only for
heuristic purposes that I describe M.' s enumeration as having been worked
out of Qayyara's list. At a minimum, this method provides a general
conceptual framework for understanding their different approach to the
enumeration of the commandments.
M. proceeded in three ways: (1) He "converted" some of Qayyara's
section (parshah) entries into positive commandments on a one-to-one basis.
1
Recall that Qayyara counted 71 punishments or onshin, 277 negative commandments
punishable by lashes, 200 positive commandments and 65 sections or parashiyyot.
See Excursus 1.
This felicitous term, first coined by William James, was suggested to me by Bezalel
Safran.
81
For example, "the section of the cities of refuge" (parshah #3) became P182,
the commandment to establish six cities of refuge; "the section of the
Second Passover" (parshah #30) became P57, the commandment to
slaughter the second Passover offering; "the section of the priestly
blessings" (parshah #32) became P26, the commandment that the priests
bless Israel; "the section of the trumpets" (parshah #35) became P59, the
commandment to sound trumpets in the Sanctuary; and so on. (2) He
converted other sections into more than one positive commandment by
applying different individuating criteria. An example that will be examined
below is M.' s treatment of the Additional Offerings (musafin). While
Qayyara listed these as "the section of the Additional Offerings (parshah
#41)," M. moved musafin over to the ledger of positive commandments and
"converted" the single section into eight individual claims. These
conversions will be the subject of this chapter, where I also hope to show
that many such individuation decisions were not compelling. Finally, (3) M.
introduced entirely new commandment claims. These innovations will be the
subject of the next chapter.
I should caution that the totals of the commandments discussed in this
chapter and the next one, dealing with (2) and (3) above, do not add up to
112 commandments. This is so for a number of reasons. First, the discussion
regarding the conversion of individual sections into more than one
commandment - (2) above - is not intended to be comprehensive. There are
many conversions that do not merit special observation, if only because they
have little to say about the subject of our interest, individuating criteria.
Second, the one-to-one conversions dealt with in (1) above are not discussed
further because, for the most part, they are relatively straightforward, as the
82
examples provided indicate. We shall have an occasion to discuss yet a third
reason when we deal with innovations in the next chapter.
4.1 Non-Compelling Individuations
In earlier sections (2.3 and 2.3.1) we saw that M. chose to individuate
executions to be carried out by the courts on the basis of a linguistic marker,
the composite terms mitsvat ha-nisqalin, mitsvat ha-nisrafin and so on. We
pointed out that the validity of this marker had been seriously questioned
and we also showed that the composite term was used on more than one
occasion without giving rise to individuations. In this section I will attempt
to demonstrate that many more of the individuation decisions that M. made
were not compelling. If such a demonstration convinces, doubts will be cast
about the very feasibility and practicality of attaining a firm and definitive
count, a doubt that could not have escaped the author of such an ambitious
project.
The reader might well appreciate that even one example should
suffice to prove this point. Still, one example could be explained away. The
classical, apologetic commentaries on the ShM are proof of the extraordinary
ability of talmudic scholars to reconcile, harmonize and rationalize away
even the thorniest problems. I have therefore used multiple examples to
highlight the problematic.
P41-43, P45, P47, P148, P150, P151
M. enumerates here eight commandments, comprising the Additional
Offerings (musaf, pl. musafin), which were offered in the Temple on the
83
Sabbath, New Moons and festivals, and the daily offerings (tamid, pl.
temidin). The musafin, which are listed in Numbers 28:9-39, exhibit only
occasional differences amongst them. The section regarding Additional
Offerings closes with the words, All these you shall offer to the Lord at
stated times, and so on.
Deciding on a reasonable individuation scheme for these musafin is no
simple matter. The geonim chose to count them all as one commandment.
Typical of the lot was Qayyara, who listed it as "the section of twenty
Additional Offerings."
4
The number twenty breaks down as follows:
Sabbath (1), New Moon (1), Tabernacles (8), Passover (7), Weeks (1), New
Year (1) and Day of Atonement (1), paralleling their description in the
scriptural section.
At the end of Rule 13, M. faults these scholars:
They have committed a most serious and strange
mistake in connection with this principle: they counted
all the musafin [of the entire year] - the musafin of the
Sabbath, of the New Moons, and of the festivals - as
one commandment! By the same token they should
have counted resting [from work] on all the festivals as
one commandment! That they did not do. But the Lord
knows and is witness that they are not to be held
accountable for that, since they have generally not
followed one theory in their enumeration; instead,
They have mounted up to the heaven, they went down
to the depths [Ps 107:26]. The clear truth is as I have
mentioned it to you - that every musaf constitutes a
commandment in itself, just as resting [from work,
4
Qayyara, parshah #41. See also Solomon ibn Gabirol, "Azharot," Zohar ha-Raqia, ed.
and annotated D. Abraham (Jerusalem: 1987) Positive commandment 187, section 65,
"musafin twenty".
84
shevitah] on every [separate] festival constitutes a
distinct commandment. This is the correct theory.
M. himself counts eight musaf commandments for each of the seven
occasions listed above, plus a musaf for the eighth day of Tabernacles
(Shemini 'Atseret), which he separates from the festival of Tabernacles on
the strength of a rabbinic warrant. Yet, in Rule 13, M. suggests that "we
count only the nature of the charge [ha-inyan ha-metsuveh bo] we were
commanded, regardless of the time element concerning its fulfillment" to
reject the notion of counting, for example, all the New Moon days of the
year as multiple commandments. With respect to the matter under
consideration, this principle can just as well yield eight musafin
commandments as one.
Surely there are arguments for and against this choice of
individuation. For example, there are differences between some of the
musafin, which may have justified their separate enumeration. On the other
hand, every one of the days of Tabernacles has a different musaf and yet M.
subsumed all those individual musafin under one commandment.
It is readily apparent that neither individuation is more compelling or
rational than the other. The decision is not helped by the argument that "by
the same token they should have counted resting on all festivals as one
commandment! That they did not do." Certainly, Qayyara could be faulted
for inconsistency. The inconsistency, however, does not shed light on how
one ought to individuate musafin. Similarly, M.' s consistency, counting as
many restings and musafin as there are festivals, is no guaranty that the
85
individuation decision is correct. An argument could indeed be made that all
restings and all musafin be counted as one.
5
P63-67
In this group of commandment claims M. outlines the procedures to
be followed by the priests in respect of the various sacrifices, the Burnt
Offering (P63), the Sin Offering (P64), the Guilt Offering (P65), the Peace
Offering (P66) and the Meal Offering (P67).
M. provides no justification for his individuation decision.
Admittedly, these procedures are spelled out in Leviticus, each in a separate
section, but M. never proposed the use of scriptural pericopes as an
individuating criterion.
6
Without a rabbinic warrant that would help him individuate the way
he did, M.'s position is tenuous. For example, Nahmanides proposes a more
general individuation, namely, that all the provisions of the offerings be
subsumed under and ye shall serve; I give you the priesthood as a service of
gift (Numbers 18:7). It would appear that, with his sights set on the Code,
5
See below, P159. In fact, in my discussion of the Halakhot, I will try to show that M.
changed the approach taken here.
6
Nahmanides notes that we have already been informed that certain people must bring
offerings under certain circumstances; it is therefore only "logical" that these procedures
be part of those commandments. For example, in P69 we are told that one who sins
unintentionally must bring a Sin Offering. There should be no need to specify a separate
commandment to tell us how to carry this out. Nahmanides admits that one could separate
the requirement to bring the sacrifices from the command to the priests to carry them out
in the proper fashion but thinks that the scriptural pericopes do not support this
bifurcation. Nevertheless, he appears to relent somewhat from this objection and offers
instead an alternative individuation. Hasagot to Rule 12, pp. 185-6.
Nahmanides explains the verse as follows:
86
M. preferred the logical classification proposed by the Mishnah, separating
the expiatory prescriptions from the sacrificial procedures. The former are
discussed primarily in mKeritot, the latter in mZevahim and mMenahot. I
submit that M.'s need for a logical way to order and outline the Code of Law
biased his commandment count. At the same time, it cannot be denied that
the expansion of the list certainly suited the goal of attaining the total of
248.
8
P68-9
Here we find an example of M. modifying - without notice - a
previously announced individuation criterion. In the end, neither criterion is
more logical or more compelling than the other.
In Rule 7, M. has this to say with respect to the Sin Offering (hatat):
Scripture has explained in Leviticus that he who
unintentionally transgresses one of the commandments
of the Lord - provided the error be in a matter for
which the penalty is excision (karet) when committed
willfully, and there is some act connected with it and
You [referring to the priests], shall serve in all aspects of the
priesthood because it is a service and a gift, a service to Me and
a gift to you since you find in it a remuneration as you partake
of the Heavenly table.
The fact that the Halakhot also designated these procedures as positive commandments,
despite the obvious lack of a need to "count" commandments in that work, as I shall
discuss later, is not as problematic as it may seem. M. exercised his exegetical
prerogatives and may have well understood the scriptural pericopes that begin with "this
is the law of the Sin Offering (zot torat ha-hatat)," "this is the law of the Guilt Offering
(zot torat ha-asham)" and so on (Leviticus 1:2-3, 6:18, 7;1, 7:11, and 6:7) as ordering the
proper execution of these sacrifices. Admittedly, this argument could be used to justify
M.' s stand in the ShM. Nevertheless, the point that I wish to emphasize is not that there
cannot be a good rationale for the individuations proposed by M. but rather that these are
not always compelling and that valid alternatives exist, such as for example, the one
proposed by Nahmanides.
87
the sin involves a negative commandment, as we have
explained it in the commentary to tractates Horayot
and Keritot - must bring a Sin Offering, this
constituting a positive commandment. Following this,
Scripture sets forth fully the laws pertaining to this
offering, devoting many verses thereto, stating: if the
person who commits the error is one of the common
people, he is to bring a female sheep or goat; if he be
the prince, he is to be bring a male goat; and if he be
the High Priest, he is to bring a bullock. And if the
error committed be only with respect to idolatry, the
transgressor - regardless of whether he be the prince,
or one of the common people, or the High Priest - is to
bring a female goat. Now [it is obvious that] changing
of the kinds of animals from which the offering is
brought does not alter the nature of the sacrifice itself -
which is namely the offering for unintentional sin -
into many, so that it may entail many
commandments..[I]t is the charge to bring the
offering which constitutes the positive commandment;
that one person brings as his offering a female goat,
and the other a male goat is merely a condition of that
offering, and not every condition of a commandment is
to be considered as a separate commandment.
One will note that M. has lumped together the Sin Offerings of the
common people, the prince and the High Priest, because, as he says, "it is
the charge to bring the offering which constitutes the positive
commandment." In the enumeration, M. follows through with this idea: P69
is set as the general commandment of the fixed Sin Offering.
Surprisingly, M. sets a second commandment in the matter of fixed
Sin Offerings, the commandment specifying that the Court is to bring a Sin
Offering if it gives a wrong decision (P68). Now, this may be viewed as an
inconsistency, for, after all, the Court, too, brings a Sin Offering. M. has
indicated that neither differences in the kind of animal nor in the type of sin
88
matters.
9
It is clear that another, subtler or finer, individuation criterion is at
play: P68 deals with a Sin Offering of the community, P69, with a Sin
Offering of the individual. A further possible distinction is that the Court
brings an offering for issuing an incorrect teaching even if its own members
did not transgress (but others did), while the individual brings an offering
only for actually committing a transgression. The differences between P68
and P69 then are potentially of a categorical nature and may justify a
changed individuation.
10
Be that as it may, neither individuation appears to
be more "correct" than the other; it all depends on how fine one wants the
enumeration/individuation to be. The finer it is, the better it will respond to
the needs of an outline. Just as crucially, the finer it is the more helpful it
will be to make up the numerical total of 248.
P74-77
This group of four commandment claims deals with those who are in
need of a ritual of atonement (mehusre kapparah) before they are permitted
to eat sanctified food, even though they have already undergone cleansing
from impurity. They are: a man suffering a flux (zav), a woman suffering a
9
See P72, where "the offering of higher or lower value" agglomerates different
infractions. This question vexed Kalinberg, Y. Y., Seder ha-Mitsvot (Warsaw: N. D.
Zisberg, 1861) Hilkhot Shegagot, p. 48b, s.v. yiqshe lan, who noted that "It has been
many years that I have been baffled by this [problem] and could not find a correct
solution, one that would be accept abl e. . " Kalinberg was baffled for three reasons: the
fact that Rule 7 discarded the differences of animals as a criterion for individuation, the
fact that P72 discarded the difference in transgression as a criterion for individuation,
and, finally, the observation that the High Priest was fined with a Sin Offering for
deciding incorrectly in matters of law, just like the Court (Hilkhot Shegagot, 15:1-2) and
yet did not merit a separate entry.
10
Horowitz, Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-Levi ad loc., offers the differentiae but
fails to note the changing individuation criterion and the non-compelling nature of it.
89
flux outside of her menstrual period (zavah), a woman who has given birth
(yoledet) and a leper (metsora).
In comments to the last of these four commandments, P77, M. voices
the obvious question: why not enumerate them all as one commandment,
namely, those in need of atonement? His reply is that indeed this would be
the case
if the offerings incumbent upon those whose
atonement is not complete were the same in all cases,
and never altered. . But because of the diversity of
their offerings we are compelled. to count each
offering separately.
Indeed, the zav and zavah must bring two turtledoves or two -pigeons,
one for a sin offering and one for a burnt offering, a birthing woman must
bring a one-year old lamb for a burnt offering and a pigeon or turtledove for
a sin offering and a leper must bring two male lambs, one for a guilt offering
and one for a sin offering, and an ewe lamb for a burnt offering. That is to
say, from a teleological point of view, all four mehusre kapparah should be
subsumed under one genus, yielding one commandment claim, but in view
of the diversity of their offerings M. has chosen to make four separate
claims.
We now move to raise an objection to M.' s justification. Earlier, in
our discussion of P68/69, we saw that M. subsumes a number of different
offerings
11
"punishments" as he categorizes them in Rule 7 - under the
commandment to offer a Sin Offering (P69) simply because they all fulfill
11
The common people bring a female goat or lamb, the ruler (nasi) brings a male goat,
the anointed priest, a young bullock.
90
the same function. We also saw that M. explains in Rule 7 that "changing of
the kinds of animals from which the offering is brought does not alter the
nature of the sacrifice itself which is, namely, the offering for
unintentional sin into many, so that it entails many commandments."
Contrary to what M. says here, and in light of Rule 7, then, the fact
that the four mehusre kapparah are required to bring different offerings
should not multiply their individuation. All mehusre kapparah should indeed
be subsumed under one commandment.
12
A second objection to M.' s
justification may be advanced based on his comments to P75. Zav and zavah
share identical offerings but M. differentiates them, interestingly enough, on
"pathological" grounds. He notes the different nature of "flows" in the male
and the female, semen in one case, blood in the other; semen in the female or
blood in the male would not constitute cause for impurity. As we saw above,
M. argues that he would count all the mehusre kapparah as one
commandment
if the offerings incumbent upon those whose
atonement is not complete were the same in all cases,
and never altered....But because of the diversity of
their offerings we are compelled. to count each
offering separately.
The implication is that in a case of identical offerings, nothing else
would matter. Yet M. individuates each of zav and zavah on pathological
12
This question is raised by Perla, in Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG , vol. 1, p. 684.
Horowitz, Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-Levi , ad loc., notes this problem but
blandly falls back on the argument that cleansing is different from punishment since we
see that M. differentiates cleansing methods (P108, P109, P110). But this only begs the
question. I find it interesting that Horowitz alludes to Perla but never mentions him by
name and always tries to dismiss his questions.
91
grounds even though their offerings are identical. This diversity of criteria
with regard to offerings suggests a second (or third) arrangement:
considering the identical nature of the offerings of the zav and zavah, M.
should make three, instead of four, commandment claims: (1) zav/zavah, (2)
the woman giving birth, and (3) the healing leper.
In short, there is nothing compelling about advancing here four
commandment claims. M. could well have advanced one - the
commandment of the mehusre kapparah - or three, by combining zav and
zavah because of their identical offerings. The result of this non-compelling
individuation "stretches" the count, bringing it closer to the desired total. It
also responds well to the more detailed requirements of an outline for the
Code of Law.
P91
The following example shrinks, non-compellingly, the potential count
of positive commandments by one, though it also shows an inexplicable
expansion of the list of negative commandments.
The commandment claim is to burn the remnants of the consecrated
offerings (notar). There are two scriptural proof-texts enjoining such action:
Exodus 12:10, in connection with the Passover offering, which states that the
remnants must be burned by the next morning; and Leviticus 7:17, in
connection with peace offerings (shelamim), which states that the remnants
must be burned on the third day.
The ShM's exegetical warrant is the Mekhilta on Exodus 12:10, yet
the evidence proffered in the SE and the Halakhot is the Leviticus proof-text.
The single commandment claim here contrasts with the way M. individuated
the prohibition to leave over the remnants of offerings, where he counts four
92
separate commandments: the remnants of the Passover offering (N117), the
remnants of the Festival offering (hagigah) of the fourteenth of Nisan
(N118), the remnants of the Second Passover offering (N119) and the
remnants of the Thanksgiving Offering (todah) (N120). This anomalous
treatment was noted by Duran, who wondered why M. did not count two
positive commandments, one related to the notar of the Passover offering
and one related to the notar of the peace offerings. Offering apologia but
without an explanation, Duran notes that the early enumerators individuated
positive and negative commandments differently. He admits failing to
understand their method and piously adds that "their apprehension is greater
13
than ours." Duran's puzzlement highlights the non-compelling and
perhaps inconsistent nature of some individuations.
P114-117
This group of laws deals with valuations, vows made in favor of the
Temple and expressed in terms of the value of one's life, someone else's
life, cattle, a house or a field. They follow the form "I vow my own
valuation." The valuation scales are set by Scripture. These vows, called
'arakhin in rabbinic parlance from the word for valuation, 'arakhah, are
sequentially discussed in one section, Leviticus 27:2-25, and are introduced
13
Duran, Zohar ha-Raqia , siman 40 (p. 42), and also the summary at the end of his
commentary, p. 229. See also Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG , Ps115, pp. 721-22, who
provides a reasonable rationale for the single entry, but does not deal with the necessity
of listing four negative commandments. In Hilkhot Pesule ha-Muqdashin, M. appears to
be subsuming all the prohibitions into one. But see Babad, Joseph, Minhat Hinnukh, 3
vols. (Jerusalem: Makhon Yerushalayim, 1988), mitsvah 8, p. 54, s.v. ovar al lav. It
should be noted that many of the issues that we meet in the enumeration of positive
commandments are also present in the enumeration of negative commandments. I hope to
be able to deal with them on another occasion.
93
by the words When a person vows to set aside [ish ki yafli neder] a votary
offering to the Lord.
Qayyara lists only one entry, "the section of valuations [parshat
'arakhin]" in Parashiyyot #25. M. appears to engage Qayyara when he says:
Let no one think that these four kinds of valuations
have so much in common that they should be counted
as a single commandment. They are four separate
commandments, each one with its own distinctive
regulations, though the name 'valuations' ['arakhin] is
common to them all.
14
Hence it is not appropriate to
count all the kinds of valuation as a single
commandment just like it is not proper to count the
kinds of offerings as a single commandment.
15
This
becomes clear on careful consideration.
M. compares these votary pledges to offerings, each of which he lists
separately (P63-67). But as we saw earlier, the separate individuation of
offerings is itself not the result of a compelling argument. Moreover, one
might accept the separate individuation that M. makes of offerings on the
basis that they are discussed in discrete pericopes, headed by the expression
"this is the law of" (zot torat ha-). This, however, is not the case with
'arakhin, where the scriptural pericopes are linked by the conjunctive vav
14
For "common to them all" M. uses a technical term translated in English as
"homonym" (Ar. astrakh, translated by Tibbon as shituf ha-shem) and defined as a
"likeness in respect to some notion, which notion is an accident attached to both of them
and not a constituent element of the essence of each one of them" (GP I, 56:131). See
Efros, Israel, Philosophical Terms in the Moreh Nebukim, Columbia University Oriental
Studies, vol. 22 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966), s.v. shituf, p. 119. See
also Wolfson, H. A., "The Amphibolous Terms in Aristotle, Arabic Philosophy and
Maimonides," Harvard Theological Review 31 (1938).
15
From "just" to "commandment" was inexplicably left out by C. D. Chavel.
94
and the conditional particle "if" (ve-im, "and i f . " ) , suggesting their basic
interconnection.
Finally, the very idea that these valuations should be called
homonyms is questionable. In P75 M. explained that he would have
entertained combining zav and zavah under one commandment claim if the
nature of their flows were similar, but that was not the case. Zav and zavah
are merely homonyms, he says, because the emissions that give rise to their
designation, semen and blood, are not of a similar nature. They are, as we
said then, pathologically distinct diseases. On the other hand, the
"constituent element of the essence of each one"
16
of the valuation laws is
the monetary value of the pledge of the votary. For all these reasons, there
are sufficient grounds to argue that the four commandments could be
subsumed under one.
The difficulties encountered with the individuation of offerings (P63-
67) are now multiplied. M. stretches his logical vocabulary but the results
are distinctly non-compelling. The four valuations form a useful outline for
their upcoming discussion in the Code but have little to contribute to a
17
forcefully compelling list of commandments. Undoubtedly, the
atomization of the laws of 'arakhin helped M. fill the gap left behind by the
initial reduction of Qayyara's total.
16
To use the GP' s definition. See note 14.
17
M. in the Halakhot has no problem in making the laws of arakhin one commandment:
"It is a positive commandment to adjudicate the laws of arakhin as stipulated in the
Tor a h. . " (Hilkhot Arakhin ve-Haramin, 1:2).
95
P159-160, 162-163, 166-167
These commandment claims deal with the six festivals, called here
"the Sabbaths of the Lord" (Leviticus 23:38; shabbetot ha-Shem) whose
common denominator is the fact that "no manner of work is to be done on
[these sabbath days] except what is concerned with the preparation of food."
M. makes a number of complex exegetical moves to prove that these
sabbath days are positive commandments. He adduces that the term "holy
convocations" (miqraei qodesh) found in all six festivals stands for "sanctify
it" (qadshehu), which in turn means that no work should be done on those
days except what is needed for the preparation of food. The sixth festival,
the first day of Tishre (P163), is also characterized by Scripture as "solemn
rest" (shabbaton) instead of just miqraei qodesh. Shabbaton has the meaning
of "rest" and this term suits M. well because he has found a rabbinic warrant
indicating that "shabbaton is a positive commandment." Finally, M. wraps
all six days together by pointing out that "all the days of the 'appointed
seasons' are called sabbaths of the Lord [shabbetot ha-Shem]"
The exegesis, which is offered by way of an introduction ("you should
know at the outset") is a bit confusing.
18
More critically, the exegesis does
not make a case for individuating each one of the miqraei qodesh. At the end
18
The conclusion does not follow from the premises. Only shabbaton is clearly labeled a
positive commandment; its association with miqrae qodesh is forced. On the other hand,
the wraparound statement shabbetot ha-Shem includes other festivals too, e.g. Sabbath,
Day of Atonement, where all kind of work is forbidden. On this account, miqrae qodesh
cannot be equated to shabbaton. But see the analogy (heqesh) of R. Yonah, bShevu' ot
10a. Since a heqesh is not normally included in the thirteen hermeneutic rules, it may
constitute for M. a valid hermeneutic for the purpose of supporting scriptural
commandments. Similar exegetical problems are raised by a number of later scholars. See
Tsiyunim in Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. Frankel, at P163.
96
of P167, in an attempt to separate these six festivals from Sabbath and the
Day of Atonement, M. states:
You must know that the same law applies to each of
the six [festival] days on which we are enjoined to rest,
and none of them is subject to a restriction which does
not apply to the others. We are also permitted to
prepare food on each one of them. Hence the same
regulations regarding 'rest' apply to all the festivals.
The fact that "the same law applies to each of the six festival days" is
a perfectly good rationale for subsuming all the six festival days into one
single commandment, the commandment to rest from work at appointed
times.
In sum, the individuation of each festival is absolutely non-
compelling. An equally valid argument can be made that "rest from all work
other than the preparation of food" should be counted as one commandment,
one that takes place a number of times during the year. This is especially so
in view of the fact that all the festivals are included under one directive:
These are My fixed times, the fixed times of the Lord, which you shall
proclaim as holy convocations (miqraei qodesh) (Leviticus 23:2). In some
ways, this requirement of "holy convocations" ought not to be much
different than, for example, the commandment to dwell in a sukkah all the
seven days of Sukkot, or the commandment to offer a burnt offering each day
of the year, which are not counted as more than one commandment even
though they take place over some or all the days of the year. M. himself
points out the absurdity of counting them by the number of times that they
97
are performed (Rule 13).
19
I have called attention on previous occasions to
the fact that the enumerations often responded to M.'s need to provide for
himself as detailed as possible an outline for the anticipated Code of Law.
This is not the case here, however. M. makes no distinction whatever in
Hilkhot Yom Tov between the different festival days in conformity with his
views that "the same law applies to each of the six festival days." Here, then,
is a suggestion, one that may not be as far fetched as it seems if proper
consideration is taken of the nature of the 'exercise'. A great deal of trial and
error manipulation is required to hit on an exact numerical target such as
248, the sum total of all positive commandments. In view of this, it is not
difficult to see that, at some point through the exercise, M. may have been in
need of a plug-in number, say, 5 extra commandments, to reach his target; it
is at this point that M. could have decided, conveniently and uncritically, to
follow here the practice of the other enumerators
20
and thus inflate the count
and achieve the required total.
19
To make all these festival days part of one commandment does not mean that one must
transgress all of them to have nullified the positive commandment; doing work on any
one of these days effectively nullifies the positive commandment to rest from work.
Conversely, resting on any one day fulfills the positive commandment, irrespective of
what one does on other festival days. This is the intent of Hilkhot Yom Tov 1:2. One does
not need to count six different commandments to achieve this result.
20
Solomon ibn Gabirol, "Azharot," clearly counted the festival days separately, 2 in
siman 33, 3 in siman 41, one in siman 42. It is not clear to me whether Qayyara
individuated them separately, or, as I think more likely, as one. See Pq 91-99, where we
find: "rest [shvut], eight days" followed by a breakdown of the festival days. This
breakdown may simply be a clarification and not a list of eight commandments, as Traub
(Halakhot Gedolot ed. A.S. Traub (Warsaw: 1874)) assumed. In Rule 13, M. accused
"some [scholars]" of counting the Additional Offerings (musafin) as one, something that
they did not do with regard to resting on all festivals. The clear implication is that these
scholars, whoever they were, counted the festivals separately. The fact that he speaks of
"some scholars" and not the more personal "certain other (scholars)" (zulatenu; see Rule
98
P165
This is the commandment claim that one must rest on the tenth day of
Tishre, the Day of Atonement. Here, too, we are in the presence of a non-
compelling individuation. In his closing comments to P167, M. has already
noted that "the resting enjoined for the Sabbath and the Day of Atonement
involves all the abstentions [prescribed for the festivals] and many more
besides, since on these two days we are not permitted to prepare food." From
a classificatory point of view, M. would arguably have done better had he
combined the resting of the Sabbath day (P154) and the resting of the tenth
of Tishre under the one rubric of "days of absolute rest."
21
On the other
hand, the outline model provides a fair explanation for the advantage of
separating the two since there is a significant body of laws and regulations
that are particular to each of the two absolute resting days, the Sabbath and
the tenth of Tishre. Of necessity, these days must be treated separately in a
systematic and detailed Code of Law. The expansion to two commandments
may have also answered a secondary objective, the need to find extra claims
to inflate the list and thus attain the numerical target of 248 positive
commandments.
2) suggests to me that he was not referring to Qayyara, contra Traub. Perhaps M. was
referring to Gabirol and the likes of him.
21
One might counter-argue that whereas the Day of Atonement is characterized as
shabbaton, Sabbath is not. But then again, shabbaton could not mean complete resting
because it also used to characterize Rosh ha-Shanah (P163), and Rosh ha-Shanah is a
festival in which one is permitted to prepare food. Moreover, shabbaton is extended to all
the festivals to prove that it is a positive commandment to rest on that day (M.' s
exegetical introduction to the festivals at P159, see above). Finally, it appears from P164
that it is precisely the word shabbat in the composite term shabbat shabbaton that M.
construes as "resting from work," not shabbaton. I conclude that it is the word shabbat
that led M. to posit that one must rest from all work on the Sabbath and on the Day of
Atonement.
99
P191
M. claims here that
we are commanded to appoint a priest to speak to the
people when they go forth to battle, and to send back
any man who is unfit for battle, whether because he is
faint-hearted, or because his thoughts are preoccupied
with some matter that may prevent him from giving his
mind to fighting....This priest is called the Priest
Anointed for Battle.
M. notes that
all this procedure - the speech of the priest-anointed-
for-war and its proclamation throughout the lines of
battle - is binding only in the case of a non-obligatory,
or permissible, war [milhemet reshut], to which alone
this law applies. In the case of an obligatory war
[milhemet mitsvah] there is no such procedure, neither
speech nor proclamation..
22
The appointment appears to be entirely dependent on the advent of
war, it not being a permanent office. In light of P190 permitting the powers-
that-be to conduct non-obligatory wars in accordance with the provisions
stipulated in the Torah, one wonders why M. felt it compelling to enumerate
this procedure. More specifically, the appointment of the priest anointed for
war is a particular of the aforementioned procedure for conducting
permissible wars. As such, to individuate this law would contravene Rule 7,
22
The distinction, however, disappears in the Halakhot (Hilkhot Melakhim 7:1), where
the procedures for conducting war apply equally to both types of wars. M. now states that
"a priest is appointed to speak to the people at a time of war in both an obligatory war and
a permissible war (ehad milhemet mitsvah ve-ehad milhemet reshut)."
100
which states that the particulars of a specific commandment are not to be
counted as a separate commandment.
M. appears to have accepted uncritically this commandment claim
23
even though it appears to be not merely a non-compelling individuation but
24
an outright contravention of one of his Rules. The utility of this
enumeration, both for outlining the Code and for filling in the count, is
evident. It is also conceivable that another consideration may have been
present, a pedagogic one. Speaking through the mouthpiece of the priest, M.
proclaims that every Israelite must be told "to lay down their lives for the
triumph of the faith of the Lord, and for the punishment of the ignorants of
the faith
25
who ruin the order of the city."
26
The expressions "ignorants of
the faith" and "the order of the city" have strong Farabian political
27
overtones. The novelty here, and one that M. seems interested in
conveying, is that one must lay down one's life for the punishment of those
who ruin the order of the good polis.
23
Enumerated by Qayyara in "the section of the Anointed Priest," parshah #50 and by
Solomon ibn Gabirol, "Azharot," in siman 85 as a qum 'aseh.
24
It is not of small interest to note that the Halakhot do not designate this requirement a
positive commandment. See chapter 6, below.
25
Chavel: "ungodly ones." In MnT: ha-sikhlin bah.
26
Chavel: "social order." In MnT: yosher ha-medinot.
27
See Al-Farabi, Al-Farabi on the Perfect State, trans. Richard Walzer. Revised text with
introduction translation and commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985). For a
useful summary, see Fakhry, Majid, Al-Farabi: Founder of Islamic Neoplatonism: His
Life, Works and Influence (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2002), pp. 101-122. On M. ' s
debt to al-Farabi, see for example, Berman, Lawrence V., "Maimonides, the Disciple of
Alfarabi," Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974).
101
P233/234
These two commandments stand for claims to espouse a Hebrew
maidservant anytime before the end of her period of servitude (P233) or, in
the alternative, the obligation to help her buy back her freedom (P234).
Arguably, the obligation to facilitate her freedom can be subsumed in
the obligation to espouse her by resorting to a binary type of formulation:
"Espouse. or in the alternative, facilitate." To meet this possible objection,
M. takes recourse in a previously quoted baraita (bBekhorot 13a): "The duty
of espousal has precedence over the duty of redemption (mitsvat yi 'ud
qodemet le-mitsvatpediyah)...." The non-compelling use to which M. has
put this baraita, however, has already been discussed ("The construct
mitsvat in the composite term mitsvat-X" - section 2.3.1).
As with P81/82 and P216/217, M. finds here an additional
commandment. This clearly suits his need to create an outline that is as
robust as possible within the constraints of a TaRYaG enumeration. It also
helps to inflate the number of commandments, as indicated earlier.
28
P237, 238, 240, 241
M. deals here with four claims relating to monetary damages caused
by one's property: the laws of injuries caused by an ox (P237, based on
28
There is some indication that M. considered and even thought that he had offered a
single commandment in the place of these two claims. In his comments on P233 he says,
"You must know that the laws concerning a Hebrew bondsman and the law concerning a
Hebrew bondsmaid [my emphasis] are in force only when the law of the Jubilee is in
force." He again mentions the law of a Hebrew bondsmaid in his concluding remarks on
the positive commandments. Of course, he may have used this expression as a short term
for these two commandments. Qayyara, in "the section of the Hebrew maidservant,"
Parashiyyot #2, offers the other logical alternative.
102
Exodus 21:28, 35), the laws of injury caused by a pit (P238, based on
Exodus 21:33), the laws of damage caused by a beast (P240, based on
Exodus 22:4) and the laws of damage caused by fire (P241, based on Exodus
22:5). Why does he not choose instead one inclusive and overarching law,
"the law of damages caused by one's property"?
While admittedly one could find differences among the above rubrics
to justify their individuation, the method of positing finer differences could
easily backfire. For example, one could differentiate in the above between
damage done to humans and damage done to property. Lacking a rabbinic
warrant that we are in the presence of four commandments, we must
conclude that this enumeration is not compelling.
29
In the Halakhot, M. shows his preference for the more general law,
the laws of damage to property (Hilkhot Nizqe Mamon), which he then
subdivides into the four rubrics noted here. This is similar to his earlier
treatment with respect to the laws of those who require atonement (Hilkhot
Mehusre Kapparah), which he subdivided into four "commandments," the
atonements of the zav, zavah, birthing woman and leper.
P242/243/244
M. deals here with three claims relating to the laws of bailees.
According to the Oral Law's interpretation, Scripture describes four kinds of
29
Horowitz, Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-Levi , on P241, defends the arrangement
on the basis of the first mishnah of Bava Qamma, which speaks about "the four principal
[avot, lit., "fathers"] causes of damages." However, avot, unlike mitsvah, was never used
by M. as a linguistic marker for individuation. Moreover, avot is used here in
contradistinction to toledot, subordinate or derivative causes. Finally, and more
importantly, since M. does not adduce this source one must assume that he did not find it
convincing.
103
bailees: an unpaid bailee (Exodus 22:6-8), a paid bailee (Exodus 22:9), a
borrower (Exodus 22:13), and a hirer (Exodus 22:14). mShevu'ot 8:1 lists
the four bailees, but bShevu'ot 49b explicates that these four types of bailees
are governed by only three principles, with one principle applying to the
borrower and the hirer alike.
M. cites bShavu'ot 49b as warrant for his decision to abridge the
count to three bailees from four. The fact, however, that the mishnah found
it convenient to discuss a specific number of bailee types should not make a
compelling case for individuating commandments.
30
The non-compelling
nature of this individuation can be appreciated if we pay attention to the way
M. classified these commandments in the Halakhot. There, he placed the
paid bailee and the hirer in Hilkhot Sekhirut, and the unpaid bailee and the
borrower in Hilkhot Sheelah u-Piqqadon.
31
This classification suggests that
we are in the presence of two commandments rather than three.
30
Lists of classes of damage or of agents who cause damage, accompanied by numerical
totals, are useful mnemonic devices but are not intended to identify commandments. See
for example bBava Qamma 4b:
Rav Oshaia taught: There are thirteen principal categories of
damage: The Unpaid Bailee and the Borrower, the Paid Bailee
and the Hirer, Depreciation, Pain [suffered], Healing, Loss of
Time, Degradation and the Four enumerated in the mishnah,
thus making [a total of] thirteen.
Yet, depreciation, pain, healing, loss of time and degradation are not commandments.
31
There is some evidence that originally M. wanted to write (or wrote) Hilkhot Piqqadon
separately from Sheelah. See for example the end of chapter 7 of Hilkhot Hovel u-Maziq,
where M. calls the treatise Sheelah u-Piqqadon by the name "inyan ha-piqqadon,"
echoing the Sefer ha-Piqqadon monographs written by Saadia, Shmuel b. Hofni and Hai
Gaon. In fact, Assaf has shown that before the final editing, M. had intended to write
Sheelah and Piqqadon separately. Cf. Assaf, S., "Qet al m mi-Sefer Yad ha-Hazaqah...be-
Etsem Ketav Yado shel ha-RaMBaM," Qeriyat Sefer, vol. 18 (1941), p.150. This means
that, in all likelihood, the original arrangement of the Halakhot followed the meta-
halakhic individuation of the ShM, where M. conceived of three kinds of bailees.
104
In sum, Scripture discusses four kinds of bailees yet M. claims three
commandments on the basis of a talmudic passage that relies on three
principles to reduce the four bailees to three. At a later time, M. considered it
proper to split the discussion of bailees into only two parts.
It is worth pondering whether the different laws of bailment would
more profitably be subsumed in a broader category, such as civil laws (dine
mamonot, lit., "the laws of monies"). This remains largely an aesthetic
question. Interestingly, Qayyara (parshah #4) appears to have chosen the
second route.
P245
M. claims here that "we are commanded concerning the law of buying
and selling; that is to say the procedure by which a sale is to be effected
between the vendor and the vendee."
With the sole exception of a short passage that admonishes the parties
of a transaction from taking unfair advantage, as by fraud (onaah; Leviticus
25-14-17), the legal portions of the Pentateuch do not legislate transactional
laws. Lacking any sort of scriptural support, M.' s claim is just short of
astonishing. Interestingly enough, M. appears to concede this difficulty. The
adduced proof-text, And if thou sell aught unto thy neighbor, or buy of thy
neighbor's hand, etc. (Leviticus 25:14), does not describe a scripturally
sanctioned form of acquisition. Rather, it occasions a rabbinic play on the
word hand, "a commodity purchased from hand to hand, that is to say,
acquired by the purchaser's act of drawing to himself." Commodity refers to
movables and the "act of drawing to oneself" (meshikhah) is, as M.
acknowledges, a rabbinic regulation (taqanah).
105
Similarly, M. points out, purchases of land and other types of property
reflect commercial practices and the rabbis use scriptural texts as convenient
supports or mnemonic crutches (asmakhta) to validate these practices. M.
makes a faint attempt to dress up acquisition law in the garb of a scripturally
sanctioned "law," stating that "it has already been established that by Torah-
law the payment of money secures the purchase"; but this is only a tradition
and no scriptural support is ever adduced for this statement. Finally, it
should be noted that the proof-text is embedded in a section dealing with a
buyer or seller taking unfair price advantage (onaah) from his counterpart in
a transaction involving land; it is closer to being a discussion of unfair
commercial practices than a description of laws of acquisition.
32
It is hard to
imagine why M. would have made such a farfetched commandment claim
33
other than to fill an important gap in his outline of the MT. In effect, I am
32
Perla (Introduction to Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG , vol. 1, section 8, page 47) too
makes this observation and concludes that there is no scriptural passage that deals with
the laws of acquisition claimed by M.
33
Horowitz, Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-Levi , P245 was right on the mark when
he exclaimed that "the words of our master are astounding." After noting that M. proved
that all the modes of acquisition are but rabbinic ordinances, he asks, "What
commandment claim did he advance here that can be considered as having been given to
Moses at Sinai?" His apologetic answer is also astounding. The Torah, he says, did not
legislate modes of acquisition even as it was mindful of its benefits to society. The verses
And if thou sell aught unto thy neighbor, or buy of thy neighbor's hand, make it obvious
that commercial transactions took place in early days, though, naturally, the types of
transactions were not spelled out. Instead, Horowitz asserts, the Torah suggests
(Horowitz does not explain how) that such standards be adopted, either through rabbinic
decrees or through commercial practice. The fallacy of this argument is readily exposed.
We can grant that laws of acquisition are beneficial for some or most societies, but there
is some distance between asserting this and asserting that the Torah wished to see such
laws prescribed. Could the Torah not remain silent with regard to acquisition (or other
civil) laws and let the "market" develop its own mechanisms, guided merely by an overall
proviso of fairness and justice? See also Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG cited in the
previous note.
106
suggesting that M. created an entry even on the most tenuous of warrants ("it
has already been established that by Torah-law the payment of money
secures the purchase") so that he could provide the proper reference to an
important treatise in the upcoming MT, the Laws of Acquisition (Hilkhot
Mekhirah). The absence of such a commandment from his enumeration
would have made a mockery of his claim that "all this [i.e., the enumeration]
[I would do] in order to guard against omitting any topic from discussion,
for only by including them in the enumeration of the commandments
[heading the various treatises] would I insure against such omission."
34
34
Having said this, we note again that M. does not craft a single "commandment" to
reference the laws of gifts (Hilkhot Zekhiyah u-Matanah), neighbors (Hilkhot Shekhenim)
and agencies and partnerships (Hilkhot Sheluhin u-shutafin). It would appear that, unlike
the laws of buying and selling, these laws do not bear even the most "minimal"
connection with scriptural law.
107
Chapter 5. Innovations
In our last chapter, we saw how certain individuation strategies -or
shall we call them stratagems? -helped M. achieve, at least partially, the
goal of enumerating 248 positive commandments. Though M. succeeded in
making a robust number of claims, we took note of the fact that many of the
claims did not exhibit compelling characteristics. One might say that many
individuations resembled equations with more than one valid solution, with
M. arbitrarily choosing one of them. Even with the assistance of
individuation strategies that seemed to multiply commandments, however,
the total was coming up short. M. had to find more commandment claims if
he wanted to vindicate R. Simlai's dictum. The way to accomplish this was
to innovate, claiming commandments that had not been listed by Qayyara in
either his list of qum 'aseh or his list of parashiyyot.
But first a word of caution is needed with regard to innovations.
Qayyara's list is inconveniently terse, often vague, lacking in punctuation
and designed around a different format than M.' s list. Therefore, no precise
comparison between the two is possible. What appears to us as a
Maimonidean innovation might have been referred to by Qayyara
differently
1
or might have been included or subsumed under a different or
more general rubric. While this difficulty is real, it should be pointed out that
1
A good example is the entry "faith" (Pq39), discussed in the second part of this chapter:
does it mean belief in God or does it mean acting in good faith (in business)? Or
Qayyara's entry (Pq 149) "to cheer a bride", does it refer to the rabbinic commandment to
cheer a bride on the wedding day, or to the scriptural commandment to give happiness to
a new wife for a full year? See infra, section 9.5. Many such examples exist.
108
an enormous amount of creativity has been expended and thousands of pages
have been devoted to identifying entries and to reconciling azharot lists.
Relying on their work, Hildesheimer found a total of 37 innovations in M.' s
list of positive commandments. In the first part of this chapter I examine
these 37 innovations, assess the arguments in their favour and look for what
other factors, if any, might have driven M. to posit these claims. Note that
the number of innovations identified by Hildesheimer should be viewed as a
rock-bottom estimate. Given the commentators' strong harmonistic efforts
and the highly imaginative skills they brought to this enterprise, the number
37 is likely to be much lower than the one that can realistically be expected
from a simple reading of Qayyara's entries. In short, 37 is that number of
innovative commandments that can be agreed upon by all major
commentators of Qayyara's list of commandments. For what it is worth, my
own necessarily imprecise estimate yields a number of innovations that is
slightly in excess of 70 commandments, about twice as many as found by
Hildesheimer.
In the second part, I examine two additional claims after showing why
I believe, contra Hildesheimer, that they are innovations, and again assess
the arguments adduced by M. in their favor. I shall then try to demonstrate
the extraordinary significance of these claims.
I preface this endeavor by first offering an insightful observation by
one of the most erudite and astute commentators on the genre of
enumerations, Yeruham Perla. In the introduction to his monumental work
on Saadia's Book of Commandments, Perla raises an obvious question: given
that a pious Jew is obligated to keep all that is commanded in the Torah, to
what purpose did the early rabbis (rishonim) toil in their investigations of the
TaRYaG? For what purpose did tradition restrict the number of
109
commandments to 613 and suppose a large number of details and
subordinate rules so as to hit on the exact total? What juridical motivations
can be derived from this restriction and precise number? This is what he
says:
These questions come from a basic lack of
understanding, for it is clear that this enumeration has
an important bearing on many of the scriptural
commandments, according to the various views. In
fact, it is clear that there is no explicit evidence in
Scripture or even in the Mekhilta, Sifra, Sifre,
Talmud and other such sources for many of the
positive and negative commandments enumerated by
the various scholars: These commandments depend on
the methodological underpinnings on which these
enumerations were constructed. For it is clear that if,
for example, following his Rules, M. eliminated from
Qayyara's count many positive and negative
commandments that ought not to be i ncl uded. by
necessity he must search for other commandments that
respond to his criteria so as to be able to complete the
count of 613 commandments. And it is quite possible
that he [M.] would not be able to draw support from
among rabbinic sources for this large number of
commandments, positive and negative, that would be
consistent with his own Rules. Therefore, relying on
the fundament that the scriptural commandments
cannot total less than 613, he [M.] added such
commandments from his own opinion (mi-
da'ato),based on some tenuous allusions contained in
the scriptural text, coupled with his own interpretation
(sevarato), even though the evidence is not sufficiently
compelling. Were it not for the fact that the number
[TaRYaG] is fixed and known, he [M.] would not have
innovated these commandments. (my emphasis)
2
Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG Introduction, section 10, p. 56.
110
Perla points the way to what is interesting and original in M.' s
innovations, and that is precisely those claims that are "based on some
tenuous allusions in the scriptural text and coupled with his own reasoning."
I permit myself to add one further qualification: these innovative claims are
generally informed by M.' s philosophical views, both theoretical and
politico-ethical, and are premised on the assumption that the Torah is a
teaching guide whose purpose is to instill in Jews correct and necessary
beliefs.
3
M.'s politico-philosophical views are well encapsulated in GP, part
III, chapter 27. There he suggests that the true law, the Law of Moses, aims
at two things, the welfare of the body, which is "prior in nature and time,"
and the welfare of the soul, "indubitably greater in nobility" and achievable
only after having achieved the first aim. The welfare of the body consists of
"being healthy and in the very best bodily state" through finding food,
shelter and so on. Man, however, is "political by nature" and can attain these
aims only through political association. Therefore, the aim of the Law
"consists in the governance of the city and the well-being of the states of all
its people according to their capacity," and it accomplishes this "through the
abolition of reciprocal wrongdoing and through the acquisition of a noble
and excellent charact er. . " The Law also comes to bring the perfection of
the soul, which consists in "the soundness of the beliefs and the giving of
correct opinions." M. calls this the "ultimate perfection" and the "only cause
of permanent preservation."
3
Generally for this view, see GP III:27-49.
111
In this scheme, all the commandments of the Torah must be classified
according to one of three categories: practical and moral commandments,
which operate on the welfare of the body, and intellectual, which operate on
the welfare of the soul. This led Twersky to say:
Given these guidelines, established at the beginning of this
section in chapter 27 of the Moreh [i.e., GP], the remaining task is
completely deductive. One has to relate each of the 613 commandments to
one of the three goals: (a) establishment of civilized society principles of
social utility and justice; (b) development of the ethical personality
principles of goodness and love of fellow man; or (c) intellectual perfection
true knowledge and experience of God. Had the remaining chapters of the
Moreh been lost, we could have undertaken to reconstruct the correlation
between each commandment and these three goals.
4
As we review some of M.'s innovative commandment claims,
particularly those not supported by conclusive rabbinic warrants, we should
take note of the fact that the task is not always deductive in the direction
suggested by Twersky. M.' s hermeneutics suggests that quite often it was
otherwise. In fact, M. formulated the idea and then inferred what the
supporting text might have been. This was much as posited by Perla.
5.1 Examining the Evidence
To identify the contributions that reveal some special originality, I
excluded from the list of innovations all those claims for which M. was able
4
Twersky, I., Introduction to the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah) (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1980), p388.
112
to adduce strong evidentiary support. I contend that the balance,
commandments with inconclusive evidence, were driven by M.' s
philosophical bent, and that a closer look at them will reveal themes and
ideas of special importance to M.
5.1.1 Strong evidence
By strong evidence I mean rabbinic warrants that support the claim
that a specific proof-text constitutes a positive commandment. For the most
part, these warrants, found mostly in the midreshe halakhah, describe a
particular scriptural passage as a mitsvat 'aseh. M. makes categorical use of
these designations even though it is not at all clear that the midrash applies
the same criterion as M. has applied for designating positive
commandments. That is, the midrash halakhah may simply have in mind the
obligatory character of a scriptural command -thus the term mitsvat 'aseh,
an obligation to do. Moreover, this obligation could constitute merely a
detail or condition (mishpat, in the language of Rule 7) of a larger, over-
arching commandment. It would therefore not qualify as an independent and
individuated claim, in the sense used by M. for example in Rules 7 and 10-
13. For the purposes of this analysis I assume that M. believes that the
technical terms 'aseh and mitsvat 'aseh used by the rabbis mean exactly the
same thing that they mean to him. It is with this understanding that we can
proceed to call the commandments claims detailed below as claims
supported by strong evidence.
The following list of commandments is accompanied by a very brief
comment summing up M.' s proof(s). Here, and throughout the rest of this
113
work, I present the positive commandment that is about to be examined in
bold letters and as formulated by the Short Enumeration (SE).
P22. To watch over this edifice continually, as it is said, ".but thou and thy
sons with thee shall minister before the tabernacle of the testimony"
(Numbers 18:2).
More specifically, in the ShM, "to keep guard over the sanctuary, and
to patrol it every night, throughout the night."
5
Proof: Adduces Mekhilta (found only in our Sifre Zuta, Korah,
p. 292):"And they shall keep the charge of the Tent of Meeting [Numbers
18:4]. [This verse] gives us only a positive commandment [be-aseh]..."
P84. To offer all sacrifices in the Sanctuary, as it is said, "and there thou
shalt do all that I command thee" (Deuteronomy 12:14).
Proof: Sifre Deuteronomy, Reeh pisqa 70 (p. 133), fully cited and
explained only in N89, where the counterpart negative commandment is
discussed. M. considers the Sifre's designation be-aseh with reference to the
words there thou shalt do all that I command thee an 'aseh in form, based on
5
Instead of "to patrol it," MnT translates "to go around it," which is also its rendition in
the headings to Hilkhot Bet ha-Behirah. See Meqorot ve-Tsiyunim, Mishneh Torah, ed.
S. Frankel, 15 vols. (Bne Brak: Hotsaat Shabse Frankel, 1975-2006), Hilkhot Bet ha-
Behirah 8:1. But see Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. and trans. Joseph Kafih (Jerusalem: Mosad ha-
Rav Kook, 1971), note 23, on meaning of Arabic original.
114
the principle that a prohibition that is inferred from a positive statement is
considered a positive commandment.
6
P87. That an exchanged beast (if a beast is exchanged for one that had
been set apart as an offering) is (or becomes) sacred, as it is said, "...it
and the exchange thereof shall be holy" (Leviticus 27: 10).
Typologically, this commandment is descriptive rather than
prescriptive and belongs to the fourth class of commandments reviewed
earlier (section 3).
Proof: A Gemara in bTemurah 4b, which calls temurah an 'aseh for
remediating the prohibited act of attempting to substitute a sacred animal.
This statement is difficult to comprehend since temurah calls for no
particular action; it is simply an outcome. Nevertheless, M. can count on this
6
Although this principle cannot transform the verse into an unconditional obligation, this
is not a concern of the ShM. In the Halakhot, M. reads this verse as a straight,
unconditional obligation. This requires a much more detailed examination of the use or
non-use of this principle in the Halakhot, an extremely confusing issue and one that
cannot be fully and properly dealt with here. For now, see note 10 in section 2.1.1, above.
Hyamson translated, "If a beast is exchanged for one that had been set apart as an
offering, both become sacred, as it is s a i d . . " ; but M. ' s formulation, li-heyot ha-
temurah qodesh, simply says that the exchanged beast, the temurah, is sacred.
The Sefer ha-Hinukh, ascribed by some scholars to Aaron ha-Levi of Barcelona (1235-
1300), who generally follows M. ' s formulations, reflects a typical lack of appreciation for
this type of commandment and restates it as follows: " . t h a t the substituted animal
remain holy and to treat [our emphasis] both of them with holiness." On this formulation,
the commandment refers to the manner with which we ought to treat both animals, rather
than to the effect of the attempted exchange, (Aaron ha-Levi of Barcelona, Sefer ha-
Hinnukh, ed. C. D. Chavel (Jerusalem: 1952), mitsvah 352.
115
explicit rabbinic warrant. It is worth noting that M. assigns to this highly
idiosyncratic law a creative ethical-psychological motivation. He says,
the Law has plumbed the depths of man's mind and
the extremity of his evil impulse. For it is man's
nature to increase his possessions and to be sparing of
his wealth... if a man dedicated a beast to a sanctity
of its body, perchance he would draw back, and since
he cannot redeem it, he would change it for
something of less worth. And if the right was given to
change the bad for the good he would change the
good for the bad and say, "It is good." Therefore,
Scripture has stopped the way against him so that he
should not change it, and has penalized him if he
should change it and has said: Both it and that for
which it was changed shall be holy (Leviticus 27:10).
(Hilkhot Temurah 4:13)
This may be, in fact, an important reason he wished to include this
law in the enumeration despite its obvious difficulties.
P90. To burn meat of the holy (sacrifice) that has become unclean, as it is
said, "And the flesh which toucheth anything that is unclean shall be
burnt with fire" (Leviticus 7: 19).
Proof: The Gemara (bShabbat 25a) calls disposing of Heave offering
oil that has become impure by means of lighting a positive commandment
(aseh)?
9
M. ' s rabbinic warrant seems as obvious as it is unobjectionable. The fact that all geonim
failed to list this entry is indeed puzzling. Later commentators have conjectured that the
command was viewed as being part of the command to burn the remnants of a
consecrated offering (notar), P91 in M. ' s enumeration. See Duran, Zohar ha-Raqia,
siman 40, p.41 and see Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. I, p.722. Perla engages in
far-fetched and unsatisfactory casuistry to justify the geonim's omission. See also Traub' s
comments, in Halakhot Gedolot , Makhon Yerushalayim, p.25, gloss # 17.
116
P142. To exact the debt of an alien, as it is said, "Of a foreigner thou
mayest exact it; but that which is thine with thy brother, thine hand shall
release" (Deuteronomy 15:3).
To the phrase "to exact the debt of an alien," the ShM adds "and to
press him for repayment, just as we are commanded to be merciful with the
Israelite, and forbidden to exact payment from him." To support this
innovative entry, M. adduces Sifre Deuteronomy, Reeh pisqa 113 (p.173)
which says, "Of a foreigner thou mayest exact it is a positive commandment
(zu mitsvat 'aseh)."
The rabbinic warrant appears to be unobjectionable though an
alternative reading of the midrash is possible, namely that the verse may be
understood as permitting one to exact debt from an alien and inferring that
one may not, however, exact debt from an Israelite. The inference would
emphasize what the second half of the verse states explicitly. The first half
of the verse is what the Sages called an inferred prohibition or a prohibition
derived from a positive statement (issur 'aseh, lav ha-ba-mikhlal 'aseh),
prohibitions that are (penally) treated as positive commandments, i.e.,
violators do not incur lashes, since these are reserved for the transgression of
negative commandments. As a prohibition derived from a positive statement,
the Sifre's comment that "this is a positive commandment" may simply be
taken to mean that this is deemed a positive commandment. On this reading,
there is no positive commandment to exact debts from a foreigner.
10
10
See de-Tolosa, Vidal, Maggid Mishneh (Printed in standard editions of Mishneh
Torah), Hilkhot Malveh ve-Loveh 1:2.
117
These aliens, presumably heathens, are M.'s nemeses. As a result,
M.'s understanding of the midrash appears ideologically tinged, though one
must admit that the Sifre's designation, zu mitsvat 'aseh, is straightforward
enough. An alternative reading to a similarly articulated midrash along the
lines suggested above is actually found in the Talmud when discussing the
commandment to lend to an alien at interest (P198, see immediately below).
P198. To lend to an alien at interest, as it is said, "Unto a stranger, thou
mayest lend upon interest" (Deuteronomy 23:21). According to tradition,
this is mandatory.
M. ' s ideological stance with respect to the treatment to be
accorded to heathens is given full expression in the ShM:
We are commanded to exact interest from a heathen
to whom we lend money, so as not to help him or be
kind to him, but rather to harm him, even in lending
him money, by demanding interest, which we are
forbidden to do in the case of an Israelite.
Proof: Sifre Deuteronomy, pisqa 263 (p. 285): "Unto a foreigner
mayest thou lend
11
upon interest: This is a positive commandment (zu
mitsvat 'aseh); but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend at interest: This
is a negative commandment."
As noted above at P142, this type of sentence may be read as
permitting one to lend money with interest to a heathen and, by
inference, forbidding such an action toward an Israelite. On such a
11
This translation is interpretative. It can also be read: "Thou shalt lend."
118
reading, the only normative implication of this verse is to prohibit the
lending of money with interest to an Israelite. Critics adduce talmudic
support for such a reading.
12
Efforts were made to reconcile the Sifre' s
position with the Talmud but they seem extremely stretched, and rob the
Sifre of its exegetical originality and its unique terminology.
13
M. ' s proof
is, to my mind, unobjectionable, though one may accuse M. of
unwarranted selectivity. We cannot determine if this selectivity is
tendentious or merely the result of an exegetical preference.
5.1.2 Inconclusive evidence
An important number of innovative commandments do not enjoy
technically acceptable evidentiary support, the kind discussed in the
preceding section. In all these cases, it is apparent that M. struggles to find a
basis for the claims that he advances. It is easy to be left with the impression
that the desire to make the claim precedes the 'proof'. As Perla suggested,
the commandment claims are "based on some tenuous allusions in the
scriptural text, coupled with [the jurist's] own interpretation" and, we might
add, a number of ambiguous rabbinic statements. At the conclusion of a
brief analysis of these innovations, I suggest some of the politico-
philosophical ideas that may have informed this exercise and that were
represented by these innovative commandment claims. In the Appendix I
12
Nahmanides, Hasagot to Rule 6. Similarly, RaBaD in his gloss to the SE.
Strangely, RaBaD claims that "this [i.e. M. ' s citation] is not found in the Sifre." See
also Daniel ha-Bavli, in Abraham Maimonides, "Teshuvot Rabbenu Abraham ben
ha-RaMBaM, " siman 10, and Abraham Maimonides' reply.
13
See the insightful comments of David Vital, Keter Torah, cited by de-Leon,
"Megillat Esther," rule 6, p. 131, s.v. ve-ahar kakh matsati.
119
present further exegetical difficulties for some of these claims and, more
importantly, the way some of these commandments came to be formulated
in the MT.
5.1.2.a Hovah, Be-alKorho, Hayav, Yakhol...Talmudlomar
These rabbinic expressions indicate obligation, especially where one
might have thought that such was not warranted. M. adduces these terms to
support a number of commandment claims but the proofs suffer from the
same weakness that we suggested earlier in connection with the technical
term mitsvat 'aseh, namely that they do not specify commandments as
described by M. in his rules of individuation. Moreover, these terms lack the
terminologically felicitous association with M.' s own mitsvat 'aseh that the
rabbinic term mitsvat 'aseh enjoys. In short, there is nothing in these proofs
that would make us believe that the scriptural proof-texts represent positive
commandments as M. has defined them.
P23. That the Levite shall serve in the Sanctuary, as it is said, "But the
Levite shall do the service of the tabernacle" (Numbers 18:23).
14
Proof: Adduces Sifre Numbers, pisqa 119 (p. 145):
I might suppose that a Levite could choose whether to
perform the service or not; Scripture therefore says,
The Levites alone shall do the service: that is to say, he
can be made to perform against his will (bal
korho ...ke-lomar she-zeh hovah 'alav).
14
More specifically, in the ShM, that "the Levites are commanded that they alone are to
perform certain services in the sanctuary, such as closing the gates, and chanting during
the offering of the sacrifices."
120
P32. To show honour to a descendant of Aaron, and to give him precedence
in all things that are holy, as it is said, "And thou shalt sanctify him"
(Leviticus 21:8).
One of the versions of the ShM adds to this formulation a critical
comment: "We are commanded to exalt the descendants of Aaron, to show
them honor and deference, and to assign to them a high degree of holiness
and dignity even overriding their own objections [my emphasis]."
15
On
account of this last definition, there are two claims here: one, to give the
priest precedence in all things that are holy and, two, to compel him to
maintain a high level of holiness.
Proofs: For the first claim, M. offers a passage in bGitin 59b: "Thou
shalt sanctify him in all matters appertaining to holiness: that is to say, he
shall be first in all holy matters; he shall have the first right to recite the
Benediction at a meal; and he shall be first to receive a seemly portion."
For the second claim, Sifra on Leviticus 21:6: "Thou shalt sanctify
him even against his will (be-al korho)"; and on 21:8 "They shall be holy
unto their God even against their will (al korham)."
16
15
The version underlying MnTs translation has here "a prior and first standing" instead
of "a high degree of holiness and dignity," a reading that is consistent with the basic
claim. See Tsiyunim ad loc., Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. Frankel, and see Sefer ha-Mitsvot,
ed. Kafih, ad loc., note 64. Clearly, there is a fundamental difference between the two
versions; in Kafih' s, the commandment has two distinct aspects; in MnTs, only one.
16
Sifra, Emor pereq 1:6 (p.94b) and pereq 1:13 (p. 94c), respectively. A careful reading
of the way M. formulates this commandment in the Halakhot (Hilkhot Kele ha-Miqdash
121
P85. To take trouble to bring sacrifices to the Sanctuary from places outside
the land of Israel, as it is said, "only thy holy things which thou hast, and thy
vows, thou shalt take and go [unto the place which the Lord shall choose]"
(Deuteronomy 12:26). It is learned by tradition that this verse refers to
sacrifices that come from outside the Holy Land.
17
Proof: Sifre Deuteronomy, pisqa 77 (p. 142):
Thy holy things refers only to offerings [for which we
have become liable] outside the Land. Thou shalt take,
and go teaches us that one must concern oneself
(hayav be-tipul) with the transport of the offering until
he brings it to the Sanctuary.
18
4:1-2) shows that M. designates only the second aspect of the claim a positive
commandment; the first aspect appears to be only a rabbinic ordinance.
17
The last sentence in Hyamson' s translation reads: "It is learnt by tradition that this
verse refers to sacrifices that come from outside the Holy Land." I have revised it to
reflect more accurately the rabbinic diction. I have rendered qodshe huts la-arets as
"sacrifices for which we have become liable outside the Land," in line with the citation of
the Sifre adduced in the ShM, though "sacrifices that come from outside the Holy Land"
is also possible.
18
Nahmanides, Hasagot, ad loc., raises two objections to including this commandment in
the enumeration, one taxonomic (individuation) and one hermeneutic. Here we find a
particularly interesting divergence of views with regard to the use of midreshe halakhah.
Nahmanides argues that the talmudic exposition of this verse found in bTemurah 17b
should take priority over the midreshe halakhah ("it was more fitting to adopt the
talmudic midrash") and adds, methodologically, that "it is [only] proper to use the
midrashot of the Talmud to frame halakhah and to consider them in priority." This is
neither the first nor the last time that Nahmanides expresses his general disapproval of
M.' s recurrent use of the midreshe halakhah.
122
P 157. To discourse concerning the departure from Egypt on the first
night of the Feast of Passover, as it is said, "And thou shalt tell thy son
on that day, saying ..." (Exodus 13:8).
Proof: First M. adduces a well-known rabbinic saying (found in the
Haggadah of Passover), "Even if we were all of us wise, all of us men of
understanding, all of us learned in the Law, it would be incumbent upon us
[mitsvah] to speak of the departure from Egypt." The word mitsvah is,
however, best understood here not as an obligation but as meaning "it is
incumbent upon us," "it is fitting," "it is proper," as in many other rabbinic
19
pronouncements.
The second proof is drawn from an exposition found in the Mekhilta
de-RaSHBY on Exodus 13:3:
Since it is said, And it shall be when thy son asketh
thee, etc., one might think (yakhol) that you are to tell
your son if he asks you, but not otherwise. Scripture
therefore says (talmud lomar), thou shalt tell thy son
even though he does not ask you. Again, one might
think that [the duty rests only on one] who has a son
[with him]; whence do we infer that it applies also to
one who is alone, or among strangers? From the words
of Scripture: Moses said unto the people: Remember
[zakhor] this day [Exodus 15:3].
The midrash likely means that apart from one's obligation to tell a son
already alluded to in Exodus 13:3, Moses expresses a desire for all Israelites
to remember the Exodus, irrespective of anyone else's presence. M. then
19
See section 2.1, above.
123
adds, of his own,
20
a crucial explanation: "That is, Moses told the people
that God commanded us to remember the Exodus just as he ordained
Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy" Since the remembrance of
Sabbath is a positive commandment (P155), this one is too. This is a daring
and original move.
21
Miracles performed by God on behalf of the Israelites constitute a
22
useful opinion and thus are worthy of being commemorated. The memory
of these miracles must be perpetuated through constant repetition because, in
the course of time, they can easily be rationalized away.
23
M. crafts an innovative commandment claim using an equally
innovative exegesis. It is not unlikely that the claim is driven by special
political considerations, as noted above.
5.1.2.b Use of Scripture's self-referential allusions to the action being
'commanded'
M. finds in various verbal forms of the stem ts.v.h indications that
Scripture intends a mitsvat 'aseh, a stretch by any account. While rabbinic
20
This addition is M.' s own. It does not appear in our text of the Mekhilta, contra Shem
Tov ha-Sefardi' s (Migdal Oz) understanding. See Kasher, Menachem M., Ha-RaMBaM
ve-ha-Mekhilta de-RaSHBY (Jerusalem: Hotsaat Bet Torah Shelemah, 1980), p. 79.
21
That M. is satisfied with this exegesis is apparent from the fact that he repeats it in the
Halakhot, Hilkhot Hamets u-Matsah, 7:1.
22
Cf. GP III:43 (572).
23
See GP III:50 (615-16): " . a l l miracles are certain in the opinion of one who has seen
them; however, at a future time their story becomes a mere traditional narrative, and there
is a possibility for the hearer to consider it untrue." See the end of that long passage.
124
warrants are adduced to explain the scriptural referents, they do not specify a
positive commandment as understood by M.
P146. To slay, according to the ritual, cattle, deer, and fowl, and then
their flesh may be eaten, as it is said, "...thou shalt kill of thy herd, and of
thy flock as I commanded thee" (Deuteronomy 12:21).
The ShM emphasizes "which becomes permitted food only by killing
in this manner."
Proof: Sifre Deuteronomy, pisqa 75 (p. 140):
Then thou shalt kill: as the consecrated offerings must
be killed in a prescribed manner, so animals [not
sacrificed but] killed for food must be killed in that
manner. As I have commanded thee: this teaches us
that Moses was [specifically] commanded (nitstaveh)
concerning [the cutting of] the gullet and the windpipe,
and concerning the [cutting] of the greater part [of
either gullet or windpipe] in birds, and of the greater
part of both in cattle.
M. clearly takes the term commanded (nitstaveh, a verbal form nitpael,
related to the noun mitsvah) in a technical sense, to denote a mitsvat 'aseh.
P34. That, when the Ark is carried, it should be carried on the shoulder, as it
is said, "They shall bear it upon their shoulder" (Numbers 7:9).
While the indefiniteness of the SE parallels the eventual tenor and
formulation of the Halakhot (Hilkhot Kele ha-Miqdash 2:12), the ShM is
unequivocal when it comes to identifying who is being commanded: "that
125
the priests are to bear the Ark upon their shoulders" (my emphasis). This
may be an indication that the SE followed the ShM chronologically.
24
In fact,
the central theme in the ShM is that this duty devolved on the priests for all
times.
Proof: The proof-text for this claim is the following verse: But unto
the sons of Kehat he gave none [of the wagons and animals], because the
service of holy things belonged unto them: they bore them upon their
shoulders (Numbers 7:9). Note, however, that there is little or no evidence
here of a direct or mediated command to the sons of Kehat
25
to carry the ark
on their shoulders. We are simply told that they did so, with no reason given.
To prove that bearing the ark on their shoulders was a divine command, M.
adduces two passages drawn from the Writings (Ketuvim). The first refers to
David's commanding the priests and the Levites to bring up the ark for the
second time. The book of Chronicles then records: And the children of the
Levites [meaning here the Priests] bore the ark of God on their shoulders
with the bars thereon as Moses commanded according to the word of the
Lord (1 Chr. 15:15).
The context of the second passage is the division of the priests into
twenty-four groups. The verse states, These were the orderings of them in
their service, to come into the house of the Lord according to the ordinance
given unto them by the hand of Aaron, their father, as the Lord, the God of
24
See note 30 below, and notes 42 and 51 in Chapter 9.
25
The priests here are descendants of Kehat.
126
Israel, had commanded him (1 Chr. 24:19). With regard to this passage, M.
comments:
The Sages explain this verse as implying that it is the
task of the priests to perform the service of bearing the
ark upon their shoulders, and that this is what the Lord,
the God of Israel commanded. The Sifre says:
According to the ordinance unto t hem. as the Lord,
the God of Israel, had commanded him: where did He
so command him? [In the verse,] But unto the sons of
Kohat he gave none, because the service of holy things
belonged unto them: they bore them upon their
shoulders [Numbers 7:9]. (Sifre Numbers, pisqa 46
(pp. 51-52)
The last line of the Sifre Numbers, pisqa 45 (p. 52), which was not
quoted by M., adds: "Thus the Levites did not innovate at all, everything
was commanded by Moses and Moses was commanded by the Almighty
[God]." This bit of inter-textual citation, expanded on by the Sifre, is M.' s
putative evidence that Priests were commanded to carry the Ark on their
shoulders, when and if it had to be moved.
5.1.2.c De-oraita, min ha-Torah
These are simply a pair of terms that indicate that the stipulations
under discussion are of a scriptural, as opposed to a rabbinic, nature. Once
again, no individuation is implied and therefore no proof is offered that these
obligations are mitsvot 'aseh.
P175. To give the decision according to the majority, when there is a
difference of opinion among the members of the Sanhedrin as to matters
of law, as it is said, " . t o incline after many" (Exodus 23:2).
127
M. extends this principle beyond its obvious judicial context, as he
makes clear in the ShM: "We are commanded to follow the majority if there
is a difference of opinion among the Sages regarding any of the laws of the
Torah" (my emphasis).
Proof: M. adduces a Gemara (bHullin 11a) that offers the words to
incline after many as proof that "the rule that the majority opinion is to be
accepted is scriptural (de-oraita)" M. strains to present here a major
principle in jurisprudence. Some commentators have pointed out that a
number of talmudic dicta assert that one thing or another is "scriptural" (de-
oraita) and yet this designation does not make them positive
commandments.
26
At any rate, the issue here is not whether the principle is
scriptural but whether such a principle deserves to be individuated. For
example, under the commandment In righteousness shalt thou judge thy
neighbor, interpreted in the ShM as treating litigants equally before the law
(P177), M. could have subsumed a number of other procedural "details" too,
such as abiding by a majority decision and inquiring into the testimony of
witnesses (P179).
27
Alternatively, M. could have renamed P176 "the law
concerning the Judiciary" (din bet din) instead of the more specific
"appointing judges and officers of the Court," based on the verse Judges and
officers shalt thou make thee in all thy gates ...and they shall judge the
26
For example, "majority [of something] is considered like the whole, a scriptural rule
(rubbo ke-kulo de-oraita)", or "intervening objects [invalidate immersion], a scriptural
rule (hatsitsin de-oraita)." See Duran, Zohar ha-Raqia, siman 52, p. 60. For Perla's
rebuttal, see Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol.1, 649-50.
27
This is suggested by Duran, Zohar ha-Raqia, siman 52, p. 60.
128
people with righteous judgment (Deuteronomy 16:18), and then included all
the procedural rules under this law.
28
Although there is no quarrel about the transcendent importance of this
legal principle, M.'s individuation is not compelling. What made him do it?
In Excursus 3, I offer a suggestion.
P201. That the hired labourer shall be permitted to eat [while he is on
hire,
29
] as it is said, "When thou comest into thy neighbour's vineyard
[then thou mayest eat grapes thy fill ...]; when thou comest into the
standing corn of thy neighbour [then thou mayest pluck the ears with
thine hand ... ]" (Deuteronomy 23:25.26).
Proof: M. adduces mBava Metsi'a 7:2 to demonstrate that the right
granted to a worker harvesting a field or vineyard to eat from the produce
among which he is working is scriptural. The mishnah states: "These may
eat [of the fruits among which they labor] by virtue of what is enjoined in
the Law (min ha-Torah): he that labors on what is still growing after the
work is fi ni shed. . ".
28
Something of this sort may have been intended by Qayyara, who lists "the section of
Sanhedrin" (parshah #1). For an example of a commandment that contains multiple
injunctions that are only vaguely related to each other, see N281. Here one might argue
that at the very least all these details are related to procedural matters.
29
I have followed a more literal translation of the Hebrew text. Hyamson has instead
"of the produce which he is reaping."
129
Note that while the commandment claim confers a right to the worker
it does not impose an obligation on the owner. For this reason, none of M.' s
predecessors saw fit to include this commandment in the enumeration of
positive commandments. As discussed in chapter 3, M.'s broad typology of
commandments can accommodate rights in the same manner as it
accommodates procedures and other types of non-obligatory
commandments.
5.1.2.d Exegesis in the Manner of Asmakhtot
M. supports the following two claims with verses that can hardly
serve as an exegetical basis for his authority. These relatively far-fetched
supports, often used to underpin rabbinic enactments, are called asmakhtot.
It is important to note for now that M.'s reliance on what appear to be
asmakhtot is incongruent with M.'s method of identifying and deriving
scriptural laws, as we shall discuss in later chapters.
P17. That every person shall write a scroll of the Torah for himself, as it is
said, "Write ye for yourselves this song" (Deuteronomy 31: 19).
In all the versions of the ShM this commandment appears as P18. The
SE arrangement, listing first the commandment directed to the individual and
then the commandment directed to the king ("besides the one which every
individual should write") is clearly the more logical one. On the other hand,
the ShM, being essentially an argumentative work, listed the king's
130
obligation first because this obligation may have influenced M.' s idea with
respect to the existence of a general obligation for individuals.
30
Proof: M. offers two demonstrations. The first is an inference drawn
from the scriptural proof-text Write ye for yourselves this song, which refers
to the song of ha-Azinu (Deuteronomy 32:1-43). "Since," he argues, "it is
not permissible to write [a Scroll of the Law containing only] certain
sections of it, it follows of necessity that the words this song mean the whole
of the Torah which includes this song." This is probably based on Rabbah's
dictum, although M. provides the rationale. See immediately below.
The second demonstration comes from a Gemara:
Rabbah said: Even if one's parents have left him a
Scroll of the Law, he is nevertheless commanded to
write one of his own, as it is said, Now therefore write
ye this song for you. Abaye objected: The king is
commanded to write a Scroll of the Law for himself,
for he should not seek credit for one written by others,
and [this surely implies that] it is only a king [who is
enjoined to write a Scroll even if his parents have left
him one] and not a commoner? To this the reply was:
The rule is necessary only to oblige the king to write
30
This may be further evidence that the composition of the SE follows the ShM
chronologically, a matter to which I hope to devote some time in the future. See above n.
24. Nachum L. Rabinovitch, Mishnah Torah Hu ha-Yad ha-Hazaqah le-Rabbenu Moshe
b. Maimon: Haqdamah u-Minyan ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad Peshuta, ed. and annotated
Nachum L. Rabinovitch (Jerusalem: Hotsaat Maaliyot, 1997), p.112, makes a similar
observation to explain the reversed presentation in the ShM, arguing that M. proved the
general obligation for every individual to write a scroll of law from the sugyah in
bSanhedrin 21b, which, in turn, is based on the pericope of the king and his own
obligation to write a scroll of law. Therefore, in his argumentative work, M. had to
address the obligation of the king before he could address the obligation of the individual.
I make a somewhat similar argument, but, critically, I argue that in the final analysis the
only basis for the general commandment is to be found in the king' s pericope.
131
two scrolls, as we have been taught: He [the king]
shall write him a copy of this law means that he is to
write for himself two copies. (bSanhedrin 21b)
From this passage M. infers that "the difference between the king and
a commoner is that every man must write one Scroll of the Law, but the king
must write two."
M.'s proofs present a number of exegetical difficulties. Suffice it to
say here that M.'s two proofs appear to be no more than asmakhtot, as the
exegeses are inferential, forced and far removed from the plain sense of the
text. Even Rabbah's use of the word mitsvah may denote no more than a
rabbinic enactment, as Perla shows. See the Appendix for a discussion of
this issue and see chapter 8 for the way M. dealt with this commandment in
the Halakhot.
While M.' s proofs are ambiguous and unconvincing, his motivation
for advancing this commandment is not hard to comprehend. The
commandment that every man write a scroll of Law teaches reverence for
the law or, as M. would say with respect to all the commandments
enumerated in Sefer Ahavah (Book of Love), this commandment brings
about "useful opinions" in this case, the very words of the Law.
31
P36. That the priests shall serve in the Sanctuary, in divisions, but on
festivals, they all serve together, as it is said, "And if a Levite come ... (then
he shall minister in the name of the Lor d) . " (Deuteronomy 18:6-8).
31
GP III:44. See also Introduction to Sefer ha-Madd'a, in the section describing the
forthcoming treatises, though here M. does not mention this particular commandment.
132
Proof: M. adduces in the ShM parts of a long passage containing three
verses:
And if a Levite come [from any of thy gates out of all
Israel, where he sojourneth,] and come with all the
desire of his soul [unto the place where the Lord shall
choose]; then he shall minister in the name of the Lord
his God, as all his brethren the Levites do, who stand
there before the Lord. They shall have like portions to
eat, beside that which cometh of the sale of his
patrimony. (Deuteronomy 18:6-8)
The verse is expounded by Sifre Deuteronomy, pisqa 168 (p.
216/217), which M. cites:
And come with all the desire of his soul: one might
interpret this verse to mean that he might come at any
time to participate in the service of the sanctuary;
Scripture therefore says from any of thy gates; that is,
when all Israel is assembled in one gate [i.e. in one
city Jerusalem] during the three festivals.
M. concludes from this interpretation that the incoming Levites had a
right to participate on an equal footing with their Jerusalemite brethren at the
time of the festivals.
The second part of this Sifre is critical to M.' s other argument, namely
that the mishmarot were instituted by Scripture:
One might think that all the divisions shared
equally in the festival offerings, even in this which
were not occasioned by the festivals themselves
[namely, the daily burnt offerings brought in the
morning and at dusk every day of the year]; Scripture
therefore says beside that which cometh of the sale of
his patrimony. What is meant by sale of patrimony?
[One priestly elder says to another,] "Do thou
[minister] in thy week, and I [will minister] in my
week."
133
From this M. derives that "they agreed on the rotation of the
mishmarot; [the priests gave] their consent to the whole arrangement of the
service into mishmarot, a new mishmar ministering in turn every week."
Nahmanides vigorously contests M.' s last claim. He argues that, in
their desire to uphold this scriptural passage after the mishmarot were
instituted, the Rabbis found an exegetical way to authorize the praxis. Thus,
claims Nahmanides, the midrash is a rabbinic asmakhta and not a full-
fledged exegesis.
32
The essence of his objections is that the divisions
(mishmarot) were instituted by the prophets (tiqqun ha-neviim) and were not
scripturally ordained.
33
As Nahmanides already pointed out, M. changed his
opinion in the Halakhot, where he ceases to maintain a scriptural case for the
institution of mishmarot. See discussion in the Appendix.
M. goes to great lengths to find a scriptural basis for the priestly
institution of mishmarot. At the same time he insists on the claim's
individuation by turning it into a positive commandment, yet adduces no
authoritative interpretation of the scriptural data for it. M.' s agenda is
suggested in the broader formulation of the commandment given in the ShM:
We are commanded that the priests are to minister
in divisions (mishmarot), every division ministering
one week, and that all divisions are not to minister at
32
To determine when a midrash is a genuine interpretation of Scripture and when it is
merely an asmakhta is critical for the construction of commandment claims. Differences
of opinion between M. and Nahmanides in this respect lie at the bottom of some of their
many disagreements regarding what constitutes a scriptural commandment. No adequate
criteria have been proposed. We have noted a number of such differing assessments of
the nature of midrash; see footnote 8 in section 7.1.
3 3
Hasagot, ad loc.
134
the same time,
34
except during the festivals when all
divisions are to share equally in the service and any
[priest] who is present may sacrifice.
As we saw in P34, M. wishes to imprint on the Temple service a sense
of decorum and orderliness in order to strengthen the "greatness of the
sanctuary and the awe felt for it."
5.1.2.e Plain Scriptural Evidence
In the following cases we find M. innovating strictly on the basis
of a scriptural passage. At times, he adduces a rabbinic dictum but this is
merely to aid in the interpretation of the verse.
35
P30. To remove (le-harim, lit., lift off) the ashes from the altar, as it is said,
" . and he shall take up the ashes" (Leviticus 6:3).
bYoma 24a discusses the symbolic act of lifting off a fistful of ashes,
carried out with a specially designed tool. The total removal of ashes from
the altar follows this symbolic taking up. The same root r.u.m ("lift,"
"raise") is used in the headings to Hilkhot Temidin u-Musafin and in the
34
Literally, "and that everyone's hand should not busy itself at the same time" (ve-lo
tiheye yad ha-kol mitasseqet yahad), an idiomatic expression that conveys a sense of
chaos and disorder.
35
Hyamson' s is correctly interpretive, and that is how we proceed to discuss it below.
135
Halakhot (2:10). Less precisely perhaps in the ShM it is stated "to remove
the ashes daily from the altar."
36
Proof: M. adduces no rabbinic warrant in support of this
individuation. The removal of ashes from the altar is neither an integral part
of the sacrificial ritual nor a provision of it, it being designated a "removal
[from the altar] service" ('avodat siluq). The "removal service" stands a
notch below an "offering [unto the altar] service" ('avodat matanah) in
importance, a distinction that carries legal consequences (bYoma 23b,
Hilkhot Biat ha-Miqdash 9:8). The removal of the ashes from the altar, then,
is an independent cultic service. In view of this, M.'s individuation is not
wholly unreasonable, though the removal of the ashes could have been
subsumed under the general heading of ma 'arakhah (lit. layout, array),
which would have included feeding a fire on the altar, keeping a fire
perpetual and the removal of the ashes (Leviticus 6:1-6), as listed by
Qayyara (section #9, found only in the Oxford ms.).
There is no gainsaying the 'value' of this commandment, with its
emphasis on decorum and cleanliness when in the service of the Lord. Note
that in the Halakhot, not normally given to explanations of a non-halakhic
nature, M. justifies the change into special clothes alluded to above,
reasoning that "it is not proper [derekh erets] that he [the priest] should pour
37
wine for his master in the same clothes in which he cooked his food."
36
This raises some interesting questions. See Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 1, p.
757.
37
Hilkhot Temidin u-Musafin 2:10, quoting a baraita attributed to R. Ishmael, bYoma
23b.
136
P86. To redeem cattle, set apart for sacrifices, that contracted disqualifying
blemishes, after which they may be eaten by anyone, as it is said,
"Nevertheless thou mayest kill (and eat flesh in all thy gates) whatever thy
soul lusteth after" (Deuteronomy 12:15). By tradition it is learned that this
verse refers only to sanctified things that have become unfit, and that they
should be redeemed.
Proof: The tradition to which M. is referring in the above formulation
can be found in the Sifre Deuteronomy, pisqa 71 (p. 134). M. is alone
among all the enumerators to find here an obligation to redeem a blemished
animal set aside for sacrifice. Others maintain that redemption is voluntary.
M.'s selective use of sources, seeing here an obligation, is worth noting.
38
P179. To examine witnesses thoroughly, as it is said, "Then shalt thou
enquire and make search and ask intelligently...." (Deuteronomy 13:15).
The ShM adds, "We must exercise the most scrupulous care, so as not
to give an ill-considered and hasty decision and so harm the innocent." M.' s
38
See di-Boton, Abraham, Lehem Mishneh (Printed in standard editions of Mishneh
Torah), Hilkhot Isure Mizbeah 1:10. A review of talmudic sources leads Perla (Sefer ha-
Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 1, 758-60) to conclude that the redemption of blemished animals
is a voluntary (reshut) act. Contrarily, Horowitz, Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-
Levi, ad loc., finds enough evidence to turn this verse into an unconditional obligation.
For M. ' s apparent prioritization of midreshe halakhah over Talmud, see note 18, above,
and see Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. Heller, N72, note 19.
137
gratuitous comment highlights his continued concern with procedural
O Q
matters, a point made earlier in connection with our analysis of P175.
Proof: M. offers here no rabbinic warrant to prove that to examine
witnesses is a positive commandment.
40
There are no doubts about the
meaning of the scriptural precept; the command is explicit and
unambiguous. What is problematic is the need to individuate this law rather
than to subsume it under a more general commandment, such as one that
would cover the duties and prerogatives of a court. See my earlier comments
at P175 and Excursus 3.
P187. To exterminate the seven Canaanite nations from the land of
Israel, as it is said, "But thou shalt utterly destroy them "
(Deuteronomy 20: 17).
Proof: M. adduces no direct rabbinic warrant in support of his claim,
which he refers to as "an obligatory war" (milhemet mitsvah),
41
but spends a
39
The similarity of these concerns makes it difficult to understand why M. separated
these two commandments in the MT by placing them in two separate treatises: P179 in
Hilkhot 'Edut and N290 ("not to render a decision on one' s personal opinion, but only on
the evidence of two witnesses who saw what actually occurred") in Hilkhot Sanhedrin.
40
Most puzzling, M. fails to adduce an extremely supportive talmudic passage, namely
bSanhedrin 32a: "R. Hanina said: By biblical law [devar torah], both monetary and
capital cases require inquiry and investigation, as it is written: 'One manner of judgment
ye shall have.' " With regard to the enumerators, Qayyara omits this entry though Saadia
lists it. Gabirol's poetic pronouncement is too vague for allowing certain identification,
though Duran, Zohar ha-Raqia, siman 53, p. 61 believes that Gabirol has our claim in
mind; Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, volume I, p.655, disputes this contention.
41
According to bSotah 44b, the Sages and R. Judah agree that the conquest wars
conducted against the seven nations, the war against the Amalekites as well as all
138
great deal of effort to validate it in the face of the obvious problem: these
nations no longer exist. M. states at the outset that the opinion that this
commandment is not binding for all time (which would disqualify it from
being considered a positive commandment as per Rule 3) "will be
entertained only by one who has not grasped the distinction between
commandments that are binding for all time and those that are not." After
acknowledging that "no trace of them [the nations] remains," M. notes that
"it does not follow that the commandment to exterminate them is not
binding for all time, just as we cannot say that the war against 'Amaleq is
not binding for all time, even after they have been consumed and destroyed."
(Note: The proof from the analogy to 'Amaleq (P188) is circular, for one
may well question the validity of that claim - they too have perished and
disappeared.) The heart of the argument, however, is that "no special
condition of time and place is attached to this commandment, as is the case
with those commandments specially designed for the desert or for Egypt."
defensive wars, are to be designated as obligatory wars, though they differ
terminologically: the Sages term these obligatory wars milhemet mitsvah while R. Judah
calls them milhemet hobah. M. ' s follows the opinion of the Sages and calls these wars
milhemet mitsvah. Both sides also agree that wars of expansion are to be categorized as
voluntary wars, milhemet reshut. Where they disagree is in the way one is to categorize
wars conducted to weaken a potential enemy. The sages insist that these wars should also
be categorized as milhemet reshut since one is not obligated to conduct them, while
R. Judah disagrees and calls them milhemet mitsvah. This third category carries certain
legal consequences, which need not concern us at this time. According to R. Judah, while
preventive wars are not strictly speaking obligatory their conduct is specifically legislated
in Deuteronomy 20:1-9, hence its designation milhemet mitsvah, a commanded war.
Nevertheless, as we saw above, its true meaning is that of an advisable war.
From the fact that tannaim disagree about these categories it is reasonable to infer that
these categories represent laws and commandments rather than descriptions of historical
events that only hold an anticuarian interest. Still, it should be noted that the concept of
milhemet mitsvah could have been retained in the halakhah by applying it to "a war to
deliver Israel from the enemy attacking it," as M. does in Hilkhot Melakhim 5:1, but
without having to mention 'Amaleq and the seven nations.
139
This finely drawn distinction is also difficult to countenance since, at least
implicitly, the command to exterminate the seven Canaanite nations appears
to apply to a historically circumscribed period, the conquest and settlement
of the Land of Israel.
42
Even granting that no "condition of time and place"
is attached to this commandment, M. would still have to deal with a second
objection, this one raised by Daniel ha-Bavli, to the effect that a precept can
no longer be incumbent on subsequent generations once the objective of the
precept has been realized.
43
Regardless of the merits of the case, there can be little disagreement
about the negligible practical value of such a commandment, seeing that the
Seven Nations had already disappeared and had lost their national identity.
Could M. have been led to posit this claim and to defend it as vigorously as
he did for didactic considerations? The opening line of his commentary in
the ShM betrays a unique concern. M. states that these nations had to be
exterminated "because they constituted the root and very foundation of
idolatry," and further that "the object was to safeguard us from imitating
their apostasy." M. sees Scripture enjoining Israel to battle idolatry and
heresy, not a specific people or ethnic group. M. returns to this theme time
and again.
44
It would appear then that the abiding value of this
42
This is not only the plain sense of the text but also a position defended halakhically by
Tosafot. See b 'Avodah Zarah 20a, s.v. de-amar qera.
43
Daniel ha-Bavli, She-elah #2, in Abraham Maimonides, "Teshuvot Rabbenu Abraham
ben ha-RaMBaM," page 543. He gives the examples of thou shalt set thee up great
stones ...and thou shalt write upon them all the words of this law (Deuteronomy 27:2-3)
and thou shalt set the blessing upon mount Gerizim and the curse upon mount Eval
(Deuteronomy 11:29).
44
Compare for example N48, which claims that one must not make a covenant with the
seven nations. In the ShM, M. says: "We are forbidden to make a covenant with the
140
commandment lies solely in its theological message: idolatry must be
destroyed and no trace left of it lest it causes Israelites to apostatize.
45
It is
worth noting that the MT, being a practical code of law, sees no need to
justify the commandment. For its purpose it is sufficient that an ever-present
heretics and leave them undisturbed in their heresy." See also N51, N52, N58, where the
emphasis is on heresy rather than ethnicity.
4 5 '
Stern, Josef, "Maimonides on Amaleq, Self-Corrective Mechanisms and the War
against Idolatry," Judaism and Modernity: The Religious Philosophy of David Hartman,
ed. Jonathan W. Malino (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004), comes to a
similar conclusion with respect to 'Amaleq and the seven nations, but, in my opinion,
commits an error in the reading of an important passage in the GP which, in turn, leads
him to make an unjustified claim with regard to M. ' s opinion about the Torah. On the
basis of Guide III, 50:614, Stern claims that M. read Gen 36:12 as neutralizing, i.e.,
introducing a corrective, to the obligation to exterminate 'Amaleq (Deuteronomy 25:17)
because M. demonstrated that the descendants of Esau were "fully assimilated" with the
children of Seir and that, consequently, it was "impossible 'today' to identify the real,
authentic, pure 'Amaleqites as opposed to those who are 'Amaleqites in name only (364-
365)." Stern conjectures that M. was attempting to restrain individuals living in his time
from acting against Christians whom they identified as descendants of 'Amaleq (369). He
draws this conclusion from the following passage of the GP:
Those whom you see today in Seir and the kingdom of 'Amaleq
are not all of them children of 'Amaleq, but some of them are
descendants of this or that individual and are only called after
'Amaleq because the latter's mother belonged to them.
If indeed M. thought that this was the message of Gen 36, one fails to understand how it
was that the Israelites in the wilderness identified 'Amaleq and how Saul did the same a
few hundred years later. In fact, there is no hint in Scripture of doubt in the mind of the
Israelites that they were facing 'Amaleq. Stern acknowledges this problem when he says
that "it makes no historical or chronological sense [368]." Yet Stern dismisses this
chronological and historical concern because ostensibly the Torah is in M. ' s opinion a
"work of guidance to wisdom. It is wisdom relevant to his own contemporary situation
that primarily concerns M. [ibid.]." This conclusion is speculative and not warranted if
we read M.' s words in their proper context. He says, "Consequently, Scripture explained
their tribes [i.e., the tribes of Esau] and said that those whom you see today in Se i r . . "
M. makes it clear that Scripture was actually speaking to its own ancient contemporaries
and not to twelfth century Jewry. On M.' s account, the Torah puts the Israelites on notice
to be extremely careful when identifying 'Amaleq because many of the tribes of Esau and
Seir also identified with them. Nowhere does M. say that it is "impossible" to identify
Amalekites or that they have been "fully assimilated." The fact is that the Israelites
identified and engaged the descendants of 'Amaleq a number of times, as in the
wilderness and at the time of Saul.
141
possibility exists for fulfilling this commandment. The true value of the
commandment is revealed only in the teleologically driven ShM., where it
becomes clear that the commandment is to destroy "the root and very
foundation of idolatry." To M.' s way of thinking, this commandment
represented indeed an eternal obligation.
P192. To prepare a place in the camp,
46
as it is said, "Thou shalt have a
hand [yad] without the camp" (Deuteronomy 23: 13).
The ShM provides more detail: "We are commanded that when our
troops go to war we are to set aside a place outside the camp to which they
are to go forth [to do their need], that they do it not indiscriminately in all
places or among the tents, as other nations do."
Proof: M. offers no proof to support his individuation.
M. follows Sifre Deuteronomy, pisqa 257 (p. 281), in translating
"hand" (yad) as place (maqom). The adjacent verse 14 further directs
combatants, And thou shalt have a paddle among thy weapons; and it shall
be when thou sittest down abroad, thou shalt dig herewith, and shalt turn
back and cover that which cometh from thee. The command to carry a
paddle becomes a separate commandment, specifically P193.
47
Logically,
these two requirements could have been subsumed under the laws of
conducting war, either P187 (obligatory war, milhemet mitsvah) or P190
46
Camp, here, as in military camp. Hyamson translates interpretively: to have a place
outside the camp for sanitary purposes.
47
Qayyara reckons the requirement to carry a paddle (Pq154) but, for some reason, omits
the obligation to prepare a "place". For a summary of possible explanations, see
Hildesheimer, Naftali Tsvi, Haqdamat Sefer Halakhot Gedolot (Jerusalem: 1986), n. 388.
142
48
(optional war, milhemet reshut). Problematically as well, these commands,
i.e. P192 and P193 essentially regulations could have been subsumed
under one commandment given their common sanitary objective. In GP
III:41:566, M. appears to take the view that these two regulations form a
single commandment:
This book also includes the commandment to prepare
a [Pines adds "secluded", but he misleads rather than
clarifies] place and a paddle. For one of the purposes
of the Law consists, as I have made known to you, in
cleanliness and avoidance of excrements and of dirt
and in man's [sic] not being like the beasts. And this
commandment also fortifies, by means of the actions it
enjoins, the certainty of the combatants that the
Indwelling has descended among them as is
explained in the reason given for it: For the Lord thy
God walketh in the midst of thy camp (ibid., 15) (my
emphasis).
For M., cleanliness is a fundamental idea, a way to affirm a human
being's unique status in creation and special relation to the Divine. I would
suggest that it was precisely this idea and his wish to emphasize it that
48
The last objection can be attenuated with respect to the ShM, where there are in effect
two such laws, one governing milhemet reshut and one milhemet mitsvah, following the
exception given in rule 12, that details of a charge can be counted if they embrace more
than one specific charge. For example, M. enumerates separately the admonition against
offering an animal as sacrifice if it has not reached the age of acceptability and the
obligation that we are to offer salt with every offering. Since these two injunctions apply
to both P187 and P190, their independent enumeration is justifiable. This is not the case,
however, in the Halakhot, where milhemet reshut and milhemet mitsvah are subsumed
under one law, the only difference residing in the special case where the enemy does not
surrender. See Hilkhot Melakhim 6:1-4. Thus, P192 and P193 constitute particulars of the
general conduct of war in the Halakhot and ought not to be individuated. Heller, P191,
note 10, proposes a far-fetched and unattested emendation to chapter 6 of Hilkhot
Melakhim in order to remove a different difficulty; the result of this emendation,
nevertheless, is to confirm that P192 and P193 apply equally to the two types of war.
143
primed M. to individuate these two regulations rather than to have them
subsumed under the rules and regulations of warfare.
5.1.2.f Exegetical Transfers and Extensions
The following commandment claims cannot properly be grouped
under one single hermeneutic. What is common to them is that M.
appropriates a rabbinic interpretation and infuses it with new meaning, either
by transferring it to a new domain or by extending it beyond its original
scope.
P37. That the priests defile themselves for their deceased relatives, and
mourn for them like other Israelites, who are commanded to mourn for their
relatives, as it is said, "... for her, he shall defile himself" (Leviticus 21: 3).
This commandment claim contains two parts, to wit, that the priests
must defile themselves for relatives and that they, as well as all Israelites,
must mourn for their dead. The second part of the claim is supposed to be
inferred from the first but the inference is difficult to sustain. What leads M.
to this exegetical stress is that he has found a talmudic source that assumes
that mourning is a scripturally mandated commandment (at least for the first
day) in spite of the lack of an explicit scriptural command to that effect.
Proof: M. finds evidence that mourning is a scriptural obligation
because the talmudic Sages held that mourning is not to be observed during
a festival. The talmudic passage (bMoed Qatan 14b) reads as follows: "If the
mourning begins before the Festival, the positive precept affecting all Israel
[to rejoice in the Festival] overrides that affecting only the individual
144
commandment enjoining one [to mourn over his deceased relative]." M.
concludes from the above that "it is clear that the obligation of mourning is
scriptural, but is scripturally obligatory only on the first day, while the
remaining six days [of mourning are obligatory only by] rabbinic
ordinance." The conclusion that the Sages consider mourning a scriptural
obligation follows the opinion of many geonim and, in particular, M.' s
principal halakhic authority, Isaac Alfasi.
49
In his search for scriptural evidence for the mourning commandment,
the ShM adduces the following midrash: "For her he shall defile himself, is a
positive commandment. If he [a priest] does not wish to defile himself he is
made to do so against his wi l l . . " (Sifra, Emor parshah 1:12, p.94a) The
Sifra's point is clear enough: priests must defile themselves for their dead
relatives that is, involve themselves with the burial of the dead person,
even to the extent of coming into contact with the corpse in spite of the
general prohibition that forbids them to defile themselves for the dead. M.
goes on to argue that "this itself is the commandment of mourning, that is to
say that every Israelite person [Ar. shkhts, but 'male' in MnT] is obligated to
mourn his relatives, that is, the five
50
dead [relatives] for whom there is a
duty (mete mitsvah)." Using an a fortiori inference, M. explains that
it is to confirm this obligation that He has
expressly declared in the case of the priest, who is
[ordinarily] forbidden to suffer defilement, that [in
respect of the five relatives] he must defile himself at
49
Alfasi' s ruling can be found in his Hilkhot ha-RIF, bBerakhot 10a, and bMoed Qatan
11b (Vilna edition pagination).
50
Some versions have six; see Tsiyunim, Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ad loc. and see Sefer ha-
Mitsvot, ed. Kafih, ad loc. note 26.
145
any rate like all other Israelites, so that the law of
mourning may not be lightly esteemed.
Towards the end of his comments, M. makes this connection again,
noting that "even a priest is bound to observe mourning on the first day, and
to defile himself for his [deceased] relatives. Understand this." Clearly, M. is
aware that the demonstration is forced and wants the reader to make the
necessary leap. Karo jumps at M.' s suggestion:
"This proof is puzzling, for defilement is one
matter and mourning another. One cannot draw an
implication that a priest must mourn his relatives from
the fact that He commanded that [the priest] defile
himself for his relatives." (Kesef Mishneh, Hilkhot
Avel, 1:1.)
In short, M. struggles to find a basis for this commandment in
Scripture. His approach is highly original but, ultimately, unsatisfying.
While the Oral Law preserves a tradition to the effect that mourning
constitutes a positive commandment (at least for the first day), Scripture is
strangely silent. This stress forces M. to make a second and again largely
unsuccessful attempt in the MT before abandoning the connection altogether
in the GP (3:47). See Appendix.
In my opinion, there is no special politico-philosophical or theological
drive behind this claim. Instead, I believe that M.' s forced attempts to find a
basis in Scripture for this practice or precept was primed exclusively by the
extraordinary respect that he held for the Oral tradition. This respectful
attitude was foreshadowed in Rule 2, where he makes a rare concession and
states that "if the Sages themselves clearly affirm that 'it is of the essence of
Torah' or that 'it is of scriptural authority,' it is proper to count that
146
particular law [among the commandments]" even though the law is not
scripturally explicit.
P112. That the leper shall be universally recognized as such by the
prescribed marks: "His garments shall be rent and the hair of his head
dishevelled and he shall cover his upper lip and shall cry 'unclean,
unclean' " (Leviticus 13:45). So too, all other unclean persons should
declare themselves as such.
Proof: Sifra, Tazri'a pereq 12:5 (p.67d) homes in on the redundant
prepositional phrase in The leper in whom the plague is (Leviticus 13:45)
and concludes that it is Scripture's intention to require absolutely anyone in
whom the plague is [asher bo ha-neg 'a] to rend his clothes and let his hair
loose (i.e let it grow long). This, the midrash asserts, includes the High
Priest, despite the well known prohibition against him doing so under
normal circumstances. The waiver from the prohibition for a High Priest to
look unkempt catches M.'s attention. He says:
It is an accepted principle among us that wherever you
find a positive commandment and a negative
commandment [applying at the same time] if you can
fulfill both, well and good; but if not, the positive
commandment overrides the negative commandment
(yavo 'aseh ve-yidhe et lo ta 'aseh).
Therefore, M. deduces that
since we find it laid down [by the Sages] that if a High
Priest is leprous he must let his hair go loose and rend
his clothes [the negative commandment
notwithstanding], it follows that this is a positive
147
commandment [for every leper without exception to
rend his clothes, etc.].
M.'s inference is not entirely convincing. The midrash, as we saw,
arrives at the innovative conclusion that the law applies even to a High Priest
by positing that the redundant prepositional phrase in whom the plague is
must have come to emphasize the universality of the requirement and not by
applying the well known talmudic principle of yavo 'aseh ve-yidhe et lo
ta'aseh, as M. presupposes. Yet, it is only the latter rationale that allows M.
to claim that "the leper is to be made distinguishable" is a positive
commandment. That is, the requirement that "the leper is to be made
distinguishable" is perhaps not a positive commandment at all and the
midrash is simply resorting to a special scriptural inference.
51
To appreciate the extraordinary leap that M. makes to craft this claim,
consider the following. The Sifra, which M. adduces as proof, does not
speak to the essence of the commandment as seen by M., namely, that the
leper is to be made distinguishable. It only tells us that even a High Priest
must rend his clothes and let his hair go loose if he becomes a leper. In other
words, the Sifra warrants that only the specified actions must be taken, not
the collection of actions that make the leper distinguishable.
52
51
See Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. I, P189, pp. 808-10. Horowitz, Sefer ha-
Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-Levi, p. 121, n. 5, acknowledges the problem but dismisses it
by saying that the exegesis follows and is based on the knowledge that the hermeneutic
principle is applicable in this situation. In other words, the midrash is integrative rather
than creative. This misses the point: M. is intent on proving that these actions constitute a
positive commandment, information that can only be conveyed if the midrash resorted to
the self-sustaining principle of yavo 'aseh ve-yidhe et lo ta 'aseh.
52
Note that M. individuates the idea that a leper must make himself distinguishable
despite the fact that it could have been subsumed under P101 ("that a leper is unclean and
defiles") - as a mere particular of the laws of the leper. In Hilkhot Tumat Tsara'at 10:7,
148
Our earlier discussion of Rule 11 touched upon this commandment
(section 2.3). We noted that M. used this commandment to illustrate the idea
that the related actions of a commandment ought to make them part of a
single commandment claim. In this case, the various actions demanded of a
leper constitute a single commandment. These are: His clothes shall be rent,
and the hair of his head shall go loose, and he shall cover his upper lip, and
shall cry: Unclean, unclean (Leviticus 13:45). The purpose of all these
actions, avers M., is that "the leper is to be made recognizable so that we
may keep away from him." M. goes even further and states that "wherever it
will be made clear to you that the desired goal [of a commandment] is not
obtained by any one of its elements, it is also obvious that it is their totality
that it is to be counted." Such would be the case if and when the leper, for
example, rends his clothes but does not perform the other three
requirements. In such a case, the leper "has accomplished nothing; his being
distinguishable is not achieved until he has done all [the things mentioned]."
M.'s interpretation and his halakhic conclusion are novel and highly
M. labels the requirement that a leper be secluded, derived from he shall dwell apart; his
dwelling shall be outside the camp (Leviticus 13:46), a specific provision of the
commandment (din ha-metsora) rather than an independent commandment. I assume,
though it is by no means clear, that M. means a provision of P101 (so, too, de-Leon,
"Megillat Esther," p. 291). Nahmanides, "Hasagot," in his addenda to the positive
commandments, number 14 (p. 290), says that M. counted he shall dwell apart; his
dwelling shall be outside the camp as an independent commandment.Duran, Zohar ha-
Raqia, siman 80, p. 92 proposes to make P112 part of the independent commandment of
he shall dwell apart; his dwelling shall be outside the camp. See the bibliography cited in
note 469 of this edition and see also siman 45, p. 46 and the accompanying note. It is
possible that both Nahmanides and Duran understood the leper's obligation to remain
secluded as a more general form of the obligation to keep people away from his person.
For both of these jurists, therefore, the commandment was he shall dwell apart; his
dwelling shall be outside the camp, whereas the requirements to rend clothes, keep the
head covered, etc., constituted mere details of the commandment. In contrast, M. held
that the leper's obligation to display his impurity constituted the more general principle
while the precept to live secluded was a detail.
149
original. We can find no support for this bit of teleological thinking in the
specific rabbinic source adduced by M., or for that matter in any other
source. These sources do no more than to uphold the obligation to carry out,
independently, each of the actions prescribed in the verse.
In sum, M. views the individual actions teleologically, as he often
does in the ShM. To his way of thinking, Scripture is not after individual,
unrelated actions that lack a cohesive purpose. Rather, Scripture is after an
over-arching objective or telos. The telos sought by Scripture appears to be
none other than the drawing of a clear demarcation between the clean and
the unclean.
P149. To examine the marks in cattle, as it is said, "these are the beasts
which ye may e a t . " (Leviticus 11:2).
P150. To examine the marks in fowl, so as to distinguish between the
unclean and the clean, as it is said, "Of all clean birds ye may eat"
(Deuteronomy 14:11).
P151. To examine the marks in locusts, so as to distinguish the clean
from the unclean, as it is said, "(yet these may ye eat of every flying,
creeping thing that goeth upon all four) which have legs (above their
feet)" (Leviticus 11:21).
53
P152. To examine the marks in fishes, as it is said, "These shall ye eat of
all that are in the waters ..." (Leviticus 11:9).
53
Note that this verse contains a description of the locusts, not the typical proof-text
for the commandment. See discussion in text, below.
150
As in every instance where M. struggles with the formulation of a
commandment claim and/or with the hermeneutic supporting it, traces of this
struggle can be found in the linguistic variants of the extant versions of the
ShM (and the MT). This commandment claim is just one of those instances.
Though I am unable to determine with any degree of certainty the final form
of this claim I am able to conclude that all the changes carry a similar
message, that of promoting a rational act of separating the pure from the
impure, what can be consumed from what cannot be. M. pursues this agenda
by means of a forced, at times confusing but nonetheless creative exegetical
exercise.
For the sake of simplicity, since there are no variant readings of the
claims made in the SE as there are in the ShM, I assume that the words "to
examine" in all four claims represent M.'s original intent.
54
M. makes here a
highly innovative claim but, as we shall soon see, the supporting
argumentation in the ShM is confusing and unsatisfying.
54
The ShM versions appear to reflect at least two different literary or compositional
stages. The MnT translation is similar to the language of the SE. It claims that the
commandment mandates one to "examine" (livdoq) the tokens of the various animals and
"[only] then would their consumption be permitted." The Arabic versions (including
Kafih' s) and the Shlomo ibn Ayub translation cited by Heller in the notes to his ShM
edition read instead "that we were commanded about [Hebrew al; Arabic b; or
"concerning"] the tokens" of the various animals. The former version would obligate one
to examine the animals for tokens of fitness; the latter, simply to know the characteristics
of animals that are fit for consumption. More formally, and in accordance with M.' s own
suggestion at P95, the second version may be restated as follows: the commandment is
that one must deal with the prescribed tokens in accordance with this law. The practical
difference seems to be that, in the first case, one must examine every animal for fitness
tokens before one can eat of its meat, while in the second case it is sufficient if one
knows that the animal bears the prescribed tokens. The difference in formulation is also
present in M. ' s later compositions, as we shall see.
151
Proof: After explicitly prohibiting the consumption of living things
that do not possess the requisite tokens (the subjects of the negative
commandments 172 through 174), Scripture further enjoins the faithful:
These are the living things which ye may eat among all the beasts that are
on the earth. Whatsoever parteth, etc. among the beasts, that may ye eat
(Leviticus 11:2-3). As a proof-text for P149, M. cites the opening line of the
verse, these are the living things which ye may eat, together with Sifra's
exposition on the closing statement of verse 3: "That may ye eat: only that
may be eaten, but not the unclean beast." (Sifra, Sheminipereq 3:1, p. 48b)
M. explains that what the midrash is doing is to infer a prohibition
from the positive statement. As we have seen on a number of occasions, this
type of prohibition, technically called 'a negative commandment that is
inferred from a do-statement' (lav ha-ba-mikhlal 'aseh, also issur 'aseh) is
formally treated as a positive commandment. M. shows himself satisfied
with this "proof" ("thus it has been made clear that His words that ye may
eat are a positive commandment"). Yet, other than the fact that the verse is
formally designated as a positive commandment, we need to better grasp
what precisely does the exegesis denote and what does M. actually
demonstrate.
The midrash appears to say that Leviticus 11:2-3 adds a second
prohibition against eating living things that do not possess the requisite
tokens on top of the existing negatively formulated prohibitions, but it does
so through the implications of an affirmative statement (that ye may eat).
This at least is the way M.'s critics understood the midrash.
55
Clearly, this
55
Interestingly, Daniel ha-Bavli would have M. derive the commandment to
examine/know the tokens of living things roaming on land from these are the living
152
has nothing to do with the idea of examining or ascertaining the nature of the
tokens.
To be sure, M.' s reading does appear to capture the sense of the
midrash. Note that the proof-text that M. cites as the scriptural evidence for
the claim "to examine the marks", namely, verse 2, These are the living
things which ye may eat differs substantially from the proof-text found at the
end of verse 3, that may ye eat, and its midrashic exposition, which M. uses
to prove that we are in the presence of a lav ha-ba mikhlal 'aseh and hence a
formal 'aseh. It is verse 2 that describes the commandment claim and not, as
the critics and ordinary readers have supposed, verse 3. To M., the deictic
"these" (zot) conveys an act of choosing or ascertaining; hence the
commandment to examine the tokens of fitness. In fact, this is precisely how
Sifra, Sheminiparshah 2:2 (p. 47d) understands this term. On the verse
These are the living things which ye may eat, the midrash expounds: "It
things which ye may eat among all the beasts that are on the earth (Leviticus 11:2), in
accordance with Sifra Shemini parshah 2:7 (p.48a); of birds from these ye shall have in
detestation (Leviticus 11:13); and fish from even these of them ye may eat (Leviticus
11:22). Since the latter is said in relation to grasshoppers I suggest that he meant these ye
may eat of all that are in the waters (Leviticus 11:9). In any event, M. uses none of these
passages as his proof-texts. Crucially, Daniel ha-Bavli infers an additional, non-explicit
prohibition against eating non-kosher living things (Abraham Maimonides, "Teshuvot
Rabbenu Abraham ben ha-RaMBaM," siman 10, p. 277, s.v. u-le-shitato). Nahmanides,
too, fails to see here anything other than a prohibition against eating non-kosher living
things. This is evident from the fact that he rejects the idea that one fulfills a
commandment (naaseh mitsvah) by eating a beast or a fish with the requisite tokens or
that one transgresses by catching one of those animals and not eating it. Furthermore,
since an explicit prohibition to eat non-kosher living things already exists, Nahmanides
sees no reason to enumerate this additional injunction and finds Qayyara's omission fully
justified. Nahmanides, Hasagot, rule 6, p. 131, s.v. ve-ani roeh. As we saw, however, M.
does not derive the existence of an inferred prohibition to eat non-kosher living things
from this midrash but rather a commandment that one must examine the animal's tokens
before one may eat from its meat. Nahmanides could have questioned the relationship
between the midrash and the presumed claim but he surely would not have misread the
claim. Thus I am at a loss to understand his critique.
153
teaches us that Moses held the living thing, and on showing it to the
Israelites, would say, 'this you may eat, this you may not eat'." The unusual
presentation of the commandment, M.'s use of one proof-text to describe the
claim and of another one to support the legal force of the claim, no doubt
confused his critics, as we saw. And while Sifra's exposition on verse 2
provides the color for M.'s innovative commandment, it does little to prove
that we are in the presence of an obligation. M.'s hermeneutics remains
problematic.
In his comment to P152, M. makes a subtle but dramatic and
surprising exegetical about-face. First, he points out that the verse These may
ye eat of all that are in the waters (Leviticus 11:9) implies that other fish are
not to be eaten. M. adduces the well-known rule that a prohibition derived
from a positive statement is deemed a positive commandment (lav ha-ba-
mikhlal 'aseh, 'aseh) and concludes that "it is clear that His words these may
ye eat are a positive commandment." This demonstration follows the
exegetical patterns presented in P149 and P150. After he is done with this
particular demonstration, M. moves to offer a further explanation or
clarification, applicable to the entire group just reviewed, which, on closer
inspection, appears to be an entirely new explanation:
And what we meant to say that it is a positive
commandment is what I said
56
that we are commanded
to decide on the basis of these tokens that one fish is
permitted food, and another is not permitted, as
56
Ve-ha-inyan be-amarnu she-hi mitsvat 'aseh, mah she-hizkarti lekhah, an idiomatic
expression of re-statement, not captured adequately in Chavel's "this means, as I have
said, etc." On M. ' s intellectual dynamism and his ability to infuse a new rationale to an
older and rejected position, see Henshke, D., "Maimonides as His Own Commentator
[Hebrew]," Sefunot 23 (2003), pp. 117-163.
154
Scripture clearly says: Ye shall separate between the
clean beast and the unclean (and between the unclean
fowl and the clean) [Leviticus 20:25].
In this unexpected comment, M. shifts the weight of the exegetical
proof away from the earlier proof-texts that essentially conveyed
prohibitions to an entirely new verse. It is as if M. recognized that the
inferred prohibitions do not, after all, denote what he claimed for them,
namely, to command an examination of tokens with a view to deciding
which living things are fit to eat and which are not. The new proof-text
explicitly commands one to differentiate the clean living thing from the
unclean. Still, M. is not done with the inferred prohibitions. Acutely aware
that the newly adduced verse spells out but one activity and not four thus
implying only one commandment, not four M. hangs on to the exegeses
of the inferred prohibitions to support his individuating strategy:
The separation can be made only by means of the
[prescribed] tokens, and therefore [the injunction to
search for] the tokens in each of the four types [of
living creatures] animals tame and wild, birds,
grasshoppers, and fish is a separate and distinct
commandment. We have already shown that [the
Sages] regarded each of them as one of the positive
commandments.
How the particular breakdown of the various prohibitions against
eating non-kosher living things (cast as a positive commandment) can shed
light on the new commandment to examine the tokens of living things prior
155
to consuming them is not explained and remains, in my opinion,
problematic.
57
By now it should be apparent that this group of commandment claims
is neither textually nor midrashically driven. The verse Ye shall separate
between the clean beast and the unclean is not as comprehensive as M.
would like it to be, since it refers to beasts and birds but omits fish and
58
grasshoppers. Crucially, the exegesis lacks any sort of rabbinic support. On
the other hand, the first attempt, making use of midrashim that expound the
verses to yield inferred prohibitions, is of questionable value. Inferred
prohibitions are just that, prohibitions, and in no way do they convey
obligations. While this anomalous use of inferred prohibitions formally
called "do's" to support claims of certain positive commandments is a
general problem in the ShM as we have noted on a number of occasions,
59
it
does betray the urgency of the larger didactic project. M. is intent at all costs
to catalogue a list of commandments that will emphasize what to him are
important themes. One of these themes is the absolute and categorical
separation of various domains. To his way of thinking, lines of demarcation
must at all times be clear and unequivocal. As a result, M. fashions
commandments whose function is to draw these boundaries, separating the
clean from the unclean, the pure from the impure, the priests from the
57
I suggest that what does stand out is M. ' s desire to preserve four claims for his
enumeration. See our discussion on individuation, section 2.4.
58
Cf. Daniel ha-Bavli, Abraham Maimonides, "Teshuvot Rabbenu Abraham ben ha-
RaMBaM," siman 10, p.277, s.v. ve-od hinneh bier.
59
See, for example section 2.1.1, note 10.
156
Levites and the Levites from the Israelites, the Israelites from the
surrounding pagan nations.
60
P172. To heed the call of every prophet in each generation, provided that
he neither adds to nor takes away from the Torah, as it is said, "... unto
him ye shall hearken" (Deuteronomy 18: 15).
Proof: M. resorts to a midrash that puts a unique spin on the verse unto him
ye shall hearken (Deuteronomy 18:15): "Even if he tells you to violate
temporarily one of the commandments enjoined in the Torah, you must
hearken unto him." (Sifre Deuteronomy, pisqa 175, p. 221) Included in this
commandment is the prohibition for a prophet to disobey his own prophecy
and the prohibition for a prophet to suppress a prophetic message. The
Talmud (bSanhedrin 89a) derives these various prohibitions from the verse
Whosoever will not hearken unto My words which he shall speak in My
name, I will require it of him (Deuteronomy 18: 19). M. points out that,
according to the Talmud, the scriptural verse indicates that transgressors are
punishable by the Hand of Heaven.
Here again M. makes use of that curious hermeneutic, the inferred
prohibition (lav ha-ba-mikhlal 'aseh). As we already saw, this principle
60
This concern bears a striking parallel to Platonic political thought with its use of
different metals as symbols for the hermeticism of social classes. On the Platonic
influence on M. see Strauss, Leo, "Quelques remarques sur la science politique de
Maimonide et de Farabi," Revue des Etudes Juives 100 (1936), I quote (p. 14):
Et comme la science politique connue et jugee digne de quelque
attention par Maimonide est une politique platonisante, ce
seront, en fin de compte, les doctrines de La Republique et des
Lois qui vont determiner la maniere dont Maimonide comprend
la Tora.
157
allows one to treat the inferred prohibition as a positive commandment
simply because the prohibition (i.e. that one must not disobey the prophet) is
derived from a positive statement. Recall our discussion in 2.1.1 where we
called these positive commandments in form rather than in substance.
Less controversially, M. could have based his claim on a genuine
prohibition, be no more stiffnecked (Deuteronomy 10:16), as Saadia did,
61
making it a negative rather than a positive commandment. I suspect,
however, that only Sifre's explication of Deuteronomy 18:15 provided M.
with the appropriate basis on which to build the highly original exposition of
the fundaments of prophecy presented in his Introduction to the Mishnah and
in Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah (chapters 7-10). M. makes a direct reference to
the connection between P172 and the fundaments of prophecy in the ShM
gloss to the commandment when he states that the commandment is
to hearken to any genuine prophet [lit., prophet from
among the prophets] and to do whatever he bids, even
if it be contrary to one or more of the [scriptural]
commandments, provided that it is only temporary,
and does not involve a permanent addition to or
subtraction from [the Law], as we have explained in
the Introduction to the Mishnah.
In an important way, M.' s discussion of prophecy in the Introduction
to the Mishnah is grounded on Deuteronomy 18:15-19 and Sifre's
interpretations of this passage. M. may well have understood that the Oral
tradition viewed these verses as Scripture's focal exposition of the laws of
prophecy. It should therefore come as no surprise to find M. craft a positive
commandment out of these verses despite the apparent hermeneutic
61
Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 2, Ns49, p. 97.
158
difficulty pointed out earlier.
62
For the manner with which M. treats this
commandment in the MT, see Appendix and see sections 6.1.1 and 9.4.
P178. That one who possesses evidence shall testify in Court, as it is
said, "... and if one is a witness, and hath seen or known [if he do not
tell, then he shall bear his iniquity]" (Leviticus 5:1).
Proof: Scripture makes it known that anyone who withholds evidence
will suffer serious consequences, as it says, And if any one sin, in that he
heareth the voice of adjuration, he being a witness, whether he hath seen or
known, if he do not utter it, then he shall bear his iniquity (Leviticus 5:1).
The tenor of the verse is not one of enjoining witnesses to offer up evidence
62
Yet it is worth noting that M. was preceded in this by a number of enumerator-jurists,
though, for some unexplained reason, Qayyara was not among them. A possible
explanation might be that Qayyara does not list this entry because he does not normally
count prohibitions inferred from positive statements (as proposed by Nahmanides,
Hasagot to rule 6, p.131). But even this thesis would have Qayyara count this particular
commandment since it does not duplicate an existing admonition It is also puzzling that
Qayyara does not list this commandment in the punishments (onshin) section, under
"those who are liable to death by the hand of Heaven," a category that is not type-specific
and therefore can suitably include inferred prohibitions. For example, Qayyara lists under
onshin "[a priest] that does not wash hand and feet from a basin," also an inferred
prohibition. Although Saadia lists this precept in his Decalogue-based azharot (under the
third utterance), describing it as "my inheritance listens to the words of the prophet of
God," he omits it in the Sefer ha-Mitsvot, which Perla annotated. Perla does a
commendable job explaining the omission (Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 2,
Ns49, pp. 97-99). Another enumerator, with whom M. was familiar, Hefets b. Yatsliah,
also lists this precept: "It is our duty to listen to the words of the pr ophe t . " (ninth
commandment). See "Mi-Sefer ha-Mitsvot shel Hefets b. Yatsliah," PAAJR, ed. M.
Zucker, vol. XXIX (1960-1961), p. 34. In note 21, Zucker points out that both Saadia in
his Arabic Sefer ha-Mitsvot and Samuel b. Hofni counted this obligation.
159
but rather one of admonishing them against holding back evidence. The
admonition is followed by a threat. The understanding that effectively we
are dealing with an admonition rather than a precept, is confirmed by a little-
noticed statement that M. makes in his comments to N297, the prohibition
against neglecting to save an Israelite in danger of losing his life and/or his
money. After stating that "[t]he Sages say
63
that this prohibition [i.e.,
neglecting to save an Israelite in danger] covers also the case of one who
withholds evidence..." he adds, "Scripture again refers to this matter: if he do
not utter it, then he shall bear his iniquity [Leviticus 5:1]." In other words, at
N297, M. construes Leviticus 5:1 as conveying an admonition, i.e., a
negative commandment, rather than a positive commandment.
Commentators have struggled to read some type of affirmative
injunction into the text. R. David ibn Zimra (RaDBaZ, ad loc) emends
(notionally) the verse and adds "must tell" after whether he hath seen or
known. RaDBaZ's solution is self-serving: it supplies an invented
affirmative statement to back up a presumed positive statement. Moreover,
this type of solution ought to be used only in cases where one finds a clear
rabbinic tradition supporting such a reading, which, as we learn below, is not
the case here.
64
Equally unsatisfactory is the solution offered by Duran, who
63
M. is referring to Sifra Qedoshim, pereq 4:8 (p.89a) on Leviticus 19:16, which he
adduces a little further on.
64
The best examples are the ones in which M. sees a need to cite tradition in the reading
of the verse. These are introduced by the formula "tradition taught" (lamdu mi-pi ha-
shemu'ah), as in P85, P86, P109, P128, and others. To be sure, these involve not textual
manipulation but, for the most part, contextual manipulation changing their meaning
by transporting them from one context to another. Where some textual manipulation is
required, M. can cite a number of traditions to support the difficult reading, as for
example N194.
160
conjures up a syntactically impossible imperative, interpreting he being
witness to mean that he is obligated to be a witness.
65
If the scriptural
evidence for this claim does not satisfy, neither does the rabbinic one.
M. states in the ShM that the "Sages adduce as proof of this obligation
to give testimony" the above cited proof-text but, unfortunately, fails to cite
the rabbinic source.
66
In sum, there is no evidence of a positive
commandment urging one to offer testimony, neither in Scripture nor in
rabbinic literature. On M.' s own account, (comments at N297), the verse if
he do not utter it, then he shall bear his iniquity is only a special case of the
overall prohibition to stand by while an Israelite is in danger of losing his
life or his money.
This law is no doubt seen as a pillar of an effective judicial system
which may explain M.'s desire to craft out of if he do not utter it, then he
65
Zohar ha-Raqia, siman 53, p.61. See also Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, Ps 31/32,
Volume I, p.863a.
66
Kesef Mishneh and Elijah of Vilnah point to bBava Qamma 56a, but this passage does
nothing to support the existence of an obligation to provide testimony. Instead, the
passage warrants that the verse, which promises an unspecified retribution, deals with the
case of two witnesses who withhold evidence, while R. Joshua maintains that even one
witness who withholds evidence incurs heavenly disfavor. The punishment for
withholding evidence is scriptural, but where is the command to bring the evidence?
Bothered by this lack of direct evidence, Yosef b. Habiba, in the beginning of his Nemuqe
Yosef commentary to the sixth chapter of Bava Qamma, asserts that the obligation to
testify is only a supererogatory act (gemilat hesed). [Yosef ibn Habiba, Nemuqe Yosef
(Printed in standard editions of the Babylonian Talmud containing Hilkhot Alfasi)]. Other
commentators have thought to have found their source in mSanhedrin 4:5. The mishnah
has the witnesses complain about having to testify given the extraordinary trouble that
they must go through and the severe admonishments they are served with to do so: "And
if perchance ye would say, Why should we be at these pains? Was it not once written
'and he being a witness, whether he hath seen or known, if he do not utter it, etc.' "
Implicit is the obligation to provide testimony, although, of course, one could read the
retort as articulating the gravity of the sin of withholding testimony, with no affirmation
being implied. See Yosef ibn Habiba, Nemuqe Yosef .
161
shall bear his iniquity a positive commandment urging one to provide
testimony - despite scant scriptural or rabbinic evidence for it. For a possible
motivation, see Excursus 3.
P189. Always to keep in remembrance what ' Amaleq did, as it is said,
"Remember what ' Amaleq did unto thee" (Deuteronomy 25:17).
More specifically in the ShM:
We are commanded to remember what 'Amaleq did to
us in attacking us unprovoked. We are to speak of this
at all times, and to arouse the people [ha-nefashot] to
make war upon him and bid the people [ha-am] to hate
them, to the end that this matter
67
be not forgotten, and
that hatred of him be not weakened or lessened with
the passage of time.
Proof: The scriptural evidence for this obligation and the parallel
obligation not to forget 'Amaleq's deeds is found in Deuteronomy 25:17-19:
Remember what 'Amaleq did unto thee (v.17) and thou shalt not forget
(v.19). To prove that these statements are normative and not mere rhetorical
flourishes, M. adduces two essentially similar midreshe halakhah. The first
is found in Sifre Deuteronomy, pisqa 296 (p. 314): "Remember what
'Amaleq did unto thee means [remembrance] in the spoken word; thou shalt
not forget means [remembrance] in the heart", to which M. adds, "That is,
you are to speak such things as will ensure that the hatred of 'Amaleq is not
67
That is, his unprovoked attack. The MnT reads mitsvah instead of davar, which can
variously be interpreted as the commandment to destroy ' Amaleq or the commandment to
remember his misdeeds.
162
removed from men's hearts." The second is found in Sifra Be-Huqotai,
parshah 1:3 (p.110c):
68
Remember what 'Amaleq did unto thee: one might
think that this means in thy heart. But thou shalt not
forget refers to forgetfulness of the heart: how then
can one obey the injunction Remember [if that also
refers to the heart? We must conclude that
Remember means:] in the spoken word.
While the adduced midrashim do not attach to these verses the label
positive and negative commandments (as the Sifre does, for example, with
regard to Deuteronomy 22:8, commenting on a similar mirror-image
phrase),
69
they are nonetheless supportive of the idea that these verses
represent formal and distinct acts.
70
M. draws support from an incident related in Samuel I, 15:1-33. Just
before sending Saul king of Israel on a mission to slay 'Amaleq, the prophet
Samuel formally recalls the past wickedness of 'Amaleq, no doubt, suggests
M., in fulfillment of the commandment to remember their nefarious past
acts.
71
But at this point we run into a difficulty. Scripture's call to recount
68
Some printed versions incorrectly referenced Sifre. See Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. Heller,
ad loc., note 5.
69
Sifre Deuteronomy, Ki Tetse pisqa 229, (p.261) states: "Thou shalt make a parapet for
thy roof [is] a positive commandment, that thou bring not blood upon thy house [is] a
negative commandment."
70
Nahmanides turns M. ' s evidence against him by arguing that, on the basis of the same
or similar midrashim, M. should have enumerated one or two additional commands
(Nahmanides, "Hasagot," additions to the positive commandments, #7, p.288). See also
de-Leon, "Megillat Esther," p. 289. This is one of the rare instances in which we find the
Maimonidean apologist di Leon agreeing with Nahmanides.
71
This type of "demonstration," drawn from the non-Pentateuchal books, was common
amongst Karaite jurists and exegetes, but much less so amongst the Rabbanites, who
163
'Amaleq's past misdeeds can simply be seen as providing a motivation or
justification for the commandment to exterminate the vile nation.
Normatively, it might even be taken to mean that one must recollect
'Amaleq's evil deeds and intentions when one is about to fulfill the
commandment to kill an 'Amaleqite. In other words, the duty to recall
'Amaleq's deeds is an integral part of the commandment to exterminate
them. Even the Samuel passage can be interpreted to convey the idea that
one must announce, verbally, the justification for wishing to destroy
'Amaleq if and when one is set to do so. In fact, Samuel's words
(15:2):"Thus said the Lord of Hosts: I am exacting [paqadeti] the penalty for
what 'Amaleq did to I s r ael . " (JPS) tend more towards a justification for
the coming action than a daily reminder of 'Amaleq's evil. The problem,
however, is that, under Rules 10, 11 and 12, any command that forms part of
another commandment or that is a preparation for it cannot be enumerated as
an independent commandment. If to recall 'Amaleq's evil deeds is a
justificatory declaration that one must make prior to destroying him in war,
then Remember cannot be considered an independent positive
commandment. M. sidesteps this problem by defining the obligation as "to
speak of this at all times, and to arouse the people to make war upon him and
bid the people to hate them, to the end that this matter be not forgotten, and
that hatred of him be not weakened or lessened with the passage of time"
(my emphasis). Accordingly, Remember is not a declaration made in
conjunction with the commandment to exterminate 'Amaleq. Rather, it is a
daily reminder to all people of 'Amaleq's viciousness so that "this matter be
tended to rely on the oral tradition for interpretation. See, for example, Levi ben Yafet,
Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. Y. Algamil (Ashdod: Makhon Tiferet Yosef, 2004), passim.
164
not forgotten, and that hatred of him be not weakened or lessened with the
passage of time." On this definition, M. can posit an independent
commandment. But whence such an understanding? How does M. know that
Sifre intended this and not simply a justificatory declaration?
Interestingly, neither Qayyara nor any of the other extant enumerators
who preceded M. included this commandment in their TaRYaG lists.
72
Perhaps, these enumerators saw these verses as mere reminders of the
obligation to destroy 'Amaleq (v.19). The scriptural obligation calling for
'Amaleq's extermination could surely have sufficed. M., on the other hand,
held as we saw that these verses represent a distinctly separate obligation.
M. brings to bear on the verse and on the interpretive rabbinic
midrash a totally novel concept, the duty to remember and to remind others
of those who have done the Israelite nation harm and tried to destroy them,
without provocation, so as to maintain fresh in their memory their hatred for
73
him (or his hatred for them). This is a commandment independent of the
duty to wipe out 'Amaleq. Not coincidentally, this commandment is of
72
It is in connection with this passage on 'Amaleq that Abraham ibn Ezra takes the
opportunity to ridicule the baale azharot, charging that the enumerators are like those
who count the number of blades of grass in their books of medicine, without recognizing
the medicinal utility of these blades. Then, shifting to the singular, Ibn Ezra charges that
"he thinks that they [i.e., thou shalt not forget and remember] are two [commandments]."
The shift to the singular suggests that he was referring to one paytan in particular. After
noting that there are many such mirror-image phrases in the Torah, Ibn Ezra concludes
that these poets pay no attention to the plain sense of the text and prefer instead to focus
on the formal structure of the verse (Abraham ibn Ezra, Yesod Mora , end of the second
gate, p. 108). The reference to the one paytan who counted both verses is of interest as
we have not found any of the extant geonic works doing so.
73
I note with puzzlement the absence of this obligation from M.' s list of the sixty
compulsory positive commandments. For a discussion of this list, see section 3.1, above.
165
tangible value and can be carried out unconditionally - precisely at a time
when the commandment to exterminate 'Amaleq is practically impossible to
carry out. As M. has already noted (at P187), 'Amaleq has already
disappeared or it can no longer be identified.
5.2. Conclusion of Part I
As we conclude this review of M.'s innovations, we feel entitled to
question Twersky's categorical assumption. It would appear that at least
some of the innovations owe their existence to external considerations, i.e.
themes that for one or other reason M. wished to emphasize. The point is
subtle but I hope nonetheless to have provided at least a few clear
instantiations of this idea.
When we summarize these innovations we find a number of recurrent
themes. Throughout, M. appears preoccupied with the Platonic goal of a
well ordered state. This includes the concept that each citizen should engage
in one craft only (P23, P34), that worship and sacrifices should be conducted
at only one location (P85). It also includes appeals to orderliness (P36) and
cleanliness (P30, P192). Reverence towards the 'guardians of society', i.e.
the Priests (P32) must be instilled, but, in this religious state, there is even a
greater reverence, namely, to "fortify the belief in the greatness of the
sanctuary and the awe felt for it, so that on seeing it, man should be affected
by a sentiment of submission and servitude (GP III:45)." Quite noticeable
are M.'s concerns with clear demarcations, as between ritually clean and
unclean things (P149-52), between those who have been secluded because of
166
their wicked ways and those who "direct their ways aright"
74
(P112). We
also find that the law is concerned with a well functioning judicial system
and the adoption of just procedures (P175, P178 and P179), possibly under
the influence of the Muslim courts and their new interest in procedural
matters (see Excursus 3). In this Platonic society, useful beliefs must
continuously be instilled in its inhabitants, about the importance of the law
(P17), about miracles (P157), and about the validity of Mosaic prophecy, its
immutability and eternal nature, and the role other prophets may come to
play (P172). In the same way, the masses must be instilled with an incessant,
living hatred for evil (P189) and for idolatry and paganism (P187), even
when their perpetrators and practitioners can no longer be located or
identified. Finally, we also find a special concern for mercy towards animals
(P146, "the easiest death", GP III:26) and the appeal to kindness and pity for
the indigent that goes beyond the normal canons of compensation (P201).
In the next section, we find M. introducing a momentous idea in
Jewish halakhah: dogma. The case for an externally driven construction
becomes even more compelling.
5.3 Innovations (Part 2): The Introduction of Dogma into Halakhah
5.3.1 "Uncertainty" Surrounding Dogma and its Place Among the
Mitsvot
74
As per Hilkhot Metsora, 16:10. M.' s concern with demarcations can also be seen in the
fact that he dedicated an entire treatise to Holiness (qedushah), which he understood to
signify separation. See M. ' s own description of this, the fifth, treatise, at the beginning of
Sefer ha-Madd'a.
167
In the introduction to mAvot, referred to as Eight Chapters (EC), M.,
following closely on Aristotle's taxonomy of the soul as expanded and
mediated by al-Farabi,
75
states that the soul is made up of five faculties, the
nutritive, the sensitive, the imaginative, the appetitive and the rational. In
chapter two of EC, M. deals with those faculties in which transgressions,
observances, virtues and vices reside. He says:
Know that transgressions and observances of the
Law have their origin only in two of the faculties of
the soul, namely the sensitive and the appetitive, and
that to these two faculties alone are to be ascribed all
transgressions and observances. The faculties of
nutrition and imagination do not give rise to
observance or transgression, for in connection with
neither is there any conscious or voluntary act.
On the other hand, one can speak of conscious or voluntary acts in
connection with the sensitive and the appetitive faculties and therefore the
latter faculties can be called the media of transgression and obedience. What
about the rational faculty can transgression and observance be ascribed to
it even if no action proceeds from it? By the rational faculty, M. means
man's intellect, which "enables him to understand, reflect, acquire
knowledge of the sciences, and to discriminate between proper and improper
actions."
76
The rational faculty's functions are both speculative and
practical.
7 5
The Aphorisms of the Statesman (Fusul al-Madani) served as M. ' s blueprint for EC.
See Davidson, Herbert, "Maimonides' Shemonah Peraqim and Alfarabi's Fusul al-
Madani," PAAJR XXXI (1963).
76
Towards the end of chapter one of EC. Gorfinkle renders "proper and improper
actions" but his vorlage, the Tibbon translation, has megunah ve-naeh, more accurately,
"ugly and fair". Note that M. paraphrases al-Farabi almost verbatim: "Through the
168
To repeat the question, can transgression and obedience be spoken of
with relation to the intellectual faculty? Here, M. says, opinion is divided.
As regards the rational faculty uncertainty prevails [or
there is confusion], but I maintain that observance and
transgression may also originate in this faculty, in so
far as one believes a true or false doctrine, though no
action which may be designated as an observance or a
77
transgression results therefrom.
M. does not tell us who or what is behind this "uncertainty/confusion"
or why it should even be a matter of doubt. Yet there is some evidence that,
in fact, the duties of the mind were not considered commandments in the
strictest sense and that this was held to be true by a significant number of
rational faculty comes deliberation, by it he acquires the sciences and arts, and by it he
distinguishes between the fair and ugly of actions."
Al-Farabi, Aphorisms of the Statesman, trans. D. M. Dunlop (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1961), paragraph [6] E., p.30. This distinction is identified by M. with
the topic of ethics. See Kreisel's discussion of these terms in The Concept "Good,"
chapter 3 of Maimonides' Political Thought, Kreisel, Howard, Maimonides' Political
Thought: Studies in Ethics, Law and the Human Ideal (Albany: State University of New
York Press, 1999) pp. 93-124.
77
Haqdamot ha-RaMBaM la-Mishnah, ed. and annotated Y.Shailat (Jerusalem: Hotsaat
Maaliyot, 1992), p. 273, has suggested that M. could have resolved this question by
reference to the commandment of learning the Torah, an activity that is centered in the
mind even as it also involves the appetitive and sensitive faculties. Shailat himself refutes
this demonstration by arguing that M. was seeking an activity that solely and exclusively
resided in the mind. I believe, however, that a more fundamental distinction between
Torah studies and doctrines or beliefs is in order. The Torah holds divine instructions and
admittedly a mental activity of sorts is required to follow them. These instructions,
however, cannot be referred to as being correct or incorrect since they are not subject to
logical demonstration, as beliefs are, nor are they empirically derived. For example, one
cannot say that the dietary laws are correct, only that they are to be obeyed or not obeyed.
Instructions are subject to obedience and do not fall in the category of beliefs. Obedience
and disobedience, in turn, reside in the sensitive and appetitive faculties of the soul.
169
early medieval rabbinic authorities.
78
We learn about this from some
remarks made in a work called The Duties of the Heart (al-Hidaya ila
Faraid al-Qulub, or Hovot ha-Levavot in the Hebrew translation). Its author,
Bahya ben Joseph ibn Paquda, of whom very little is known, was an
eleventh century rabbinic scholar who lived in Muslim Spain. As its title
suggests, he wrote this work because he felt that the duties of the heart were
being neglected even by those who were most punctilious about the
performance of the commandments.
By all accounts, the work was extremely popular from the very
moment of its appearance and came to have a profound influence on Jewish
pietistic practice and literature.
79
In his apologia for undertaking this work,
Bahya first offered an interesting classification of the commandments. He
divided the obligations of the religious man into two parts, the duties of the
body and its members, with which one expresses outward obedience, and the
duties of the heart, with which one expresses inward obedience. Duties of
the body included such things as
78
There are indications, however, that at least some talmudic rabbis held that there was
room for correct beliefs in halakhah. This is suggested in the following passage: "[and
that ye not go] after your own heart [Numbers 15:39]: this refers to heresy; and so it says,
The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God [Qoh 14:1]" ( bBerakhot 12b). See also
Sifre Numbers, Shelah pisqa 115 (p.126) on Numbers 15:39, which M. uses as his proof-
text for N47. Since this violation does not involve an act, transgressors are exempt from
lashes. Nevertheless, it constitutes a transgression. Accordingly, it was forbidden to deny
the existence of God on scriptural account. It is worth noting that Qayyara lists After your
own heart among the negative commandments (Nq117), though, as we cautioned earlier,
this does not mean that he was claiming heretical thoughts to be prohibited. This
particular entry could stand for a number of things.
79
The consensus of scholars today is that M. was not only well acquainted with this work
but may have been influenced by it (private communication from Prof. Haggai ben
Shammai).
170
prayer, fasting, almsgiving, learning his Book and
spreading the knowledge of it, fulfilling the
commandments concerning the Tabernacle, the palm
branch, the fringes, the doorpost, the railings on the
roof, and the like, all of which can be wholly
performed by man's physical body. (Introduction, 89)
Inward obedience, on the other hand, was expressed in the duties of
the heart. Some of the most important (positive) duties of the heart included
"to believe in the Creator of the world, who brought the world into existence
from nothingness; to believe in pure monotheism, free from a belief in any
other gods; to assent to obeying God in our hearts," and so on. Negative
commandments were made up by things such as rancor, envy and
vengeance, and by a denial of the theological doctrines listed above (ibid.,
87).
For Bahya, inward obedience had to precede and accompany outward
obedience: "Thus I have come to know for certain that the duties of the
members are of no avail to us unless our hearts choose to do them and our
soul desires their performance" (89).
80
M. may agree with a part of this
statement,
81
but for the most part this classification has no bearing on his
80
Or again,
. wh a t determines the punishment is the
participation of both heart and body in the act the
heart in the intention and the body in carrying out the
heart's i nt ent i on. . Si nce now, the foundation and the
pillar of action is the intention of the heart and
conscience, the knowledge of the duties of the heart
should come before and stand above the knowledge
of the duties of the members (ibid.,91).
81
If, for example, M. held, as some believe he did, that commandments require intention
(kavvanah) and if intention can be defined as intention to perform a commandment, i.e.,
to obey the lawgiver.
171
perplexity. What is significant, however, is a statement that Bahya makes in
connection with the numbers of duties of the heart and of the members.
Bahya says that when he counted the duties of the heart "I found that their
details were very numerous.. .for the duties of the members are limited in
number, about 613 commandments in all, while the duties of the heart are
many and their details innumerable." Now, since the duties of the heart
include, among other things, the belief in the Creator and the belief in pure
monotheism, one can deduce that these two dogmas are not included in the
TaRYaG. Why this should be so, Bahya does not say, although it is clear that
in the circles that Bahya frequented commandments included only acts "that
can be wholly performed by man's physical body."
While Bahya kept the duties of the heart separate from the TaRYaG
commandments though giving them priority of knowledge and
importance M. moved to incorporate a sub-set of these, in particular the
belief in the type of existence of God and the belief in pure monotheism, into
the TaRYaG count. How M. accomplished this feat is the subject of the next
section.
A small detour to examine Qayyara's position is now in order. I see
no reason to accept Hildesheimer's identification of these two
commandments with Qayyara's entry Pq39, "and belief" (ve-emunah). For
one thing, it follows a group of commandments devoted to the relationship
between man and his fellow man: "to clothe the naked" (Pq33); "to bury the
dead" (Pq34); "to console the mourner" (Pq35); "to visit the sick" (Pq36);
"to love peace" (Pq37); "and justice"; (Pq38), and finally, "and belief," or,
as other versions have it, "and truth" (emet). It is likely that Qayyara is
referring to the love of truth or to the conduct of business with honesty, as in
172
the rabbinic expression, "did you carry on transactions with honesty?"
(nasata v-natata be-emunah?). The existence of God and His oneness should
logically have been placed earlier, together with "love of God" (Pq23) and
"fear of God" (Pq24), if not right at the outset, given their obvious
importance.
82
I prefer to follow Nahmanides (Hasagot to P1), who
unequivocally declared that "with all that, I saw that the author of the
Halakhot [i.e., Qayyara] did not count this commandment [the existence of
God] among the 613."
83
According to Nahmanides, Qayyara's omission is
due to the fact that commandments are orders from the Almighty, but the
belief in His existence is the "fundament and root" on which all the
commandments are based. That is, the notion of commandment presupposes
the belief in His existence; therefore belief in His existence cannot be
counted among the commandments.
The difference between Qayyara's implicit notion of lawgiver and the
type of deity of those who affirmed such a notion is vast. Qayyara could be
satisfied with almost any type of superior lawgiver, as primitive as one
might imagine him, provided this notion formed the basis for obedience of
the laws. On the other hand, for those who felt it necessary to incorporate
into the commandments a belief in a refined philosophical definition of God,
82
The declaration of His oneness, via the recitation of the Shema, is the first entry in
Qayyara's list of positive commandments. For the possible meaning of the entry "to
believe," see Hildesheimer, Haqdamat, nn. 333 and 335.
83
It is the same with Shelomo ibn Gabirol, who tended to follow Qayyara's enumeration.
Moses ibn Tibbon, the first expositor of Gabirol's Azharot, thought that Gabirol had
counted this commandment in line 11 which reads, "I took you out, I admonished you, I
guided you, in righteous ways," but the line appears to be no more than a preamble to the
immediately following list of commandments. Duran, Zohar ha-Raqia, ad loc., pages 3-
4, disputes Tibbon' s reading on interpretive grounds.
173
the idea of a "primitive" supreme lawgiver would not do. In fact, it might
have been downright heretical. It is worth noting that M. was not the first
scholar to propose that belief in the existence of God is a commandment.
The distinction belongs to the Babylonian gaon Hefetz b. Yatsliah, who put
it this way:
The first precept enjoins us to unite our mind and
thoughts on the truths of the matter; to make our
Creator exist in our heart, and to consider Him Lord of
all things without a shadow of doubt, and without any
other thought; to know that He is truth; as it is written:
Know therefore this day, and lay it to thy heart, that
YHWH is Eloqim, there is no-one else besides Him
[Deuteronomy 4:39)].
84
84
Hefets' description of the first commandment was preserved for us by Judah b. Barzilai
in his twelfth century commentary on the Book of Creation (Sefer Yetsirah), ed.
Halberstam, (Judah ben Barzilai, Perush Sefer Yetsirah ) pp. 55-56. Hefets explains the
two divine terms and points to the end of the verse as proof that "He is one and that there
is no other." Hefets later adds that he is obliged to explain his proof that He exists in
his own words "that He is one and that there is no other" so that one "may be
strengthened in the belief that He is one, and is the creator of all things." For the partial
quotes I have used Halper' s translation in Hefets, A Volume of the Book of Precepts.
Missing in Hefets' apparatus is a rabbinic warrant to demonstrate the propriety of the
commandment claim. See Davidson, Herbert, "The First Two Commandments in
Maimonides' List of the 613 Believed to Have Been Given to Moses at Sinai," Creation
and Re-Creation in Jewish Thought: Festschrift in Honor of Joseph Dan on the Occasion
of His Seventieth Birthday, eds. Rachel Elior and Peter Shafer (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck,
2005), who also notes that M. had "precedents.. .for viewing belief in, or the knowledge
of, the existence of God as a formal commandment of the Law" (p. 127), among them
Bahya and Hefets ben Yatsliah, Samuel ben Hofni and Ibn Ezra. Treating it as a
hypothesis, Davidson goes as far as to show that there is a "modicum of corroboration"
for the idea that Hefets ben Yatsliah's formulation of the first two positive
commandments of the Law "was a springboard for Maimonides (p. 133)." So too does A.
Hyman who states that "by the time of Maimonides it was accepted at least by
philosophers, that belief in the existence of God and similar beliefs formed part of the
system of mitsvoth and that their affirmation was a matter of religious observation."
Hyman, A., "Rabbi Simlai's Sayings and Beliefs Concerning God," Perspectives on
Jewish Though and Mysticism, eds. A.L. Ivry, Elliot Wolfson and Allan Arkush
(Amsterdam: 1998), p.52. But again, I cannot overemphasize enough the fact that none of
174
Hefets, however, adduces no rabbinic warrant to substantiate this
claim.
I now return to M. and the remarks that he made in the second of EC.
M. states that, in his opinion, observance and transgression may also reside
in the rational faculty, though he does not indicate why he thinks so. On the
other hand, he is quite certain of the goodness of possessing correct notions
and correct moral dispositions, for he adds,
Now, as for the virtues, they are of two kinds, moral
and intellectual, with the corresponding two classes of
vices. The intellectual virtues belong to the rational
faculty. They are (1) wisdom, which is the knowledge
of the direct and indirect causes of things based on a
previous realization of the existence of those things,
the causes of which have been investigated; (2)
reason, consisting of (a) inborn, theoretical reason,
that is axioms, (b) the acquired intellect, which we
need not discuss here, and (c) sagacity and intellectual
cleverness, which is the ability to perceive quickly,
and to grasp an idea without delay, or in a very short
time.
Wisdom is the knowledge of the causes that lead to the knowledge of
85
God; this knowledge, in turn, leads to happiness. M.'s mentor puts it
syllogistically:
Since wisdom is particularly knowledge of the
ultimate causes of every last existent, and the ultimate
these jurists/exegetes were able to adduce rabbinic warrants for the formal claim,
something that only M. was able to do.
85
Gorfinkle refers the reader to GP I:69 and III:54. Davidson, "Maimonides' Shemonah
Peraqim," , p.121, already noted that this paragraph is a quotation from Fusul par. 7,
expanded by explanations drawn from par. 31, 34 and 46.
175
end on account of which man exists is happiness, and
the end is one of the causes, then wisdom is that which
acquaints one with what is true happiness.
86
Would the law have intended one to acquire correct notions and yet
make no effort to even allude to it? M. did not think so. If the law truly aims
at the welfare of the soul, as he maintained that it did, then the law would
need to encourage the acquisition of correct opinions. In M.'s words:
Among the things to which your attention ought to be
directed is that you should know that in regard to the
correct opinions through which the ultimate
perfections may be obtained, the Law has
communicated only their end and made a call to
believe in them in a summary way that is, to believe
in the existence of the deity, may He be exalted, His
unity, His knowledge, His power, His will, and His
eternity. All these points are ultimate ends, which can
be made clear in detail and through definitions only
after one knows many opinions (GP III: 28:512).
In short, to attain the "ultimate perfections," man must acquire a
correct notion of God and His oneness. Importantly, the "Law had made a
call to believe in them," that is, it commanded the acquisition of these
87
notions.
87
86
Fusul, para. #49. Al-Farabi goes on to explain the different and complementary roles of
intellectual and practical wisdom:
Wisdom then acquaints one with true happiness, and practical
wisdom acquaints one with what must be done to attain
happiness. These two then are the two ingredients in the
perfecting of man, so that wisdom is that which gives the
ultimate end, and practical wisdom gives that by which the end
is attained.
87
At this point I am short-circuiting the subtle distinction that M. makes between welfare
and perfection as some scholars have suggested. See Galston, Miriam, "The Purpose of
176
M' s proof that these beliefs constitute a commandment is given in the
ShM. In support of his first commandment claim, to know God, M. adduces
an aggadic passage in bMakkot 23b:
Six hundred and thirteen [TaRYaG] commandments
were declared unto Moses at Sinai, as the verse says,
Moses commanded us a Law (Torah) (Deuteronomy
33:4); that is, he commanded us to observe as many
commandments as are signified by the sum of the
letter-numbers ToRaH. To this it was objected that the
letter-numbers of the word ToRaH add up to only six
hundred and eleven; to which the reply was: 'The two
commandments I am the Lord thy God and Thou shalt
have no other gods before Me (Exodus 20:3) we heard
from the Almighty Himself.' That is, the Lord
commanded 611 commandments to the Israelites
through Moses, thus Moses commanded a Law, and
two commandments directly.
As we saw earlier, this exegesis is attributed to Rav Hamnuna. M.
ends this short comment by stating "Thus it has been made clear to you that
the verse I am the Lord thy God is one of the 613 commandments, and is that
whereby we are commanded to believe in God, as we have explained."
To understand the compelling halakhic nature of this midrash we need
first to understand the profound truth that M. believed lay hidden in it. Once
again we must refer to GP. GP II chapter 33 is dedicated to explaining the
unique event of the revelation at Sinai. M. offers first an interpretation of the
text based on the "external meaning," but then proceeds to tell us that the
Law According to Maimonides," JQR 69 (1978-9), and Harvey, Warren Zev, "Political
Philosophy and Halakhah in Maimonides (Hebrew) " 'Iyyun 29 (1980). This difference
may lie at the very heart of M. ' s pedagogy. The uninitiated individual accepts with some
minimum rational support the existence of God, while the enlightened individual seeks
perfection through a thorough demonstration of His Existence and Oneness.
177
Sages "also have a dictum formulated in several passages of the Midrashim
and also figuring in the Talmud."
This midrash is none other than R. Simlai's midrash, the midrash of
the 613 commandments. Since what he is about to say stands in apposition
to what he had called the external meaning of the text, we can infer that what
follows is the "internal meaning" of the scriptural account. M. uses the
midrash as an interpreter, or perhaps as an interpretive facilitator, of the
prophetic parable of revelation.
88
On this basis, M. explains that the parable
of the Sinaitic revelation is about two different kinds of revelations: that
which Moses and all Israel heard directly from God in the words of the
midrash "I and Thou shalt not have from the mouth of the Almighty" and
that which Moses communicated to the Israelites, the remaining
commandments. The words I and Thou shalt not have convey two
principles: the existence of the deity and His being one.
89
These principles,
M. asserts,
88
The "external" (zahir) and "internal" (batin) meaning of parables, explained in the
Introduction to part I of the Guide, is critical for an understanding of the project of the
Guide. There, M. says that while the external meaning of parables "contains wisdom that
is useful in many respects, among which is the welfare of human societies," the internal
meaning "contains wisdom that is useful for beliefs concerned with the truth as it is" (p.
12). For an in-depth discussion of this hermeneutic, see Stern, Josef, Problems and
Parables of Law: Maimonides and Nahmanides on Reasons for the Commandments
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998). For a critique of this work, see
Kaplan, Lawrence, "Review of Josef Stern's Problems and Parables of the Law:
Maimonides and Nahmanides on Reasons for the Commandments (Ta' ame ha-Mitsvot),"
AJS Review 26.2 (2002).
89
The plain meaning of Thou shalt not have other gods before Me is that it represents an
admonition against believing in other gods, i.e., polytheism. M. regularly equates the
notion of composite unity with polytheism. See, for example, GP I:60.
178
are knowable by human speculation alone.
90
Now,
with regard to everything that can be known by
demonstration, the status of the prophet and that of
everyone else who knows it are equal; there is no
superiority of one over the other. Thus, these two
principles are not known through prophecy alone. The
text of the Torah says Unto thee it was shown [that
thou mightest know that the Lord, He is God; there is
none else beside Him] [Deuteronomy 4:35]. As for the
other commandments they belong to the class of
generally-accepted opinions and those adopted in
virtue of tradition, not the class of the intellecta.
91
Yet, as recounted in Deuteronomy 5:22-24, Moses undertook to
continue communicating God's message at the specific behest of the
Israelites, frightened as they were by the "voice" of God. The Sages are
divided only as to when this took place. R. Joshua says it was after the
90
In his comments to this passage, Efodi suggests that M. understood "the Almighty"
(ha-gevurah) as referring to the human intellect; by means of his intellect, man can prove
the existence and Unity of God. I am not so certain about the identification of the
Almighty with the human intellect, but this much is certain: the Israelites "heard" the
message directly, proving that there was no need for prophetic mediation.
91
The distinction between "the class of the intellecta," on which demonstrative
syllogisms are based, and "generally accepted opinions," on which dialectic syllogisms
are built, has been ascribed to Aristotle. The term "generally accepted opinions"
corresponds to the Greek term endoxa, which is defined as "what seem so to everyone, or
to most people, or to the wise either to all of those, or to most of them, or to the most
famous and celebrated" (Aristotle's Topic I.i, 100b21-23). The Arabic term used here,
almushhurath (mefursamot in the Hebrew rendering), has a slightly different connotation,
referring rather to generally known things. See Les Guide des egares, trans. S. Munk
(Paris: 1856), p. 39, n. 1. In GP I:2 "generally accepted opinions" refers to the categories
of good and bad (as opposed to true and false) and can also refer to the particular notions
of certain societies. See the short bibliography on this concept, Moreh Nevukhim, ed.
Michael Schwarz, 2 vols. (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press, 2002), n. 5. See also
"Maimonides' Treatise on Logic [English Translation]," PAAJR 8, ed. and trans. Israel
Efros (1938), chapter 8.
179
second commandment, and the Rabbis say after the tenth.
92
Be that as it
may, there is no hint in these traditions of a qualitative difference between
the first and second sets of commandments. M.'s reading of the midrash,
inferring the existence of two kinds of revelations at Sinai, is undoubtedly
motivated and informed by his philosophical world view.
In sum, impelled by his ethico-philosophical approach to the law, M.
looks for ways to incorporate fundamental beliefs about God into halakhah,
for only in this way, can man attain perfection. For this purpose, the mitsvah
must per force be identical with the theological doctrine and not, as Faur
understood, that "by codifying the belief in God as a mitsvah, M. was
stipulating that the belief is a covenantal or a legal obligation, and not a
93
theological doctrine." The midrash of the 613 commandments gives M.
92
Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah, 1:2; see also the commentary on the Pentateuch by Hizkiyahu
ben Manoah, Hizkuni, Torat Chaim Chumash (1993), on Exodus 20:1.
93
Faur, Jose "Law and Hermeneutics in Rabbinic Jurisprudence: A Maimonidean
Perspective," Cardozo Law Review 14.6 (1993), p.1662 and n. 25. In a related note Faur
adds, "Accordingly, 'heretic' is defined not as one who disbelieves in God but as 'one
who declares' [ha-omer] that there is no God." He incorrectly references Hilkhot Yesode
ha-Torah 3:7-8. The correct reference is Hilkhot Teshuvah 3:7-8, where M. lists, among
others, five classes of heretics and says about them that they "have no portion in the
world to come, but are cut off and perish." If Faur means to say that now that M. has
made belief in the existence of God a commandment a heretic is no longer one who
thinks that there is no God as would be the case if it merely reflected theological
doctrine but one who says so, he is mistaken. I fully believe that M. would hold that
he who believes there is no God is a heretic and, consequently, will have no portion in the
world to come. M. ' s description in Hilkhot Teshuvah of heretics as those who say that
there is no God responds to a different objective, namely, to warn other members of the
community from intermingling with heretics. These heretics cause other people to
transgress, thereby adding to the gravity of their acts. This intent is made clear in Hilkhot
Teshuvah 3:24, where M. states that "there are transgressions less grave than those
mentioned, concerning which, however, the Sages said that whoever habitually commits
them will have no portion in the world to come. One should therefore avoid and beware
of such transgressors" (my emphasis). It is obvious that the only way one can "avoid and
beware of such transgressors," that is, recognize a heretic, is if the heretic says or does
180
the opportunity to do so, as it asserts, explicitly, that the knowledge of God
and His oneness are commandments and, crucially, that they are to be
reckoned as part of the TaRYaG. Finally, the distinctiveness of these two
commandments, that they are demonstrable truths, is part of M.' s
philosophical outlook and is read "into" the midrash.
94
P1. To know that there is a God, as it is said, "I am the Lord, thy God"
(Exodus 20:2; Deuteronomy 5:6).
The ShM states the claim thus: "We are commanded in the belief of
the divine Lordship
95
; that is, to believe that there is a Supreme Cause
96
something that demonstrates what he is. See also 2:5 and see M. ' s responsum #264,
Responsa, Blau, II, 500-2, where the discussion revolves around "accepting them" in
the community. I would therefore emend Faur' s statement to read that "by codifying the
belief in God as a mitsvah, M. was stipulating that the belief is a covenantal or a legal
obligation, and not merely a theological doctrine."
94
More plausibly, the author of the midrash intended to make I am the Lord, your God a
commandment to believe in the God that took the Israelites out of Egypt, the God of
History rather than the First Cause, as clearly suggested by the verse. For an interesting
discussion on this point, see Harvey, Warren Zev, "The First Commandment and the God
of History: Halevi and Crescas vs. Ibn Ezra and Maimonides [Hebrew]," Tarbiz 57.2
(1988).
95
Chavel: "to believe in God", but this is not quite precise as I explain below. Arabic: b-
itikad al-rububiyya. In place of the SE' s "to know," the ShM uses the more nuanced
Arabic term, itikad, which semantically lies somewhere between knowledge and belief: It
does not quite convey certain knowledge but neither does it convey mere belief. Perhaps
it is best translated as "firm conviction." See D. Z. Hilman in his Tsiyunim to Frankel' s
edition of the ShM and see also Rawidowicz, Simon, "On Maimonides' Sefer ha-
Madd' a," Studies in Jewish Thought, ed. Nahum N. Glatzer. (Philadelphia: Jewish
Publication Society of America, 1974), p.317. Moshe ibn Tibbon, one of the translators
of the ShM, rendered itikad as "to believe" (le-haamin). Unfortunately, there is no word
in the Hebrew language to convey the nuanced meaning of itikad and translators have had
to choose between plain knowledge and plain belief. Hilman points out that the title of
181
97
who is the cause of everything in existence." To be clear, M. is not simply
asserting that God exists, but that the God that exists is the cause of all
Saadia's well known theological treatise, al-Amanat ve-al-Itikad, was translated by
Yehudah ibn Tibbon as Emunot ve-De 'ot, showing that itikad ought not to be translated
as belief, for which we find the Arabic term al-amanat, but rather as de 'ot, opinions.
Hilman also points to the use of itikad in the opening line of GP 1:50 as referring to
knowledge. So too Kafih, in his note there. But see Moreh Nevukhim, ed. M. Schwartz,
petihah, page 10, n. 15, who acknowledges the correctness of Tibbon' s translation of
Saadia's title work but believes that the Guide did not use it in that same sense and
prefers to translate itikad as belief. Septimus notes that
itikad refers to any firm belief or conviction: true, false or
heretical, rationally derived or otherwise. GP I,36 (Kafih ed., p.
86) defines kufr as itikad about something, the opposite of what
is the case. So Maimonides can term both true and polytheistic
belief itikad..That itikad requires understanding and believing
the proposition asserted implies nothing, however, about its
truth and rationality.
Septimus, Bernard, "What Did Maimonides Mean by Madd'a?" Meah She^arim: Studies
in Medieval Jewish Spiritual Life, in Memory of Isadore Twersky, eds. E. Fleischer and
J. Blidstein (Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2001), p. 91, n. 42.
With respect to the second term, al-rububiyya, Haggai ben-Shammai pointed out to me
that this term is extremely rare in M.' s writings, not appearing in M.' s full Arabic text of
the thirteen principles and not even once in the GP. Based on a number of Islamic
sources, he suggested that the term can perhaps be rendered Lordship or divine Lordship.
I adopted this translation as it also satisfies the Hebrew translators' ha-eloqut.
96
M. uses two words here, Arabic illa and sebeb (Hebrew ilah, sibbah). Munk, Guide, p.
313, n.1, believes that these terms are "completely synonymous" and quotes Averroes
who comments in this respect: "Sebeb and illa are two synonymous nouns, said of four
causes, namely, the efficient, the material, the form and the final." Munk adds that "they
are linked intimately with the Aristotelian system." Perhaps the use of both synonyms
came to emphasize cause, as if to say by the cause of causes.
97
Chavel has "creator" instead of "cause" (Arabic alpaal, Hebrewpo' el ). According to
Efros, Philosophical Terms , s. v. po' el , the word stands either for "efficient cause" or for
"doer." Efros notes that doer "was chosen by the Mutakallimum with reference to the
Creator rather than First Cause, which is the Aristotelian name, because of their belief in
the constant coexistence of the Cause and the caused." At this point and through the
writing of the MT, M. deliberately avoided using the simpler and more forthright term
"the creator". He confirmed this in GP I:71 and in a late gloss to the first article of the
Thirteen Articles of Faith. See text below. The surprising implication of this formulation
is that one can fulfill the commandment without necessarily believing that He created the
world.
182
things. This is also what he affirms in the Halakhot, Hilkhot Yesode ha-
Torah 1:1-6.
98
M.'s various formulations of this dogma, in Pereq Heleq, ShM and in
the Halakhot, are laden with Aristotelian terms and concepts. So, for
example, we find the terms "cause" (illa/sebeb) and "one who brings forth
all existing things," terms that are not found in the pentateuchal text, in the
adduced rabbinic midrash, or for that matter in any other rabbinic text. The
first Article of the Thirteen Articles of Faith (Pereq Heleq) states:
There exists a Being, perfect in all ways of reality; He
is the cause of all existing things; and the ground of
their existence is in Him. His non-existence cannot be
thought of, for if this were the case, all beings would
not exist; on the other hand, even if we conceive the
non-existence of all other beings, His existence will
not be nullified.
The Halakhot in Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 1:1-3 echo this definition,
calling God "one who brings forth all existing things" (mamtsi kol nimtsa). It
has been rightly noted that this appellation "does not imply more than the
definition of the dogma, i.e., that God is the first cause of all existence, its
ground and principle and as such, He can be termed mamtsi."
99
Using terms
98
Don Hasdai Crescas (d.1412?), a critic of Aristotle's philosophy and one of M. ' s
strongest medieval critics, misunderstood M. and thought that, at least in the Halakhot,
M. intended to affirm the belief in God' s existence. Crescas, Don Hasdai, Or Adonai (Tel
Aviv: 1963), p. 3. Abarbanel (1437-1508) exposes this misunderstanding in Abarbanel,
Yitshaq ben Yehudah, Rosh Amanah, ed. Menachem. Kellner (Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan
University Press, 1993), chap. 7, p. 71. I do not plan to deal here with other interesting
objections raised by Crescas as to whether one can command feelings or beliefs and so
on. For a take on Crescas' view, see Eliezer ben Porat, "Emunot ve-De' ot le-Mitsvot le-
Da' at ha-RaMBaM ve-R. Hasdai Crescas," Sinai 120 (1997), pp. 216-229.
99
Waxman, M., "Maimonides as Dogmatist," CCAR Yearbook 45 (1935).
183
such as mamtsi and ila/sbb, M. deliberately avoids calling God by the epithet
creator (ha-bore). M. confirmed that he was deliberately avoiding the use of
creator in GP I:71:
For this reason, you will find in my works on the
Talmud, whenever I have to speak of the fundamental
principles of our religion or to prove the existence of
God that I employ arguments which imply the eternity
of the universe.
Years later, in a gloss to the First Article and, after stating that
creation ex nihilo is a fundamental of the Mosaic Law, M. added,
As to what you see me go roundabout the matter of
[the world's] eternity according to the opinion of the
philosophers, that is so that the proof of the existence
of God can be established with certainty, as I
explained in the Moreh (i.e. GP). (Shailat, Haqdamot,
142).
In Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah, 1: 5-6, M. argues that the force of God
can be proven to be infinite by the perpetuity of the revolution of the sphere,
another Aristotelian concept.
100
These definitions would seem to require a
high degree of philosophical sophistication or, at the very least, a familiarity
with Aristotelian principles. The question to be asked is, therefore, whether
the faithful must become philosophically sophisticated before they can fulfill
the first and second commandments. Since M. states as his intention in the
introduction to the MT to make the law accessible to all "the young and
100
Pines (Pines, Shlomo, "The Philosophical Purport of Maimonides' Halakhic Works
and the Purport of the Guide of the Perplexed," Maimonides and Philosophy: Papers
Presented at the Sixth Jerusalem Philosophical Encounter, May, 1985, eds. S. Pines and
Y. Yovel (Dordrecht: M. Nijhoff, 1986), vol. 5, p. 467) already noted that "this perpetuity
clearly implies the eternity of the world, ergo the proof propounded in these texts for the
infinity of God' s force is only valid if the world is eternal a parte ante."
184
the old" the answer to this question must be negative. The faithful need
not, in the first instance, be philosophers to fulfill these two commandments.
If so, can the philosophically uninitiated take something useful out of these
definitions? Following Kellner, I believe that they can.
Kellner suggests that M. wrote for a variety of audiences
simultaneously "without drawing explicit attention to that fact." M. wrote
for Talmudists who had no background in philosophy, for Talmudists who
aspired to become philosophers and for philosophers alike. Talmudists who
read M.' s words thought that, because of the context, vocabulary and style,
"they are reading a wholly traditional text, totally unobjectionable, and fully
consistent with conventional religion as popularly understood." On the other
hand, the more philosophically sophisticated reader read the same passage
and found in it "statements consistent with some of the more daring
Maimonidean theses expressed [later] in GP."
101
The faithful, uninitiated in
philosophical matters, would take from M.' s definitions that (1) the belief in
God is a foundational belief; (2) God is characterized as the creator of all
things; (3) everything that is not God derives its existence from God, and
cannot exist without Him.
102
They would also learn that God's unity is of a
101
Kellner, Menachem, "The Literary Character of the Mishneh Torah," Meah She'arim:
Studies in Medieval Jewish Spiritual Life, in Memory of Isodore Twersky, ed. Ezra
Fleischer et al. (Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2001). This in no way is
meant to imply that M. intended to deceive his unsophisticated audience. Rather, as a
master pedagogue, he allowed the reader, if he was able, to move up the ladder of
religious sophistication. Regardless, M. demanded a minimum understanding of the
foundational beliefs. For example, M. insisted that "children, women, stupid ones, and
those of a defective natural disposition" be taught basic principles such as the
incorporeity of God and His lack of affections despite their absolute inability to ever
prove these doctrines. (GP I:35:8i)
102
Kellner, "The Literary Character," p. 33.
185
very special and unique kind, unlike any other kind of unity, and that it
necessarily precludes His being corporeal. Finally, they would learn that this
belief, too, is foundational and that "God brought us out of Egypt and
heaped kindness upon us only on condition that we believe in His
uni t y. . "
103
M. suggests in GP II:33 cited above, that while all Israel heard the
voice of words...only a voice [Deuteronomy 4:12] that same voice
through which Moses and all Israel apprehended I and Thou shalt not have
the message was not apprehended equally by all. "Know," he says, "that
with regard to that voice too, their rank was not equal to the rank of Moses
our Master." This, of course, could not be otherwise, given the differing
levels of philosophical sophistication exhibited by the various members of
the Israelite nation. Crucially, everyone, even the totally uninitiated in
philosophical matters, "heard" the two principles.
104
In sum, the necessarily varying levels of understanding addressed at
Sinai by the revelatory act, calibrated according to M. to a widely
heterogeneous crowd, offered a working model for the pedagogic
presentation of the two foundational credos. With proper training and effort,
and subject to natural barriers, the philosophically uneducated can reach ever
1 0 3
ShM, P2.
104
M. states in the GP III:27:510 that the welfare of the soul "consists in the multitude's
acquiring correct opinions corresponding to their respective capacity" (my emphasis).
M. ' s pedagogic tendencies were not always well appreciated. Samuel ibn Tibbon, for
one, his "official" translator and close student, attacked M. for presuming that the masses
could rise to the philosophical heights needed to attain a proper understanding of divine
matters and suggested instead that the masses be told to believe in the God who took
them out of Egypt, the God of History. See Frankel, Carlos, "Ma' avar le-Talmud
Neeman: Biqoroto shel Shmuel Ibn Tibbon al ha-RaMBaM," Da' at 57.9 (2006).
186
higher levels of comprehension about divine matters and eventually come to
love and fear God. As we shall see later on, the commandments to love God
and to fear Him are but extensions of the first two commandments, not new
commandments. For now, M. offers a sketchy and minimum definition of
what everyone must know to fulfill these two commandments.
105
It is for this reason that in the Halakhot M. does not enunciate the first
commandment at the very beginning of the discussion, as one would expect.
He does not say, "It is a positive commandment to realize that there is a First
Being who brought every existing thing into being." Instead, M. spends five
halakhot to perfect the most minimum and concise definition of what one
must know with regard to God, at the end of which he can confidently state
that "to acknowledge this truth is a positive commandment."
106
P2. To acknowledge His Unity,
107
as it is said, "The Lord our God, the Lord
is One" (Deuteronomy 6:4).
105
In this respect, M., the pedagogue, imitated the Law, which had presented these
notions in "a summary way" (GP III:28:512). See our discussion of the commandment to
love God in section 9.3.
106
M.M. Schneirson notes that M. presents in the Halakhot general but foundational
principles that fall just short of what the talmudic rabbis (bHagigah 13a) called "the heads
of the topics," since the latter can be communicated only to an individual who is "wise
and able to draw conclusions independently" (as per Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 2:12, 4:10-
11). These principles, however, must be known by all at the beginning of their studies of
the Torah. See Schneirson, M. M., "Mitsvat Yedi' at ha-Shem," Hiddushim u-Biurim be-
Shas u-be-Divre ha-RaMBaM (New York (770 E. Parkway): Yeshivat Tomkhe Temimim
ha-Merkazit, 1985), vol. 2, siman 22, 5745, in particular pp.136 and 145.
107
Literally, "to unify Him" (le-yahado). The Arabic equivalent of unification, tawhid,
"is a term applied to the belief, or the profession of faith, in One God" (Pines' note 4 in
GP I:35:81). I left in place Hyamson' s rendition of yihud as unity seeing that it conforms
187
More specifically the ShM reads, "We are commanded in the belief of
unity,
108
that is to say, to believe that the cause of all things in existence
109
and their first cause is one." This is the second of the two dogmas that M.
innovatively introduced in the enumeration of commandments.
Proof: M. tells us that the injunction is contained in the phrase Hear O
Israel: the Lord our God, the Lord is One (Deuteronomy 6:4). In support of
this claim, M. says that
in most midrashim you will find this explained as
meaning that we are to declare the unity of God's
name, or the unity of God, or something of that kind.
The intention of the Sages was to teach that God
brought us out of Egypt and heaped kindness upon us
only on condition that we believe in His unity, which
is our bounden duty. The commandment to believe in
God's unity (mitsvat yihud) is mentioned in many
places, and the Sages also call this commandment
'Kingdom malkhut],' for they speak of the obligation
'to take upon oneself the yoke of the Kingdom of
Heaven [le-qabbel 'alav ol malkhut shamayim],' that is
to say, to declare God's unity and to believe in Him.
M.'s sources fail to produce evidence for a separate and independent
commandment to believe in His unity. Perla points out that the midrashim
with the one given by Efros, Philosophical Terms , s.v. yihud, p. 57 though it is possible
that 'oneness' conveys a slightly more precise philosophical rendition. Note that oneness
and unity have been used interchangeably in this dissertation.
1 0 8
Hebrew, be-emunat ha-yihud. Arabic, b-itikad al-tuhid. The Arabic term itikad has
already been discussed in connection with P1, where we showed that it stands for firm
conviction. Chavel translated "to believe in the unity of God," but the added words are
not in the text.
109
Chavel translated "creator," but paal is "cause." See note 97, above.
188
alluded to by M. relate to the declaration of unity made while reciting the
Shema which M. enumerates as P10. Furthermore, he notes that neither of
the two expressions mitsvat yihud or mitsvat malkhut, which might have
carried some weight as commandment markers, has been located.
110
Besides,
these terms could just as well have been identified with the declaration of
unity made while reciting the Shema.
The expression "to take upon oneself the yoke of the Kingdom of
Heaven" can be found in mBerakhot 2:2 in the name of the tanna R. Joshua
b. Qorhah, and it is offered as justification for reciting the Shema before the
section And it shall come to pass if ye shall hearken; this is thought to refer
to taking the performance of the commandments (ve-ahar kakh meqabbel
'alav ol mitsvot) upon oneself. However one wishes to understand the idea
of accepting the yoke of Heaven and likely it means to offer one's life
and possessions for His sake (i.e. qiddush ha-Shem) to think that it
mandates belief in His unity is tenuous. Kafih is forced to say that "one
cannot adequately accept the yoke of Heaven without first recognizing the
truth of His unity" but this of course puts the cart before the horse.
In Hilkhot Qeriyat Shema 1:2, M. reformulates this dictum, stating
that one recites Shema first "because there is in it [i.e., the section of
Shema], the unity of God, the love [for] Him and the study [talmudo] [of]
Him. This is the great and essential matter on which all depends."
111
The
110
Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 1, pp. 141-42. See also Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed.
Kafih, ad loc., note 11.
111
The commentators were clearly mystified by M. ' s reformulation. See Kesef Mishneh,
ad loc. See also Isaac Almosonino, 'Edut BeYehosef, and David Luria, Yad David, both
works cited by Kafih in his commentary on the Mishneh Torah, ed. Joseph Kafih, 23
vols. (Jerusalem: 1984-96), Hilkhot Qeriyat Shema 1:2.
189
reformulation avoids having to deal with a rabbinic expression that bears
little or no relation to the interpretation that M. wishes to imprint on the
commandment. Be that as it may, the scriptural commandment, in M.'s
opinion, consists of the internalization of the belief in His unity and not its
112
proclamation, as the rabbinic sources imply.
Conspicuously absent from the argumentative apparatus is the
midrash of the 613 commandments. As we saw earlier, M. interpreted this
midrash to indicate that the words directly heard from God, I and Thou shalt
not have, conveyed two principles, the existence of the deity and His being
one. That M. does not adduce Thou shalt not have as a proof-text for this
commandment may have something to do with the fact that the injunction is
negatively phrased. Since positive commandments by definition must be
phrased positively, Thou shalt not have would not do. Nevertheless, there is
little doubt that M. relied on this midrash to make his case, which,
otherwise, finds no echo in rabbinic sources.
M.'s ethico-philosophical approach informs the concept of God's
unity and compels him to find a place for it in the TaRYaG constellation.
The goal of the commandment "to unify Him" is to attain intellectual virtue
"through which the ultimate perfection may be obtained." Along the way,
M. subtly reinterprets and recasts a tannaitic statement that probably has
more to do with praxis than with doxa. M. presents this innovative
commandment claim in the ShM and advances a second commandment
112
Neither Qayyara nor any of the other geonic enumerators thought that the
commandment to declare the unity of God entailed anything but the recitation of the
Shema. Qayyara, Pq1; Elijah ha-Zaqen, top line in strophe 21 (p. 6); Saadia, the twice
daily recitation, P3 (evening), P4 (morning); Gabirol P1, (p. 5); and Isaac al-Bargeloni,
P1 (p. 6b). See further our discussion of the commandment to recite the Shema in Chapter
8.
190
claim (P10), that of reciting the Shema twice daily. While this second
commandment appears almost superfluous, it is an appropriate concession
for a popular work such as the ShM. In the more formal Code of Law, M.
abandons this pretense, as we shall have an opportunity to discuss in Chapter
8.
*
As we take leave of our exclusive focus on the ShM, I would like to
make two general comments regarding this work. The ShM is, without any
doubt, a work in progress. One can truly say that the ShM represents M.'s
first attempt to unravel, identify and interpret the complete corpus of
scriptural law (as opposed to the Oral Law, to which he dedicated the
commentary to the Mishnah), a massive hermeneutic enterprise that will
occupy him for at least 30 more years and that will develop through the MT,
the GP and through various lengthy epistles. As we shall soon see, many of
the ShM's initial claims will be tweaked, changed or even omitted in the MT
(and the GP) after, one presumes, careful re-consideration and deliberation.
(Many of these changes will be noted throughout the rest of the dissertation).
But note, as befits a great thinker, M. never ceased to change and revise his
works until the very last days of his life. Every stage of M.' s life-works was
infused with original and creative thinking. As a result, all his conclusions
can be said to be of a tentative nature and no particular stage can be said to
be more final or more conclusive than the prior one. This makes the ShM a
self-contained work, with a method, approach and philosophy all of its own.
For this reason, later changes should not be called 'revisions', rather they
represent different methods, approaches and philosophies.
191
Secondly, because the ShM is addressed to a popular audience and
because it is brief by virtue of its role as a prolegomenon of the Code, the
ShM is more concerned with delivering general concepts rather than details
113
of the law, and states these in mostly unambiguous terms. More
importantly, the ShM's style is didactic. One finds in the ShM a fair number
of important theological, juridical, historiographical, and, most of all,
politico-philosophical glosses, despite M.'s protestations (in the introduction
to the ShM) that the ShM will restrict itself to short definitions of each of the
613 commandments. These glosses show an extremely original and fertile
mind at work, one that attempts to engage a very wide audience of readers.
Indeed, M. sets out to instruct Rabbanites, to persuade Karaite 'truth-
seekers,'
114
to polemicize with Karaite-sympathizers and committed
Karaites
115
and to impress enlightened Muslims and Muslim colleagues.
116
113
While the MT is conceivably also directed to a popular audience, it contains language
and hints that operate on a highly sophisticated level, often intended to accommodate
more than one meaning. See Kellner, "The Literary Character," ; Henshke, D., "On the
Question of Unity in Maimonides' Thought [Hebrew]," Da' at 37 (1995). For a
philosophical appreciation of the MT despite its popular ' look' , see Twersky,
Introduction to the Code of Maimonides , pp. 356-507; Pines, "The Philosophical
Purport," and more recently, Harvey, Warren Zev, "The Mishneh Torah as a Key to the
Secrets of the Guide," Meah She'arim: Studies in Medieval Jewish Spiritual Life, in
Memory of Isadore Twersky, ed. Ezra Fleischer et al. (Jerusalem: Hebrew University
Magnes Press, 2001).
114
Their existence can be inferred from a reply given by Abraham Maimonides to a
correspondent who questioned M.' s interpretation of Scripture in the matter of one of his
commandment claims (P8). Maimuni offered that "in this regard, we, the congregation of
Rabbanites differ from the way of the Karaites". This suggests that the inquirer was a
Karaite, one, however, who was well acquainted with and who took seriously the Rules
of the ShM. See Abraham Maimonides, "Teshubot Rabbenu Abraham ben ha-RaMBaM",
siman 63; see, too, M.' s comments at P109 and his reference to the "true book".
115
See for example M. ' s lengthy disquisition at P153, and see our notes 52 and 53 to
chapter 7.
192
Certainly, its popular appeal was enhanced by the fact that, unlike the MT,
the ShM was written in Judeo-Arabic, the vernacular of his world.
In sum, the ShM is not only an important work of halakhah, for the
reasons outlined above, but is also an important work in the history of
Jewish thought.
116
See Excursus 2.
193
Chapter 6. Mishneh Torah: Towards a More Cautious
Reconstruction
Even a cursory read of the MT reveals in striking fashion the boldness
and deliberation with which M. designates a mitsvat 'aseh. The declaration
usually appears at the very beginning of the commandment being discussed
and it is formulaically expressed as "it is a positive commandment to such
and such" or sometimes as "it is a positive commandment of (or from) the
Torah to such and such." It is therefore surprising that so many
Maimonidean scholars have failed to note the absence of such a formula on a
significant number of occasions. One scholar who did note it was Masud ben
Aaron Hai-Raqah (1690-1768), the author of the well-known Ma'aseh
Roqeah, a commentary on all the books of the MT. Unfortunately, as we
shall see, Hai-Raqah did not pursue this anomaly systematically and, as a
result, came to the wrong conclusions. He was followed more recently by
Joseph Kafih, who picked up Hai-Raqah's suggestion and applied it to a
slightly wider sample; he too, however, failed to take note of the far more
systematic nature of the omission and thus failed to understand its
momentous implications.
1
6.1 The Enumeration According to the Halakhot
1
R. David ibn Zimra (RaDBaZ) attempted to tackle a somewhat related question,
offering a series of improbable and at times unintelligible ad hoc answers. RaDBaZ, (R.
David ibn Zimra), Sheelot u-Teshuvot ha-RaDBaZ u-Leshonot ha-RaMBaM (Warsaw:
1882), Orah H ayyim, siman alef. I reprint it in full in Excursus 4. I am satisfied that his
approach has nothing to add to our inquiry.
194
M.'s topical discussions in the Halakhot typically begin with a bold, simple
and clear statement that such-and-such is a positive commandment (or a
negative commandment, as the case may be). These statements almost
invariably take the form of "it is a positive commandment to such and such."
Here are a few examples, taken from the first two books of the MT, Sefer ha-
Madd'a (Book of Knowledge) and Sefer Ahavah (Book of Love): "It is a
positive commandment (mitsvat 'aseh) to adhere to Sa ge s . " (Hilkhot De 'ot
6:2); "It is a positive commandment to destroy idolatry and its
appurtenances." (Hilkhot 'Avodah Zarah 7:1); "It is a positive
commandment to pray dai l y. " (Hilkhot Tefillah 1:1); "It is a positive
commandment on every Israelite male to write a scroll of Law for
hi msel f . " (Hilkhot Tefillin u-Mezuzah ve-Sefer Torah 7:1); "It is a positive
commandment from the Torah to recite grace after the me a l . " (Hilkhot
Berakhot 1:1). We also find slight variations of this formula, as for example:
"Circumcision is a positive commandment on which one incurs excision, as
it says..." (Hilkhot Milah 1:1); "Abstention from work on the seventh [day]
is a positive commandment, for Scripture says, But on the seventh day thou
shalt rest" (Hilkhot Shabbat 1:1); and "The Nazirite is bound by a positive
commandment to let the head of his hair grow long, for Scripture says, He
shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow long" (Hilkhot Nazir 1:1).
Where the object of the commandment is not self-evident or where it
is too complex or subtle to be conveyed by a simple term, M. digresses
briefly and then returns to designate the commandment as a mitsvat 'aseh.
The additional phrase "from the Torah" appears on a number of other occasions. I
believe that the more common expression is a short form of this longer formula. It is also
possible that the extra emphasis may have been polemically motivated as we shall
suggest on a number of instances. See e.g. note 52, section 7.4.
195
For example, at Hilkhot Teshuvah 1:1, M. first explains that a verbal
confession is an integral part of repentance and then designates confession a
positive commandment. A somewhat lengthier digression takes place at the
beginning of the Book of Knowledge:
(1.1) The basic principle of all basic principles ...is to
realize that there is First Being . . Al l existing being[s]
. exi s t only through His true existence..(1:2) If it
could be supposed that He did not exist. . (1:3) If,
however, it were supposed that all other things were
non-existent. . Hence, His real essence . . ( 1: 4) This is
what the prophet means. . (1:5) This being is the God
of the Universe..(1:6) To acknowledge this truth is a
positive commandment. .
As discussed in an earlier section, this digression is absolutely
necessary for a proper description of the commandment. A similar approach
is used with respect to the commandment to know His unity, where M.
offers a robust and lengthy definition of the meaning of Unity and then ends
the presentation by adding: "to realize this truth is a positive commandment"
(1:7).
All of these declarative designations begin by identifying the
commandment, presenting the relevant scriptural proof-text, and reiterating
at the end that it is a commandment. I will argue that deviations from this
pattern are worthy of attention for they may signal a change of mind on M.'s
part with regard to a claim made in the ShM. Henceforth, I will call these
deviations "failures to designate," to convey the idea that they did not occur
by chance but rather were the product of design, as we will demonstrate
below. Specifically, by a failure to designate I mean a failure to designate a
commandment previously identified as such in the ShM at the very moment
that the subject matter is introduced in the Halakhot. It is critical to note that
196
positive commandment labels applied by M. outside the locus classicus of
the commandment and in the course of making a general point do not qualify
as true designations. Therefore, designating each of the wearing of
phylacteries (tefillin), the dwelling in booths (sukkah) and the taking of a
palm branch (lulav) a mitsvat 'aseh, as M. does in Hilkhot Berakhot 11:2,
cannot take the place of the missing designation in its locus classicus. The
salient point for discussion in Hilkhot Berakhot 11:2, blessing formulas, is
not whether a particular commandment is of scriptural or rabbinic authority
3
Conversely, designating the making of a parapet for one' s roof (maaqeh) a simple
mitsvah, as M. does in that halakhah, and not a mitsvat 'aseh, as he forthrightly declares
in its locus classicus, Hilkhot Rotsheah 11:1, should not be adduced to demonstrate a
change of opinion. By way of conjecture I would submit that M. may have wished to
emphasize the immediate distinction between the commandments of tefillin, sukkah and
lulav, which he gave as examples of unconditional obligations (hobah), and the
commandments to build a parapet and to affix a mezuzah to a door which he simply
labeled as commandments that are "akin to voluntary" (dome la-reshut) since one need
not build himself a house. He called the former mitsvat 'aseh and the latter simply
mitsvah. That is to say, only unconditional obligations should have the right to be called
mitsvat 'aseh. Of even more interest is M. ' s statement that "regarding all mitsvat 'aseh
that concern matters between man and God, be it a mitsvah that is not obligatory (hobah)
or be it a mitsvah that is obligatory (hobah), one must pronounce a blessing over it prior
to its fulfillment." By mitsvah that is not obligatory M. refers to those he just mentioned,
parapet and mezuzah. These I had designated as contingent commandments in chapter 3.
It is worth noting that M. includes here contingent commandments under the designation
mitsvat 'aseh, presumably because they become obligatory under certain circumstances,
but pointedly does not include procedure-commandments, such as the revocation of vows
(P95), immersing in the waters of a ritual bath to achieve cleansing from impurities
(P109), or the need to effect divorces by means of a divorce bill (P222) under this
definition. Neither does he include any of the fourth type of commandments that we
identified, the descriptive commandments. Therefore, no blessing is pronounced over
them. Be that as it may, this seems to indicate that a change in criteria for what represents
a mitsvat 'aseh has occurred in the MT and that it has everything to do with what is
obligatory. We shall expand on this idea through the rest of this chapter and chapters 7
through 9.
197
but rather whether or not the injunction is a hovah ("those that one must
strain to do and run after them to fulfill them").
4
Using this criterion, I found in the Halakhot 109 instances of failures
to designate commandment claims previously made in the ShM a
surprisingly large number. As we examine them, we will find that a simple
change in criteria will account for a substantial portion of this list. A further
and material share is explained by changes in individuation. None of these
explanations carry significant exegetical or theological implications. The
balance of these 109 failures to designate, however, does as we intend to
show.
Table 1, below, identifies the 109 failures to designate.
Table 1
P3. To love Him.
P4. To fear Him.
P8. To imitate His good and upright ways.
P9. To hallow His name.
P10. To read the Shema twice daily.
P11. To learn Torah and to teach it.
P12. To bind the phylactery on the head.
4
Hilkhot Berakhot 11:2. The halakhah groups well known positive commandments
for example the horn (shofar) that is blown on Rosh ha-Shanah and which is designated a
mitsvat 'aseh in Hilkhot Shofar 1:1 with those that are not, as we shall see later on,
such as tefillin, and treats them according to their popular understanding for ease of
comprehension.
198
P13. To bind the phylactery on the arm.
P14. To make fringes.
P15. To affix the Mezuzah.
P18. That the King shall write a scroll of the Torah for himself, besides the
one which every individual should write, so that he shall possess two
scrolls of the Torah.
P26. That the priests shall bless Israel.
P34. That, when the Ark is carried, it should be carried on the shoulder.
P41. To offer up an Additional Sacrifice every Sabbath.
P42. To offer up an Additional Sacrifice every New Moon.
P43. To offer up an Additional Sacrifice on the Feast of Passover.
P44. To offer up the Meal Offering of the Omer
5
on the morrow after the
first day of Passover, together with one lamb.
P45. To bring an Additional Offering on the Feast of Weeks.
P46. To bring on the Feast of Weeks loaves of bread together with the
sacrifices which are then offered up in connection with the loaves.
P47. To offer up an Additional Sacrifice on the New Year.
P48. To offer up an Additional Sacrifice on the Day of the Fast (Day of
Atonement).
P49. To observe, on the Day of the Fast, the service appointed for that day.
P50. To offer up an Additional Sacrifice on the Feast of Tabernacles.
P51. To offer up an Additional Offering on the Eighth Day of Solemn
Assembly, which is a feast by itself.
5
First fruits of barley harvest.
199
P68. That the Court of Judgment shall offer up a sacrifice, if they have erred
in a judicial pronouncement.
P70. That an individual shall bring an offering, if he is in doubt as to
whether he has committed a sin for which one has to bring a Sin
Offering.
P71. That an offering shall be brought by one who has in error committed a
trespass against sacred things, or robbed, or lain carnally with a
bondsmaid betrothed to a man, or denied what was deposited with him
and swore falsely to support his denial. This is called a Trespass
Offering for a known trespass.
P72. To offer a sacrifice of varying value in accordance with one's means.
P74. That a man having an issue shall bring a sacrifice, after he is cleansed
of his issue.
P75. That a woman having an issue shall bring a sacrifice, after she is
cleansed of her issue.
P76. That a woman after childbirth shall bring an offering when she is clean.
P77. That the leper shall bring a sacrifice, after he is cleansed.
P87. That an exchanged beast (if a beast is exchanged for one that had
been set apart as an offering) is sacred.
P95. To decide in cases of annulment of vows, according to the rules set
forth in the Torah.
P96. That anyone who touches the carcass of a beast that died of itself
shall be unclean.
P97. That eight species of creeping things defile by contact.
P98. That foods become defiled (by contact with unclean things).
P99. That a menstruating woman is unclean and defiles others.
P100. That a lying-in woman is unclean like a menstruating woman.
200
P101. That a leper is unclean and defiles.
P102. That a leprous garment is unclean and defiles.
P103. That a leprous house defiles.
P104. That a man, having a running issue, defiles.
P105. That the seed of copulation defiles.
P106. That a woman, having a running issue, defiles.
P107. That a corpse defiles.
P108. That the waters of sprinkling defile one who is clean, and cleanse
[the unclean] from pollution by a dead body.
P109. That purification from all kinds of defilement shall be effected by
immersion in the waters of a miqveh.
P113. To carry out the ordinance of the Red Heifer so that its ashes shall
be always available.
P114. That one who vows to the Lord the monetary value of a person
shall pay the amount appointed in the scriptural passage.
P115. That one who vows to the Lord the monetary value of an unclean
beast shall pay its value.
P116. That one who vows the value of his house shall pay according to
the appraisal of the priest.
P117. That one who sanctifies to the Lord a portion of his field shall pay
according to the estimation appointed in the scriptural passage.
P119. That the fruit of fruit-bearing trees in the fourth year of their
planting shall be sacred.
P127. To set apart the tithe of the corn for the Levites.
P128. To set apart the second tithe to be eaten by its owner in Jerusalem.
P129. That the Levites shall set apart a tithe of the tithes, which they had
received from the Israelites, and give it to the priests.
201
P130. To set apart in the third and sixth year the tithe for the poor,
instead of the second tithe.
P139. That houses sold within a walled city may be redeemed within a
year.
P145. To decide in regard to dedicated property as to which is sacred to
the Lord, and which belongs to the priest.
P148. To set the mother-bird free when taking the nest.
P149. To examine the marks in cattle.
P150. To examine the marks in fowl, so as to distinguish between the
unclean and the clean.
P151. To examine the marks in locusts, so as to distinguish the clean
from the unclean.
P152. To examine the marks in fish.
P159. To rest on the first day of Passover.
P160. To rest on the seventh day of that feast.
P162. To rest on the fiftieth day (from the time of cutting the Omer).
P163. To rest on the first day of the seventh month.
P166. To rest on the first day of the Feast of Tabernacles.
P167. To rest on the eighth day of that feast.
P168. To dwell in booths seven days.
P169. To take on that feast a palm branch and the other three plants.
P172. To heed the call of every prophet in each generation, provided
that he neither adds to, nor takes away from, the Torah.
P173. To appoint a king.
P178. That one who possesses evidence shall testify in Court.
P181. To decapitate the heifer in the manner prescribed.
202
P183. To give the Levites cities to dwell in, these to serve also as cities
of refuge.
P190. In a permissive war, to observe the procedure prescribed in the
Torah.
P191. To anoint a special priest (to address the soldiers) in a war.
P199. To return a pledge to its owner.
P201. That the hired labourer shall be permitted to eat (of the produce
which he is reaping).
P205. To rebuke the sinner.
P209. To honour the wise.
P214. That the newly-married husband shall give happiness to his wife.
P221. To deal with a beautiful woman taken captive in war, in the
manner prescribed in the Torah.
P222. To divorce by a formal written document.
P223. That the woman suspected of adultery be dealt with as prescribed
in the Torah.
P226. That the Court shall execute (sentences of death) by decapitation
with the sword.
P227. That the Court shall execute (sentences of death) by strangulation.
P228. That the Court shall execute (sentences of death) by burning with
fire.
P229. That the Court shall execute (sentences of death) by stoning.
P232. To deal judicially with the Hebrew bondsman, in accordance with
the laws appertaining to him.
P233. To espouse a Hebrew maid-servant.
P234. To redeem her.
P235. To keep the Canaanite slave forever.
203
P236. That he who inflicts a bodily injury shall pay monetary
compensation.
P237. To judge cases of injuries caused by beasts.
P238. To judge cases of damage caused by an uncovered pit.
P239. To adjudge a thief to pay compensation, or (in certain cases)
suffer death.
P240. To adjudicate cases of damage caused by trespass of cattle.
P241. To adjudicate cases of damage caused by fire.
P242. To adjudicate cases of damage by a gratuitous depositary.
P243. To judge cases of damage of a paid depositary and a hirer.
P244. To adjudicate cases of damage of a gratuitous borrower.
P245. To adjudicate cases of purchase and sale.
P246. To adjudicate other cases between a plaintiff and a defendant.
P247. To save the pursued even at the cost of the life of the pursuer.
P248. To adjudicate cases of inheritances.
There are various ways one might account for this surprisingly large
number of failures to designate a positive commandment that had previously
been designated as such in the ShM: a) M. was careless in drafting the
Halakhot; b) M. changed his mind and now believed that, on the basis of the
same criteria he utilized in the ShM, there were only 139 (248 minus 109)
positive commandments; c) M. did not change his mind but yet did not think
it necessary to state in every case, for reasons that need to be explained, that
such a command was a positive commandment; d) M. changed the criteria
for defining a mitsvat 'aseh used in the ShM; or e) M. changed his mind
regarding some of the claims he made in the ShM in combination with c)
and/or d).
204
Can M. be accused of slipshod writing? In medieval and modern
rabbinic circles, the language of M.' s rulings is considered to be as capable
of bearing inferences as talmudic discourses for its precision and care.
6
6
See Malachi ben Yaaqov ha-Kohen, Yad Malachi, Kelale ha-Gemara u-Klale ha-
Posqim u-Klale ha-Dinim (N.p., n.d.), paragraph 3, citing Mishpette Shmuel siman 120,
and Migdal Oz, "in many places." Levinger, Darkhe ha-Mahshavah , p. 13, attempts with
some success to demonstrate that this reputation for extreme precision is somewhat
overstated. He attributes this to the popular nature of the work the MT, as he said in
the introduction, was addressed to "young and old." Words and phrases are sometimes
used that lack precise values and one must come to the conclusion that they are no more
than synonyms and synonymous phrases. For example, the side by side use of the words
mattar and geshamim throughout Hilkhot Ta 'anit, yom ha-kippurim and yom ha-tsom in
Hilkhot Kele ha-Miqdash 8:3-5, qibbets and tsiref in Hilkhot Maakhalot Asurot 4:17), and
so on. See also the second part of chapter 1, where Levinger deals with other types of
imprecisions, such as internal contradictions. I would add other oddities as well. For
example, new terms appear suddenly in certain discussions without prior definition (see,
for example, "iggeret" in Hilkhot Sotah 4:8); cases cited almost verbatim from talmudic
passages that cannot be understood without reference to the original source for an
appreciation of context, the very opposite of what M. had attempted to do; contradictory
terminology (see, for example, Hilkhot Ishut 15:17 vs. Hilkhot Sotah 4:18), etc. An
intriguing contradiction that arises from two statements that sit side by side can be found
at Hilkhot De 'ot 2:3 and 4. In the first instance M. states that arrogance (govah lev) must
be remedied by going to the opposite extreme. The person must deliberately humiliate
himself
until arrogance [govah lev] is rooted out from his mind and he
has returned to the middle course which is the right way. After
regaining the middle course, he should follow it the rest of his
life. In this manner he should act with regards to all other
character dispositions [de 'ot]....
In halakhah 4, M. states:
There are character dispositions in which it is forbidden [asur]
to go in the middle way but one should go to the other extreme,
and that character disposition is arrogance. The right way is not
merely being meek, but one should be of a lowly spirit [shefal-
ruah] to the ut mos t . .
The contradiction is too blatant to allow us to believe that it came out of one literary
stratum, that is, that it was not a later correction. In general, I believe that the greater
share of these "imprecisions" can be attributed to a combination of stylistic
considerations, the very ambiguity of the talmudic sources, and copyists' errors. The
monumental and highly ambitious scope of the work can account for some of the
205
Rabbinic literature is filled with thousands of observations, indications and
rulings that are derived from the nuances of M.' s formulations and even
from his silence. Halakhah can be said to have been built on the back of the
MT. On the basis of the subjective appreciation of hundreds of scholars, one
might be tempted to conclude that the failure to include such an obvious and
standard designation did not represent a mere oversight.
But there are two additional factors that make this conclusion a near
certainty, factors that are intimately related to the very essence of M.' s
project. First, M. displays an extraordinary interest, one might call it an
obsession, in drawing clear demarcations between commandments of
scriptural origin and those of rabbinic origin. This is as true of his
commentary to the Mishnah as it is of the MT and of course
of the ShM.
8
In
all these writings M. continuously reminds the reader of the sources of the
Law - which commandments are scriptural and which are not. The reason
that scriptural laws need to be identified is that they are more strictly
enforced than rabbinic ones and unlike the latter can never be abrogated.
9
slippages in the details of Halakhot. Finally, internal contradictions are for the most part
the result of a change of opinion. M.' s own responsa to the Sages of Provence contain a
number of interesting illustrations of some of the above causes. See Responsa, Blau,
#287 (p.540), #302 (p. 560), #316 (p.586), #345 (p. 617).
See Twersky, Introduction to the Code of Maimonides , p.517.
Others have also taken note of this interest. For example, Feldblum states that
"Maimonides is unique among the codifiers of Jewish law in his careful and systematic
assignment of laws to ... specific cat egori es. . Such categories are significant both
halakhically and historically." Feldblum, Meyer S., "Criteria for Designating Laws:
Derivations from Biblical Exegesis, and Legislative Enactments," Maimonides as
Codifier of Jewish Law, ed. N. Rakover (Jerusalem: The Library of Jewish Law, 1987),
p.45.
9
See, for example, Hilkhot Mamrim 1:5 and also 2:9.
206
Torah laws not only occupy a privileged position in M.'s jurisprudence but
also in his theology. M. dedicates an important part of the GP to provide
justification for the great majority of the Mosaic laws. The reason is that, in
his opinion, these laws, unlike man-made laws (nomos) are perfect.
10
The
statement "it is a positive commandment to do such and such" - usually
accompanied and supported by a scriptural proof-text - is as simple as it is
unequivocal, and would serve well the exigencies of these demarcations.
This is a good reason for M. not to forget to designate a commandment as
such.
Second, the formula "it is a positive commandment to do such and
such" is not only a rhetorically powerful and dramatic statement but also
bespeaks authority. M. identifies more than 140 positive commandments
throughout the entire Code of Law with this, or a slight variant of this,
formula. It is unlikely that an author so attuned to rhetorical effect and so
intent on establishing authority would have forgotten to use this formula on
as many as 109 occasions.
11
10
GP II:39, 40.
11
On the author's high self-evaluation of his work and on his expectations that "in
coming days.. .all of Israel will fill all its needs with this [the MT]..." see M.' s letter to
his disciple Yosef b. Yehudah, in Iggerot ha-RaMBaM, ed. Shailat, volume I, pages 300-
1. M.' s high expectations came to be realized in very short order, likely a result of the
quality and authoritativeness of the work. On the rapid dissemination of the MT, even
during M.' s lifetime, see Twersky, Introduction to the Code of Maimonides , p. 518. On
the nature of his expectations with regards to the MT, see Halbertal, Moshe, "What is
Mishneh Torah? On Codification and Ambivalence," Maimonides After 800 Years, ed.
Jay Harris (Harvard University Press, 2007), p. 81-111. M. ' s ambivalent designs with
regards to the MT and its acceptance as the standard halakhic work throughout the Jewish
world represented a distinctive stylistic feature of his writings. In section 9.4 I offer some
examples of ambivalent writing in the formulation of halakhot.
207
I conclude with a reasonable degree of confidence that M.' s failure to
designate 109 commandment claims previously identified in the ShM is
deliberate. We can therefore assume that these omissions contain useful
information. In attempting to resolve the problem we must be careful not to
fall into the trap of providing 109 ad hoc, fit-to-order, solutions, which in the
end, is no solution at all. My approach will be guided by Ockham's Razor,
the rule that philosophical or theological theories should provide an
economy of explanatory variables. All else being equal, I will consider the
principle that is likely to explain the greatest number of failures to designate
as being the most likely to be right even at the risk of standing long-running
conventions on their head. I ask the reader to judge my effort relative to the
goodness of fit and not on the presumed radicalness of the views espoused.
At the very least, these explanations should be treated as a first
approximation to a better understanding of M.' s complex exegetical, legal
and theological creation.
6.1.1 Using the term mitsvat 'aseh: an example of studious precision
I argue above that M.'s failure to designate a commandment in the
Halakhot was deliberate and thus worthy of explanation. The example that I
am about to show does not deal directly with this particular problem but
rather shows the terminological care that M. exercises whenever he deals
with a positive commandment or one that has previously been identified as
such. This care must reflect back on the deliberate nature of the omissions
that we have identified. P172, the commandment that one must heed the call
of every true prophet, provides an interesting test case. The law is discussed
208
at great length and detail in Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 7:7, 8:2, 9:2 and 9:3.
During the discussion of this commandment, M. repeatedly uses the term
mitsvah and not the term mitsvat 'aseh, as one would expect, even though
the commandment had been identified as mitsvat 'aseh in the ShM. To find
out why, we need to turn to Hilkhot Sanhedrin, where M. lists all the
scriptural violations and their punishments. In 19:3 we read:
[A] priest who performs service without having
washed his hands and feet, though he incurs thereby
the penalty of death [by divine intervention], is not
flogged, because this is a positive commandment
(mitsvat 'aseh). So too, a prophet who suppresses his
prophecy, a prophet who acts contrary to his own
words, and one who disregards the words of a prophet,
are not liable to flogging though these three
offenders incur the penalty of death [by divine
intervention] the prohibition they transgress is
derived by implication from a positive command, as it
is said Unto him ye shall hearken [Deuteronomy
18:15], and a negative command derived by
implication from a positive command is treated as a
positive command (ke-aseh), the violation of which
does not entail the penalty of flogging (my emphasis).
The requirement that a priest wash his hands and feet before he
performs the service is called here a mitsvat 'aseh and is consistent with P24
and M.'s final ruling at Hilkhot Biat ha-Miqdash 5:1. Yet, the best that M.
can say with regard to the command Unto him ye shall hearken is that it is
considered "as an 'aseh," even though he compares the violation and its
consequence to the commandment to wash hands and feet. To say that it is
"as an 'aseh" is to view Unto him ye shall hearken as a positive
commandment in form and not in substance. As noted on previous
209
occasions, M. had changed his mind with respect to formal positive
commandments by the time that he wrote the Halakhot, and he no longer
12
considered them positive commandments. This change relates to the
change in criteria in the use of the term mitsvat 'aseh that will be discussed
later. Thus, we can appreciate the repeated use of the term mitsvah rather
than mitsvat 'aseh in Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah (and even, I might add, his
failure to designate!).
13
'
14
In sum, this example demonstrates M.' s special
care in the use or non-use of the term mitsvat 'aseh.
6.2 The Hai-Raqah's Thesis
In his opening comment to Hilkhot Tefillah, Hai-Raqah notes:
12
See section 2.1.1 and notes.
13
Note that M. modifies the talmudic principle, which states that a negative command
derived by implication from a positive command is a positive command (lav ha-ba-
mikhlal 'aseh, 'aseh). See, for example, bYevamot 54b, 56b, and passim. For a similar
change of the original formula, see Hilkhot Ishut 1:8.
14
Later on we will show that mitsvah here simply means that one is prohibited from not
listening to, or not obeying, the prophet, not that there is an obligation to actually find a
prophet to whom one needs to listen. This is also understood in this way by Lehem
Mishneh on Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 9:2-3, who argues that the command ought to be
read as essentially denoting a prohibition, as if to say "do not violate the prophet's
words" (de-inyano lav hu, lo taavor al divre ha-navi). The appearance of P172 in the list
of the 60 unconditional obligations is, however, quite puzzling; even when M. thought it
proper to enumerate this commandment in the ShM, he certainly did not need to imply an
active obligation. Moreover, if M. follows the well-known rabbinic tradition that held
that prophecy was abolished after the destruction of the Temple, how can P172 be
normative in the modern period so that it appears in the abbreviated list of obligations? J.
Levinger's interesting distinction between prophetic legislation and prophetic advice does
not begin, in my opinion, to solve this problem. Levinger, Ha-RaMBaM ke-Filosof ,
"Ha-Mitsvot Hekhrehiyot", pp. 84-87.
210
One needs to investigate the holy ways of our
master, his memory be blessed, in this composition,
the reason why, with regards to some commandments,
he wrote 'it is a mitsvat 'aseh to do so-and-so' and at
other times he totally failed to mention it, as in the
case of the recitation of the Shema and others similar,
and sometimes he says "this thing [davar zeh] is a
mitsvat 'aseh, as with respect to Sabbath where he
writes 'rest from work on the seventh is a mitsvat
'aseh, etc.'"
Hai-Raqah then proceeds to offer an explanation that fits a limited
number of observations and bids the reader to apply the explanation
throughout.
Kafih takes note of this problem, advances the same thesis and applies
it to a larger but still limited number of instances, all of them occurring in
the Sefer Ahavah (Book of Love) and the Sefer Zemanim (Book of Seasons).
He concludes by saying that "the Roqeah wrote something similar to [what I
have offered]."
15
Hai-Raqah, and later, Kafih, argued that M. felt no need to designate a
commandment as a mitsvat 'aseh if it was absolutely explicit in Scripture
(mefureshet le-gamre ba-torah). This criterion, in his opinion, explained
why M. did not designate as positive commandments right at the outset the
obligation to dwell in booths (sukkah) on the fifteenth of Tishre, the
obligation to take a palm-branch (lulav) on that festival, and the obligation to
study Torah. Conversely, they argued, M. felt compelled to offer the
designation mitsvat 'aseh when the commandment was not explicitly stated
15
Comments to Hilkhot Qeriyat Shema 1:1, pp. 13-14.
211
in Scripture. They suggested this to be the case with respect to the
obligations to pray (tefillah) and to consecrate the lunar month (qiddush ha-
hodesh). Hai-Raqah does not deal with more than a handful of cases but
suggests that the student may want to apply this method to other cases "if it
is possible." To Hai-Raqah's first category those commandments that he
presumes are explicitly formulated in Scripture Kafih adds the priestly
blessings, phylacteries (tefillin), mezuzah, tsitsit and milah. To the second
category those commandments not explicitly formulated and thus
necessitating a designation he adds the obligations to write a Book of
Law and to blow a horn on New Year.
Kafih's thesis runs into difficulty almost immediately. The Halakhot
designate the following commandments as positive commandments despite
the fact that they are all explicitly mandated in Scripture: to recite grace over
a meal (Hilkhot Berakhot 1:1); to rest from work on the Sabbath (Hilkhot
Shabbat 1:1); to rest from work on the Day of Atonement (Hilkhot Shevitat
'Asor 1:1); to eat matsah on the fifteenth of Nisan (Hilkhot Hamets u-
Matsah 6:1); to discourse concerning the departure from Egypt on the first
night of the feast of Passover (ibid. 7:1); to give half a shekel every year
(Hilkhot Sheqalim 1:1); and to sound the trumpets in times of trouble
(Hilkhot Ta'anit 1:1). Faced with counterexamples, Kafih applies talmudic
casuistry to dismiss each case on an ad hoc basis.
But the counterfactual evidence does not end there. Moving beyond
the Sefer Ahavah and Sefer Zemanim, we again find commandments that are
explicitly mandated in Scripture and yet are designated as positive
commandments. Following is a partial list from the Sefer 'Avodah (The
Book of Temple Service): the commandments to build the Sanctuary
(Hilkhot Bet ha-Behirah 1:1), to revere the Sanctuary (ibid, 7:1), to make the
212
oil of anointment (Hilkhot Kele ha-Miqdash 1:1), to send away the unclean
out of the Sanctuary (Hilkhot Biat ha-Miqdash 3:1), to offer up the regular
daily sacrifices (Hilkhot Temidin u-Musafin 1:1); to keep fire always burning
on the altar (ibid, 2:1); to offer incense twice a day (ibid, 3:1); that the High
Priest shall give a Meal Offering daily (ibid, 3:18); to count 49 days from the
time of cutting the Omer (ibid, 7:22). I have chosen these examples because
they are counted by other enumerators and can therefore be deemed to be
uncontroversial. Nevertheless, there should be no doubt that the list of
counterexamples can be expanded greatly.
Their second, and complementary hypothesis, namely that
commandments that are not explicitly mandated are always designated as
positive commandments, is more difficult to test. This is simply because
most commandments are in some way or another midrashic interpretations
of scriptural texts. The line between what is explicit and what is implied is
not always clear. In short, the distinction may be too subjective for a valid
test.
With this caveat in mind, I have been able to find two
counterexamples to the second criterion, commandments that are essentially
a product of interpretation and yet are not designated as positive
commandments. The first counterexample is the commandment that when
the ark is carried, it should be carried on the priests' shoulders (P34 in the
SE/ShM; Hilkhot Kele ha-Miqdash 2:12). In the ShM, M. cites Numbers 7:9
as proof-text for this commandment. The verse, as we already demonstrated,
does not yield a commandment and it is only via midrashic interpretation
that M. can craft it into a commandment claim. According to the reasoning
of Hai-Raqah and Kafih, M. should have designated this midrashically
supported claim a positive commandment yet he does not. The second
213
counterexample is the commandment to honor the wise (P209 in the
SE/ShM; Hilkhot Talmud Torah 6:1). The scriptural verse (Numbers 11:16)
speaks about honouring an old man (zaqen); a rabbinic midrash turns zaqen
into an acronym, standing for someone who has acquired wisdom (zeh she-
qanah hokhmah), i.e. a sage. Here again, M. should have designated this
claim a positive commandment if Hai-Raqah and Kafih were right; yet he
did not.
In sum, M.' s deliberate omissions, as we have taken them to be, of a
significant number of declarative statements in his main legal work
continues to beg for a consistent and more systematic explanation. The Hai-
Raqah/Kafih theory advanced to account for these omissions does not stand
close scrutiny. While it is conceivable that someone might be able to explain
away every counterfactual piece of evidence, as Kafih did with the
counterexamples he found in the Sefer Ahavah and Sefer Zemanim, the many
and thin justifications greatly weaken the thesis. More generally, their
explanations run counter to M.'s objectives in writing the MT - to make
clear to everyone, "young and old," the learned and the ignorant, the layout
of the Law. On this basis, it is inconceivable that M. would have left it to the
reader to decide on the origin, force and status of each of the
commandments.
I offer below an explanation that I hope is as parsimonious as it is
consistent. It consists of a redefinition of the term mitsvat 'aseh as
understood in the ShM and a tightening of the individuation criteria utilized
in the ShM. I will also posit that a more mature and restrained analysis led
M. to change his mind on a small number of previous claims, in keeping
with the more conservative nature of the Halakhot.
214
6.3 A Redefinition of mitsvat 'aseh
In chapter 3 we discussed the various definitions of mitsvat 'aseh used
in the ShM. We concluded that some of the commandment types,
specifically the procedural commandments and the definition
commandments, would be better characterized as laws rather than
commandments since they are not consistent with the basic meaning of the
term mitsvat 'aseh, literally, the "commandment of do!", much less with the
equivalent, though less frequently used, term, qum 'aseh, literally, "arise,
do!" In short, procedure-commandments and descriptive commandments
have none of the properties of active obligations and therefore can hardly be
called mitsvot 'aseh. M. was aware of this problem and, in an excursus at the
end of the section on positive commandments, acknowledges that "it is
possible for a man to go through life without doing or experiencing"
commandments that relate, for example, to the offering of special sacrifices.
He also acknowledges that many laws, such as those regarding a Hebrew
bondsman, a Canaanite bondsman and an unpaid bailee, "may never be
applicable to a particular man, and which he may never be liable to carry
out, throughout the whole of his life." After the conclusion of these
acknowledgements, M. springs on the reader a "new" type of mitsvat 'aseh,
namely, obligatory (or compulsory) commandments, and states that there are
only 60 of this type. We noted that this type of commandment, which
resembles the rabbinic term hovah, comes closest to being identified with
the term mitsvat 'aseh.
M. includes in the list of these obligatory commandments a number of
contingent commandments, such as, "it being assumed t h a t . the man whom
we regard as bound by these 60 unconditional commandments, is living in
215
normal conditions." Under these "normal conditions," in this case
concerning a man who owns a house and eats meat, he becomes necessarily
obligated to perform otherwise contingent commandments, such as the
mezuzah, ritual slaughter, and building a parapet to his roof. On the other
hand, the law that governs the revocation of vows (P95), to take M.' s first
example of law (din) in the ShM, is not enumerated here because a husband
is not obligated to revoke his wife's vows even when she utters a vow.
Finally, M. does not include commandments applicable to a particular caste,
e.g. priests and Levites, nor commandments that are binding only when the
Temple stands, such as the commandments of the assembly during the feast
of Tabernacles (haqhel, P16) and the tithing of cattle (P78).
I submit that the list of 60 unconditional obligations is critical to an
understanding of the term mitsvat 'aseh in the Halakhot. Having
systematically "proved" in the ShM the existence of 613 commandments, as
well as having identified them, M. no longer needed to concern himself with
the enumeration. His attention turned now to a Code of Law that would
govern every aspect of the Jewish people well into the time of restoration of
the third temple and its services. As a result, the commandments follow a
more natural contour, dividing into obligatory commandments, the sort of
unconditional duties that we saw in the list of 60, and laws. Because of the
Code's comprehensiveness and eternal nature, the list of obligatory
commandments is expanded by (a) the commandments applicable to priests
and Levites as well as those applicable to the common people, and (b) the
commandments that are binding when the Temple is standing and operative.
A word of caution. The list of 60 unconditional obligations, much like the
the ShM itself, is in many respects a 'popular' piece of writing. For example,
the list does not distinguish between mitsvot de-oraita and mitsvot mi-divre
216
sofrim. It is true that mitsvot mi-divre sofrim were thought to have been
eliminated from the list of commandments, as M. took pains to explain in
Rule 2. Still, a stricter application of Rule 2, as I shall demonstrate, found
more such commandments and led to their reclassification in the Code of
Law. While this reclassification did not change the force of the obligation -
thus they remain unconditional obligations -it does have important legal
consequences as I alluded to in the introduction to this dissertation.
As well, M. does not distinguish in this list of 60 obligations between
commandments that constitute genuine obligations and those that could only
be called counsels. I shall endeavor to show how and why M. signals this
subtle and innovative distinction in the MT. Again, such a distinction best
belongs in a comprehensive Code of Law.
The popular nature of this list is confirmed by the playful manner by
which M. explains the numbers 60 (incumbent on all male) and 46
(incumbent on all female):
A mnemonic for the number of unconditional
commandments is: 'There are threescore queens'
(Song of Songs 6:8), and the mnemonic for the 14 of
those [commandments] taken away for women may be
remembered by the expression 'their stay (yad) is
gone' (Deuteronomy 32:36; yad equals 1 4 ) .
Since the criteria used in this list for what constitutes a mitsvat 'aseh
is in some respects broader than the one used in the Halakhot, the list of 60
unconditional obligations does not match the list of mitsvot 'aseh of the
Halakhot. Still, this enumeration is important in that it provides the first
indication of the criteria for positive commandments that M. will use in the
Halakhot.
217
We are now in a position to explain a substantial portion of the
failures to designate appearing in Table 1. The following claims fail to meet
the revised criteria of mitsvat 'aseh:
P70. That an individual shall bring an offering, if he is in doubt as to
whether he has committed a sin for which one has to bring a Sin
Offering.
P71. That an offering shall be brought by one who has in error committed a
trespass against sacred things, or robbed, or lain carnally with a
bondsmaid betrothed to a man, or denied what was deposited with him
and swore falsely to support his denial. This is called a Trespass
Offering for a known trespass.
P72. To offer a sacrifice of varying value in accordance with one's means.
P74. That a man having an issue shall bring a sacrifice, after he is cleansed
of his issue.
P75. That a woman having an issue shall bring a sacrifice, after she is
cleansed of her issue.
P76. That a woman after childbirth shall bring an offering when she is clean.
P77. That the leper shall bring a sacrifice, after he is cleansed.
P95. To decide in cases of annulment of vows, according to the rules set
forth in the Torah.
P148. To set the mother-bird free when taking the nest.
P199. To return a pledge to its owner.
P247. To save the pursued even at the cost of the life of the pursuer.
16
16
Here is a good example of how M. treats a contingent commandment. M. begins to
discuss the halakhot related to saving those who are pursued in Hilkhot Rotsheah 1:6.Yet
it is not until halakhah 15 that M. gets around to posit that saving the pursued is a
positive commandment:
218
These commandments are either contingent and do not occur under
"normal conditions" or are not obligatory as, for example, where one wishes
to remain unclean, or wishes to undergo purification but does not care to
obtain atonement. It is the same with the odd group of descriptive
commandments, i.e. commandments that define or that stipulate halakhic
consequences but do not entail action, such as
P87. That an exchanged beast (if a beast is exchanged for one that had
been set apart as an offering) is sacred.
P96. That anyone who touches the carcass of a beast that died of itself
shall be unclean.
P97. That eight species of creeping things defile by contact.
P98. That foods become defiled (by contact with unclean things).
P99. That a menstruating woman is unclean and defiles others.
P100. That a lying-in woman is unclean like a menstruating woman.
P101. That a leper is unclean and defiles.
P102. That a leprous garment is unclean and defiles.
If one sees someone pursuing another in order to kill him, or
sees someone pursuing a woman forbidden to him in order to
ravish her, and although able to save them does not do so, he
thereby disregards [bitel] the positive commandment Then thou
shalt cut off her hand and transgresses two negative
commandment s.
Having avoided at the outset an outright declaration to the effect that saving the pursued
is a positive commandment, M. carefully returns to the "scene of the crime" and affirms
that, under certain circumstances and only under those circumstances, saving the
pursued is an unconditional obligation. By this artifice, M. denies the existence of an
outright obligation to save a pursued person by, for example, posting oneself in an area
where crime is common. I submit that M. did not see fit to include this commandment in
the list of the sixty unconditional obligations (mitsvot hekhrehiyot) found at the end of the
positive commandments in the ShM and discussed in section 3.1 for precisely the same
reason.
219
P103. That a leprous house defiles.
P104. That a man, having a running issue, defiles.
P105. That the seed of copulation defiles.
P106. That a woman, having a running issue, defiles.
P107. That a corpse defiles.
P108. That the waters of sprinkling defile one who is clean, and cleanse
[the unclean] from pollution by a dead body.
P119. That the fruit of fruit-bearing trees in the fourth year of their
planting shall be sacred.
Recall that most of these commandment claims caused Nahmanides to
vehemently declare that "they are optional [reshut] from every angle, they
have no connection to mitsvah (ein ba-hem inyan mitsvah) that they should
deserve to be counted."
Finally, M. fails to designate as positive commandments the types of
commandments that are, strictly speaking, laws and procedures, again,
because they do not imply obligation of any kind. In this group we find:
P109. That purification from all kinds of defilement shall be effected by
immersion in the waters of a miqveh.
P139. That houses sold within a walled city may be redeemed within a
year.
P145. To decide in regard to dedicated property as to which is sacred to
the Lord, and which belongs to the priest.
P181. To decapitate the heifer in the manner prescribed.
P190. In a permissive war, to observe the procedure prescribed in the
Torah.
220
P221. To deal with a beautiful woman taken captive in war, in the
manner prescribed in the Torah.
P222. To divorce by a formal written document.
P223. That the woman suspected of adultery be dealt with as prescribed
in the Torah.
P232. To deal judicially with the Hebrew bondsman, in accordance with
the laws appertaining to him.
P233. To espouse a Hebrew maid-servant.
P234. To redeem her.
P236 That he who inflicts a bodily injury shall pay monetary
compensation.
P237. To judge cases of injuries caused by beasts.
P238. To judge cases of damage caused by an uncovered pit.
P239. To adjudge a thief to pay compensation, or (in certain cases)
suffer death.
P240. To adjudicate cases of damage caused by trespass of cattle.
P241. To adjudicate cases of damage caused by fire.
P242. To adjudicate cases of damage by a gratuitous depositary.
P243. To judge cases of damage of a paid depositary and a hirer.
P244. To adjudicate cases of damage of a gratuitous borrower.
P245. To adjudicate cases of purchase and sale.
P246. To adjudicate other cases between a plaintiff and a defendant.
P248. To adjudicate cases of inheritances.
In sum, none of the above claims meets the Halakhot s revised criteria
for positive commandments, now understood as unconditional obligations.
221
Thus we have explained away 49 of the 109 failures to designate listed in
Table 1.
6.3.1 Three reversals from the list of the 60 unconditional obligations
We argued that the revised definition of what constitutes a mitsvat
'aseh in the Halakhot followed the one proposed by M. in the appendix to
the positive commandments and which served as the basis for a special list
of 60 commandments: unconditional obligations, effective under a very
special set of circumstances. These circumstances were that "the man .. .is
living in normal conditions, that is to say, that he lives in a house in a
community, eats ordinary food, namely bread and meat, pursues a normal
occupation, marries and has a family." We find that while M. included in
this list P9 ("To hallow His name"), P14 ("Fringes") and P26 ("That the
priests shall bless Israel") he failed to declare them as positive
commandments in the respective introductory statements of the Halakhot. I
shall argue below that on further consideration M. did indeed reverse
himself in the Halakhot and considered these commandments to be
17
contingent rather than unconditional. We examine these three
commandment claims below.
P9. To hallow His name, as it is said, "And I will be sanctified in the midst
of the children of Israel" (Leviticus 22:32).
17
Other deviations of the Halakhot from the list of 60 unconditional obligations are not
due to a reassessment of their unconditional/contingent status and will be dealt with in the
coming chapters.
222
Qayyara enumerates "sanctifying the Name" (qiddush ha-Shem) in his
list of qum 'aseh (Pq28), but to M. this may not be an open and shut case.
He had already argued, in Rule 4, that certain charges that cover the whole
of the Torah and are therefore not specific ought not to be counted. One
might similarly argue that And I will be sanctified in the midst of the
children of Israel simply describes the result of His people fulfilling all the
commandments and that it does not command a specific action. It is perhaps
this problem that drives him to demonstrate that sanctifying the name is a
positive commandment. M. takes his cue from bSanhedrin 74b that states:
"Is a Noahide commanded to sanctify His Name or not? Listen to this: 'The
Noahides were commanded to observe seven commandments; but if they
were [also] commanded to sanctify His Name, there are eight.'" "Thus," M.
concludes
it has been made clear to you that this is one of the
commandments that are obligatory upon Israel, the
Sages having deduced this commandment from the
words I will be hallowed among the children of Israel
[Leviticus 22:32].
18
18
Rava' s rejoinder to the gemara's proof said in the name of the amora Abaye, that
sanctifying the Divine Name by observing the seven Noahide laws is not a separate
commandment but is included therein, would nullify the proof upon which M.' s argument
rests, as observed by Mishneh le-Melekh (Hilkhot Melakhim 10:2). He offers a tentative
but not entirely satisfying solution (ve-yesh le-yashev.). Ultimately, it may well be the
case that the difference between Abaye and Rava rests on precisely the matter that
exercised M.: is qiddush ha-Shem an independent commandment or merely a condition of
the performance of all commandments, a statement that says that when one performs
commandments properly one hallows His Name?
223
But while M. has demonstrated that the verse stands for a positive
commandment, the nature of the charge itself has not been evinced.
Specifically, what must one do to sanctify His name? In the ShM, M. is bold,
waxing on the poetic:
The purport of this commandment is that we are in
duty bound to proclaim this true religion to the world,
undeterred by fear of injury from any source. Even if a
tyrant tries to compel us by force to deny Him we must
not obey, but must positively rather submit to death;
and we must not even mislead the tyrant into
supposing that we have denied Him while in our hearts
we continue to believe in Him.
The simple meaning of these words is that, first and foremost, there
exists an unconditional obligation to proclaim the true religion, i.e.
monotheism, to the world. Moreover, this obligation must be carried out
even in the face of danger.
M.'s accompanying exegesis does not quite support this bold position.
M. discusses an incident told in the book of Daniel, which describes how
Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah were ready to die at Nebuchadnezzar's
hand, "when he forced people to prostrate themselves before the idol, and all
did so, the Israelites included and there was none there to sanctify the Name
of Heaven, all being in terror." Nowhere are we told that these three martyrs
went around proclaiming the "true religion." Rather, the three martyrs found
themselves in that circumstance as a direct result of Nebuchadnezzar's
decree. M. confirms this understanding: "This commandment applies only in
circumstances such as those of that great occasion when the whole world
was in terror, and it was a duty to declare His Unity publicly at that time." In
other words, the opportunity presented itself for them to make a public
224
affirmation of the "true religion"; they had not gone about proclaiming the
true religion.
M. supports the public aspect of this commandment by adducing a revealing,
Sifra, Emorpereq 9:6 (p. 99d): "On this condition I brought you out of the
land of Egypt, that ye sanctify My name publicly" (emphasis added).
19
Be
that as it may, we note a subtle change in the nature of the commandment in
the ShM itself, from constituting an unconditional obligation - and thus
fitting to be enumerated in the list of 60 unconditional commandments - to
constituting a contingent commandment, applying "in circumstances such as
those of that great occasion." M.'s statement to the effect that "this
commandment applies only in circumstances such as those of that great
occasion" (my emphasis) is highly innovative as it stipulates that qiddush
ha-Shem can only be fulfilled under very special, and unique, circumstances:
where the entire world is being forced to abandon monotheism. The
implication being that, anything less public, less dramatic than the rejection
of monotheism, and less encompassing (all people, not just Israelites) would
not constitute grounds for qiddush ha-Shem.
20
It is this latter thread that is
taken up in the Halakhot.
19
The critical word be-rabbim (publicly) is missing in our edition. Heller is clearly aware
of the plus in M. ' s version because he quotes the midrash in full as we have it but makes
no comment.
20
Heller' s edition, which reads "this commandment was only commanded for that great
occasion" instead of "this commandment applies only in circumstances such as those of
that great occasion," has clearly a different meaning and may come from a different
literary strata. In note 9 Heller offers three witnesses that seem to support our reading,
including the text of the first edition of the ShM (Constantinople 1516), generally thought
to be defective, and Ibn Ayub' s translation. Horowitz,Yad ha-Levi, ad loc., glosses that
there was no better opportunity to publicly sanctify God' s name than at the time of
Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah. In my opinion, he totally misses the momentous
225
In the fifth chapter of Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah M. discusses the
commandments of qiddush ha-Shem and its binary opposite, hillul ha-Shem
(desecration of God's name). As we noted in Table 1, M. fails to declare in
the opening lines that qiddush ha-Shem is a positive commandment. In 5:1-4
M. stipulates the conditions under which one could commit a transgression
rather than suffer death and, conversely, the conditions under which one
must suffer death rather than transgress, at the hands of a coercive idolater.
The details are not relevant for the present discussion; suffice it to say that
they entail specific conditions and circumstances. In 5:4 M. states:
When one is enjoined to die rather than transgress, and
suffers death so as to not transgress, he sanctifies the
name of God. If he does so in the presence of ten
Israelites, he sanctifies the name of God publicly, like
Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah, Rabbi Akiva
and his colleagues. These are martyrs, than whom
none ranks hi gher . .
Note that in the Halakhot M. deals explicitly with two kinds of
sanctifications, a private act of sanctification and a public one. In what
follows, M. spells out the circumstance under which qiddush ha-Shem is a
positive commandment:
When one is enjoined to suffer death rather than
transgress, and commits a transgression and so escapes
death, he has profaned the name of God. If the
transgression was committed in the presence of ten
Israelites, he has profaned the name of God in public,
failed [bitel] to observe a positive commandment - to
sanctify the name of God - and violated a negative
commandment - not to profane His name.
implications of M. ' s statement despite the fact that his edition is based on the
Constantinople edition and reads here exactly as we have it.
226
Qiddush ha-Shem can be considered a positive commandment only
where one is coerced to transgress a special class of injunctions in the
presence of ten Israelites and chooses martyrdom instead.
21
'
22
In sum,
declaring qiddush ha-Shem a positive commandment, that is, an
unconditional obligation, has to do with the way the claim is formulated. If
qiddush ha-Shem translates to an obligation to "proclaim this true religion to
the world, undeterred by fear of injury from any source" as is formulated in
the ShM, then we are dealing with an unconditional obligation. If, on the
21
Levinger, Ha-RaMBaM ke-Filosof , pp.81-83, assumes that the qiddush ha-Shem
referred to in the list of 60 unconditional commandments answers to the three definitions
given in the Halakhot. (We discussed only the first and most important of these
definitions). None of the definitions, he avers, can be said to represent unconditional
obligations, incumbent on everyone, and he thus questions M.' s decision to include
qiddush ha-Shem in the list of 60 commandments. His solution, that the ShM treats
qiddush ha-Shem as a total personal commitment to give up everything in life, including
life itself, for the glory of His name, and that this commitment is incumbent on everyone,
misses, in my opinion, the main point of what the ShM claims. As we noted earlier, it is
the proclamation of the true religion, at whatever cost, that is incumbent on everyone.
22
M. maintains a certain ambivalence in the Halakhot. On the one hand he portrays acts
of sanctification/profanation that occur in the private domain and treats them with the
utmost gravity. For example, in halakhah 3, M. rules that in a time of religious
persecution (shaat ha-shemad) where the authorities issue decrees with the purpose of
abolishing the Israelites' religion or any of its precepts, the Israelite is duty-bound to
suffer death rather than transgress, even if this coercion takes place in the private domain.
M. ' s source for halakhah 3 is the uncontested statement of R. Dimi in the name of R.
Yohanan (bSanhedrin 74a) who asserted that in time of persecution one must suffer death
rather than transgress even a minor commandment. Coupling this statement with the
following one of Rabin, said in the name of R.Yohanan, it appears that this severity
applies even in the private domain. On the other hand, M. indicates that the scriptural
violations result only from actions taken in public, in the presence of ten Israelites. That
is, in halakhah 4 it seems clear beyond doubt that the violations of the positive and
negative commandments apply only in the public domain, not in the private one. M.
appears never to lose sight of the essential message of the scriptural verse, so clearly
articulated by Sifra, that ye sanctify my name in public. It is admittedly difficult to equate
the severe stance of halakhah 3 with a mere rabbinic ordinance, and yet, the scriptural
commandment is clearly formulated with public acts in sight.
227
other hand, qiddush ha-Shem is only a responsive obligation as is formulated
in the Halakhot, namely, accepting martyrdom if and when one is forced to
transgress any one of a small number of fundamental sins, then we are
dealing with a contingent obligation. In such a case, the Halakhot can
justifiably omit the declaratory statement that qiddush ha-Shem is a positive
commandment.
P14. To make fringes
In the SE, the ShM and the Heading to Hilkhot Tsitsit M. states that
there exists a positive commandment to make fringes (tsitsit). There is no
mention of this commandment in the Halakhot. Instead, M. states in Hilkhot
Tsitsit 1:5 that " . o n e who wears a cloak (tallit) having white or azure or
both together has fulfilled one positive commandment." (This is in line with
the thesis already developed in the ShM that the white tassel and the azure
thread are to be considered one commandment, not two, despite the fact that
the absence of either the white tassel or the azure thread does not invalidate
the other.) The point, however, is that the positive commandment is fulfilled
by wearing such a tallit and not by making the fringes as indicated in the
earlier works. Crucially, M. does not make a declaration in the introduction
to the laws of tsitsit that there is a positive commandment to wear fringes.
This leads us to believe that, indeed, there is no obligation to wear a tallit
that has tsitsit attached to it and that, instead, we are dealing with a
contingent commandment. This is confirmed in 3:10:
228
When is one obligated to fulfill the commandment of
23
fringes? Anyone obligated by this commandment
23
24
who covers himself with a garment fit for fringes
must first affix fringes to it, and only then cover
himself with it. If he has covered himself with it
without fringes, he has nullified a positive
commandment. .
Uniquely among the class of contingent commandments, M. adds:
Even though one is not obligated to purchase a tallit
and wrap himself in it, so that he has to affix fringes to
it, it is not fitting for a person who is pious (hasid) to
exempt himself from this commandment; rather, such
a one should always endeavor to be wrapped in a
garment which requires fringes so that he fulfills this
commandment . . (3: 11)
As a corollary of this discussion it can be seen that the introductory
statement - the presence or absence of a declaratory statement with respect
to a particular act being a positive commandment - leads to a proper
appreciation of the nature of the commandment.
We might now ask, since it is unlikely that M. was not aware of the
contingent nature of this commandment at the time he composed the list of
60 unconditional commandments, why did he include fringes in this list? I
offer two highly speculative suggestions. The practice of wearing fringes
was deeply entrenched among the "pious" of the masses where it came to be
regarded as an obligation, somewhat along the lines of what M. says in 3:11.
23
See, for example, 3:9 for those who are exempt from this commandment.
24
See, for example, 3:1-2 for a discussion of the type of garment to which one must
attach fringes.
229
Since the list of 60 unconditional obligations appears to have been
constructed as a manual for normative behavior in day-to-day Egypt, M. was
unwilling to disturb the pious practice. A corollary to this thesis is that the
list of 60 unconditional obligations cannot be used as a source for what M.
considered scripturally ordained positive commandments. Instead, the list
would include normative as well as quasi-normative commandments, a
subject to which we shall turn in chapter 7.
A second possibility is that M. included the making of fringes in the
list, following the plain sense of the verse bid them that they make them
throughout their generations fringes in the corners of their garments
(Numbers 15:38), the understanding being that there is an unconditional
25
obligation to affix fringes on every garment in one's possession. In the
Code, however, M. followed the normative rabbinic opinion, that "the point
of the commandment is to wrap oneself with them," as he rules in Hilkhot
Tsitsit 3:8
26
and not simply to affix the fringes on a garment. This rabbinic
interpretation further allowed that the commandment only be required when
one wrapped himself with a fit tallit or garment, in essence a contingent
commandment.
P 26. That the Priests shall bless Israel
25
So held also by one of the talmudic authorities, bMenahot 42b. See chapter 7 for a
discussion of M. ' s views on the plain sense of the scriptural text (peshateyh di-qra).
26
Ibid. This is the reason why one does not pronounce a blessing over the affixing of the
fringes.
230
In the previous example we showed how the plain sense of Scripture
could have shaped M.'s early understanding of the scriptural commandment.
We will have more to say on this in the next chapter. Here we find an
example in which the information contained in the oral tradition helps M.
determine the nature of the scriptural claim.
The laws of the priestly blessings (Hilkhot Nesiat Kapayim) are
appended to the end of Hilkhot Tefillah, comprising chapters 14 and 15, on
account of the fact that the priestly blessings form an organic part of the
Amidah prayer.
Nothing in the opening lines of the halakhot would suggest that we
are dealing here with a positive commandment. M. writes: "The priests bless
the congregation [ha-kohanim nosim et kapehem, lit., the priests raise their
hands] during the morning, additional (musaf), and ne'ila pr ayer s. . " (14:1).
Notably absent from the introductory statement is a declaration that the
priestly blessings are a positive commandment. Other literary clues that
point to the same conclusion are the absence of any sort of scriptural proof-
text as evidence of the obligation and the use of the matter-of-factly
participial form, matters that we shall take up in chapter 7. It would appear
then that M. reversed himself from what he had claimed in the ShM and now
held that the priestly blessings are rabbinic in authority. But is this so?
I do not think so. M. rules that a priest cannot be prevented from
blessing the community,
even if he is neither wise nor punctilious in the
observance of the commandments, or even if people
speak slightingly of him, or even if his business
dealings are not j u s t . since it is a positive
commandment [mitsvat 'aseh] incumbent on every
single priest to bless the community, and we do not tell
a wicked man to be more wicked, and refrain from
231
fulfilling commandments. (Hilkhot Nesiat Kapayim
15:6)
Again, at the very end of chapter 15, M. tells us that "Even though a
priest who fails to ascend the platform has violated only one positive
commandment [bitel mitsvat 'aseh], it is as if he had transgressed three
positive commandments.."
27
These rulings make it abundantly clear that
M. had not changed his mind and that he continued to maintain that the
priestly blessing constituted a positive commandment.
So how can we account for the Halakhot s failure to designate this
commandment a positive commandment in the opening lines? I believe that
the answer lies in the exegetical basis for the commandment, first offered in
Hilkhot Nesiat Kapayim 14:11. M. writes:
The priestly blessing is never recited in any language
but Hebrew, as it says, And the Lord spoke unto
Moses, saying: Speak unto Aaron and unto his sons,
saying: On this wise ye shall bless the children of
Israel [Numbers 6:22-3], and thus they learned from
the oral tradition [kakh lamdu mi-pi ha-shemu'ah]
from Moses: On this wise ye shall bless -standing; On
this wise ye shall bless - with raised hands; On this
wise ye shall bless - in Hebrew; On this wise ye shall
bless - face to face; On this wise ye shall bless -
27
The source for the statement that a priest who fails to ascend to the platform
transgresses three positive commandments is bMenahot 44a. The statement appears to
carry, at least for M., no legal force; it was merely a way for the rabbis to emphasize the
importance of this duty and it is used here in the same manner. See Rule 9, p.161. On the
other hand, the expression bitel, "cancelled" or "abrogated" or "nullified," applies to
genuine positive commandments, as opposed to inferred prohibitions. See above, chapter
5, note 65.
232
aloud; On this wise ye shall bless - with the explicit
Name, if they are in the Temple, as we said.
28
Of critical importance is the fact that the oral tradition conceived of
the priestly blessings as invoking the explicit or articulated Name. This
could only be done in the Temple, as M. explains,
They recite the divine name as it is written, that is the
letters yod, heh, vav, and heh are pronounced. This is
what is universally called 'the explicit name.' Outside
the Temple, they use its appellation, that is, alef dalet,
since the name is expressed as it is written only in the
Templ e. . The early Sages taught it to their worthy
students and sons only once every seven years. All this
out of esteem for the great and awesome name.
29
(Hilkhot Nesiat Kapayim 14:10)
Tradition's insistence that the priestly blessings invoke the articulated
name, something that could only be done in the Temple, meant that the
priestly blessings conducted outside of the Temple did not conform to the
dictates of the scriptural commandment. In fact, M. may have conjectured
that these blessings were simply the product of a rabbinical enactment
(taqanah) or, even less formally, a popular practice that was ultimately
sanctioned by the rabbis. While I found no indication in the midrashic and
talmudic sources that would point to such a daring distinction - other than
28
M. offers here a summary of a lengthier exposition found in bSotah 38a. For each
statement associated with On this wise ye shall bless we find a tanna showing that the
norm can be deduced independently by various textual and analogical means. M. must
have concluded that these halakhot were the product of an oral tradition "from Moses"
rather than of implausible textual and analogical derivations.
29
In GP, M. dwells at some length on this matter, and argues that the articulated name,
that is the tetragrammaton, "alone is indicative of the essence without associating any
other notion with it." GP I: 61 (149). See also I: 62.
233
the implications of "thus they learned from the oral tradition (kakh lamdu
mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah) from Moses" - neither did I find a contra-indication.
Armed with this insight, we are now in a position to offer a somewhat
esoteric explanation for the unexpected introduction to Hilkhot Nesiat
Kapayim. Since M. held that there existed a distinction between blessings
that are conducted in the Temple (scriptural) and blessings that are
conducted outside of the Temple (rabbinic) - a distinction of which other
jurists and practitioners were either unaware or did not approve - a
declaratory statement to the effect that the priestly blessings are a positive
commandment would necessarily have to be qualified. But it is quite
possible that the qualification, the idea that the genuine, i.e. scriptural,
priestly blessing belonged only in the Temple, would have led the common
people to devalue the custom. To avoid this potential problem M. chose not
to make the usual declaratory statement in the introduction. Instead, he
informed his readers that the priestly blessing in the Temple was a scriptural
commandment only in the body of the text, where the distinction between
scriptural commandment and custom was much too subtle to be noted. This
thesis seeks to explain M.' s use of the participle of correct practice rather
than of the imperative form in the opening lines of Hilkhot Nesiat Kapayim.
In these, M. was describing the priestly blessings that are conducted outside
of the Temple and which are inserted into the Amidah prayer, not the
scripturally mandated priestly blessings that only take place in the Temple.
A simpler and less dramatic explanation can also be offered, one that
need not come on to the above-made distinction. This explanation would
have M. hold that the priestly blessing is always a scriptural commandment
234
but that it is a contingent obligation not an unconditional one.
30
The priest
negates (bitel) a positive commandment if and when he is asked to bless the
congregation while he finds himself participating in communal services, and
then fails to do so.
31
This explanation is consistent with the thesis formulated
earlier that M., in the Halakhot, designates as positive commandments only
unconditional obligations.
Yet a third explanation suggests itself, consistent with the first thesis.
It would argue that the rabbinic sources were too vague to allow M. to
pronounce himself with confidence about the exact claim of the scriptural
commandment. M. was unsure if the command was applicable only in the
Temple, or if it was applicable even outside of it - with the proviso that in
such case God's explicit name was not to be used.
32
6.4. Revisiting Individuation
As we saw in section 4.1, many ShM individuations are non-
compelling. One need only revisit them to further thin out Table 1.
30
Note that the verse speaks only about the form and manner by which the priests must
bless the congregation, as it says On this wise ye shall bless the children of Israel. The
text does not require such a blessing.
31
See yBerakhot 5:4 and Tur Orah Hayyim siman 128 on his reading of Tg. Onqelos.
32
I shall argue in section 9.4 that source ambiguity left tell-tale marks in M. ' s
presentation of some commandments. A consequence of this ambiguity is that M.
deliberately omits the designation in the introductory statement but slips in the
designation in the subsequent discussion, as he did here.
235
Moving from the simpler to the more complex cases, P68 is now
subsumed in the Halakhot under P69, while P114-P117, the laws of
'arakhin, are now condensed into one commandment: "It is a positive
commandment to adjudge the laws of 'arakhin as stipulated in the Torah"
33
(Hilkhot 'Arakhin 1:2). Commandments P149-152 are subsumed in Hilkhot
Maakhalot Asurot 1: 1 under one positive commandment: "Concerning the
tokens with which one can differentiate between those domesticated and
wild animals, owls, fishes and grasshoppers, that may be eaten and those that
may not be eaten."
34
Another individuation scheme that was revised because
of its non-compelling nature was the commandment claim to rest from work
on the festival days.
35
In the Halakhot, M. collapses these six
commandments into one, stating that
anyone who rests from work [melekhet 'avodah, a
term that the rabbis understood as meaning the kind of
work that is not related to the preparation of food] on
any of these [six festival days] has fulfilled a positive
commandment..
36
(Hilkhot Shevitat Yom Tov 1:2)
33
The reader is entitled to object that the law of arakhin should not be designated a
positive commandment because it is a law, and laws, as demonstrated earlier, are not
obligatory commandments. I do not have a satisfactory answer and I believe that this case
represents an exception to the rule. This odd formulation also caught the attention of a
commentator who wondered why M. would not designate the adjudication of vows a
positive commandment in the same way as he had designated the adjudication of arakhin
a positive commandment, see Epstein, Baruch, Arukh ha-Shulhan he-Atid (Jerusalem:
Mosad ha-Rav Kook, 1969-75), siman 33, #8. Be that as it may, M. abridged the four
claims into one.
34
M. created four positive commandments in the SE/ShM on the back of four individual
inferred prohibitions (lav ha-ba-mikhlal 'aseh). See the earlier discussion on P149-152,
section 5.1.2.f
35
See 4.1 above, P159-60, P162-63, P166-67.
36
That M. did not follow the same logical scheme with respect to the obligation of
absolute rest prescribed for the Sabbath and the Day of Atonement is due to the fact that
236
In the Halakhot, M. omits the positive commandment designation to
appoint a special priest to address the soldiers in war (P191). In section 4.1
we noted the lack of justification for individuating this claim since it
represents no more than a particular of the laws of waging war.
37
In section 2.4, we noted the non-compelling nature of M.' s
individuation of the four modes of capital punishment. In the Halakhot, M.
resolves this issue in an elegant fashion. First, he describes the four modes of
capital punishment and then he states: "[With reference to] each one of these
deaths (kol mitah me-hen), it is a positive commandment for the court to
execute by means of it those who are liable to i t . . " (Hilkhot Sanhedrin
14:1-2). M.'s formulation is ambiguous. He could mean that each of the
these two days of rest required separate treatises to deal with their particular sets of
scriptural and rabbinic commandments and ordinances. In other words, the rest-from-
work individuation was dictated by topical considerations, particular to the drafting of a
code of law, rather than by theoretical considerations. Note, too, that the punishment for
transgressing the prohibition to work is different for the Sabbath (stoning) than for the
Day of Atonement (excision). See Hilkhot Shevitat 'Asor 1:2.
37
At the time, we suggested that didactic considerations may have influenced M.' s
decision. Notwithstanding this omission, the special educational message that M. wishes
to convey does make its appearance in the Halakhot. In Hilkhot Melakhim 7:2-3, M.
details the preparations for war and cites the particulars of the address of the special
priest as recounted in the scriptural passage. In a special and seemingly redundant
peroration at 7:15, M. tells us that once the man who is fearful and fainthearted
(Deuteronomy 20:8)
joined the ranks of battle, he should put his reliance upon Him
who is the hope of Israel, their Saviour in time of trouble. He
should note that he is fighting for the oneness of God, risk his
life, and neither fear nor be affrighted. Nor should he think of
his wife or children, but forgetting them and all else,
concentrate on the w a r .
This addition appears to be gratuitous but it is not: These eloquent and stirring words are
designed to instill in the faithful a special zeal to combat heresy, the very same objective
that I suspect led M. to individuate P191.
237
forms of execution collectively is a positive commandment or, alternatively,
that each one of them, singly, is a positive commandment. At any rate, either
he failed to designate, which would be in keeping with the non-compelling
nature of the individuation, or he did not fail to designate, which would
mean that we have no problem to deal with. We have thus explained the
alleged or the real failure to designate P226 through 229 in the Halakhot.
To summarize, then, in this section we found that certain groups of
related commandment claims were subsumed under one of their own group
of commandments or under a different commandment claim, one that yields
a more generic formulation. This was the case with:
P68. That the Court of Judgment shall offer up a sacrifice, if they have erred
in a judicial pronouncement, now subsumed under P69 ("That an
individual shall bring a sin offering if he has sinned in error by
committing a transgression ...").
P114. That one who vows to the Lord the monetary value of a person
shall pay the amount appointed in the scriptural passage.
P115. That one who vows to the Lord the monetary value of an unclean
beast shall pay its value.
P116. That one who vows the value of his house shall pay according to
the appraisal of the priest.
P117. That one who sanctifies to the Lord a portion of his field shall pay
according to the estimation appointed in the scriptural passage,
(now subsumed under a general law of valuations);
P149. To examine the marks in cattle.
238
P150. To examine the marks in fowl, so as to distinguish between the
unclean and the clean.
P151. To examine the marks in locusts, so as to distinguish the clean
from the unclean.
P152. To examine the marks in fish, (now subsumed under a general law
to differentiate all edible animals);
P159. To rest on the first day of Passover.
P160. To rest on the seventh day of that feast.
P162. To rest on the fiftieth day (from the time of cutting the Omer).
P163. To rest on the first day of the seventh month.
P166. To rest on the first day of the Feast of Tabernacles.
P167. To rest on the eighth day of that feast, (now subsumed under a
general rule to rest on festivals);
P191. To anoint a special priest (to address the soldiers) in a war, (now
subsumed under the commandment that governs the conduct of
obligatory and permissible wars, Hilkhot Melakhim 7:1).
P226. That the Court shall execute (sentences of death) by decapitation
with the sword.
P227. That the Court shall execute (sentences of death) by strangulation.
P228. That the Court shall execute (sentences of death) by burning with
fire.
P229. That the Court shall execute (sentences of death) by stoning,
(now subsumed under a general rule mandating the Great Court to
execute all those liable by various methods).
239
The above list adds up to 16 altogether redundant individuations (Note
that some of these claims are retained to take the place of the more generic
individuation, e.g. P149-52 becomes one claim, P 226-229 becomes one
claim, and so on.) These revised individuations present few conceptual
difficulties. Explanations for the next group of failures to designate,
however, demand a more imaginative approach. Necessarily, explanations
will become more speculative.
P41-51
We saw earlier that M. listed separate positive commandments to
account for each of the additional offerings (musafin) brought on festivals.
In 4.1, we noted that M.'s individuation was not compelling and that he
could as well have followed Qayyara's scheme of listing just one
commandment to account for all the musafin. Surprisingly, we find no
mention anywhere in the Halakhot that any of these additional offerings is a
positive commandment.
M. opens Hilkhot Temidin u-Musafin with a characteristically bold
statement: "It is a positive commandment to offer two lambs as burnt
offerings every day. They are called daily offerings [temidin].." This
designation corresponds to P39, the commandment to offer a burnt offering
twice a day. One would expect a similar statement with respect to the
additional offerings but, most puzzling, there is none. The additional
offering for the Sabbath (P41) is mentioned only in passing tucked away,
so to say, in a mundane chapter that deals with the method of arbitration
used by the priests to assume their turns. In response to a rhetorical question
of how the services are performed on the Sabbath when both temidin and
musafin are brought, M. explains that a special lot (payis) is cast for that day
240
and adds that the priest who handles the daily offering is also entitled to
make the additional offering. In this unremarkable way M. introduces us to
the additional offering of the Sabbath (Hilkhot Temidin u-Musafin 4:9).
Section 7:1 deals with the musaf of the New Moon, detailing the time
of sacrifice, the number and kinds of animals to be offered and the type of
offering (Burnt Offerings, Sin Offering). No mention is made of it being a
mitsvat 'aseh. The Passover musaf (7:3), the Feast of Weeks (8:1), the musaf
of the first day of Tishre (9:1), the musaf of the Day of Atonement (10:1),
the musaf of Tabernacles (10:3) and the musaf of the Eighth Day of Solemn
Assembly (10:5) are all dealt with in similar fashion. M. does not designate
any of these as positive commandments.
Also dealt with matter-of-factly is the Omer (meal offering of barley)
that is brought on the second day of Passover together with the Additional
Offering (7:3), and the loaves of bread that are brought with the Additional
Offerings on the Feast of Weeks (8:1). Finally, M. dedicates an entire
treatise to the rituals of the Day of Atonement, Hilkhot Yom ha-Kippurim,
without once stating that the entire ritual of the day considered one
commandment in the ShM (P49) is a mitsvat 'aseh.
To justify this extraordinary failure to designate, I submit that M.
came to see all the services of the day, effectively bounded by the twice-
daily burnt offering (temidin), as representing one commandment. This
position is not unreasonable when we consider the manner in which
Scripture introduces temidin and musafin: Command the children of Israel,
and say unto them: My food which is presented unto Me for offerings made
by fire, of a sweet savour unto Me, shall ye observe to offer unto Me in its
due season (Numbers 28:2). The verses then go on to describe the musafin
applicable to each festival, each with its own temidin. Importantly, on each
241
occasion the verses remind the officiating priests that Ye shall offer these
[the Additional Offerings] beside the burnt offering of the morning, which is
for a continual burnt offering...it shall be offered beside the continual burnt
offering.
The ShM offers at P49 an important clue in support of this hypothesis,
namely, that the elements of a ritual that follow a certain order are to be
considered as one commandment. First M. says that "we are commanded to
perform the service of the day, that is to say, all the sacrifices and the
confessions ordained by Scripture for the Day of Atonement, to atone for all
our sins" (my emphasis). Immediately thereafter, M. adds,
The proof that the whole of this service in its totality
constitutes only one commandment is found at the end
of the fifth chapter of Yoma: 'Concerning every
ministration of the Day of Atonement mentioned in the
prescribed order, if one service is done out of order
before another one, it is as if it had not been done at
all.'
By analogy, since the order of the day's service is bound by the
morning and evening temidin, it is sufficient for M. to designate the temidin
as a positive commandment and ignore the musafin
3
P169
38
Admittedly, the order of the temidin and musafin is not a hindrance and the service is
valid even if the musafin come first (Hilkhot Temidin u-Musafin 8:20). Nevertheless, the
correct order is temidin first, followed by musafin and other offerings and temidin again,
to end the day' s service. Also, the fact that there is no hindrance with respect to their
order and that the lambs can be consecrated for either is all the more reason for seeing
these offerings as essentially fulfilling one purpose.
242
In Hilkhot Shofar ve-Lulav ve-Sukkah, M. discusses at length the
details of the taking of the four species (chapters 7 and 8). In 7:5, M. states
that the four species are "one mitsvah.. .and together (lit., all of them) they
are called mitsvat lulav." In 7:13, when describing the obligation, M.
employs a rarely used passive voice: "mitsvat lulav [that is, the combination
of the four species, as per 7:5 above] is to be taken [le-hinatel] on the first
day of the festival only anywhere and at any time, even if this happens to
be a Sabbat h. . " The use of the active voice "to take" (li-tol, as in the SE)
would certainly have forced M. into the standard introductory formula "it
is a positive commandment to t a k e . " something which I surmise he
wished to avoid. The omission of the declarative statement is patently
obvious. One need only contrast the way M. introduces the commandment of
taking the lulav with the way he introduces in the same treatise the
commandment to blow the shofar: "It is a positive commandment of the
Torah to listen to the sound of the shofar on Rosh ha-Shanah."
Earlier (2.4.1), we pointed out that M. specified in Rule 11 that where
the Torah enjoined an assemblage of elements one was to search for telos.
No single element of the assemblage was to be considered a commandment,
only the overall purpose constituted the commandment. In that discussion,
and by way of example, M. offered, " . we have been commanded to
rejoice before the Lord on the first day of Tabernacles,
39
and then He
explains that that rejoicing be by taking (unto the hand) certain objects." In
39
Actually, the verse (Leviticus 23:40) commands one to take the four kinds on the first
day and to rejoice before the Lord seven days. The Sages interpreted this to mean that the
taking of the four kinds for seven days was obligatory in the sanctuary while outside of
the sanctuary the taking of the four kinds was obligatory for only one day. At P169 M.
states that "we are commanded to take a palm-branch, and rejoice with it before the Lord
seven days."
243
other words, the "taking of the four kinds" is for the sake of something else,
namely, to rejoice before the Lord. In short, instead of individuating mitsvat
lulav, M. may have thought it more appropriate to subsume the four species
under the commandment to rejoice on the festivals (P54).
40
P113
In the ShM, this commandment is formulated as follows: "To prepare
the red heifer, so that [its ashes] will be available for what has to be done in
order to remove impurity [contracted because of] a dead body." With "the
law of the red heifer" (din parah addumah), the Heading to Hilkhot Parah
Addumah moves well away from the active formulation of the SE/ShM.
Meanwhile, the MT itself fails to designate the preparation of the red heifer a
positive commandment.
The claim of the SE/ShM appears to contradict Rule 10, which states
that it is not fitting to count acts that are preparatory to a final goal. Since the
making of the ashes of the red heifer is only preparatory to the making of a
water-of-sprinkling (mey niddah), M.'s logic of individuation dictates that it
be subsumed under P108, which deals with the purifying and defiling
properties of the waters of sprinkling. What may have prompted M. to
individuate P113 was the fact that Scripture itself gives the making of the
ashes an independent rationale when it indicates that the ashes shall be kept
for the congregation for a water-of- sprinkling (Numbers 19:9). This may be
40
ySukkah 3:11 reports a dispute regarding the command to rejoice: does it refer to peace
offerings (shelamim) or to lulav? See also bSukkah 43b, RaSHi s.v. lulav nami. In other
words, according to one opinion, mitsvat lulav was a way to carry out the commandment
to rejoice in the festival.
244
read as enjoining the Israelites to prepare and set aside the ashes regardless
of their eventual application.
The text that served as the basis of the positive commandment in the
SE/ShM becomes in the Halakhot (Hilkhot Parah 3:4 the proof-text for only
a detail of the overall preparation of the ashes of the red heifer. One third of
the ashes were to be used to consecrate high priests who worked on other
heifers, one third were to be used to sprinkle and purify those who became
defiled through contact with a corpse, and the final third was to be set aside.
M. grounds the disposition of the final third on the proof-text cited earlier,
though there is little doubt that the practice of dividing the ashes into three
thirds is non-scriptural.
41
While the surface meaning of the verse may have given M. in the
SE/ShM reason to individuate the preparation of the ashes of the red heifer,
the talmudic rabbis attached no independent meaning to the act. Instead, they
used it to support a detail of the overall preparation.
42
As a result, M. in the
Halakhot reclassified the verse shall be kept for the congregation from an
injunction deserving of individuation to a detail of the greater law that deals
with the functions of the waters of sprinkling (P108). The heading to Hilkhot
Parah Addumah moves in that direction by calling this rubric "the law of the
red heifer" (din parah addumah). In turn, P108 disappears from the count in
41
No proof-text is adduced in either mParah or tParah, end of third chapter. See RaSHi' s
commentary on Numbers 19:9 and the supercommentary of Mizrahi on RaSHi.
42
Sifre Numbers, Huqatpisqa 124 (p.158) expounds the words shall be kept [ve-haytah
...le-mishmeret] for the congregation to teach that the waters, while still not mixed with
the ashes, can be disqualified by distraction. M. adopted the ruling of the Sifre (see
Hilkhot Parah 7:1) but resisted the far-fetched exegesis, preferring instead to treat this
conclusion as a tradition (u-devarim elu divre qabbalah hen). No doubt he was of the
opinion that the verse meant what it said.
245
the Halakhot as we saw earlier simply because it is a law rather than a
mitsvat 'aseh (recall its literal meaning "commandment of doing.").
We have now offered solutions to explain away a further 12 failures to
designate - entirely redundant commandment claims - by positing
alternative (and sometimes more refined) methods of individuation. In total,
we have offered explanations in this chapter for 80 out of a total of 109
failures to designate. To explain the remainder of the failures to designate
we shall need to examine M.'s approach to the reading of the legal material
in Scripture and the implications that it holds for categorizing the law
according to its various sources, in particular, de-oraita and divre sofrim.
246
Chapter 7. Peshateyh di-Qra
In the foregoing sections we have seen how M.' s TaRYaG
enumeration was erected on a framework of rules of individuation. We have
also seen that for the most part these rules were driven by good sense and
logic: They ran parallel, as it were, to the great Talmudic tradition and
therefore, from a conceptual point of view, aroused little opposition. Those
who dissented did so only with regard to details, since, as we have
emphasized, there was more than one way to individuate commandments,
just as there is more than one way to conceive of the purpose, function and
affinity of a commandment.
The rules of identification, Rules 1, 2 and 3, however, were designed
to filter out a number of geonic entries on the basis that, by definition, they
could not belong to the Mosaic laws. Thus, Rule 1 eliminated rabbinic laws
since they postdated the Sinaitic event. Rule 3 eliminated temporal
commandments, commandments given for specific occasions, as they were
always associated with the Israelites' sojourn through the wilderness.
Geonim were found on both sides of the divide regarding the counting of
temporal commandments.
1
Conceptually, Rule 1 did not present a major
1
Ibn Balaam argued that temporal commandments ought not to be included in the
TaRYaG. According to Ibn Balaam, Hefets did count temporal commandments. (See 1.1
above.) Ibn Ezra sharply questioned the value of enumerating temporal commandments.
His list of temporal commandments, however, contains some surprises. (See Abraham
ibn Ezra, Yesod Mora , ha-Shaar ha-Sheni, pisqa 7, p. 95f.) Though M. accused Qayyara
of counting temporal commandments, Nahmanides (Hasagot ad loc.) defended
Qayyara's position by redefining those commandments so that they no longer appeared to
be of a temporal nature. His apology, however, runs into some difficulties when he tries
to explain away terumat ha-mekhes (dues to be offered out of the booties taken in war)
247
challenge to the existing order. The Talmud was well aware of the difference
in status and force between Torah law and rabbinic law despite the
occasional self-serving admonitions regarding the gravitas of rabbinic law.
Rule 2, on the other hand, shook the very grounds of post-talmudic
and some would say talmudic tradition. Traditionally, legislation derived
from scribal hermeneutics was thought to stand on par with what the Torah
ordered explicitly. By claiming that laws derived hermeneutically from
Scripture ought not to be included in the TaRYaG, M. overthrew a long-
standing tradition. In effect, M. drew a remarkable and revolutionary line in
the sand, with the plain sense of Scripture on the one side and the
hermeneutics of the rabbis on the other.
M.'s rule was so foreign to the rabbinic conception and to the rabbinic
ear that it managed to mislead even one of his sharpest critics. Daniel ha-
and tahanunim (special pleadings in time of anguish), which Qayyara included in his
Parashiyyot (p.106).
2
See bEruvin 21b:
Raba made the following exposition: What is the purport of the
Scriptural text: And, furthermore my son, be admonished: Of
making many books etc.? My son, be more careful in [the
observance of] the words of the Scribes than in the words of the
Torah, for in the laws of the Torah there are positive and
negative precepts; but, as to the laws of the Scribes, whoever
transgresses any of the enactments of the Scribes incurs the
penalty of death. In case you should object: If they are of real
value why were they not recorded [in the Torah]? Scripture
stated: 'Of making many books there is no end.'
See also Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah, parshah alef, s.v. ki tovim dodekhah mi-yayin: "[It was
said in the name of the] friends of Rabbi Yohanan: the words of the scribes are more
desirable than the words of the Torah."
3
I use hermeneutics deliberately in line with the meaning that M. gave it in Rule 2
derivations that are obtained by way of the application of the 13 hermeneutic rules of
interpretation or via the principle of inclusion (ribbui). But the term divre sofrim, as these
derivations are called, is broadened beyond simple derivations, as we shall see.
248
Bavli could not imagine that M. was disqualifying hermeneutic derivations
from the category of de-oraita. He thought instead that M. was simply
suggesting that hermeneutic derivations not be counted unless they were
designated as being guf torah or de-oraita by the Rabbis themselves and that
there was no doubt that the derivations were de-oraita.
4
Nahmanides, on
the other hand, did not make this mistake. Taking proper notice of what M.
said, Nahmanides unleashed a long and systematic critique of this rule. In
example after example, Nahmanides showed that talmudic tradition had
never drawn such a demarcation and that it had treated hermeneutic
derivations with the same deference and force as the explicit injunctions of
the Torah. Nahmanides ended his critique of Rule 2 with a fulminating
indictment:
[F]or this book of the master, its content is delightful,
full of love [based on Song 5:16] except for this
principle, which uproots great mountains of the
Talmud and throws down fortified walls of the
Gemara. For the students of the Gemara, this notion is
evil and bitter. Let it be forgotten and not said.
This is not the place to review the complexities of M.'s position, its
reconciliation with the numerous talmudic passages that appear to contradict
it and its legal ramifications. Others have done so; their commentaries grace
the pages of almost every printed edition of the ShM. I do believe, however,
that the full implications of this powerful salvo have not been totally
appreciated. Below, I will argue that reasonable explanations can be found
4
Sheelah aleph in Abraham Maimonides, "Teshuvot Rabbenu Abraham ben ha-
RaMBaM," p. 541. Perla is correct to say that Daniel ha-Bavli anticipated Duran in this
respect. See below.
249
for a number of otherwise thorny failures to specifically designate
commandments if one is prepared to follow Rule 2 to its ultimate and radical
conclusions.
7.1 Rule 2 and the Broad Meaning of divre sofrim
M. makes no secret in the ShM that when it comes to enumerating the
commandments he will follow the peshateyh di-qra. This term will need to
be explained, and we shall do so presently. The locus of M.' s thesis is his
discussion of Rule 2, which he introduces in the following manner: "We are
not to include all that is derived from Scripture by any of the thirteen
hermeneutical principles by which the Torah is expounded, or by the
principle of inclusion [ribbui]."
5
Though M. does admit some
hermeneutically derived commandments into his enumeration, he argues that
this is only when the tradents themselves (hem be- 'atsmam) confirm that this
interpretively derived teaching is "itself Torah" (guf torah) or "from the
Torah" (mi-de-oraita), terms that the Sages used presumably to indicate that
the tradition was of unquestioned Sinaitic origin. In this case, M. is of the
opinion that the interpretive derivation represents an act of discovery rather
than of creation, made possible by the "wisdom of the Torah" (hokhmat ha-
torah) a term he uses in his introduction to the PhM, or what has been
5
My own translation. The inference is that some derivations may be included. In Blau,
Responsa, #355, M. alludes to "three or four" such instances. See note 23 in Appendix.
Chavel's translation leaves no room for exceptions: "We are not to include in this
enumeration [laws] derived from Scripture by any of the thirteen exegetical principles by
which the Torah is expounded, or by [the principle of] inclusion." This is not borne out
by the other translations, or by Nahmanides' citation of the rule.
250
recently been called, the 'omni-significance' of each letter and word of the
written Torah. The talmudic reference to one of the thirteen principles and
the proof brought from it "is only to demonstrate the [profound] wisdom
contained in Scri pt ure. . " If, on the other hand, the tradents do not explain
or indicate that the derivation is "itself Torah" or "from the Torah" then one
is in the presence of purely a rabbinic creation. M. calls these derivations
"branches of the root" deductions or inferences from scriptural texts, as
opposed to philological explanations or explanations of texts.
6
Thus far, M.
deals with derivations, scriptural interpretations that result from the
application of the thirteen hermeneutic rules.
A little further on M. deals with what he calls an even more egregious
error. In his words:
Their lack of knowledge has already brought them to
this more serious mistake: If they found [in the
Talmud] an interpretation of a certain verse, the
6
For a good discussion of this distinction, see Halbertal, "Maimonides' Book of
Commandments".
Talmudic literature ascribed these rules to the tanna R. Ishmael. The hermeneutic rules
and some illustrations can be found in the introduction to the standard editions of Sifra,
under the name of Baraita (or Mekhilta) de-Rabbi Ishmael. Sifra is still quoted today
according to the edition of I.H.Weiss, published in Vienna in 1862. It was based on the
Venice printed edition, corrected according to the Yalqut Shimoni. It contains an
apparatus of references to parallels in rabbinic literature and short interpretive glosses.
The name Sifra or Sifra de-vei Rav already appears in the Babylonian Talmud. A textual
analysis of the tradition and its relation to midrash can be found in Alexander, Philip S.,
"The Rabbinic Hermeneutical Rules and the Problem of the Definition of Midrash,"
Proceedings of the Irish Biblical Association, ed. A. D. Mayes, vol. 8 (Dublin: 1984). A
shorter version, comprising only seven middot or hermeneutic rules, was ascribed to the
tanna Hillel. See Towner, W. Sibley, "Hermeneutical Systems of Hillel and the Tannaim:
A Fresh Look," HUCA 53 (1982). For a view that the hermeneutic rules were themselves
a halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai according to M., see Finkelstein, L., "Ha-De'ah ki 13 ha-
Middot hen Halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai," Sefer ha-Zikaron le-Rabbi Shaul Liebermann,
ed. S. Friedman (New York: JTS, 1993).
251
interpretation requiring the performance or the
prohibition of a certain act duties which are no
doubt of rabbinic authority they count them among
the commandments, even though the plain meaning of
the verse [peshateyh di-qra; so too in the Arabic
version] indicates in no way any of these things. This
is contrary to the principle which [the Sages] of
blessed memory, teach us: 'A scriptural verse never
loses its literal sense' [ein miqra yotse mi-yede
peshuto]. It is also contrary to the process of
reasoning throughout the Talmud, as is evidenced from
the fact that when the Sages speak of a verse from
which many topics are derived by way of
interpretation and various proofs they ask [in
conclusion]: "But what is the verse itself about?" [gufe
di-qra be-mai qa-medabber].
These [authors], however, depending as they do upon
baseless comparisons, count among the Positive
Commandments visiting the sick, consoling mourners,
and the burying of the dead all because of the
following interpretation mentioned in connection with
His words, exalted be He: And thou shalt show them
the way wherein they must walk, and the deeds they
must do - the way refers to deeds of loving kindness;
they must walk refers to visiting the sick; wherein has
reference to the burying of the dead; and the deeds,
this refers to the laws; they must do, this has reference
to more than the strict requirement of the law. On the
basis of this text, these authors thought that each and
every duty mentioned constituted a commandment in
itself, but they were unaware that all these and similar
duties are embraced within the terms of one of the
Commandments explicitly stated in the Torah, as
contained in His words, exalted be He, And thou shalt
love thy neighbour as thyself.
A brief digression on the term asmakhta. When the rabbis created
ordinances to protect the integrity of the Law, they would often append a
252
scriptural verse, either to lend them authority or simply for mnemonic
purposes. Strictly speaking, they were not derashot (exegeses) but asmakhtot
(lit., "something to lean on," i.e. a supportive device). For the most part,
they were recognized as such. From a practical point of view, asmakhtot
were treated as laws of rabbinic authority and force. At times, the true nature
of these asmakhtot came into question as they took on the look of a genuine
exegesis. In most cases, however, the logic of the exegesis would define its
true nature.
8
8
Sometimes, differences of opinion as to whether a particular exegesis was an asmakhta
or not had little to do with the "logic" of the interpretation. A good example can be found
in the Hasagot to P5. After citing a number of talmudic passages that appear to support
the rabbinic origin of prayer, Nahmanides questions the nature of the midrashic exegesis
adduced by M. to support his commandment claim, suggesting that it is merely an
asmakhta, and thus a rabbinic ordinance. In M.' s defence, at least one commentator (de-
Leon, "Megillat Esther," p. 211) has pointed out that characterizing the nature of a
midrash is a difficult enterprise at best and that one can well come to the determination
that the midrash is of a (Sinaitically) received character so long as it is not contradicted
by the final authority that is the Talmud. The determination that a certain exegesis is an
asmakhta according to these commentators is based in this case on factors that are
extraneous to the midrash itself, such as, for example, its agreement with talmudic
conclusions, and not on the fact that it sensibly reflects authorial intent. In general,
Nahmanides viewed midrashim found in the Midreshe Halakhah as asmakhtot if they did
not agree with the talmudic exegesis. This had more to do with his epistemological views
than with his reading strategies. For a similar difference, see Hasagot to P36, N353. M.,
on the other hand, seems to have decided on the basis of internal exegetical logic. That is,
if the interpretation flowed from the plain sense of the text, it could be considered a
genuine derashah, otherwise, it was an asmakhta. For the purpose of this determination, it
mattered little if the source of the interpretation was one of the midreshei halakah or the
Talmud. For an attempt to provide general criteria for this divergence of views in the
matter of asmakhta, see Horowitz, Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-Levi , comments
to Rule 2. For a brief but excellent discussion on asmakhtot and their place in rabbinic
exegesis, see Elon, Menachem, Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles, trans. from the
Hebrew by Bernard Auerbach and Melvyn J. Sykes , 4 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish
Publication Society, 1994), volume I, pp. 300-305. Elon, quoting I.M. Guttmann' s
comprehensive study on asmakhtot, concluded that
the term asmakhta does not imply . t h a t the law in question
cannot be connected with the verse in a logical and rational
manner. It indicates rather that the halakhic authorities knew
253
It is clear that M. considered counting asmakhtot as commandments
an even graver error than counting hermeneutic derivations, for he says:
Now if they had counted matters which are even
clearer than that, and more conceivable that they be
enumerated [among the commandments] these
being, namely, the laws which are derived through one
of the Thirteen [Exegetical] Principles by which the
Torah is expounded the number of the
commandments would then reach many thousands!
M. uses the general term divre sofrim to describe all non-scriptural
commandments. He says, "Whatever they did not explicitly hear at Sinai are
considered as coming from the 'words of the scribes' [mi-divre sofrim]." It
follows that the activity of the scribes (divre sofrim) extended well beyond
their derivative work. Yet it was the derivative activity that most exercised
the minds of M.' s critics and apologists. To be sure, M.'s true position with
respect to the derivative activity of the scribes remains to this day a matter of
great controversy, despite the fact that M. in the ShM calls them de-
rabbanan, or rabbinical (so too in the Arabic original). Did M. mean to say
that these derivations have a status of rabbinic law or merely that they are
the product of rabbinic activity?
M.'s position has been interpreted in a variety of ways. It is
noteworthy that no consensus has emerged to this day.
9
The maximalist
that the creative source of the particular was not interpretation
but one of the other legal sources, such as tradition or
legislation.
9
See Neubauer, J., Ha-RaMBaM al Divre Sofrim (Jerusalem: 1957), for an extensive
survey.
254
interpretation, espoused by Nahmanides, held that M. had effectively given
divre sofrim legislation a normative status equivalent to rabbinic enactments.
At the other extreme, scholars such as Simeon b. Tsemah Duran took the
view that M. accepted the scriptural force of divre sofrim it carried all the
gravitas of Torah law but excluded it from the enumeration, as only
explicit commandments were to be enumerated.
10
As pointed out earlier, M. held that whatever was not heard explicitly
on Sinai was considered to come from the "words of the scribes" (mi-divre
sofrim). This included, of course, rabbinic decrees and ordinances
11
and oral
traditions,
12
some of which were lightly attached to verses by way of hints
and allusions and some of which bore no connection whatsoever to the text,
such as halakhot le-Moshe mi-Sinai. Confirming what M. says in the ShM,
we find the following statement in PhM, Miqvaot 6:7:
I already explained that this expression
['measurements are mi-divre sofrim'] does not
contradict what they said, namely, that measurements
are a halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai, because everything
10
As we have seen, this was the position of Daniel ha-Bavli. The two most prominent
commentators on the MT, Joseph Karo and Vidal di Tolosa, also believed that divre
sofrim enjoyed the status of scriptural law; see their commentaries in Hilkhot Ishut, 1:2.
Nor, as we have said, have modern scholars come to a consensus. Levinger, Darkhe ha-
Mahshavah , p. 46-50, concludes with a fair degree of confidence that mi-divre sofrim is
of rabbinic force; D. Henshke argues strenuously for this view, summed up in Henshke,
D., "Le-Havhanat ha-RaMBaM bein de-Oraita le-de-Rabbanan," Sinai 102 (1988)", p.
205, n. 2. On the other hand, Shailat concludes that they have scriptural force. See his
comments in Iggerot ha-RaMBaM, vol. 2, pp.451-452. See also, more recently,
Rabinovitch, Nachum L., "Al Divre Sofrim she-Toqfam de-Oraita," Studies in
Maimonides [Hebrew] (Jerusalem: 1998), p. 93-111.
11
This, in fact, is the typical usage of the term in the Mishnah. See, for example,
mTaharot 4:7, 4:11 and mYadayim 3:2, where divre sofrim refer to rabbinic ordinances.
12
But see the following footnote.
255
that is not explicitly stated in Scripture is called 'the
13
words of scribes' [divre sofrim].
And again in PhM, Kelim 17:12:
Don't let their dictum 'measures are from the words of
the scribes' [shiurim mi-divre sofrim] confuse you
when you consider their principle that all measures are
halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai, because in effect
anything that is not explicitly stated in Scripture is
called mi-divre sofrim, even things that are halakhah
le-Moshe mi-Sinai. When they said mi-divre sofrim
they meant to say that the matter is a tradition from the
scribes, like all explanations and authoritative halakhot
from Moses, or the 'reforms of the scribes' (tiqqun
sofrim), like all enactments and ordinances. Remember
this.
14
M.'s views with respect to halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai also
engendered a great deal of controversy a controversy that came second
only to the one aroused by his theory regarding the hermeneutic activity of
the scribes.
15
The exact status of, and criteria for, establishing the categories
13
We need to exercise some caution with regard to this comment and the next one that
M. makes in the PhM. Levinger, Darkhe ha-Mahshavah , and Henshke, "Le-Havhanat
ha-RaMBaM," , have both noted that M. may have been referring to the way the Mishnah
and Talmud understood that term, not necessarily the way M. did, and that M. may have
considered divre sofrim only what was hermeneutically derived by the scribes and not
oral traditions.
14
The word "explanations" is puzzling in this context, because M. often interprets
scriptural texts with the aid of these explanations and yet considers them de-oraita. In the
ShM, he calls these traditional explanations perushim mequbbalim, and in the Halakhot
he refers to these interpretations "as it was learned from tradition" [lamdu mi-pi ha-
shemu'ah]. See, for example, P198 and the corresponding HilkhotMalveh ve-Loveh 5:1.
For mi-pi ha-shemu'ah, see 7.4, below.
15
On M.' s position that halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai must be considered divre sofrim, see
also M. ' s response to Pinhas ha-Dayan, in Responsa, Blau, #355, For a rejection of M.' s
256
between hermeneutic activity and halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai, and their
terminological nuances, categories and terms such as mi-pi ha-qabbalah,
halakhah mi-pi ha-qabbalah, mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah and halakhah mi-pi ha-
shemu 'ah, were never explicitly discussed by M. I will speak further of this
below.
I conclude this section by noting that the exact legal status of divre
sofrim laws whether they enjoy scriptural or rabbinic force and whether
they include some oral traditions like halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai is not
our direct concern here. Instead, our concern is with the category of
scriptural laws, the category to which commandments belong. In the next
section, we begin to tease out the hermeneutics that apply to this category.
7.2 Peshateyh di-qra, ein miqra yotse mi-yede peshuto
It is clear that M.'s pursuit of peshateyh di-qra is an attempt to
uncover the original intention of Scripture, that stage of reading that has as
yet not been interpreted, re-adapted and explicated by the analytic tools of
the hermeneutists, jurists and courts. What does this term imply?
The Aramaic peshateyh and the Hebrew peshuto derive from peshat
and peshut respectively. In biblical Hebrew, peshat meant "to strip" (a
garment), "to flatten" it. Later, the term evolved to mean "extend" and
"stretch out." Over time, peshat became an exegetical term commonly
view, see Nahmanides, "Hasagot," Rule 2, p. 78. For an inquiry into the status of
halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai, see Levinger, Darkhe ha-Mahshavah , p.50 ff. and Kahana,
Kalman, Heqer ve-Tyyun: Qovetz Maamarim (Tel Aviv: 1960), pp. 9-18 and pp.38 ff;
Henshke, D., "Le-Yesode Tefisat ha-Halakhah shel ha-RaMBaM," Shenaton ha-Mishpat
ha-Ivry 20 (1997), vol. 20, second appendix, p. 144.
257
thought to stand for the plain or simple meaning and was often contrasted
with derash, commonly thought to stand for allegorical interpretation.
But in a more systematic study involving exegetical terms, Loewe
noted, among other things, that the exegesis introduced by the words
peshateyh di-qra be-mai ketiv, found in bHullin 6a, were "scarcely less
oblique than that which it had intended to replace." And again, the amora
Abaye's explanation described as peshateyh di-qra at bEruvin 23b "can
scarcely be said to be any simpler than that which it is intended to
supersede."
16
This is hardly, one might add, a judgement that supports the
idea that peshat means "the plain sense of the text."
Loewe admitted that in Abaye's time the meaning of the word peshat
as in ein miqra yotse mi-yede peshuto had evolved somewhat and seemed
"to have been employed to counter exorbitant deductions from identity or
close analogy of expression."
17
He noted further that for Abaye's
contemporary, Raba, "the term peshat apparently did mean the natural and
18
explicit meaning of the text, at any rate within the context of this formula."
In the case in question (Deuteronomy 25:6), Raba stated (bYevamot 24a)
that the given, farfetched interpretation represented a unique exception to the
rule of the plain meaning. As Loewe put it, "Raba's language is formulated
concessively; the exegetical means employed are here tolerated, because [it
would seem] the biblical text can thus only be squared with halakhic
16
Loewe, Raphael, "The 'Plain' Meaning of Scripture in Early Jewish Exegesis," Papers
of the Institute of Jewish Studies, London, ed. J.G. Weiss (Jerusalem: Hebrew University
Magnes Press, 1964), pp. 160 and 161.
17
Ibid. 164.
18
Ibid. 165.
258
principle."
19
Yet Loewe showed that by the next generation, Rav Kahana
could still remain ignorant of the method of the plain sense of the text as an
exegetical tool.
Loewe concluded that peshat does not necessarily equal plain and
literal exegesis, even though many scholars had assumed that it did from its
earliest appearance in rabbinic sources.
20
In fact, he argued, peshat does not
represent a particular reading strategy. Rather, it is a way of saying that a
certain reading has achieved authoritative status:
19
Ibid. p.166. In footnote 122, Loewe quotes Bacher as even going so far as to assert that
the principle (of the plain meaning) is strongly emphasized by Raba. What follows is a
brief digression that bears some relevance to the present discussion. In Hilkhot Yibbum
2:6, M. adduces tradition ( mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah lamdu) to interpret the words And it shall
be, that the first-born that she beareth [asher teled; teled is in the imperfect ] shall
succeed in the name of his brother that is dead to mean the first-born of the mother of the
deceased, in contradistinction to the plain and obvious sense, namely, that the verse is
speaking about the first-born of the union of the levir and the wife of the deceased. In the
PhM mYevamot 2:8, M. rationalizes this strange reading by suggesting that the future
tense sometimes comes in place of the past tense. Weiss-Halivni, David, Peshat and
Derash: Plain and Applied Meaning in Rabbinic Exegesis (New York/Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1991), p.57, concludes from this that "to Raba, interpreting out of
context was unusual but clearly not impossible; here and there an exception was
made.. ..Maimonides... however, tolerated no exception." I empathize with Halivni's
comment but the matter seems to me more complicated than that. When Raba made his
statement, he may not have been referring to this part of the exegesis but rather to the
second part, which deals with the words that his name be not blotted out of Israel. See
RaSHi' s commentary, s.v. ve-afiqteih le-gamrei, and see R. Hananel, in Otzar ha-
Geonim, ed. B. M. Lewin (Haifa, Jerusalem: 1928-1943), Yevamot, (1936), p. 301. The
issue is whether we are dealing with giving the offspring of the new union the name of
the deceased the more literal reading or whether through the use of a gezerah
shavah we interpret the phrase to refer to the levir's rights of inheritance. With respect to
asher teled, Raba may indeed have agreed with M. ' s reading here. Interestingly, this
understanding of Raba' s observation implies thatpeshuto is closest to the literal meaning!
For an interesting take on this sugyah and a proposed resolution to a contradiction in M. ' s
writings with respect to this question, see Benedict, B. Z., "Ha-RaMBaM be-Pesiqah, be-
Parshanut, be-Hagut u-be-Hanhagah - Derekh Ahat Lo," Asufat Maamarim (Jerusalem:
Mosad ha-Rav Kook, 1994).
20
Loewe, "The 'Plain' Meaning," p.178. Footnote 189 provides a rich bibliography.
259
The notion of traditional, familiar, and hence
authoritative meaning of the text may not, indeed,
always be to the fore, when the phrase peshateyh di-
qra is employed; but I have yet to see its occurrence in
a context which excludes such an understanding of it.
21
Other than this idea, one can conclude from Loewe's study that the
word peshat meant different things to different talmudic scholars and that, at
least for scholars like Raba, the expression ein miqra yotse mi-yede peshuto
did mean that a verse should be read for its plain reading.
In another, classic, study of exegetical terms, Gertner found that the
Hebrew form of the noun occurs only in the phrase ein miqra yotse mi-yede
peshuto, and then only three times. Each time, the term correlates with the
idea that "the ordinary sense of the phrase in question should not be
ignored." Gertner concluded that the Hebrew noun peshut came to mean
"the simple straightforward explanation, i.e. 'unfolding' of the text
(explanation)."
22
Gertner called attention to the fact that the ordinary
meaning should not be confused with a literal interpretation in the extreme
sense; sometimes, an allegorical interpretation better reflects the ordinary or
plain sense. Gertner found, on the other hand, that the Aramaic peshat,
though the exact equivalent of the Hebrew peshut, did not mean the same
thing. Studying the context in which peshateyh di-qra appeared, Gertner
concluded that a truly midrashic interpretation was designated and that
rather than "simple" or "plain," peshat came to mean "widespread" and
21
Loewe, "The 'Plain' Meaning," p.181-2.
22
Gertner, M., "Terms of Scriptural Interpretation: A Study of Hebrew Semantics,"
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 25.1/3
(1962), p. 20.
260
"widely accepted" by custom or tradition. This parallels Loewe's
conclusion.
Sarah Kamin reviewed the studies of a number of scholars, including
Loewe and Gertner, and was not satisfied with any of their conclusions.
Instead, she suggested that the terms peshateyh di-qra and peshuto shel
miqra parallel the terms "verse" or "text"; that is, they merely point to the
literary unit, to the actual wording of the text. In contrast, the question "in
what is it written (be-mai ketiv)?" seeks to find the actual meaning of the
text. Since the terms peshateyh di-qra and peshuto shel miqra do not imply a
specific method of interpretation, the responses to the talmudic query with
regard to the peshateyh di-qra can accommodate any number of
interpretations, including literary and homiletic ones. Be that as it may,
Kamin was certain that the terms derived from the root peshat do not reflect
the kind of well-defined concept that fits into a discernable hermeneutic
category.
23
A few years after Kamin's work, Halivni made a valiant attempt to
find a uniform meaning in terms that were associated with peshat throughout
the rabbinic corpus. He worked through the different iterations of peshuto
and peshateyh and concluded that there was no semantic distinction between
the Hebrew and the Aramaic nouns, contra Gertner. Instead, he concluded
that the word peshat yields throughout a uniform meaning of "extension,
continuation, and derivatively, context."
24
23
She does acknowledge that, specifically with respect to the expression ein miqra yotse
mi-yede peshuto, the talmudic exegetes were referring to a literal reading. Kamin, Sarah,
RaSHi's Exegetical Categorization in Respect to the Distinction Between Peshat and
Derash [Hebrew] (Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Magnes Press, 1986), pp. 31-48.
24
Weiss-Halivni, Peshat and Derash: , p. 54.
261
Halivni resorted to a great deal of tortured logic (pilpul) to prove his
point, leaving his more "scientific" reader less than satisfied with the results.
Interestingly, he tried to make certain cases fit his new mold even when
peshat clearly stood for plain-sense reading.
25
In the end, Halivni
acknowledged that the dictum "no text can be deprived of its context" had
emerged only by the "third century, and even then it was "not foolproof" as
the second version of bYevamot 11b makes clear. He concluded that "the
dictum was either not too well known or not honored by all scholars."
26
In sum, if Kamin was right, and there is no reason to doubt her critical
assessment, the term peshat and its derivations do not stand for a particular
hermeneutic method not plain sense, not literalism and not even
contextual reading. If Halivni was right, context, as an interpretative
25
For example, ein miqra yotse mi-yede peshuto in bShabbat 63a means just that, that the
verse must also bear a simple, plain meaning. There is no reason no difficulty that
needs to be resolved for one to read the exchange between Mar bar Rav Huna and Rav
Kahana in any other manner. Halivni creates the difficulty by saying that "it is extremely
unlikely that R. Kahana had not heard of the many derashot where biblical verses (or
words) were metaphorically or allegorically exposited while at the same time retained
their simple meaning" (p. 59). Therefore, Halivni has Rav Kahana split the verse that is
being exposited into two. The first part Gird your sword upon thy thigh speaks
about a sword and represents a metaphor for the words of Torah. In this way, Rav Kahana
retains the simple meaning. The second part of the verse your glory and your majesty
speaks only of the words of Torah. It is the words of Torah that are majestic, not the
sword. Therefore one cannot deduce from here that the sword is an adornment, as R.
Eliezer had done. Reading the verse in such an unnatural manner is reading it out of
context. In response, Mar bar Rav Huna objected that no text can be deprived of its
context (peshat), what is before and what is after, and that the sword must also be
considered glorious and majestic. But this is a long and circuitous explanation for
something that does not need explaining, and it is built on a speculative assumption that
Rav Kahana acknowledges the absolute validity of plain reading. Yet Rav Kahana very
clearly says, "I was eighteen years old and I had already studied the entire Talmud, yet I
did not know that a text cannot be deprived of its peshat" (my emphasis). Can Rav
Kahana be any clearer?
26
Weiss-Halivni, Peshat and Derash: , p. 63.
262
strategy, did not come to be seen as peshat until relatively late in the
rabbinic period, "by the third century," as he put it. It is critical to note that
to the extent that peshat, as an exegetical tool, was not uniformly understood
nor even widely known, it stands to reason that it did not play a major role in
rabbinic interpretation. This is corroborated by the relatively sporadic
appearance of terms derived from peshat in the talmudic and midrashic
literature. This in turn makes M.' s methodological claim all the more
surprising. Recall his words,
This is contrary to the principle which [the Sages] of
blessed memory, teach us: 'A scriptural verse never
loses its literal sense' [ein miqra yotse mi-yede
peshuto]. It is also contrary to the process of
reasoning throughout the Talmud.
As we saw, this categoric statement finds little explicit support in the
Talmud. It would appear that M. retrojects a medievalist Andalusian, to
be specific perception of peshat, a reading sensitivity that was neither
openly acknowledged nor possibly imagined by the rabbis of the first
centuries of our era.
27
27
On the Andalusian peshat school, see Cohen, Mordechai Z., "The Best of Poetry:
Literary Approaches to the Bible in the Spanish Peshat Tradition," The Torah u-Madd' a
Journal 6 (1995-6) and literature cited in the notes.
263
7.3 M.'s Understanding of peshateyh di-qra
From the way M. groups them together in Rule 2, peshateyh di-qra
and gufe di-qra appear to be interchangeable terms.
28
This is confirmed on
reading the explanation that M. makes with respect to the verse That he be
not (ve-lo) as Korah and as his company (Numbers 17:5) on two separate
occasions. Calling it peshateyh di-qra in Rule 8 and gufe di-qra in N45, M.
explains that the verse cannot be read as a prohibition despite the existence
of the negative particle lo. To prove his point, M. introduces a midrash that
reads the verse as a negation, namely that he who disputes the Aaronides'
rights to the priesthood will not suffer the fate of Korah and his companions,
i.e. either being swallowed up into the earth or being consumed by divine
fire. Instead, the litigants will suffer leprosy, which the midrash derives in a
way that does not concern us here.
30
28
It is interesting to note that M. took a synchronistic view of these terms, making none
of the nuanced distinctions that were suggested by either Loewe or Gertner. See below.
30
While M.' s conclusion is correct to say that this phrase represents a negation and not a
prohibition, a "plainer" reading of the verse suggests that the verse conveys a threat that
those who presume to offer incense before the Lord in place of the Aaronides will be
consumed by fire, as were Korah and his company of 250 rebels. In fact, this may be
what M. has in mind when he first says that "the gufe di-qra is a threat." Immediately
thereafter, M. introduces the midrashic explanation in the following manner "And
according to how the Sages explained the verse," signaling that the Sages, too, thought
that the verse is a negation and not a prohibition. If I am correct, M. shares with the
midrash the idea that the particle ve-lo should not be read as a prohibition though he may
differ in the actual meaning conveyed by the negation.
264
Since M. never formally explains what he means by peshateyh di-
qra/gufe di-qra we must attempt to recover its meaning by examining the
way this term is used throughout the ShM.
We begin by noting that the words being exposited must be able to
convey a discrete idea. For example, the exposition on the verse And thou
shalt show them the way wherein they must walk, and the deeds they
must do cited by M. in his discussion in Rule 2 (quoted above), states,
the way, refers to deeds of lovingkindness; they must
walk, refers to visiting the sick; wherein, has reference
to the burying of the dead; and the deeds, this refers to
the laws; they must do, this has reference to more than
the strict requirement of the law
This exegesis cannot represent a genuine interpretation of the verse because
there is no hint in any of these individual components of the verse of what is
being exposited. These expositions can only be called asmakhtot, words to
which the rabbis "connected" some of their ideas. A more subtle deviation
from peshateyh di-qra is noted at P94. Here, the underlying text provides
support for the exegesis; but the text is cut up, unnaturally, to accommodate
additional legal implications. The Sages (bRosh ha-Shanah 6a) parse the
verse That which is gone out of thy lips thou shalt observe and do, etc.
(Deuteronomy 23:24) as follows: "That which is gone out of thy lips: this is
an affirmative precept. Thou shalt observe: this is a negative precept. And
do: this is an injunction to the Bet Din to make thee do," and so on.
M. comments that
although the Sages have minutely analyzed this verse,
and explained each word in it separately, the general
purport of all that they say amounts to this: that it is a
positive commandment to fulfill any obligation which
a man has taken upon hi msel f .
265
After quoting the midrash, M. adds,
Now you know that no [commandment] can be derived
from the mere words That which is gone out of thy lips
and hence the sense of it must be what I have
mentioned as the plain meaning of Scripture
[peshateyh di-qra], namely that a man is obliged to
carry out whatever his lips have uttered.
In other words, the word, the phrase or the statement must convey in
full the meaning of the commandment. The text must literally unfold, as in
the original connotation of the term peshat.
Similarly, the rabbis take the words Ye shall not make yourselves
detestable in the verse Ye shall not make yourselves detestable with any
swarming thing that swarmeth (Leviticus 11:43) out of context and
admonish against eating and drinking filth or repulsive things. M. notes, at
N179, that "one is not liable to whipping for [these violations] since the
plain sense of the text [peshateyh di-qra] refers solely to creeping
things.. .."
31
Again, M. points out that the verse ye shall not cut yourselves [lo
titgodedu], nor make any baldness between your eyes for the dead
31
In contrast to the Karaites' wide-ranging and unconstrained scripturalist approach to
biblical exegesis, M.' s exegeses were bound by the dictates of the Oral Law. For
example, M. adduces this verse as evidence for the claim that one is forbidden to eat a
creeping creature that swarms in the water, even though there is no mention of water-
borne creeping things in the verse (though they are included in the general prohibition).
Most probably, M.' s warrant is a midrash. For a possible source, see Kasher, Torah
Shelemah , ad loc., note 269. On Karaite scripturalism, see, inter alia, Polliack, Meira,
"Major Trends in Karaite Biblical Exegesis in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries," Karaite
Judaism: a Guide to its History and Literary Sources, ed. Meira Polliack, Handbuch der
Orientalistik. Abt. 1, Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten; Bd. 73 (Leiden: Brill, 2003);
Frank, Daniel, Search Scripture Well: Karaite Exegetes and the Origins of the Jewish
Bible Commentary in the Islamic East (Leiden: Brill, 2004).
266
(Deuteronomy 14:1), is used by some of the Sages "to (also) forbid dividing
the people and causing faction and strife, understanding lo titgodedu as 'you
shall not form yourselves into factions [agudot],'" an alliterative play. Yet
the only way to do so is to focus solely on the first two words of the verse
and ignore the context. It is here that M. finds a warrant for his
methodological assertion since "the gemara in Yevamot (13b) explains that
lo titgodedu is required for its own context [gufe di-qra], the All-Merciful
having said, 'You shall not inflict upon yourselves any bruises for the
dead.'" That is, the real meaning of the verse (gufe di-qra) must be found in
the context and any other interpretation is a homily (derash). Of course, the
Talmud saw nothing wrong with upholding both interpretations; it is M. who
determines that the scriptural commandment is only and exclusively the one
denoted by the context. Halivni's understanding of peshat as "extension,
continuation, and derivatively, context," if perhaps forced when applied to
the Talmud, is certainly an accurate description of M.' s understanding. In
Rule 3 we find M. contrasting an intimation (remez) with peshateyh di-qra.
He says
Again has a certain other scholar erred in respect of
this principle [i.e. not to count laws that are not
binding for all time] and counted [among the
commandments the injunctions applying to the
Levites:] And they shall not go in to see the holy things
as they are being covered [ke-vala'] [Numbers
4: 20] . . Now although [the Sages] do say: 'An
intimation [remez] against stealing a holy vessel [is
found in the verse], And they shall not go in to see, etc.
- the term an 'intimation' is sufficient evidence that
this is not the plain sense [Chavel: the "literal sense"]
[peshateyh di-qra] of the ve r s e .
267
The term ke-vala could mean "cover," "swallow," or, perhaps, on the
basis of this last meaning, "suddenly." The Sages take advantage of this
interpretive crux and use the term to allude to someone who "steals" a holy
vessel, in particular, a libation jug. Nothing in the text, which deals with the
dismantling and transport of the holy vessels of the portable Sanctuary in the
wilderness, hints at such a possibility. Thus M.'s observation that the Sages'
intimation is not the peshateyh di-qra.
Again in N165, M. makes use of peshateyh di-qra to justify not
reckoning three prohibitions stipulated for the High Priest in addition to
those stipulated for all priests. While the Sages extracted some additional
details from these apparent redundancies, M. does not think that they justify
a separate enumeration because, according to gufe di-qra, these verses do
not contain new information. Note that the relationship between the
prohibitions that pertain to the priests and those that pertain to the High
Priest outlined in N163, N164 and N165 is more complex and more difficult
than is suggested here.
32
Suffice it to say that the use of gufe di-qra in this
instance provides no additional insight into the nature of the principle that
we are examining.
Still harping on the idea that Qayyara and those who followed his
views erred grievously by failing to read texts properly, M. notes in Rule 2
that they based the obligation to reckon seasons on a literal reading of the
verse For this is your wisdom and understanding in the sight of the peoples
(Deuteronomy 4:6). M. assumed that their warrant was the following
rabbinic homily: "Which branch of wisdom and understanding is in the sight
32
This is especially so when read in conjunction with Rule 9. This is not the place to deal
with this matter and clearly deserves a separate treatment.
268
of the peoples? I must say, this is the reckoning of seasons and
constellations." M. does not explain here how one should read the verse but
we know from his other writings that he thought that the verse was referring
33
to statutes and laws (huqim u-mishpatim), as the context makes clear.
Therefore, the expression in the sight of the peoples must be taken in a
figurative sense.
M. respects the literal sense except where it clashes with the context,
in which case he reinterprets the literal sense and adopts a metaphoric one.
34
33
See the immediately preceding verse 5. In GP III:31:524, M. buttresses the idea that
not only laws but statutes too are rational by citing the same verse:
And it says Which shall hear all these statutes [huqim] and say:
surely this great community is a wise and understanding people
[end of verse 6]. Thus it states explicitly that even all the
statutes [huqim] will show to all the nations that they have been
given with wisdom and understanding.
Interestingly, Ibn Ezra made the same use of this verse:
And Moses our lord said with reference to all the
commandments surely this great community is a wise and
understanding people [Deuteronomy 4:6]. If they [the
commandments] do not have reasons that we could
comprehend, how would the nations say that these are righteous
statutes Deuteronomy 4:8 and we, who adhere to them, wise?
Abraham ibn Ezra, Yesod Mora , Shaar ha-Shemini, p. 150.
34
Where M. refers exclusively to literal readings he tends to use the Arabic word thr, the
"outer" (nigleh, galui) meaning, which in Hebrew is translated as peshat. A good
example can be found in the introduction to Pereq Heleq, where he discusses the reading
strategies employed by certain people with regard to rabbinic material. Thr is contrasted
with mtprsm, the allegorical method. See Haqdamot ha-RaMBaM la-Mishnah, Shailat's
edition, p. 133, note 1. See also, ShM, N46 (Ar. thr alqol, translated into Hebrew as
peshat ha-lashon), and the beginning of N165 (Ar. thr alnts, translated as peshat ha-
katuv). In both instances we are dealing with grammatical issues rather than contextual
readings. In N165, M. deals with the interpretation of the words neither shall he go out of
the sanctuary, nor [velo] profane the sanctuary of his God (Leviticus 21:12). In Rule 5,
M. reads the verse to mean that the High Priest shall not go out of the sanctuary (when a
relative dies) because he will profane the sanctuary if he abandons the service. At N165,
269
M.'s literal/contextual approach stands in contrast with that of Saadia Gaon,
a practitioner of the tawil (metaphor) school of interpretation. According to
Saadia, the literal interpretation of Scripture must be discarded in favor of
tawil (metaphor) in four cases only: if it is contradicted by empirical
evidence, by reason, by an explicit contradiction or by tradition. No weight
seems to be given to context.
35
An additional implication lies hidden in M.'s method of peshateyh di-
qra. At N4, M. cites the verse Ye shall not make with Me - gods of silver, or
gods of gold, ye shall not make unto you (Exodus 20:20) as evidence for the
commandment claim that one is forbidden to make figures of living things
out of any substance, even if they are not for purposes of worship. This last
(unexpected) condition is inferred from the last half of the verse. He adduces
the words of the Mekhilta (Yitro 10, p.241): "Lest you should say: I am
M. suggests an alternative peshat ha-katuv, namely that the high priest need not go out of
the sanctuary (when a relative dies) since he does not defile the service if he were to stay
and complete the service. Note that the vav of ve-lo could be read as a conjunctive vav,
turning the phrase into a prohibition, namely, "and he shall not profane." M. clearly
rejects this reading. Instead, as we just saw, he chooses to see the vav as standing for
either "because" or "since." Crucially, neither of these readings is labeled a peshateyh di-
qra, which seems to confirm our conclusion that peshateyh di-qra stands for contextual
readings.
35
Saadia Gaon, The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, Yale Judaica Series, ed. Samuel
Rosenblatt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976),Treatise II, chapter 3 (100-101);
Treatise V, chapter 8 (232), where he adds, "He.. .who imputes allegorical meanings to
the precepts of the Torah, thereby fostering heresy, borders on the category of false
prophets," and Treatise VII, chapter 2 (265-6). Here M. ' s views coincide with Saadia,:
. t h e Law of ours with its statutes and ordinances [is not
subject to change]. It is forever and all eternity; it is not to be
added to or to be taken away from. Whoever adds aught to it, or
takes aught from it, or misinterprets it, and strips the
commandments of their literal sense [mi-peshuttan], is an
impostor, a wicked man, and a heretic.
Hilkhot Melakhim 11:3 (uncensored version).
270
going to make them merely for ornaments, as others do in various countries,
Scripture says: ye shall not make unto you." Unto you is understood by the
midrash to stand for one's personal use rather than for worship. M. makes
reference to other exegetical derivations from this verse and then notes that
the verse also embraces "other matters that go beyond the scope of this
commandment,
36
but the plain sense of the text (peshateyh di-qra) is what
we have set out, as explained in the Mekhilta." To be fair, peshateyh di-qra
still means taking the entire text in context, and that includes the second half
of the verse, namely ye shall not make unto you. Concerned with scriptural
intent, M. refers disapprovingly to expositions that seem to focus exclusively
on the first half of the verse.
37
M. adopts the Mekhilta's reading despite the
fact that it is only one of several "plain" readings and not a compelling
38
one. The reason may simply be that M. prefers to defer to rabbinic
interpretations so long as context is respected because, I presume,
their authors, being closer in time and mind-set to the text than
contemporary ones, evince a superior understanding of the text.
39
36
Yotsim mi-kavvanat mitsvah zu (MnT). Kafih, however, has it in the plural, huts me-
inyan mitsvot elu. The singular seems more appropriate.
37
Cf. bSanhedrin 7b.
38
See, for example, the perhaps "plainer" interpretation of Saadia Gaon (also offered by
Ibn Ezra), cited by no less than M. ' s son, R. Abraham, who believed that the two halves
of the verse convey two separate ideas the prohibition of shituf (lit., partnership, i.e.,
imagining a second deity) and the prohibition to make physical representations of the
divinity. See his comments to Exodus 20:20, Maimonides, Abraham, Torah Commentary:
Genesis and Exodus [Hebrew] (Jerusalem: Qeren Hotsaat Sifre Rabbenu Bavel, 1984).
39
This recalls an expression found in the writings of the medieval parshanim with respect
to rabbinic midrash: "Their understanding is deeper [lit., wider] than ours" (da'atam
rehavah mi-da'atenu). Ibn Ezra' s commentary on the Pentateuch,passim. See also David
Qimhi' s commentaries on Josh 4:11 and 2 Chr. 5:9.
271
In a similar vein, M. adduces peshateyh di-qra at N299 to claim that
the verse Nor shalt thou put a stumbling-block before the blind (Leviticus
19:14) prohibits offering misleading advice. He bases this reading on Sifra,
Qedoshimparshah 2:14 (p. 88d) that, on commenting on this verse, says: "if
one is 'blind' in a [certain] matter, and asks you for advice, do not give him
advice which is not suitable for him." M. contrasts this interpretation with
other rabbinic interpretations and ends by saying that "the peshateyh di-qra
is as we have stated above [i.e., Sifra's reading]." M. makes no mention of
an alternative, literal, reading, even though context could be construed in
that manner.
40
Again, as in the previous case, M. gives priority to the
midrash halakhah, thinking that it best represents original intent.
41
In addition to literary context, M is sensitive to historical context. His
comments to P34, discussed earlier (section 5.1.2), are an excellent example.
If we recall, M. states that the priests are commanded to carry the ark on
their shoulders. While he admits that the commandment was given to the
Levites at the time of the Israelites' sojourn in the wilderness, he argues that
"this was only because of the limited number of priests then available, for
Aaron was the founder" of the priestly clan. M. interprets the halakhah in
light of reigning historical considerations.
40
By contrast, Ibn Ezra appears to have thought that the verse prohibits the placing of a
stumbling block in the way of a blind man, literally. See his comments to the Pentateuch
ad loc., and in Abraham ibn Ezra, Yesod Mora , Shaar ha-Teshiyi, p. 161 and the helpful
note on line 30.
41
I presume that M. called this interpretation peshateyh di-qra and not "the accepted
tradition" (perush ha-mequbbal), as he might have called it, because he too felt that the
figurative meaning was better aligned to the intention of the verse.
272
A similar sensitivity to historical consideration is evident in his
comments to P20. Adducing the method of peshateyh di-qra, M. offers a
remarkably original and daring interpretation to Exodus 20:21, the command
to build an earthen altar. This command is not only detached from the
general commandment to build a sanctuary and all its vessels, appurtenances
and parts that begins at Exodus 25:8, but it also stands in flagrant
contradiction to an explicit commandment that calls on the Israelites to build
an altar made of stone. In the absence of a midrash that can explain this
verse without doing violence to the text, M. historicizes the command. His
interpretation deserves a separate treatment. See Excursus 3.
In sum, according to M., peshat is a contextual reading of Scripture
that adheres to the rules of language, literary conventions and historical
context.
42
M.'s peshateyh di-qra comes quite close to our modern
conception of the plain sense of the text. It is literal, unless the context, or
sometimes a linguistic convention, dictate that the word or phrase be taken
figuratively.
43
If we insert this conclusion into Rule 2, as we must given
42
I follow Sarah Kamin' s definition of peshat, namely, that peshat is an empirical,
contextual reading of Scripture that adheres to the rules of language, biblical literary
conventions and historical context. Summarized by Cohen, Mordechai Z., Three
Approaches to Biblical Metaphor: From Abraham ibn Ezra and Maimonides to David
Kimhi (Leiden: Brill, 2003), p. 3. See the rest of the literature cited by Cohen in his note
10.
43
This is more than just "philologically defensible," as Feldblum argues in an otherwise
excellent article. In fact, what is philologically defensible is a description that can be
applied to those interpretations that are taught by the oral tradition (mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah),
as I discuss later. Also, Feldblum confuses matters somewhat when he lumps together
laws that are derived from the exercise of the 13 hermeneutic principles with laws that
are stated as being explicitly under the category of philologically defensible (p. 48). The
former belong to the category of divre sofrim, the latter to the category of de-oraita.
Moreover, according to M. there is nothing philological about the derivative activity of
the scribes. I agree wholeheartedly with Feldblum' s conclusion:
273
M.'s critique of those who do not follow peshateyh di-qra, we would be
stating in effect that scriptural commandments must be grounded in the
plain, contextual reading of Scripture. Where more than one interpretation is
offered , M. gives absolute precedence to the reading that comes closest to
taking context into account, since, in his opinion, only this reading truly
expresses the lawgiver's intention. In such cases, all else being equal, we
have also seen that M. defers to rabbinic midrash. If the reason for doing this
is because he believed in the early rabbis' superior familiarity with the
language and sitz im leben of the period, then we are still affirming that M.
values above all else plain sense interpretation.
44
As an aside, it may be noted that M.' s emphasis on peshateyh di-qra
leads to two rules that have not been discussed and that Hanina Ben-
Menahem called rules of interpretation: Rule 5 ("The reason given for a
commandment is not to be counted as a separate commandment") and Rule
I wish to emphasize that Maimonides' care in assigning laws to
their respective categories is uniquely intertwined with his
philosophy and perception of the halakhic process.
Maimonides' criteria for classification are based on a careful
philological and literary analysis of the underlying sources in
each given case.
Feldblum, "Criteria for Designating Laws:,"
44
Navigating close to the surface of the text, eschewing fanciful midrashic interpretations
and analytic derivations, M. was then able to declare that his purpose in the third section
of the Guide "is to give reasons for the [biblical] texts and not for the pronouncements of
the legal science" (GP III:41:558). It is clear that the intent of the Lawgiver can only be
properly understood if we attuned ourselves to the "plainness" of the text. In some
respects, M.' s brand of interpretation resembles that of a modern day constitutional
originalist, originalism being understood as a family of theories whose common starting
point is that a constitution has a fixed and knowable meaning established when it is
passed or ratified. Furthermore because M. adheres to a variant of originalism that
emphasizes original intent rather than original meaning, he can further be characterized
as an intentionalist. See Excursus 3.
274
8 ("A mere negative statement excluding a particular case from the scope of
a commandment is not to be included among the negative commandments").
These rules appear to be logical extensions of the view that texts ought to be
read contextually.
45
7.4. "They learned it from the oral tradition" (mi-pi ha-shemu'ah
lamdu)
The overwhelming majority of positive commandments (and, for that
matter, negative commandments) are identified and rendered according to
their plain sense (peshateyh di-qra). In a handful of cases, M. adopts a
traditional reading that, as we shall see, carries the unique force and
authority of being consensual. There is reason to believe that, even in these
cases, M. simply meant to incorporate tradition into the commandment
claim, leaving intact the plain sense of the text.
Hilkhot 'Edut 13:1 provides a good example. After citing the verse
Parents shall not be put to death for children nor children be put to death
for parents (Deuteronomy 24:16), M. comments: "It is taught by the oral
tradition that included in this negative commandment is the exhortation not
to condemn fathers to death on the testimony of their sons, nor sons on the
45
Nahmanides, "Hasagot," Rules 5 and 8, shows that the talmudic rabbis did not always
make these distinctions. These rules are good examples of the type of "Greek" logic, in
this case linguistic logic, that M. tried to impose on the creative but unsystematic and
unyielding corpus of rabbinic exegeses. Davidson, Herbert, Moses Maimonides: The
Man and His Work (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 98, n. 124, notes that M.
quotes in Rule 8 the "words" of the "students of the art of logic" and the quotation is
taken verbatim from al-Farabi's epitome of Aristotle's De Intepretatione.
275
testimony of their fathers." (M. leaves out the rest of the verse, a person
shall be put to death only for his own crime, because it is clearly
incongruous with the traditional interpretation.) Note well the words
"included in this negative commandment." M. seems to insinuate that the
text retains its plain sense.
46
This reading of M.'s intentions is consistent
with the rabbinic dictum cited in Rule 2, "a text cannot be deprived of its
plain sense" (ein miqra yotse mi-yede peshuto). The traditional interpretation
does not uproot the plain sense of the text. The degree to which peshateyh
di-qra was ingrained in M.'s exegesis and how he struggled to maintain
these readings even when he was "forced" to accept the traditional
interpretation can be illustrated in the following example. In Hilkhot
Shemitah ve-Yovel 13:5, M. writes, "The Sages have learnt by tradition that
may not be sold [Leviticus 25:34] means 'may not be changed' the field,
the open space, and the city space, each one of the three must remain as it is
forever after." This contra-sense reading forms the basis of the claim at
N228 in the ShM and in the SE, prefaced there by the words "it was taught
by the oral tradition." Yet, in the Heading to Hilkhot Shemitah ve-Yovel M.
writes, "That one may not make a permanent sale of the open lands about
their cities; these open lands can be redeemed at any time, before the Jubilee
or after," exactly in line with the plain sense of the text!
46
So at least it was understood by Amatsiah king of Judah, as we find in a rare piece of
inter-textual interpretation (2 Kgs 14:5-6). Amatsiah put to death the courtiers who had
assassinated his father,
but he did not put to death the children of the assassins, in
accordance with what is written in the Book of Teaching of
Moses, where the Lord commanded, Parents shall not be put to
death for children nor children be put to death for parents; a
person shall be put to death only for his own crime.
276
I return to the main focus of this section. These traditional readings
bring to the text an understanding that is not obvious and may not be its
"plainest" sense. One might further say that tradition pushes the
understanding of these texts to the limits of what M. may consider plain
sense; notably, M. makes an effort to keep those traditions within sensible
bounds. This is true with respect to commandments although less so with
respect to details and particulars of commandments where tradition can
sometimes offer an interpretation that is contrary to plain sense.
47
Needless to say, M. considers that only an uncontroverted tradition
can provide an authentic interpretation and act as a substitute for peshateyh
di-qra. The consensus surrounding this type of tradition, he argues in the
introduction to his commentary to the Mishnah,
48
guarantees its Sinaitic
origin.
47
Among the most egregious examples of the latter are the following: Hilkhot Yibbum
2:6, "If a man dies and is survived by several brothers, it is the eldest brother's religious
duty to marry the widow.. .the oral tradition taught that here first-born signifies the first-
born of the br ot her s. . , " contrary to the plain sense of the verse, as discussed earlier at
7:3; Hilkhot Naarah Betulah 3:6, where tradition reads the claims and counter-claims
being made about a maiden' s virginity as being proffered by witnesses rather than
standing on physical evidence (i.e., blood stains), contra the sense of the text; Hilkhot
Isure Biah 16:10,
Even though it is said, Neither shall ye do thus in your land
[Leviticus 22:24], the oral tradition taught that this prohibition
applies everywhere, the purport of Scripture here being, 'This
shall not be done in Israel whether upon their own bodies or
upon the body of others.'
Note M.' s (weak) attempt to reconcile tradition with plain sense. In Hilkhot Sanhedrin
3:3 and 3:8, M. allows tradition to read the texts totally out of context.
48
Perush ha-Mishnah, ed. and trans. Joseph Kafih, 3 vols. (Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav
Kook, 1984) P.9, "and, lo, this principle must be known, that is, that the explanations
received [perushim h-mequbbalim] from Moses are without controversy what soever . . "
277
M. uses many terms to denote the presence of an oral tradition, but
only one term to indicate its use in support of a scriptural commandment
claim. The term is mi-pi ha-shemu'ah lamdu, which can loosely be rendered
as "they learned it from the oral tradition." It is only found in the SE and in
the Halakhot.
49
Since, as we saw earlier, the oral tradition enjoys a Sinaitic
status and is therefore considered an authentic interpretation of the text, the
interpretation that is given by this oral tradition enjoys scriptural authority.
Because the SE deals only with commandments, the term "they learned it
from the oral tradition," when it appears there, is intimately and exclusively
associated with a commandment claim. In the Halakhot, on the other hand,
See also p. 11, where M. discusses the five epistemological bases for the oral law, in
particular the first two. The perushim ha-mequbbalim include the famous textually
ungrounded traditions called halakhot le-Moshe mi-Sinai. M. goes on to prove this by
providing some examples. The principle has been found to be wanting, especially with
respect to his assertions about the consensual nature of halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai. See
Bacharach, Yair, Sheelot u-Teshuvot Havvot Yair (1987), #192. We also found some
exceptions to this principle in our work on the commandments; see for example P5,
where M. makes little out the fact that a rabbinic source that he cites give two mutually
exclusive definitions for 'worship of the heart' ,one as prayer and one as study. At times,
we find that not only is the tradition under dispute, but M. presents the tradition as if it is
consensual! See for example P173, P198, P199 and N198 and 199, none of which
represents unanimous views. The best that we can say is that, with respect to
commandments, M. resorts to this principle very few times, as we show below. M.
appears to have enunciated this principle more with a polemic against the Karaites in
sight than as an authentic epistemological principle. M. was presumably also taking issue
with Saadia, "one who thought that even laws that are disputed are part of the tradition
from Moses" because Saadia had left the Rabbanite side exposed to the Karaite attack on
tradition. On Saadia's view, see Zucker, Moshe, Perush Rav Saadia Gaon le-Bereshit
(New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1980), pp. 187-88. The principle
of consensus (ijma) in its many forms as an authoritative source of the law, was a
well-known principle of Islamic (and even pre-Islamic) jurisprudence. See Schacht,
Joseph, The Origins of Muslim Jurisprudence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950),
pp. 82-97, and more recently Wael B. Hallaq, History of Islamic Legal Theories,
especially pp. 75-81.
49
In the PhM and ShM M. refers to this notion in a less precise and less consistent
fashion, using expressions such as "it came via tradition" and "the received
interpretation." Of course, these works were written in Arabic.
278
the term is also associated with particulars of the law.
50
In such cases one
might say with reasonable though not absolute confidence that M. intended
to signal that these particulars, too, have scriptural authority (de-oraita).
Matters become confusing when M. uses this special term without an
accompanying scriptural proof-text. In such cases, the term may simply be
referring to a hoary tradition; most likely, no scriptural authority is ascribed
to it.
51
The situation is further confused by the fact that M. uses in the
Halakhot other terms associated with the oral law, such as mi-pi ha-
qabbalah, halakhah mi-pi ha-qabbalah, halakhah mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah and a
few other variants of these expressions. Systematic terminological
investigations into these terms have been conducted and theories have been
propounded for at least a century, starting with (Der Mischneh Thorah:Ein
System der Mosaisch-Talmuchischen Gesetzeslehre. Zur Erinnerung an den
Siebenhundertjahrigen Todestag Maimuni's 1905), and continuing to this
50
As, for example, Hilkhot Talmud Torah 1:2, Hilkhot Qiddush ha-Hodesh 8:1, Hilkhot
Hovel u-Maziq 1:2, Hilkhot Sanhedrin 3:3, 3:8.
51
See, for example, Hilkhot Sotah 2:12, Isure Biah 4:1, Maakhalot Asurot 1:10, and
passim. Hilkhot Yibbum 2:6 could present a problem. While the rule that we just
postulated, namely, a verse accompanied by a mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah exegesis points to a
scriptural law, it seems difficult to reconcile the exegesis on Deuteronomy 25:5 adduced
in 2:6 with anything approaching the plain sense of the verse. Later on, at Hilkhot Yibbum
6:8, M. adduces the very same verse to tell us that it teaches that a barren woman
(aylonit) is exempt from falling to the levir. The two exegeses reflect diametrically
opposed conceptions of the verse - i t either refers to the mother or to the wife but not to
both. Therefore the two exegeses cannot co-exist side-by-side. Which, then, did M. think
is the scriptural law and which was merely a divre sofrim? Horowitz, Y., "Le-Mishneh
Torah u-le-Perush ha-Mishnayot shel ha-RaMBaM," Sinai 15, pp. 279-288, thinks that
the former exegesis is an asmakhta (thus divre sofrim) and the latter a genuine scriptural
reading (thus a scriptural law). I am not convinced, even though the former exegesis
seems so stretched. M. ' s philological attempt to justify the exegesis, here, and in
particular in the PhM (mYevamot 2:6), shows that he considered this way out exegesis to
be within the range of acceptable contextual readings. I am therefore inclined to follow
the implications of the above stated rule.
279
day. Recently, Y. Kafih surveyed all the instances where these terms
appeared in the MT (end of Volume 21, Sefer Mishpatim) but never came to
a consistent conclusion.
52
While mi-pi ha-shemu'ah can signify particulars of laws that are not
of scriptural authority, and while M. uses a number of difficult-to-identify
terms to convey the manner and form of diverse oral traditions, this much is
52
Kafih mentions that Nachum Rabinovitch had just dealt with this issue; but lest one
come to think that he was preceded in this important investigation by Rabinovitch, Kafih
informs us that he had actually dealt with this issue 13 years earlier (though he had had
no opportunity until now to publish it). On the surface, his attempt appears to be
systematic but in fact it is far from being so. Kafih offers individual, ad hoc explanations
for each entry but never summarizes his findings. His reasoning is at times confusing, as
when he justifies scriptural lashes on a mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah interpretation because it is an
explanation of the text rather than the norm itself (etsem din), at #19. Many of his
explanations undermine M.' s claims. For example, Kafih asserts that M. uses the term
mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah when he refers to an ancient tradition, one however that does not
come from Moses at Sinai, and in that respect it differs from mi-pi ha-qabbalah (e.g.
#18, p. 277). This is problematic. See, for example, #17 (p. 256), the use of mi-pi ha-
shemu 'ah with regard to fasting on the Day of Atonement; yet we know that this is a
scriptural commandment, so according to M. it must come from Sinai. He does the same
at #12, with regard to prayer, yet we know that M. held that prayer is a positive
commandment. Kafih does, however, make a few interesting comments, as in #140 and
#144, where he indicates that while mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah is not necessarily the best
interpretation, it has the merit of not contradicting the text. Even more recently, D.
Henshke published an article in which he revisited this issue and, in my opinion,
convincingly demonstrated that the expression mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah is a marker of Sinaitic
authority but if, and only if, it is accompanied by a proof-text. Cf. Henshke, "Le-Yesode
Tefisat ha-Halakhah," , in particular his appendix Mi-pi ha-Shemu 'ah be-Mishneh Torah,
pp. 138-144. See also the systematic and careful analysis of these special terms by
Shohetman, Eliav, "'Halakhah mi-Pi ha-Qabbalah' ve-'Halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai':
l yyun bi-Leshonot ha-RaMBaM," Shenaton ha-Mishpat ha-Ivry 22 (1961-63),
Shohetman notes that when citing a proof-text, M. uses the term "as it says" to signify
that the plain reading supports the claim, and uses mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah or hen mi-pi ha-
qabbalah to signify an interpretation, offered by the rabbis, that is not in accordance with
the plain meaning. I would add only that M. "tolerates" such an interpretation because the
scriptural text is ambiguous and the rabbinic interpretation does not conflict with the
context.
280
certain: mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah is the only expression of the oral tradition that is
associated with the hermeneutics of scriptural commandments.
All told, the number of positive commandment claims that draw their
authority from a traditional interpretation is very small five in the SE and
10 in the Halakhot out of a total of 248 commandments. The MT
confirms the SE's hermeneutic in four places: P85 is paralleled at Hilkhot
Ma'aseh ha-Qorbanot 18:1, P86 at Hilkhot Isure Mizbeah 1:10, P109 at
Hilkhot Miqvaot 1:2 and P198 at Hilkhot Malveh ve-Loveh 5:1. We find no
parallel in the Halakhot for the reliance on tradition as the source for the
commandment claim to set aside the second tithe (P128); we will have more
to say later on about the implications of this apparent reversal. The MT
adduces tradition as the source for six additional commandment claims, at
Hilkhot Tefillah 1:1, Hilkhot Hamets u-Matsah 2:1, Hilkhot Shofar 1:1,
Hilkhot Shevitat 'Asor 1:4, Hilkhot Malveh ve-Loveh 1:2 and Hilkhot
Melakhim 5:5.
Let us examine the 10 instances from the Halakhot in more detail:
1) Hilkhot Tefillah 1:1:
It is a positive commandment to pray every day, as it is
said, Ye shall serve the lord your God [Exodus 23:25].
They learned from the oral tradition [mi-pi ha-
shemu'ah lamdu] that this 'service' is prayer. It is
written, serving Him with all your heart and soul
[Deuteronomy 11:13], about which the Sages said,
'What is service of the heart? Prayer'.
M. clearly struggles with this commandment claim; this is the first and
only time in the Halakhot that he adduces one warrant to support another
one. In the ShM, M.'s argument turns confusing after he cites a second
opinion of the Sifre that equates service with the study of the law. Be that as
281
it may, by citing a secondary proof-text and a rabbinic suggestion, M.
attempts to bring the traditional interpretation in line with ordinary sense.
2) Hilkhot Hamets u-Matsah 2:1:
It is a positive commandment from Scripture
53
to put
away leaven before the time when one is forbidden to
eat it, as it says, Howbeit the first day ye shall put
away leaven out of your houses [Exodus 12:15]; they
learned from the oral tradition [u- mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah
lamdu] that this first day is the fourteenth of Nisan.
This is corroborated by the verse, Thou shalt not offer
the blood of My sacrifice with leavened bread [Exodus
23:18; 34:25], which means: 'Thou shalt not slaughter
the Paschal lamb while leavened bread is still in
existence,' and the time for slaughtering the Paschal
lamb is after midday on the fourteenth of Nisan.
Note M.' s attempt to "corroborate" the traditional interpretation.
3) Hilkhot Shofar 1:1:
It is a positive commandment from Scripture
54
to hear
the blast of a horn [shofar] at New Year, as it is said: It
is a day of blowing unto you [Numbers
29:1]....Although Scripture does not expressly
stipulate the blast of a horn in the case of New Year, it
does say of the Jubilee year: Then shalt thou make
proclamation with the blast of the horn on the tenth
53
Did M. purposefully add here "from Scripture" (min ha-torah), a rare addition, to
polemicize with his Karaite adversaries who held that leaven could be kept until the
beginning of the first day of the festival? For the Karaite interpretation, see, for example,
the commentary of Aaron ben Elijah of Nicomedia, Sefer Keter Torah (Eupatoria: 1867),
p.62, writing in the first half of the 14
th
century.
54
See our previous footnote. Here too the Karaites rejected the rabbinic halakhah and
taught that teruah should be rendered as shouting, not as blowing a horn. See Miller,
Philip E., "Karaite Perspectives in Yom Teru'ah," Ki Baruch Hu: Ancient Near Eastern,
Biblical, and Judaic Studies in Honor of Baruch A. Levine, eds. Robert Chazan, William
W. Hallo and Lawrence H. Schiffman (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1999).
282
day of the seventh month; in the Day of Atonement
shall ye make proclamation with the horn [Leviticus
25:9], and they learned from the oral tradition [u- mi-pi
ha-shemu'ah lamdu] that just as the blast of a Jubilee
year must be blown on a horn, so must the blast of
New Year be blown on a horn.
M. appears to adopt the analogy (heqesh) offered by a baraita cited in
bRosh ha-Shanah 33b-34a, though he does not spell it out. The heqesh plays
on the phrase on the tenth day of the month, a way for Scripture to intimate
that all blowings of the seventh month including those of the New Year
must be on a horn.
55
Be that as it may, by adding the analogous phrase
"just as.. .so must" M. attempts to bring the traditional interpretation closer
to a plain reading of the text.
56
55
The baraita's exegesis is contradictory. First it resorts to a heqesh and later to a
gezerah shavah, a different form of analogy. The Talmud notes the contradiction and
concludes that the ruling could have been derived from the heqesh but now that a gezerah
shavah has been found, the baraita prefers to use the latter method of interpretation.
Kesef Mishneh (ad loc.) argues that M. adopted the gezerah shavah and this is the reason
M. used the term mi-pi ha-shemu'ah, since according to Karo' s understanding of M. ' s
position, a gezerah shavah is a Sinaitic tradition and not a hermeneutic rule. But this is
contrary to what M. says in Rule 2, where he lumps together all 13 hermeneutic rules, a
group that of course includes the gezerah shavah. Had M. believed that the underpinning
of this tradition is a gezerah shavah, he would have considered blowing a horn part of
divre sofrim and so labeled it, instead of using the term mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah. More likely,
the very ambiguity (and insufficiency) of the baraita's complex hermeneutic led M. to
believe that an authentic Sinaitic tradition rather than a full-fledged scribal derivation lay
behind the idea that teruah is to be effected by way of shofar. For the unusual way the
term heqesh is used in the baraita, see Ayyash, Yehudah, "Lehem Yehudah " A
collection of important commentaries on the code of Maimonides [Mefarshe Yad ha-
Hazaqah] (Jerusalem: Otzreinu Toronto, 2006-7), ad loc.
56
Unlike the gezerah shavah, the heqesh or analogy is not included in the 13 hermeneutic
rules. Therefore an exegesis based on a heqesh could be considered a plain reading and
need not represent divre sofrim. I recognize that this is the exact opposite of Kesef
Mishneh s argument laid out in the previous footnote. See also above, section 4.1,
footnote 18.
283
4) Hilkhot Ma 'aseh ha-Qorbanot 18:1:
Likewise, it is a positive commandment that every
person take care of and bring from outside the Land
[of Israel] to the Holy Temple the animal sacrifices
that he was obliged to offer. For it is said: Only thy
holy things which thou hast, and thy vows, thou shalt
take and go unto the place which the Lord shall choose
[Deuteronomy 12:26]; they learned from the oral
tradition [mi-pi ha-shemu'ah lamdu] that this verse
speaks only with reference to the hallowed offerings of
outside the Land; that they were to be taken care of
until they were brought up to the Holy Temple.
5) Hilkhot Miqvaot 1:2:
Wherever 'washing of the flesh' or 'cleansing of the
garments' from uncleanness is spoken of in Scripture,
it means nothing else but the immersion of the whole
person or object in an immersion pool.. ..And although
all these things are learned only from the oral tradition
[she-hem mi-pi ha-shemu'ah], it is nevertheless said,
It must be put into water and it shall be unclean until
the even; then shall it be clean [Leviticus 11:32] a
basic principle applying to all that are unclean, that
they should enter into water.
Here again M. draws on textual support for the oral tradition.
6) Hilkhot Isure Mizbeah 1:10:
It is a positive commandment to redeem an offering
which had incurred a blemish, so that it would become
profane and be eaten. For it is said: Notwithstanding
thou mayest kill and eat flesh after all the desire of thy
soul [Deuteronomy 12:15]; they learned from the oral
tradition [mi-pi ha-shemu'ah lamdu] that Scripture
speaks here of hallowed offerings that became unfit
and were redeemed.
284
57,58
For once, M. makes no attempt to justify the oral tradition.
,
7) Hilkhot Malveh ve-Loveh 1:2:
. i t is a positive commandment to exact payment from
a heathen debtor. For it is written Of the heathen thou
shalt exact payment [Deuteronomy 15:3]. They have
learned from the oral tradition [mi-pi ha-shemu'ah
lamdu] that this is a positive commandment.
No attempt is made here to justify this reading, which, at any rate, is
plausible.
59
8) Hilkhot Malveh ve-Loveh 5:1:
It is a positive commandment to lend money at interest
to a heathen. For it is written Unto the heathen thou
shalt lend upon interest [Deuteronomy 23:21]. They
learned from the oral tradition [mi-pi ha-shemu'ah
lamdu] that this is to be construed as a positive
commandment and this is scriptural law.
57
The scriptural context suggests the possibility that this passage deals with offerings, in
contrast to the immediately following section (vv. 20-22), which appears to speak about
non-sacrificial meat. (Cf. RaSHi ad loc.) The word notwithstanding implies that some
event had just taken place, e.g. it became impure, that blocks the animal from being
offered on the altar. The notwithstanding clause therefore comes to offer a remedy,
namely, that the animal be redeemed. Once it is redeemed it can then be consumed.
58
What is equally odd is that M. designates the redemption of offerings that have
incurred a blemish a positive commandment, meaning an obligation. Perla raises serious
and important objections to this view. Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol.1, Ps 131,
s.v. ve-nirah, pp. 380-3.
59
See our comments to P142 in section 5.1.1.
285
A more plausible reading is that while one may lend money at interest
to a heathen one may not do so to an Israelite. In effect, we are dealing with
what amounts to an implicit prohibition. This prohibition is explicitly stated
at the end of the verse.
60
Still, the text can easily accommodate the oral
tradition, and no justification is necessary.
9) Hilkhot Melakhim 5:5:
It is a positive commandment always to bear in mind
his evil deeds, the waylaying [he resorted to], so that
we keep fresh in others [kede le-orer evato] the
memory of the hatred manifested by him, as it is said:
Remember what 'Amaleq did unto thee Deuteronomy
25:17]. They learned from the oral tradition [mi-pi ha-
shemu'ah], Remember, by way of mouth; do not
forget, out of mind, because it is forbidden to forget
his hatred and enmity.
61
The traditional interpretation is plausible and requires little
justification.
10) Hilkhot Shevitat 'Asor 1:4:
Another positive commandment concerning the Day of
Atonement requires abstention from eating and
drinking on that day. For Scripture says, Ye shall
afflict your souls [Leviticus 16:29]. They learned from
the oral tradition [mi-pi ha-shemu'ah lamdu] that the
term 'affliction' when applied to the soul means
'fasting'.
60
See our comments to P198 in section 5.1.1.
61
I read the claim as follows: "Remember for the purpose of keeping fresh in the minds
of other members of the nation ' Amaleq' s hatred." "Remember" here is used in the sense
of "remind," which is why remember is "by way of mouth." See our earlier comments to
P189, chapter 5.
286
I find no dissenters among a wide range of exegetes to the notion that
affliction of the soul stands for fasting. On the other hand, the term may
have enjoyed a broader meaning and M. may have resorted to tradition to
restrict the punishment of excision exclusively to someone who does not
fast.
62
To sum up what has been said thus far. In order to identify and frame
commandment claims, M. makes use of peshateyh di-qra, a common sense
reading of Scripture that places phrases and clauses in their grammatical,
linguistic and historical context. This is true for the overwhelming number
of cases. In as few as five and as many as ten cases (out of 248), M. relies on
certain rabbinic interpretations that on the face of it appear to reflect
unanimous opinions, though, admittedly, do not always represent the best
peshateyh di-qra readings. These traditions are grouped under the rubric mi-
pi ha-shemu 'ah lamdu. We noted that M. considers consensus and unanimity
the hallmarks of authoritative readings, that is, Sinaitic origins. Nevertheless,
M. attempts in almost each of these special cases to bring the rabbinic
interpretations into alignment with good common sense (peshateyh di-qra).
62
The next halakhah, 5, states that "it is similarly known by tradition [mi-pi ha-
shemu 'ah] that one is forbidden to wash, anoint himself, wear shoes, or have sexual
intercourse on that day." Then M. adds, "Nevertheless, one becomes liable to excision or
a Sin Offering only for eating or drinking; if one washes, anoints himself, wears shoes, or
has sexual intercourse, he is liable to a disciplinary flogging [makkat mardut]" Here,
then, only fasting is scripturally enjoined and eating and drinking are scripturally
prohibited, not the broader activities possibly implied by the term affliction of the soul.
As we saw earlier, mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah not accompanied by a proof-text may simply
represent a hoary tradition and as such it is of rabbinic authority; thus, the halakhah
prescribes "disciplinary flogging," a rabbinic punishment, rather than the scriptural
flogging.
287
7.5 The Presentation of a Positive Commandment in the Halakhot
We have already commented on one aspect of M.'s literary/rhetorical
presentation of commandments in the Halakhot. Specifically, we noted that
M. uses a simple and basic sentence to designate, forcefully and
unequivocally, the commandment that he is about to discuss: "it is a positive
commandment to such-and-such." We called these introductory
presentations declaratory statements. In addition to the declaration, M. will
cite the relevant scriptural proof-text. In effect, the proof-text "proves" the
claim. We had already become familiar with this pattern in the previous
works, the ShM and the SE. By citing a proof-text, M. was only following
the basic tenets of good argument. As well, and I am indebted to Prof. T.
Meacham for this insight, M. was also adhering to the format of the
midreshe halakhah, works that he considered fundamental cornerstones of
the Oral Law
For the overwhelming majority of commandments, the scriptural
proof-text, by itself, is sufficient evidence of the claim's validity. For one
thing, M. had already demonstrated in the ShM that the evidence was well-
warranted. Second, even a casual reader who had not studied the ShM would
recognize the natural relation of the claim to the scriptural verse being cited.
The peshateyh di-qra, the contextual, plain, reading of the verse, would
assure this recognition. In the few cases where M. allows tradition to
override the plain sense, he cites the verse and follows it with the traditional
interpretation, as we discussed earlier. It is critical that the proof-text be an
integral part of the initial presentation of the commandment.
288
Where neither a designation nor a proof-text is found in the
presentation of what the ShM/SE had already identified as a positive
commandment, we must seriously wonder whether M. had changed his
mind. I will argue that he had, that ultimately the peshateyh di-qra did not
convince him that such a claim could be made and that, furthermore, he
found no rabbinic warrant that would convincingly tie the verse to the claim.
The commandment thus passed from the category of de-oraita to divre
sofrim, revealing the unsuspected significance and ramifications of Rule 2.
In the next section, we discuss the literary artifice that M. used to
convey this changed perception.
289
Chapter 8. Correct Practices
As we shall see, where M. in the Halakhot fails to make the usual
declaratory statement or to produce a scriptural proof-text, he will often
make use of the participle. The participle is a common mishnaic
grammatical form, yet one that is not particularly well suited to articulate
imperatives.
1
What is the meaning of this participle and why does M. use it?
David Daube studied this part of speech and found that "in the earlier
part of talmudic literature, in Mishnah, Tosefta and Baraita, it is more
frequent than any other form: a counting might well show four-fifths of
Tannaitic Law, religious or secular, to be given in this form." Daube posited
that use of the participle "reflects the rabbinic view of the secondary, less
absolute nature of post-biblical rules," in a setting where it was well
accepted that one could no longer count on authoritative revelation. Daube
noted that the Hebrew participle "stands for our present tense as referring to
a habitual event, action or omission," and that "it is in this function, as an
expression of the course to be taken in accordance with proper interpretation
and custom, that the participle became the typically rabbinic form of
legislation." He concluded that "[i]f we want to give it a name, we should
call it, not imperatival participle or participial imperative, but rather
1
The standard imperative form that M. uses to indicate commandments is the infinitive
of the various conjugations, preceded by the preposition lamed. See, e.g., Hilkhot Hametz
u-Matsah 2:1, 6:1, 7:1, and passim.
290
advisory, didactic participle or perhaps best, participle stating the correct
practice."
2
We began by noting that on a few occasions M. fails to make the
usual declaratory statement where we had been led to expect such a
declaration by the enumerative works. We further noted that in some of
those occasions, M. uses a participle. I now suggest that M. uses these
participles to state correct practices. The participle is a coded, or very subtle,
way of telling the reader that, in his opinion, the practice does not quite
follow the canons of peshateyh di-qra, the true meaning of Scripture. This is
confirmed by his failure to support the practice via a proof-text, effectively
disconnecting the practice from the verse. The practices are ancient and well
accepted and should probably be designated as either divre sofrim or as
rabbinic enactments. I surmise, however, that M. sees little good in
publicizing such a radical opinion. I proceed in the continuation to review
these occurrences.
The Recitation of the Shema (P10)
M. opens discussion of this commandment in the Halakhot thus:
The Shema is recited [qorin] twice every day, once in
the evening and once in the morning, as it is said:
when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest
by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou
2
Daube, David, "Haustafeln," New Testament Judaism: Collected Works of David
Daube, ed. Calum Carmichael, vol. 2, Studies in Comparative Legal History (Berkeley,
CA: University of California for the Robbins Religious & Civil Law Collection, 2001),
vol.2, pp. 295-6.
291
risest up [Deuteronomy 6:7]. The time when people
customarily lie down is evening and the time when
people customarily get up is morning (Hilkhot Qeriyat
Shema 1:1).
Note, first and foremost, that M. does not designate the command to
recite the Shema a positive commandment, neither here, nor, for that matter,
anywhere else in this section. Second, while M. does cite a verse and this,
as we know, is a crucial part of the presentation he leaves out the most
critical words: and thou shalt talk of them (when thou sittest in thy house,
and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou
risest up). These words were cited in the SE/ShM precisely as evidence that
one needs to recite the Shema. The part of the text that he does cite merely
supports the idea that one should engage in this activity (meditate? recite?)
morning and night. Note the use of the participle, qorin, literally, "they
recite," instead of the usual and much bolder "[it is a positive
commandment] to read the Shema" of the SE.
The only conclusion I can draw from this subtle formulation is that M.
is letting us know that the commandment to recite the Shema is not scriptural
but simply a correct practice, a matter that could only be made known to the
sophisticated, philosophically inclined, reader. In fact, the true form of the
commandment had already been codified as the obligation to acknowledge
His unity, Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 1:6, and P2 in the SE/ShM. For M., the
Unity of God is not something that is recited but rather something that is
known, and again, it is not something that is said twice a day but rather
something of which one must be aware at all times. The passage and thou
shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest by
the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up when read
292
through the lenses of peshateyh di-qra is no more than a metaphor,
comparable to what we find in Proverbs 6:21-23. In the words of Tigay, a
modern commentator, "these pairs of contrasting phrases are merisms.
Accordingly, our verse means speak of these words wherever you are, and at
all times." The transformation of this verse into an obligation to recite the
Shema twice a day is, on this approach, no more than a rabbinic creation, a
part of divre sofrim.
M. exhibits some ambivalence already in the ShM with respect to this
commandment. The argument, which I review immediately below, proceeds
confusedly along the lines of times rather than recitation and digresses
unnecessarily and excessively beyond qeriyat shema.
M.'s direct evidence for the obligation to recite the Shema twice a day
comes from the verse and thou shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thy
house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and
when thou risest up. In the ShM, M. adduces two rabbinic warrants, the first
one from bBerakhot 21a "where it is shown that the reading of the Shema is
ordained by the Torah" and the second one from tBerakhot 3:1. The
talmudic passage is not as convincing as M. makes it out to be for we also
find there an amoraic opinion that maintains that the recitation of Shema is
rabbinic. Moreover, the sugyah reaches no firm conclusion on this topic.
The Tosefta reads: "Just as the Torah has ordained an appointed time
[qeva Y for the reading of Shema, even so have the Sages appointed a time
3
The JPS Torah Commentary, (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 1989) ,
Deuteronomy, 6:7. See also Bekhor-Shor, Joseph, Perushe R. Yosef Bekhor Shor, ed. Y.
Navo (Jerusalem: 1994), a medieval interpreter, ad loc.
4
Tosefta, ed. Zuckermandel, has here "just as an appointed time has been ordained",
omitting "as the Torah." This omission weighs in the question of whether the daily
293
[zeman] for prayer."
5
The ostensible value of the Tosefta is to show, by
inference, that appointing times for reading Shema is a scriptural matter
while appointing times for prayers is a rabbinic ordinance. Oddly, M. makes
no such inference and instead, goes on to talk about prayer. In effect, M.
makes no use of this warrant other than to show that it is the rabbis who
appointed times for prayers, superimposing it on an activity that was
scripturally prescribed. This appears unnecessary since M. has already told
us at P5 that prayers are scripturally prescribed. The fact that M. does not
use this Tosefta to emphasize the scriptural character of the recitation of
Shema is suspect and leads me to believe that M. accepted the second half of
the dictum, corroborating the weak case he had made at P5, but was not
convinced of the probatory merits of the first half of the dictum. If, as I
believe, M. was not absolutely convinced that Scripture ordained the twice
daily recitation of the Shema, he could have reinterpreted the Tosefta as
follows: whereas the Torah gave the rabbis a clue on ways to fix appointed
times when it came to the Shema and the verse would then serve as an
asmakhta it left them to their own ingenuity when it came to prayers.
This reading dovetails well with what appears to be another redundant
statement immediately following M.' s interpretation of the second half of
the dictum. He says:
reading of Shema is a scriptural or a rabbinic precept. Qeva' also has the meaning of
'fixed form' . Note that in this text, qeva' is set in apposition to zeman (time) and thus
could possibly bear the meaning of 'fixed form' rather than 'appointed time' , the sense
being that just as the Torah has set a fixed form, the Shema, for the affirmation of His
unity, so have the Sages appointed a time for prayer. But see following note.
5
Zeman, so too Tosefta, ed. Zuckermandel. However, the Tosefta affixed to the standard
editions of the Babylonian Talmud reads here qeva'instead of zeman. See Sefer ha-
Mitsvot, ed. Heller, note 22.
294
This is what the Sages mean when they say: '[The
Men of the Great Assembly] appointed prayers to
correspond with the daily burnt offerings'; that is to
say, they fixed the times of prayer to correspond with
the times at which [the daily burnt offerings] were
brought.
Behind this rambling presentation, one senses a purposeful lack of
clarity. Nevertheless, M. may have wished to preserve this commandment in
the ShM because it was widely accepted and because it provided a valuable
heading for a separate treatise in his forthcoming Halakhot, which deals in
extenso with the details of the recitation of the Shema.
To learn Torah and to teach it (P11)
Even the most casual reader of the MT would be struck by the peculiar
and indirect manner in which M. introduces this obligation:
Women and slaves are exempt from the obligation of
studying Torah. But a father is obligated [aviv hayav
le-lamdo] to teach his young son Torah, as it is said,
And ye shall teach them to your children, talking of
them [Deuteronomy 6:7]....
M. begins with the obligation to teach first to one's own sons
(Deuteronomy 6:7) then to one's own grandsons (Deuteronomy 4:9, but
make them known unto thy children and thy children's children) and, finally,
to all disciples who seek instruction (Deuteronomy 6:7, and thou shalt teach
them diligently unto thy children), the latter on the basis of a traditional
interpretation (mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah) that includes disciples in the term thy
295
children. The obligation to study/learn only comes at Halakhah 8 and it is
supported by a non-Torah passage, But thou shalt meditate therein day and
night (Josh 1:8). By definition, prophetic passages cannot validly serve as
proof-texts for scriptural commandments.
It is critical to note that neither teaching nor studying Torah is ever
designated a positive commandment. The failure to make a declaratory
statement and the peculiar and absolutely atypical opening
6
prompts a
commentator to offer a justification namely, the ostensible need to
highlight the fact that women and slaves are exempt from the obligation
even though, under existing rules, they are subject to all positive
commandments that have a fixed time. Clearly, M. succeeds in diverting
attention from the critical issue, that of not designating teaching Torah as a
positive commandment.
The evidence presented in the ShM for this commandment claim to
study and teach the Torah is the words and thou shalt teach them diligently
unto thy children (Deuteronomy 6:7). When read contextually, this phrase,
however, appears to refer to the proclamation of God's Unity and the
command to love Him (vv. 5-6). I suggest that this is indeed the way M.
reads the verse in the Halakhot. I come to this conclusion indirectly, from a
statement that M. makes in Hilkhot Qeriyat Shema. After ruling that one
must recite the Shema twice every day, M. proceeds to explain why one
recites the section beginning Hear O Israel (Deuteronomy 6:4-9) before
those commencing with And it shall come to pass (Deuteronomy 11:13-21)
6
The only other such formulation occurs in relation to the commandment to sit in a
sukkah. I shall return to this later on.
RaDBaZ, Sheelot u-Teshuvot ha-RaDBaZ , Orah Hayyim, siman alef. (See Excursus 4)
296
and The Lord spoke (Numbers 15:37-41). He says: "The section beginning
Hear O Israel is recited first, because it contains the Unity of God, the [duty
to] love Him [ve-ahavato] and [the duty to teach about] Him [ve-talmudo],
because this is the great principle on which everything depends." As M. has
already told us, Scripture commands one to intellectualize the Unity of God
(P2; Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 1:6); and thou shalt teach them diligently unto
thy children would then appear to urge one to impart this knowledge to
others. I conjecture that, for M., the transformation of this command into a
duty to study and teach all of Torah is likely to have been a scribal creation
(divre sofrim),
9
prompted by practical considerations such as the desirability
of fostering study for the sake of knowing how to fulfill commandments and,
on a more basic level, by the inability of the multitudes to grasp
philosophical concepts.
10
8
My translation. I take ahavato and talmudo as referring to His Unity since it is followed
by the words "because this is the great principle" (ki hu ha-iqar ha-gadol), which
obviously must be referring back to Unity. Hyamson translates here "studying His
words," but this is interpretative, following the approach of most rabbinic commentators.
M. would have had to use a plural pronoun if he wished to refer to Unity, love for Him
and His words/teachings.
9
In halakhah 2, M. states that "on traditional authority (mi-pi ha-shemu'ah lamdu), the
term 'thy children' includes di sci pl es. . " Note, however, that this tradition does not say
that one ought to teach children Torah. It merely says that Scripture uses the word
"children" to include disciples; thus whatever one teaches, it must be directed to disciples
as well as children.
10
Alternatively, to ground a person's mind (meyashvim da'atam shel adam tehillah)
before he embarks on metaphysical speculations. See Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 4:13.
297
In sum, an understanding of M.'s exegetical method in particular,
his emphasis on textual and contextual reading helps us understand a
subtle feature of M.'s ultimate categorization of laws and their sources.
11
To bind phylacteries on the head and on the arm (P12, P13)
M. opens Hilkhot Tefillin in the following manner:
The following four passages ... are the ones that are
written by themselves [or, individually, bi-fne
'atsmam]; they are wrapped in leather and are called
tefillin. They are to be placed [u-manihin otam] on the
head and they are tied [ve-qoshrin otam] on the arm.
12
Opening the halakhah with a definition rather than with a statement of
what one is enjoined to do is justifiable where the object used in the
commandment is not explicitly spelled out in Scripture. This is clearly the
case here, where all we find in Scripture are the words And thou shalt bind
them for a sign upon thy hand, and they shall be for frontlets between thy
eyes. It is, however, the very next line that is troubling and should trouble
11
I am tempted to go one step further and argue that M. ' s use of the participlepetturin to
indicate that women and slaves are exempt from this command is to note that this too is
merely a correct practice, at least with respect to teaching and studying Torah. In
contrast, everyone is obligated to fulfill the essential commandment, i.e., recognizing His
unity.
12
In the continuation, M. states further that "according to the Torah a mistake in the tip
of only one of the letters in the four passages renders the whole unfit; they must be
written perfectly as they are supposed to be." In the next halakhah M. rules that the same
is true for the passages written for the mezuzah and for the Torah scroll. These are laws
that pertain to writing passages or sections of the Torah, regardless of what they are
written for, and should not be confused with the commandments of placing tefillin on the
head and arm and mezuzot on doorposts.
298
every sensitive reader of the MT: "They are to be placed [u-manihin otam]
on the head and they are tied [ve-qoshrin otam] on the arm." Why not
declare clearly and unequivocally that it is a positive commandment to place
these tefillin on the head and tie them on the arm? Why does M. use instead
the participial form, which, as we have seen, tends to denote correct
practice? Why does M. fail to back up this practice with the appropriate
scriptural citation And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thy hand, and
they shall be for frontlets between thy eyes as he did in the SE/ShM and as he
is wont to do in the presentation of every commandment?
Similarly, in 4:1-2 M. discusses the exact spot on which these tefillin
should be placed. Yet he not only omits the verse but adds, "We learned the
positioning of the tefillin on the arm and on the head from the oral tradition
[mi-pi ha-shemu'ah lamdu]." As discussed earlier, mi-pi ha-shemu'ah
without a proof-text likely signals that we are in the presence of an ancient
tradition, not a scriptural law. And, finally, why would M. not cite the word
totafot, the very basis for the notion that the phylacteries contain four
passages?
13
I submit that M. sensed the extraordinary usefulness of the participial
form when dealing with traditional practices that came from time
immemorial and were somehow linked to, but not grounded in, scriptural
passages, but which, at the same time, could not be exposed publicly as
being non-scriptural. Since the putting-on of phylacteries does not reflect the
peshateyh di-qra of Scripture, M. did not wish to designate it as a positive
commandment to do so. On the other hand, the idea of labeling this practice
13
Cf. RaSHi on Deuteronomy 6:8, based on bSanhedrin 4b.
299
a commandment of the scribes (mi-divre sofrim), would have been too
disconcerting and too controversial to a public that, by that time, had been
conditioned to think of putting on tefillin as a scriptural commandment and
as a cornerstone of Jewish practice. Thus M. opted for a compromise and
used the "soft" language of the participle.
14
It is worth noting that more than one interpreter since antiquity has
suggested that the text should be understood in a metaphoric sense. Aqila,
Theodotion and some manuscripts of the Septuagint took the verses to mean
that we should be constantly aware of God's teachings. In the Middle Ages,
the Karaites, too, stressed the metaphoric view. Ibn Ezra rejected their views
because a literal interpretation can be effortlessly entertained. This
eliminated the need for a metaphoric interpretation (in Ibn Ezra's long
commentary at Exodus 13:9). In his short commentary at Exodus 13:9, Ibn
Ezra first offers the metaphoric interpretation -without ascribing it to the
Karaites -but then rejects it, on the basis that the literal interpretation is
faithfully attested by the Sages. This was not the case with the metaphoric
one. Yet there seems little doubt that by citing and engaging such a view in
both commentaries, Ibn Ezra revealed some sympathy for the figurative
interpretation. No less a talmudist than RaSHBaM makes no secret that,
according to the "depth of the plain interpretation" (omeq peshuto), these
words should be taken metaphorically (commentary on 13:9).
15
14
The force of this practice would depend, of course, on the interpretation we give to
M. ' s category of divre sofrim, as noted earlier. At least on the account of some jurists, the
putting on of tefillin would have the force of a de-oraita even for M.
15
See The JPS Torah Commentary, Deuteronomy, Excursus 11.
300
To affix a mezuzah (P15)
Much of what was said about phylacteries can be said about the
commandment to affix a mezuzah. M. opens Hilkhot Mezuzah (Hilkhot
Tefillin u-Mezuzah ve-Sefer Torah 5:1) as follows: "How is the mezuzah to
be written? [ketsad kotvin, lit., how do they write the mezuzah?] One writes
two passages . i n a single column on a piece of parchment."
16
M. then
spends most of that first chapter explaining how the mezuzah is to be
written. In 5:10, M. rules that "all are obligated [ha-kol hayavin] to affix
mezuzot, even women and slaves," yet he fails to designate this obligation a
positive commandment. Finally, in 6:12, M. explains: "Where is the
mezuzah to be affixed [ve-hekhan qovin et ha-mezuzah]?" M. misses the last
opportunity to designate the writing/placing of a mezuzah a positive
commandment. One notes further that only part of the relevant scriptural
proof-text is cited and it is in connection with a detail of the law: "Granaries,
barns, lumber rooms, and storehouses are exempt from mezuzah, since it
says, of thy house [Deuteronomy 6: 9] . . " Nowhere in Hilkhot Mezuzah does
M. cite what would appear to be the strongest evidence for this
commandment claim, the words And thou shalt write them upon the door-
posts of thy house, and upon thy gates (Deuteronomy 6:9). Evidently, as we
saw earlier in connection with recitation of the Shema, the teaching of Torah
and the putting-on of phylacteries, M. takes the Shema pericope in a non-
16
Note that the verse speaks about writing the words upon the doorposts of thy house and
that it is only via an inference from similarity in words (gezerah shavah) that the rabbis
interpreted the passage to say that the pentateuchal sections be written on a parchment.
See bMenahot 34a. As we saw earlier, M. deems derivations using hermeneutic rules like
the gezerah shavah to be mi-divre sofrim.
301
literal, figurative sense. The context favors such a reading. The subject of the
pericope is clearly God's unity. Therefore, it is metaphysics that must be the
subject of one's assiduous study, not the law. This notion must saturate
one's entire being, not surround him via physical objects. True notions of
unity cannot be simply recited or proclaimed, they must be apprehended
intellectually.
The twin failures, namely, M.'s failure to make a proper declaratory
statement
17
and his failure to cite scriptural evidence for the claim, as well as
the pointed use he makes of the participle at key junctures, suggest that M.
viewed the commandment to affix a mezuzah on doors as no more than a
correct practice. This practice, as well as some of those discussed above,
may have originated among the people, later to be sanctioned by the rabbis,
or may have been directly the product of a rabbinic ordinance. Either way,
these laws belonged, according to M., to the category of divre sofrim, and
not to the scriptural category of de-oraita. M. was successful in hiding this
opinion from the masses, but yet left enough clues for the informed reader to
discover the precise status of these laws.
18
17
M. also fails to designate the commandment as a positive commandment in the balance
of Hilkhot Mezuzah, even when he points out how one is liable if one fails to fulfill the
command. we must note that at 5:4, he uses the expression bittlu ha-Mitsvah instead of
the expected bittlu mitsvat 'aseh. See the next footnote.
18
M. does not look kindly on the objectification of the "great duty" to affirm His unity,
love and worship. The mitsvah is being condensed into an object that, in the hands of
fools, runs the risk of becoming an amulet for personal interests. Writing about those who
inscribe in the parchment of the mezuzah the names of angels, holy names or other such
protective texts, M. says: "For these fools not only fail to fulfill the duty [bittlu ha-
mitsvah] but made a great duty [mitsvah gedolah], namely the unity of the Name of God,
His love and His worship, as it were an amulet to promote their own personal i nt er est s. "
(Hilkhot Mezuzah 5:4). Note the expression bittlu ha-Mitsvah instead of the more correct
- if in fact we are dealing with a positive commandment - bittlu mitsvat 'aseh.
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That the king shall write a scroll of the Torah for himself (P18 in the
SE and P17 in ShM enumeration)
The command that the king shall write a scroll of Law for himself is
scriptural and, yet, M. does not designate it as a positive commandment.
Unlike the above-discussed cases, M. does not use the participle here and the
commandment does not fall in the category of correct practices.
Nevertheless, I discuss this case here because the peshateyh di-qra
hermeneutic allows us to explain M.'s omission of the declaratory statement.
M. deals with this commandment in Hilkhot Sefer Torah (7:2) and in
Hilkhot Melakhim (3:1). Notwithstanding this unusual arrangement, M.
"assigns" this commandment to the treatise dealing with the laws concerning
the writing of a scroll of Law (Hilkhot Sefer Torah) as attested by fact that
the commandment is listed in the heading to Hilkhot Sefer Torah and not in
the headings to the Laws of Kings (Hilkhot Melakhim).
The two formulations are substantively similar but for one exception:
in Hilkhot Sefer Torah, M. says, "The king is obligated [metsuveh]
19
to write
one scroll of Law for himself , for the sake of the king , an additional scroll
to the one he had while still a commoner " (my emphasis). M. is alluding to
the commandment that everyone is obligated to write a scroll of Law (P17).
In Hilkhot Melakhim, on the other hand, M. writes that "the king writes for
himself a scroll of Law in addition to the scroll that his forefathers had left
him." M. is alluding here to a baraita quoted in the bSanhedrin 21b that
19
See RaMBaM Meduyaq, ed. I. Shailat (Ma' aleh Addumim: Hotsaat Shailat, 2004),
note 7.
303
says: "And he must not take credit [literally, adorn himself] for the one
belonging to his ancestors." It is only a few lines later that M. acknowledges
the general obligation, when he says that
"one [of the sifre torah], the writing of which is obligatory upon every Jew,
he places in his treasure-house."
20
M. fails to designate this special
obligation a positive commandment on both occasions, despite the fact that
it is explicitly enjoined: And it shall be when he sitteth upon the throne of
his kingdom, that he shall write him a copy of this law [mishneh ha-torah
ha-zot, lit., a repetition of this law] in a book. (Deuteronomy 17:18).
I will argue that M.' s failure to declare a positive commandment here
is supported by a plain-sense reading of the scriptural passage. This again
demonstrates M.'s keen attachment to peshateyh di-qra. I base the argument
on the following premises: (1) that the king must write two scrolls of law is a
rabbinic play on the words mishneh torah, mishneh understood in the sense
of two;
21
instead, M. understands mishneh as the targumic interpreter did, a
"copy" (lit., "a double") of this law-book.
22
Thus the king is only obligated
to write one scroll of the Law, which obligation is no different than the
obligation incumbent on every Jew. The idea that the king puts one scroll of
Law in his treasure-house is rabbinic; Scripture refers only to the one he
2 0
Bet Genazav. Compare Ezra 5:17; 6:1.
21
The talmudic exegesis (bSanhedrin 21b), "he writes for his own sake [lishmo] two
torot" likely means that he writes two scrolls of Law when he accedes to the throne, not
that he writes only one on accession to complement a previously inherited scroll of Law.
See PhM, mSanhedrin 2:5.
22
See Onqelos, ad loc.
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must write and, regarding this one, says and it shall be with him, and he
shall read therein all the days of his life (Deuteronomy 17:19). Yet, to
uphold an ancient tradition that the king places a scroll in his treasure-house,
M. has the king write an extra scroll of law while placing the one that he
wrote as a commoner in the treasure-house ("one, the writing of which is
obligatory upon every Jew, he places in his treasure-house.").
23
To repeat, the Halakhot adopt the plain sense of the verse, that the
king must write a copy of the Torah for himself. This copy was none other
than the one every commoner had to write. Therefore, scripturally, there
would be no need for a special designation; the commandment that every
Jew write for himself a scroll of law (P17; Hilkhot Sefer Torah 7:1) is the
one and only positive commandment. This also explains why M. "officially"
positioned this law in Hilkhot Sefer Torah and not in Hilkhot Melakhim, as
noted earlier.
24
In sum, from a hermeneutic point of view, the commandment that the
king shall write a scroll of Torah for himself provides the basis for the
general commandment that every Jew write a scroll of Law for himself. This
was the reason, as we explained (section 5.1.2.d, P17, and note 30), that the
23
Karo, Kesef Mishneh sensed, correctly, that M. obligates the king to write only one
scroll of Law and noted that it contradicts the plain sense of the sugyah in bSanhedrin
21b. Karo acknowledged that his attempt to reconcile M.' s ruling with the sugyah is
forced (Hilkhot Melakhim 3:1). On my interpretation, M.' s philological determination of
the term mishneh does indeed leave the sugyah in bSanhedrin behind; even this one
"extra" scroll of Law is a concession to a rabbinic ordinance.
24
One might well ask, what, then, according to M., is the novelty of the king' s
command? I would suggest that the novelty lies in the fact that the king must carry the
scroll of Law with him, wherever he goes, and he must read from it all the days of his
life, for it says, And it shall be with him, and he shall read therein all the days of his life
(Deuteronomy 17:19), something that is not required of a commoner.
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ShM enumerated the king's commandment before the general one. This
commandment has all the trappings of a scriptural commandment, and for
this reason M. does not resort to the language of correct practice.
Nevertheless, from a classificatory point of view the commandment to the
king is only a detail of the general commandment. Thus, quite correctly, M.
labeled the latter commandment a mitsvat 'aseh and omitted the positive
commandment designation from the more subsidiary commandment to the
king.
To set aside various tithes (P127-130)
M. fails to designate any of these tithes a positive commandment. It is
disconcerting that M. uses the participial form heavily in this case
mafrish, mafrishin throughout his discussion of the tithes, both in Hilkhot
Matnot Aniyim and Hilkhot Ma 'aser.
The first tithe (ma 'aser rishon) is introduced in the following manner:
"After one has set aside the great heave offering (terumah gedolah), he sets
aside (mafrish) one-tenth of what is left. This is what is called first t i t he . "
(Hilkhot Ma 'aser 1:1). Contrast this with the way M. presents the
commandment (P126) to set aside the great heave offering (terumah
gedolah): "All human food that is watched over and that grows out of the
soil is subject to heave offering. It is a positive commandment to separate
from it the first fruits for the priest...." (Hilkhot Terumot 2:1).
The second tithe (ma 'aser sheni) follows the form of the first:
After the first tithe has been set aside each year, one
must set aside [mafrishin] also the second tithe . I n
the third and sixth years of each septennate the poor
man's tithe [ma'aser ani] must be set aside [mafrishin]
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instead of the second tithe as we have explained
(Hilkhot Ma 'aser Sheni 1:1).
This is explained a little earlier, in the sixth chapter of Hilkhot Matnot
Aniyim, following the discussion of the gifts that one is required to make to
the poor out of the produce of the land, peah (lit., corner of the field),
gleanings, the forgotten sheaf and the defective grape clusters. Ma 'aser ani
is introduced there as "a sixth gift." Finally, the Levites' tithe for the priest
(terumat ma'aser) is discussed in Hilkhot Terumot (3:12) because of its
obvious affinity to the great heave offering. Since this tithe is particular to
Levites, it does not form part of the ordinary order of tithes. M. refers to this
requirement as mitsvat terumat ma 'aser, though he still fails to designate it a
25
mitsvat 'aseh.
I have as yet failed to find a fully satisfactory solution to this unusual
presentation. A promising approach is suggested by Perla, who observes that
the scriptural evidence for the obligatory nature of the tithe commandments
is ambiguous. Perla suggests that the exegeses underpinning the tithe of
cattle (not considered here), the first tithe and the poor man's tithe are
merely asmakhta be-alma and derashot be-alma, meaning rabbinic
ordinances that "support" themselves on scriptural verses. As a result, Perla
25
The expression mitsvat terumat maaser should be rendered as "the proper way to
perform terumat maaser" and it is used deliberately, to contrast it with a second and less
desirable way to fulfill this requirement. The halakhah reads as follows:
The commandment of heave offering of the tithe applies to the
Levite, who must set it aside out of his tithe....An Israelite,
however, may set it aside and give it to the priest, and then give
the balance of the tithe to the Levite, after he has set aside the
latter's heave offering, which is the tithe from the tithe (Hilkhot
Terumot 3:12).
307
argues that Saadia was correct to list these three tithings in the indicative
rather than the imperative mode.
26
If Perla's observation is correct, at least
with respect to the first tithe and the poor man's tithe, then we can find some
justification for M.'s unexpected formulations. At least part of the septennial
system, with its various types of tithes as conceived by the mishnaic Rabbis,
does not flow from the peshateyh di-qra. It appears instead to be the product
of rabbinic interpretation (divre sofrim). The participial language of correct
practices may well reflect this origin.
The textual indeterminacy may even extend to the second tithe. In the
ShM, M. resorts to Sifre Deuteronomy, Reeh pisqa 105 (p. 164) to explain
that the words Thou shalt surely tithe all the increase of thy seed, and so on
[Deuteronomy 14:22] refer to the second tithe "I would only know this
27
about the second tithe, regarding which Scripture speaks" (my emphasis).
27
M.'s reliance on the oral tradition, in this case the aforementioned Sifre, is
confirmed in the SE: "To set apart the second tithe to be eaten by its owner
in Jerusalem, as it is said, Thou shalt surely tithe [Deuteronomy 14:22]. It
has been learned by the oral tradition [mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah lamdu] that this
refers to the second tithe." This is one of the five instances noted earlier in
which M. in the SE resorts to the oral tradition to substantiate a reading. M.
26
Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 1, p. 612b and c. I should note that, with respect
to at least one of these three tithes, the tithe of cattle, we find that M. upholds the
scriptural basis of the commandment and designates it as such.
27
For an explanation of the rabbinic exegesis that underpins this "tradition," see Epstein,
Baruch, Torah Temimah (New York: Hotsaat Otzer ha-Sefarim, 1962), Deuteronomy
14:22, n. 38. Abraham ibn Ezra, Deuteronomy 14:28, s.v. Yotsim, cites an opinion of the
"heretics," i.e., Karaites, to the effect that the passage commencing with Thou shalt
surely tithe deals with the first, not the second, tithe. With this comment Ibn Ezra allows
that the plain sense of the text need not bear the meaning ascribed to it by tradition,
namely, that the text deals with the second tithe.
308
surely must have harbored second thoughts about this exegesis because it
does not appear in the Halakhot. While reversals from previously held
opinions are not rare in M.'s works, I could find no instance in the Halakhot
in which M. fails to mention in conjunction with the adduced scriptural
proof-text a traditional reading that he had previously adopted.
28
Setting
aside the second tithe is the only exception. It is possible that by the time he
wrote the Halakhot M. had abandoned this opinion, perhaps because he
thought that it did not reflect a consensual tradition.
There is some evidence that M. equivocated with respect to the
exegetical basis for the first and second tithes. In the ShM discussion of the
first tithe (P127), one finds two versions of the demonstration, each with its
own proof-text. In the Arabic Mss (and in the Halakhot), we find that M.
adduces the verse for it is the tithes set aside by the Israelites as a gift to the
Lord [that I give to the Levites as their share] [Numbers 18:24] to indicate
"that this tithe belongs to the Levites." On the other hand, in Nahmanides'
version of the ShM, Ibn Ayub's translation and the SE we find M. adducing
instead the verse And all the tithe of the land, whether of the seed of the land
or of the fruit of the tree [shall be the Lord's] (Leviticus 27:30). MnTs
translation presents both proof-texts, appearing to be a simple conflation of
the two versions. It is reasonable to posit that the Numbers 18:24 proof-text
is part of the later version since it is the proof-text ultimately adduced in the
Halakhot. Contrary to M.' s assertion, the first proof-text (Leviticus 27:30)
was understood by the Sages to refer to the second, and not to the first, tithe
(see RaSHi's commentary on Pentateuch, ad loc., Nahmanides, Hasagot to
28
See above, section 7:4.
309
rule 12, 190), which may have led M. to revise the proof in the latter version.
At the same time, however, the Numbers proof-text does not, by itself, point
to the existence of an obligation nor can it easily be identified with the first
tithe (ma'aser rishon) of the tithing cycle.
29
M.'s exegetical equivocations
about the specifics of Scripture's tithing intentions may explain his failure to
designate the second tithe as a positive commandment.
To dwell in booths seven days (P168)
The presentation of this commandment in the Halakhot exhibits a
number of peculiar elements: (1) The chapter that deals with the duty to
dwell in a booth (sukkah), namely chapter 6 of Hilkhot Sukkah, begins by
listing those who are exempted from dwelling in the booth: "women, slaves
and minors are exempt from [the duty of dwelling in the] sukkah," instead of
those on whom the obligation is incumbent; (2) M. fails to state boldly and
unequivocally that dwelling in a sukkah is a positive commandment. Note
that the formulation employed here is an almost exact replica of the one
employed in Hilkhot Talmud Torah for the duty to study and teach Torah,
which, as we saw, was found to be a non-scriptural commandment. (3) The
proof-text comes only in halakhah 5 and then only to inform about the
manner in which the duty should be performed not to substantiate the
basic obligation to dwell in booths during those seven days:
29
Cf. Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed.Heller, ad loc. note 5, who already adverted the reader to the
textual confusion. See also D. Henshke, "Le-Toldot Parshanutan shel Parashiyyot
Maaser: Bein Megillat ha-Miqdash le-Hazal," in Tarbiz, 72 (2003), pp. 85-111, who
arrives at a similar conclusion (97-101).
310
How is the commandment to dwell in a booth (mitsvat
ha-yeshivah ba-sukkah) to be observed? One should
eat, drink, and reside in the booth day and night
throughout the whole of the seven days of the festival,
exactly as one resides in his house during the rest of
the year. During these seven days one should regard
his house as a temporary home and the booth as his
permanent home, in accordance with the verse, Ye
shall dwell [teshvu, lit., sit] in booths seven days
[Leviticus 23:42].
(4) The imperative form is notably absent in halakhah 6. In its stead,
the participle is heavily used: "Both by day and by night, one eats, drinks
and sleeps [okhlin ve-shotin ve-yeshenim, lit., they are eating, drinking and
sleeping] in the booth throughout the whole of the seven da ys . . " (5) In
halakhah 7, M. finally tells us that there is an obligation to eat in the sukkah
on the first night of the festival. He states:
It is obligatory [hovah] to eat in the booth on the first
night of the festival. Even if one eats as little as an
olive's bulk of bread, he has fulfilled his duty.
Thereafter the matter is optional: If one wishes to eat a
regular meal, he must eat it in the booth, but if he
prefers to eat only fruit or parched ears outside of the
booth during the remainder of the seven days he may
do so. This is thus analogous to the law concerning the
eating of unleavened bread during Passover.
Note that for obligation M. uses the rabbinic term hovah, not mitsvat
'aseh, as one would expect. Compare this formulation with the way M.
describes the Passover festival obligation to which he draws an analogy: "It
is a positive commandment from the Torah to eat unleavened bread on the
night of the fifteenth of Nisan, as it says, At even ye shall eat unleavened
311
bread [Exodus 12: 18]. . " The contrast could not be clearer nor more
instructive.
These literary considerations suggest that M. viewed the
commandment to dwell in a sukkah as simply a correct practice, a mitsvah
mi-divre sofrim. I will try to demonstrate below that this is indeed the case,
that sukkot has no basis in written law it appears to be purely a construct
of oral law. My demonstration rests on three separate but complementary
arguments: 1. the historical analogue; 2. the hovah or obligation to eat in the
sukkah the first night of the festival; 3. the laws of the sukkah.
1. The historical analogue.
Scripture says, Ye shall dwell in sukkot seven days.. .(43) that your
generation may know that I made the children of Israel to dwell in sukkot,
when I brought them out of the land of Egypt (Leviticus 23:42-43).
There is no mention in Scripture of the Israelites dwelling in sukkot
anytime throughout their journey in the wilderness. What then were these
sukkot in which the children of Israel dwelt when they were brought out of
Egypt? Tannaim are divided on this question. R. Eliezer
30
thinks that sukkot
were booths. He assumes that this must have been the type of dwelling used
by the sojourners to protect them from the inhospitable desert climate. R.
Akiva, perhaps the greatest tannaitic authority of all times, maintains that
sukkot represented the "clouds of the Glory" (anane ha-kavod) that
surrounded the Israelites on their march through the desert, providing them
with all sorts of protection, not the least of it shade against the searing sun.
If, as is the norm in halakhic matters, one follows R. Akiva's opinion,
30
Based on Sifra Emor, pereq 17:11 (p.103b). The printed editions of the Bavli, at
Sukkah 11a, reverse the attributions.
312
namely, that sukkot refers to a mystical construct, the scriptural injunction to
dwell in sukkot for seven days as the Israelites did in the wilderness is totally
devoid of practical meaning. As a result, we would still be left with the
question, what is it that the Israelites must do for seven days?
2. The hovah or obligation to eat in a sukkah for seven days.
The practice of eating in a sukkah an olive's bulk of bread on the night
of the fifteenth of Tishre is not a scriptural commandment but a mitsvah mi-
divre sofrim. The explanation is as follows. While eating unleavened bread
on the night of the fifteenth of Nisan is scripturally prescribed, the Torah is
silent with respect to dwelling (at a minimum, eating) in the sukkah on the
night of the fifteenth day of Tishre. The talmudic Sages (bSukkah 27a)
derived this obligation via a gezerah shavah, a hermeneutic method based on
linguistic analogies. The common term that connects the two festivals is
fifteenth. On this basis the Sages reasoned that just as one is obligated to eat
an olive's bulk of (unleavened) bread on the fifteenth day of Nisan, so must
one eat an olive's bulk of bread on the fifteenth of Tishre. Since the gezerah
shavah is one of the thirteen hermeneutic rules, the resultant obligation is
mi-divre sofrim, not scriptural. This explains M.'s use of the rabbinic term
hovah to convey obligation.
3. The laws of sukkah.
The details of who must dwell in a sukkah and who is exempted from
it, as well as all the details of the physical sukkah, its roof and walls, and
even its materials, are dictated by tradition. When M., in his introduction to
the PhM, wanted to provide a single and dramatic illustration of the
authoritative role of oral law in the interpretation of written law and the
inextricable relationship between the two, he turned to the commandment of
313
sukkah. This, I submit, is sufficient testimony to the fact that M. considered
the scriptural sukkah commandment a textual riddle. Here is what he said:
An example. God said to him [Moses] Ye shall dwell
in sukkot seven days. He, the exalted one, also
informed him that the sukkah obligation is incumbent
on males and not on females, and that the sick and the
traveler are exempted from this obligation. One must
roof the sukkah only with material that grows from the
land; one may not roof it with wool, silk or utensils
[kelim], even those that grow from the land, like mats
and clothes. Eating, drinking and sleeping must take
place in it all seven days. Its living space must not be
smaller than seven by seven tefahim, and it must not
be lower than ten tefahim.
The sukkah commandment is totally and thoroughly a construct of
oral law. At best, the scriptural sukkot is an asmakhta for what turns out to
be an immensely complex set of rules that define everything from the
sukkah s material construction to the persons who are obligated to dwell in it
to what dwelling (teshvu) might mean.
I conclude that M. had sufficient evidence to treat sukkah and
its halakhot as mitsvot mi-divre sofrim. M. hinted at this radical notion in a
number of ways, the most important of which are the odd literary structure
that he employed to present the commandment discussing the exemptions
rather than the obligation per se and the intensive use of the participle of
correct practice.
314
Chapter 9. Mitsvah
In chapter 8 we studied a group of claims that had been enumerated in
the SE and ShM and yet were not designated positive commandments in the
Halakhot. We noted that they lacked supporting proof-texts, and that they
were formulated, exceptionally, with the participle rather than with the
standard lamed-infinitive. This led us to characterize them as correct
practices. We concluded with regard to these claims that M. had reversed his
earlier stand and now considered them divre sofrim.
We now look at another group of claims that also do not follow the
characteristic declarative formula. They differ from the first group, however,
in that M. calls their performance a mitsvah. To complicate matters, M.
adduces in these special instances the proof-texts that had supported the
original claims. In this chapter we attempt to explain the meaning and use of
the term mitsvah in connection with this special group of commandments.
We begin by investigating how the term mitsvah is used throughout the
Halakhot outside of the small number of instances in which it is used in
connection with commandments proper.
9.1 The Term Mitsvah in the Halakhot
It is worth noting that in the introduction to the MT, M. calls mitsvah a
perush or explanation of the written law. He says:
All the precepts which Moses received on Sinai, were
given together with their interpretation, as it is said
And I will give unto thee the tables of stone, and the
law, and the commandment [Exodus 24:12]. The law
315
refers to the written law; and the commandment to its
interpretation.
M. refers to this explanation in Hilkhot Shehitah (1:4), when
discussing the laws of ritual slaughter. The numerous and complex details
that regulate ritual slaughter are not spelled out in Scripture. Instead,
Scripture states as then shalt thou kill of thy herd and thy flock as I have
commanded thee (Deuteronomy 12:21), which M. takes as an allusion to
Oral Law ("which means that Moses was commanded concerning all these
matters orally, as in the case of the rest of the Oral Law, which is referred as
commandment, as we have explained in the introduction to this work." This
is based on bHullin 28a.)
There can be little doubt that M. intends to make here a theological
statement rather than formulate a juristic definition. This is because the term
mitsvah, as used in the Halakhot, is also used in connection with purely
rabbinic ordinances that have nothing to do with explanations of the Torah.
The distinctive statement in the introduction to the MT leads us to
understand that the written law which of course includes the
commandments must be understood and parsed in light of the oral
tradition. Against this, we must investigate the particular use of the term
mitsvah in a clearly juristic context.
We find that the term mitsvah in the Halakhot appears to be highly
nuanced, its meaning converging on "recommended," "commendable."
Certainly it lacks the force of obligation. Recall that in section 2.1 we
discussed the terminological subtleties of the word mitsvah and observed
that, in talmudic literature, mitsvah could loosely stand for "preferred,"
"commendable," "praiseworthy" or simply "a good deed." These usages
316
were not systematized; for the most part, a reader would recognize the
specific meaning by its context. Nevertheless, as we noted on that occasion,
hovah and mitsvah were clearly differentiated. It is interesting to note that
Islamic legal theory after Shafi'T (d. 820), itself under the likely influence of
rabbinic law, recognized five values or categories with which all legal acts
must be designated. These were: the obligatory (wajib), the recommended
(mandub), the permissible (mubah), the prohibited (haram) and the
reprehensible or repugnant (makrub). They correspond to the rabbinic
designations hovah, mitsvah, reshut, asur and meguneh. M. appears to be
under the influence of this neat classification in some areas of halakhah, as
one gathers from his comments to mAvot 1:16. On that occasion, M. uses
four terms, namely, ha-metsuveh bo, u-muzhar 'alav, u-meruhaq, ve-ratsui,
u-reshut, with terms #3 and #4 clearly standing for softer forms of
prohibitions and obligations.
1
The term mitsvah in the Halakhot is often used in connection with
rabbinic advisories, as in Hilkhot Sefer Torah 10:10, discussing the
advisability of singling out a place to keep a scroll of law; or in Hilkhot
Milah 1:8, discussing the advisability of performing circumcision early in
the day in line with the rabbinic maxim that the zealous fulfill their religious
1
Note that these terms are translations from the Arabic and while they do not quite match
the rabbinic designations given earlier, they are practically synonymous. I have given
Kafih' s translation at m. Avot 1:16. Kafih changes slightly the rendition of these terms
when translating M.' s commentary to mSanhedrin 7:4. There M. uses only four legal
categories, this time with respect to sexual behavior. They are: asur, meguneh,
ratsui/ahuv,and mutar, the exact equivalents of the last four terms given in m Avot. For
rabbinic influence, see Romney-Wegner, Judith, "Islamic and Talmudic Jurisprudence:
The Four Roots of Islamic Law and their Talmudic Counterparts," The American Journal
of Legal History 26.1 (1982). On the halakhic categories, see DeVreis, Binyamin, "Ha-
Categoriyot ha-Halakhtiyot," Bar-Ilan Annual, Dedicated to the Memory of Professor
Shmuel Bialobilotsky (1964).
317
obligations at the earliest possible time; or again, in Hilkhot Ishut 3:19, the
advisability of betrothing a woman in person (instead of via an agent), also
in line with a rabbinic maxim that personal effort is to be commended. For
the most part, these mitsvot are rabbinic duties and, at any rate, they denote a
preference rather than an absolute obligation.
Closely related are usages of the term mitsvah in the sense of a worthy
deed, such as attending a rabbinic sermon, teaching a profession to a son
(Hilkhot Shabbat 24:5), or welcoming a teacher or friend who has just come
from a journey (Hilkhot Eruvin 6:6). See too Hilkhot Melakhim 2:5, where
M. stipulates that the High Priest need not come to the king nor does he need
to rise for him. Yet it is a mitsvah for the High Priest to show respect to the
king, to sit him down and to stand in front of him when the king comes to
him. Mitsvah here is understood as something desirable but clearly beyond
the call of duty. While we also find mitsvah used in connection with absolute
rabbinic obligations, as megillah and the lighting of hanukkah candles
(Hilkhot Berakhot 11:9), we should keep in mind that rabbinic ordinances
are, relative to scriptural laws, recommended courses of action (even if
scripturally authorized).
In Hilkhot Rotsheah 13:7, M. contrasts mitsvah min ha-torah with
simply mitsvah: "The scriptural commandment [mitsvah min ha-torah]
requires one to help another unload without payment, but loading is [merely]
a good deed [mitsvah], and one is entitled to be paid." The apposition of
unloading and loading, clearly signaled by the conjunction "but," makes it
clear that the obligation to load is of a lesser status presumably because
not scripturally explicit than the obligation to unload.
Mitsvah is found even with respect to details of positive
commandments, as in Hilkhot Yibbum 2:6, the obligation of the oldest
318
brother to perform levirate marriage based on an interpretation that does
some violence to the plain sense of the text, as we saw earlier (see 7.2, n.19).
Here I conjecture that it is designated a mitsvah and not mitsvat 'aseh
because it is a detail of the commandment or, alternatively, because it does
not seem to reflect the intention of the text. Either way, mitsvah is seen as
distinct from mitsvat 'aseh. On occasion, mitsvah refers to a positive
commandment, but only after the commandment has been identified as such,
as in Hilkhot De 'ot 6:2, Hilkhot Hamets u-Matsah 6:1 and 7:2, or where the
context makes its identity obvious, as in Hilkhot Berakhot 11:2. Finally, as
we have seen a number of times, mitsvah in the construct form, as in mitsvat
terumat ma 'aser (Hilkhot Terumot 3:12), simply stands for a correct or
proper form of performing a duty, presumably, at least in this case, in
accordance with the dictates of oral law.
I conclude that, terminologically, mitsvah stands in categoric
apposition to mitsvat 'aseh and that its use throughout the Halakhot is
deliberate if not always identical. It can mean "advisable," "commendable,"
"preferred," "praiseworthy," "correct" and "proper." It can also mean
"obligatory," as with ordinances of rabbinic authority, but, these too, in
relation to scriptural law are no more than commendable. Thus we find, "it is
commendable to listen to the words of the Sages" (mitsvah li-shmo 'a divre
hakhamim, bYevamot 20a.)
9.1.1 Mitsvah versus mitsvat 'aseh
The reader may wonder at this point whether the difference between a
recommended course of action and an obligation is merely a matter of
casuistry, that is, whether we are splitting hairs by differentiating M.'s use of
319
"mitsvat 'aseh" from his use of "mitsvah." I believe that the answer must
clearly be no.
Common sense says, and many legal opinions agree, that there is, in
fact, a difference between the two: failure to perform an obligation is a legal
offense, while failure to go along with good counsel or fulfill a moral
obligation constitutes, at most, a moral failure. In practical terms, legal
obligations can incur a penalty for lack of fulfillment while counsels cannot.
As we stated above, Islamic jurisprudence, with which M. appears to have
been well-acquainted, clearly distinguishes between obligations (wajib) and
recommendations (mandub).
More interestingly and more to the point, talmudic halakhah
recognizes an even more salient characteristic of mitsvot 'aseh, namely, the
principle that the courts can whip a person to force him to fulfill an
obligation. M. finds this principle important enough to mention it in the
ShM. He does so towards the end of Rule 14, after noting that he will
mention, along with the explanation of each commandment, the pertinent
punishment for violating it. With only a few exceptions, these punishments
are associated with violations of negative commandments,
but, as regards all positive commandments, if the time
of the performance is still applicable, we are to whip
with a strap he who refuses to do it until he dies or
performs [the commandment], or until such time as the
obligation (mitsvah) passes, for he who violates the
2
"But in the case of positive commandments, as for instance, if a man is told 'Make a
sukkah and he does not make it [or, 'Perform the commandment of] lulab, and he does
not perform it, he is whipped until his soul leaves him (aval be-mitsvat 'aseh ...makin oto
ad she-tetse nafsho)." (bKetubbot 86b and bHullin 132b). In the post-talmudic literature,
the principle is referred to as kofin al ha-mitsvah, literally, "they coerce one to perform a
mitsvah".
320
positive commandment of dwelling in a tabernacle is
not to be whipped for his sin after [the passing of the
festival of] Tabernacles. Know this principle.
While the principle has a number of qualifications for example, it
is not applicable where the Torah provides for an explicit reward
3
its
import is clear: the law means to enforce obligations. Nothing of this sort is
said with respect to counsels or recommendations.
9.2 Hypothesis
I now propose that M. uses the term mitsvah in place of the previously
designated (i.e. ShM) mitsvot'aseh where a scriptural statement is not
sufficiently explicit with respect to an action to be taken but appears instead
to hint to or imply a course of action. Similarly, M. uses the term mitsvah
where a scriptural statement lacks specificity. (Note that where no action is
called for, M. may also use the term mitsvah (e.g., GP III:33) but this time
with the meaning of "goal." M. specifically eliminated goals from the
TaRYaG count, as per Rule 4, as discussed in chapter 4).. M. works within
3
See bHullin 110b. See also Hilkhot Matnot Aniyim 7:10 and the extensive bibliography
cited by Sefer ha-Mafteah ad loc. Note that in this passage M. betrays the looseness with
which he characterized positive commandments in the ShM. The reason is simple: the
courts cannot force someone to perform any of the procedure-commandments, such as "to
decide in cases of annulment of vows according to the rules set forth by the Torah" (P95),
or more problematically, any of the descriptive positive commandments, such as "that
anyone who touches the carcass of a beast that died of itself shall be unclean" (P96). It is
clear that the Sages were only referring to the class of positive commandments that are
obligatory, such as the ones they gave as examples. Note too that M. changed the
example given in the Talmud, instead of the positive commandment to make a
sukkah, which he did not enumerate in the ShM and which would have raised some
eyebrows, M. offered the positive commandment of dwelling in a sukkah. The latter
commandment (P168) is one of the 60 unconditional obligations.
321
the confines of tradition to craft out of these statements a directive, but these
claims are entirely of his own making. As a result, these interpretations only
merit the label of commendable, mitsvah, rather than mitsvat'aseh,
obligation. In a related but more general way, M. uses the term mitsvah
rather than mitsvat'aseh where the peshateyh di-qra indicates one thing but
the Sages have understood it otherwise (though there is no evidence that
they wished to uproot the peshateyh di-qra). Based on contextual reading,
M. makes claims that compete with the traditional one. Here, too, reasons of
juristic conservatism, lead him to consider the competing claims counsels
rather than obligations.
9.3 Actions that Lack Specificity
To love God (P3)
The scriptural source of this commandment in all the compositions is
the verse And thou shalt love the Lord thy God (Deuteronomy 6:5).
Although the verse makes it clear that one is to love God, it is not
unreasonable to suppose that this is no more than a pious exhortation, one
with undefined terms and devoid of any specificity. As such, it can hardly
qualify as a commandment. While some have attempted to infuse the
exhortation with specificity, they nonetheless fail to deal with love in its
most basic meaning, that of a strong affection towards another. The verse
continues, with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might.
Taken in context, the verse might appear to be demanding one to sacrifice
one's life and possessions for God what the rabbis call qiddush ha-Shem
if, for example, one is asked to transgress one of the stringent
322
commandments, such as for example the prohibition to worship other gods.
In this track, love is being defined not as an emotion but as an absolute and
unconditional dedication and loyalty to the Deity.
4
It would appear that to M.
the verse intends for one to literally love God. Still, because the verse is not
specific, the exhortation must remain just that, an exhortation and not a
commandment. Nevertheless, even an exhortation must make sense for it to
be meaningful. Since love of God cannot be created spontaneously, a way
must be prescribed by which one can attain it. M. finds this pathway in a
cryptic rabbinic midrash, which precisely wonders, how does one love God?
The answer to this midrash, which M. adduces in the presentation of this
commandment in the ShM and in the Halakhot, and which M. magisterially
interprets, will take us far afield into M.'s metaphysics.
In the ShM, he says that
we are commanded to love God; that is to say, to dwell
upon and contemplate His commandments, His
decrees
5
and His works, so that we may obtain a
conception of Him, and in conceiving Him attain
absolute joy. This is the love that is commanded.
6
4
Perla speculates that Saadia must have understood it thus. See Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot
le-RaSaG, vol. 1, pp.32-33.
5
Maamarav, lit., "sayings." These words are found in Ibn Ayub' s and in the Arabic MS.
in Heller's possession. MnThas "His commandments and His works (mitsotav u-
pe'ulotav)."See Heller, ad loc., note 16. Chavel: "His injunctions," based on Kafih' s
tsivuyav.
6
So MnT, and so too, Bloch' s Arabic MS. On the other hand, Kafih has "This is the
ultimate [Ar. ghaya; Heb. tahlit] love that is commanded." Chavel incorrectly translates
"This is the goal of the love that is commanded," taking tahlit to mean "goal" instead of
"ultimate" and seriously distorting the meaning. I am indebted to Haggai ben Shammai
for his kind help in showing me the various nuances of the Arabic term ghaya.
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That absolute joy leads to love is explained a little further on:
". t hr ough this act of contemplation you will attain a conception of God and
reach that stage of joy in which love of Him will follow of necessity (my
emphasis)." In contrast to other exegetes who draw upon the same
midrashic source for this "method," M. offers a purely naturalistic
explanation: knowledge of the divine leads to supreme joy which in turn
leads to love of the divine. I will later return to discuss the specific kind of
knowledge to which M. is referring.
As we alluded to earlier, M. draws support for this unusual
interpretation from Sifre Deuteronomy (Va-ethanan pisqa 33, p. 59) that
says:
Since it is said, And thou shalt love the Lord thy God,
the question arises, how does one love the
Omnipresent?
9
Scripture therefore says: And these
words that I command thee this day, shall be upon thy
heart [Deuteronomy 6:6]; for through this [the
contemplation of God's words] you will learn to
discern He who spoke
10
and the Universe came into
existence.
7
The result, though not the linkage, is modified somewhat in the Halakhot, as we discuss
later in the text.
See, for example, RaSHi' s terse commentary on And these words that I command thee
(Deuteronomy 6:6): "Through this, you recognize the Holy One and attach to His ways."
That is, by listening to His commandments, you recognize His sovereignty and can
follow Him faithfully. See note 11, below.
9
Ketzad ohev et ha-maqom? Chavel: "how is one to manifest his love for the Lord?" may
be misleading.
10
Amar, "said." See mAvot 5:1, "By ten Sayings was the world created." There are ten
instances of "and God said": Genesis 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20, 24, 26, 29 and 2:18.
324
On the surface, the midrash appears to be saying that by meditating
upon "these words that I command thee this day," i.e., the commandments,
one will come to apprehend the Creator. By making reference to "He who
spoke and the Universe came into existence," however, the midrash also
hints at the kind of words upon which one must contemplate, namely, the
mechanics of creation, or natural science.
11
This is then the midrashic
support for M.'s statement that one must "dwell upon and contemplate His
commandments, His decrees and His works."
This understanding of the midrash takes a dramatic turn in the
Halakhot, where M. ignores the possibility that And these words that I
command thee this day, shall be upon thy heart may be referring to
12
commandments, as first suggested in the ShM. In Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah
2:2, he says:
And what is the way that will lead to the love of Him
and the fear of Him? When a person contemplates His
great and wondrous works [ma'asav] and creatures
[beruav] and from them obtains a glimpse of His
wisdom which is incomparable and infinite, he will
straightaway love Him, praise Him, glorify Him, and
long with an exceeding longing to know His great
n a me . . In harmony with these sentiments, I shall
explain some large, general aspects of the Works of
the Sovereign of the Universe,
13
that they may serve
11
It is worth noting that RaSHi' s ad loc. paraphrase, "you will recognize the Holy One
Blessed be He (ha-qadosh barukh hu)" entirely misses this potential allusion.
12
Note that the Sefer ha-Hinukh, siman 411, which elaborates on the ShM, goes so far as
to say that the words "with this act of contemplation" really stand for "upon reflecting on
the Torah." (!)
13
The first four chapters of Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah offer a brief survey of the science
and metaphysics of the day, the "Works of the Sovereign of the Universe."
325
the intelligent individual as a door to the love of God,
even as our Sages have remarked in connection with
the theme of love of God 'For through this [she-mitokh
kakh] you will realize He who spoke and the Universe
came into existence.'
The last quote leaves no doubt that M. was leaning on the earlier
adduced Sifre.
14
It is worth noting that M. cites what appears to be another
rabbinic proof-text in his Responsa, where it is said in the name of Rabbi
Meir, "Look at His works, because through this you will learn to discern He
who spoke and the Universe came into existence." Blau (note 2) points out
that the source of this dictum, in particular the words "look at His works,"
has not been located. The responsum seems to have been signed off in the
year 1177, at least 10 years after M. completed the ShM (Shailat, Iggerot,
p.189, p.218) and close to the time he was finishing the Halakhot. The
significance of this is that M. may have found a version of the Sifre that
indeed made clear the object of the contemplation. However, there is always
a possibility that M. was merely paraphrasing the midrash in the way he had
come to interpret it.
While it is not absolutely certain that the midrash did not intend the
contemplation of the science of creation (ma 'aseh be-reshit), it is reasonably
certain that it did intend the faithful to gaze upon these words, the words of
the Torah, i.e. the commandments, perhaps because the commandments
themselves evidence wisdom. There is little doubt that M. radically
transforms the midrash by emptying it of this last meaning. In the new
14
Responsa, Blau, #150,
326
understanding, natural sciences and not the legal sciences are the source of
one's wonderment and the path to the love of God.
15
We now turn to the Halakhot and focus our attention on a line of the
halakhah that we cited earlier:
When a person contemplates His great and wondrous
works [ma 'asav] and creations [beruav] and from them
obtains a glimpse of His wisdom which is
incomparable and infinite, he will straightaway love
Him, praise Him, glorify Him, and long with an
exceeding longing to know His great name (my
emphasis).
Though this may be argued, I detect a slight shift of emphasis:
contemplation does not quite enable the faithful to conceive Him, nor is joy
the result of this contemplation, which in turn, leads to love, as M. had at
first suggested. The contemplator still longs to know His name, that is, he
15
Cases, Hananiah, "Qinat Sofrim," Sefer ha-Mitsvot, ed. S. Frankel (Jerusalem: 1995),
ad loc., quoting another authority, attempted to read the ShM's definition sequentially. He
suggested that the faithful are brought to contemplate nature and God' s wondrous acts by
the performance of the commandments. The reading is stretched and of course this
sequence is totally lacking in the Halakhot, which mentions only works and creatures.
More recently, in an attempt to reconcile the ShM and the Halakhot, Feintuch, A., Sefer
ha-Mitsvot im Perush Pequde Yesharim (Jerusalem: Hotsaat Maaliyot, 2000), pp. 126-8
has argued that in the Halakhot the two types of contemplations are treated in two
separate sections: in Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 2:2, M. deals with the contemplation of
His works. In Hilkhot Talmud Torah, M. deals with the study of Torah, which includes
pardes (natural and divine sciences, covered in the first four chapters of Hilkhot Yesode
ha-Torah, as per id. 4:13) as he states in Hilkhot Talmud Torah 1:12. Moreover, in
Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 4:3, M. makes it clear that pardes must be preceded by the
study of the commandments. Thus, argues Feintuch, the two aspects covered by the ShM
are also covered by the Halakhot. In a second attempt to reconcile the ShM and the
Halakhot, Feintuch argues that by "His commandments" the ShM refers only to the first
two commandments, His existence and His oneness, part of Divine science, while by
"His works" the ShM means natural science. Thus, in his opinion, the ShM covers
essentially the same ground as the Halakhot. I believe that these attempts do not capture
the true philosophical spirit of M.' s appropriation of the midrash.
327
may still not be able to conceive of Him. Love here is defined as a powerful
desire to know His essence, a thirst for more knowledge, not a consequence
of apprehending Him. The natural sciences can at best make one aware of
His actions and thus His attributes since His essence cannot be grasped.
Therefore there is no place for joy that leads to love. Instead, there can be a
longing to know more about Him, even as we realize, as we must, that He
cannot be apprehended.
16
It seems reasonable to conclude that the contemplation of "his great
and wondrous works and creations" refers to the study of the natural
sciences. This is confirmed in the final halakhah of Hilkhot Teshuvah:
It is known and certain that the love of God does not
become closely knit in a man's heart till he is
continuously and thoroughly possessed by it and gives
up everything else in the world for it; as God
commanded us with all thy heart and with all thy soul
17
[Deuteronomy 6:5]. One only loves God with the
knowledge with which one knows Him....A person
ought therefore to devote himself to the understanding
and comprehension of those sciences (hokhmot) and
16
Even Moses was unable to know His essence:
Know that ...Moses...made two requests and received an
answer to both of them. One request consisted in his asking
Him, may He be exalted, to let him know His essence and true
reality. The second request, which he put first, was that He
should let him know His attributes. The answer to the two
requests that He, may He be exalted, gave him consisted in His
promising him to let him know all His attributes, making it
known to him that they are His actions, and teaching him that
His essence cannot be grasped as it really is. (GP:I:54)
17
Note the interpretation of these words. It is not sacrifice of one' s life and possessions
that is being demanded, as Saadia may have understood, but a total immersion in and
exclusive attention to God, so that one becomes possessed by love. See footnote 4 above.
328
18
wisdom (tevunot) which will inform him concerning
his Master, as far as it lies in human faculties to
understand and comprehend.
In the famous parable of the palace, M. gradates these "sciences and
wisdom" even more finely. M. says that those who are engaged
in studying the mathematical sciences and the art of
logic, you are one of those who walk around the house
searching for its ga t e . . If, however, you have
understood the natural sciences, you have entered the
habitation and are walking in the ante-chambers. If,
however, you have achieved perfection in the natural
things and have understood divine science, you have
entered in the ruler's palace into the inner court and
are with him in one habitation.
19
As M. understands it, And thou shalt love the Lord thy God is simply a
call to engage in the study of the natural sciences. This is confirmed in GP
III: 28:512:
[Y]ou should know that in regard to the correct
opinions through which the ultimate perfection may be
obtained, the Law has communicated only their end
and made a call to believe in them in a summary way
that is to believe in the existence of the deity, may
He be exalted, His unity, His knowledge, His Power,
His will and His eternity. All these points are ultimate
ends, which can be made clear in detail and through
definitions only after one knows many
opinions..With regard to all the other correct
18
Note here again that M. makes no mention of Torah or commandments that appear to
be part of the earlier cited Sifre.
19
GP III:51:619.
329
opinions concerning the whole of being opinions
that constitute the numerous kinds of all the theoretical
20
sciences through which the opinions forming the
ultimate end are validated [i.e., His existence, unity,
etc.] the Law, albeit it does not make a call to direct
attention towards them explicitly
21
as it does with
regard to [the opinions forming ultimate ends], does do
this in a general way
22
by saying: To love the Lord
[Deuteronomy 22:7]. You know how this is confirmed
in the dictum regarding love: With all thy heart, and
with all thy soul, and with all thy might [Deuteronomy
6:5]. We have already explained in the Mishneh Torah
that this love becomes valid only through the
apprehension of the whole of being as it is and through
the consideration of His wisdom as it is manifested in
it.
The sense of what M. says is that the scriptural statement is a
general call to study those instrumental opinions, i.e., the sciences, which
will lead one to the love of God. This point is not stated explicitly, but it is
implied. Joseph ibn Kaspi aptly sums up the argument, "For the
commandment to love, when He says And thou shalt love the Lord thy God,
20
This suggests that M. now thinks that all the theoretical sciences, not just the natural
sciences, are included in the call to love God.
21
be-ferush, be-mefurash, so Tibbon, Kafih and M. Schwartz. M. Friedlander has
"distinctly," while Munk reads "clairement." I believe that the sense of the paragraph
rests more comfortably with these translators, rather than "in details" as translated by
Pines. Hence I have amended the above translation to reflect this.
22
So Tibbon, Kafih, M. Schwartz, or "it has summarized them" (Munk), rather than "in a
summary fashion" (Pines). Friedlander intriguingly has "it is implied in the
commandment, To love the Lord [Deuteronomy 22:7]." See note 21, above.
330
it is as if He said that you should study the natural sciences" (my
emphasis.)
23
In sum, "the correct opinions through which the ultimate perfection
may be obtained," such as the belief in the existence of the deity and His
unity, are to be classified as commandments. Hence they are part of the Law.
With respect to the other class of opinions, namely "all the other correct
opinions concerning the whole of being," the law merely "arouses" the
24
faithful to know all of being; it does not command him. Miriam Galston
expressed it in the following manner:
The law conveys correct opinions of the first class in a
summary way, but is explicit in summoning people to
believe them. The opinions of the third class ["all the
other correct opinions concerning the whole of
being"], on the other hand, are not conveyed by the
law at all, and it only summons people to believe in
25
them implicitly or summarily.
We are now in a position to understand M.'s puzzling
presentation of this commandment in the Halakhot: "This God, honoured
and revered, it is a mitsvah to love Him and to fear Him, as it says And thou
shalt love the Lord thy God [Deuteronomy 6:5] and it says Thou shalt fear
the Lord, thy God [Deut 10:20]." M. cites the proper proof-text but fails to
23
Joseph ibn Kaspi, "Maskiyot Kesef," Sheloshah Qadmone Mefarshe ha-Moreh
(Vienna: 1853), part II, page 133.
24
On the importance of "arousing," "arouse" (Ar. Tanbih) among the Islamic
philosophers who interpreted the Quran, see Kraemer, Joel, "Naturalism and
Universalism in Maimonides' Political and Religious Thought," Meah She'arim: Studies
in Medieval Jewish Spiritual Life in Memory of Isodore Twersky, ed. G. Blidstein et al.
(Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2001), p. 66.
25
Galston, "The Purpose of Law," p. 42.
331
designate the command a positive commandment, a failure that incredibly
went unnoticed by all the many commentators of the MT who, for centuries,
almost literally pored over the Master's text with a magnifying glass and
subjected it to the most rigorous of strictures.
26
In keeping with our earlier
discussion, we can now posit that M. does not designate the obligation to
love God a positive commandment because there is no scriptural text that
enjoins a specific action. The call to love God is merely a profitable
suggestion or advice to study the natural sciences. Through the natural
sciences one will acquire an intense love for Him, which shall be expressed
by an unquenching thirst to know Him. This step, in turn, will lead the lover
to the divine sciences, i.e. metaphysics, through which he or she one will
come to a very partial, if ever imperfect, glimpse of God. As M. phrases it in
the parable of the palace, the lover will have then entered the "inner court"
and be able to share with Him "one habitation".
In sum, M.' s usage of the term mitsvah here can be seen to be quite
deliberate: to love God is a commendable pursuit, not a legal obligation.
*
26
With the exception, as far as I was able to tell, of Shapira, Tsvi Elimelekh, Sifre me-
HaRTSa mi-Dinov, vol. 2 (Devarim Nehmadim) (Jerusalem: 1987), p. 52. Unfortunately,
Shapira's failure to systematically investigate M. ' s use of the term mitsvat 'aseh led him
to the wrong conclusion. He starts by asking why M. calls the love of God (and the fear
of Him) a mitsvah, and not a mitsvat 'aseh, as he does with the commandments of His
existence (Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah, 1:6) and His unity (ibid, 1:7). His answer attempts
to justify the use of the term mitsvat 'aseh with respect to these last two commandments,
rather than the use of the term mitsvah for the former. His explanation, namely that M.
was prompted to write mitsvat 'aseh with respect to the commandments of His existence
and unity because Scripture does not formulate them in the imperative (unlike And thou
shalt love the Lord thy God) misses the scores of commandments that M. designates as
mitsvat 'aseh even though they are formulated in the imperative.
332
It is worth noting that the Halakhot omit entirely an aspect of this
commandment that is given considerable space and thought in the ShM.
After explaining that intellectual contemplation brings joy which, in turn,
brings love of God, the ShM continues,
The Sages say that this commandment also includes an
obligation to call upon all mankind to serve Him, and
to have faith in Him. For just as you praise and extol
anybody whom you love, and call upon others also to
love him, so, if you love the Lord to the extent of the
conception of His true nature to which you have
attained, you will undoubtedly call upon the foolish
and ignorant to seek knowledge of the Truth which
you have already acquired.
M. bases this understanding on Sifre,Va-ethanan pisqa 32 (p. 54):
"And thou shalt love the Lord thy God, this means that you should make
Him beloved of man as Abraham your father did, as it is said, And the souls
they had gotten in Haran [Gen 12:5]."
M. does not deal here with love and how one goes about attaining this
feeling of affection but rather with the outcome of this love. To "call upon
mankind to serve Him and to have faith in Him" is the natural result of
loving Him, in much the same way as one would "extol and praise" anybody
27
whom one loves.
27
27
Kreisel, Maimonides' Political Thought:, p. 229-230, unfelicitously I believe, calls
this second love an "external dimension" or "external activity," in contrast to the internal,
intellectual dimension of love described earlier. This is as if to say that the external
dimension is a substitute for the internal one, when in reality it is only an outcome of the
internal one, as explained.
333
M. appears to be of two minds with respect to what is sought. On the
one hand, he says that the commandment is to call upon mankind "to serve
Him and to have faith in Him." On the other, he says that one must call upon
the ignorant "to seek knowledge of the truth that you have already acquired."
It seems to me that it is only the latter sense that agrees with the above Sifre
exposition, namely that "you should make Him beloved of man," given that
love of God, as we have seen, can only be attained through seeking
knowledge of the truth, if we understand that to mean the study of the
natural and theoretical sciences. Simply to have man "serve Him and to have
faith in Him" does not bring him to love God. I believe that this ambiguity
prepares us for the all-too-noticeable absence of this notion in the Halakhot.
It is evident that M. struggles with the meaning of the midrash and permits
himself a certain ambivalence. This may be attributed to the less precise and
more popular nature of the ShM. By the time he wrote the more cautious
Halakhot, however, M. had decided otherwise. Well aware of the practical
difficulties that would be faced in arousing the foolish and the ignorant to
study the sciences and attain contemplative bliss, M. omitted the "call upon
all mankind."
At the same time, if, as we argued, the call upon all mankind is only a
natural outcome of love and not a command, there is little need to stipulate
such an act in a code of law. On the other hand, the mention of this call is
perfectly in keeping with the spirit of the ShM, a rhetorical composition in
every sense of the word, one that uses every opportunity to offer noble
didactic messages and bold political views.
28
28
Howard Kreisel, Maimonides' Political Thought, p. 230, has argued that the absence of
this public aspect from the Halakhot stems from "pedagogical concerns. There he
334
To fear Him (P4)
Here, too, the verse Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God (Deuteronomy
6:13) appears to be a non-specific injunction, simply an exhortation to
perform all His commandments. As M. stated in Rule 4, the words Ye shall
be holy (Leviticus 19:2) and other similar expressions cannot constitute a
separate commandment "since there is nothing specific in them outside of
what we know already." Compare, for example, Ibn Ezra's comment on this
same verse:
And I found one verse that embodies all the
commandments, namely, Thou shalt fear the Lord thy
God, and Him thou shalt serve [Deuteronomy 6:13].
Now, Thou shalt fear includes all negative
commandments, carried out with the heart, lips and
deeds. It is the first step that one takes in the ascent to
the service of the Glorious God.
29
Notwithstanding this, M. finds a rabbinic indication that provides
specific content to the verse. With this indication at hand, M. fleshes out a
commandment claim that is ostensibly grounded on this verse. Interestingly,
in view of his reticence with these types of texts, M. draws the indication
attempts to underscore the notion that love itself follows from intellectual apprehension.
No additional idea that may blur this point is included in his formulation of the
commandment." I cannot disagree strongly with this last point but I do disagree with his
point that M. omitted it in the Halakhot because of pedagogical concerns. A code of law
is always at the risk of blurring the main point and yet it scarcely shies away from
providing even the most minute details.
29
Abraham ibn Ezra, Yesod Mora , Shaar ha-Shevii, p. 144.
335
from a talmudic passage that he designates as "dialectic" (Kafih: al derekh
massa u-matan; MnT: al derekh ha-vikuah). The proof that is offered in the
ShM is more important for what it does not establish than for what it does, as
we now discuss.
Proceeding in dialectic fashion, bSanhedrin 56a hypothesizes that the
verse he that blasphemeth the name of the Lord, he shall surely be put to
death (Leviticus 24:16) does not refer to a blasphemer but simply a person
who pronounces the name of the Lord since noqev may also mean
pronounce and that for such a crime he is to be put to death. Because of
the well-known Talmudic maxim that one does not punish unless one first
admonishes, the Sages seek to find an explicit admonition for this crime.
The talmudic redactor of the sugyah first suggests and then rejects a number
of potential scriptural proof-texts; finally, the redactor suggests the verse
Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God, but that too, as we soon see, is rejected.
The argument goes that he who pronounces the name of the Lord has
abandoned the fear of the Lord, for which he must then be put to death. The
redactor's argument for rejecting this possibility gives M. the proof for
which he is looking. The argument goes as follows:
The admonition that you cite is in the form of a
positive admonition (azharat 'aseh) and it is a
principle that positive admonitions are not valid
admonitions. That is to say, your suggestion that a
prohibition against the mere pronouncing of the name
of God can be derived from the verse Thou shalt fear
the Lord thy God, is inadmissible because the verse is
a positive commandment, and a prohibition cannot be
based upon a positive commandment.
Note that the Talmud does not say that Thou shalt fear the Lord thy
God is a positive commandment; all it says is that the verse is an azharat
336
'aseh, i.e., an admonition derived from a positive statement. Since rabbinic
convention is that admonitions follow the form "do not so and so" or "you
shall not," this positively phrased statement cannot be used as an
admonition. M. takes this simple understanding further and treats the
talmudic statement as saying that Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God is an
admonition derived from a positive commandment, but this is clearly an
unwarranted conclusion.
We find a similar leap with the expression lav ha-ba mikhlal 'aseh,
'aseh which M. uses in the ShM to substantiate a number of commandment
claims but which may simply be stating that a prohibition that is derived
from a positive statement is a positive commandment. That is, the
prohibition is to be treated as a positive commandment a transgressor is
not subject to lashes. There is no need to say that the positive statement itself
is a positive commandment, because if it truly were a positive
commandment, no negative inference could be drawn.
30
30
Note that to draw a prohibition from a positive statement one needs to read the positive
statement as saying "you do so and so" and then infer something else that one must not
do. But see Cases, "Qinat Sofrim," comments to P38, p. 231, who argues implausibly
that inferred prohibitions are details of existing obligatory affirmations and not inferences
from permissible commands (dibbur reshuti). So too Bacher, Yitshaq, Divre Emet
(Halberstat: 1861), sixth quntrus, who concludes with respect to P60 that waiting until the
eighth day before sacrificing an animal is an obligatory affirmation, while sacrificing the
animal before the eighth day would violate a prohibition derived from an affirmation. He
suggests further that M. considered only the former aspect. Perla found Bacher' s
reasoning faulty: if the scriptural statement is to be understood as obligating one to bring
his offering from the eighth day on, then not waiting the eight days before one brings an
offering must simply be permitted, that is, one could bring an offering if he so wished. In
effect, one cannot move from the obligatory to the prohibited without first passing the
permissible category. If M. indeed considered only the obligatory affirmation aspect,
asked Perla, how did he also infer from it a prohibition? And conversely, if M.
acknowledged the inferred prohibition, how did he arrive at the obligatory precept? Perla,
Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 1, p. 700. As pointed out on a number of occasions, M.
abandoned this hermeneutic in the Halakhot for the purpose of substantiating positive
337
Equally problematic is the relationship between the actual connotation
of the admonition that M. adduces and the meaning that he wishes to extract
from it. The reasonable conclusion is that the positively worded verse
admonishes one not to mention His name in vain because doing so would be
showing a lack of reverence for God, not because one must fear God's
punishment. For why, we may ask, should one fear God when one
pronounces His name in vain? It is true that one should fear retribution from
God when committing a sin, but, specifically, what wrong has one
committed to expect retribution when pronouncing His name in vain? In
proposing this verse, the talmudic redactor must have assumed that the word
yirah, normally understood as fear, here stands for reverence.
31
It is then out
of reverence that one ought not to pronounce His exalted name in vain. Yet
M. in the ShM derives an altogether different commandment claim from the
verse Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God, one that enjoins fear, not reverence.
He states, "We are commanded to believe
32
in the fear and awe of God, and
not to be at ease and self-confident but to anticipate His punishment at all
times."
commandments. See footnote 10 in section 2:1:1 above. Azharat 'aseh is an extremely
rare expression in talmudic literature. A search through the Bar Ilan database reveals that
this expression appears only twice through the Talmud, bSanhedrin 56a and bTemurah
4a. In both instances the expression is used for the same purpose, that of refuting the
validity of the verse Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God to serve as an admonition since it is
an azharat 'aseh.
31
And it is, in fact, how at least one modern translation renders this verse. See, for
example, JPS: Revere only the Lord your God. . It is interesting that reverence is much
closer than fear (of punishment) to the rabbinic expression yirat ha-romemut, literally
"fear of His exalted presence" or "fear of His Majesty." Many commentators believe
yirat ha-romemut is the concept that lies behind the Halakhot's description of fear of
God, as we shall see.
32
Ar., Itikad. Kafih translates "to establish in our mind." See section 5.3.1, note 95.
338
Though the sentence is awkward (how does one believe in fear?) the
sense is clear enough: one must believe in the inevitability of divine
punishment as retribution for transgressing His commandments; the fear of
Him follows from this belief.
In sum, I submit that M. in the ShM was neither able to prove that
Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God is a positive commandment nor did he
postulate a claim that is entirely consistent with the adduced warrant.
M. appears to have used the occasion to offer a politically expeditious
theological view, directed to the masses and consonant with the popular
character of the ShM. M.'s true views regarding divine anger and
punishment are spelled out in GP III:28: 512:
. t h e Law also makes a call to adopt certain beliefs,
belief in which is necessary for the sake of political
welfare. Such, for instance, is our belief that He, may
He be exalted, is violently angry with those who
disobey Him and that it is therefore necessary to fear
Him and to dread Him and to take care not to disobey.
On this account, the fear of divine punishment that is expressed in the
ShM can only be characterized as a necessary belief. An example of its
manifest utility is offered in Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:1:
Let not a man say, 'I.. .will abstain from transgressions
against which the Torah warns, so that I may be saved
from the curses written in the Torah, or that I may not
be cut off from life in the world to come.' It is not
right to serve God after this fashion for whoever does
so, serves Him out of fear. This is not the standard set
by the prophets and Sages. Only those who are
illiterate, women or children whom one trains to serve
out of fear serve God in this way, till their knowledge
shall have increased when they will serve out of love.
339
M.'s pedagogic approach notwithstanding, he makes it quite clear that
"this is not the standard set by the prophets and Sages." We have now
discovered one other reason why M. could not uphold the initial claim he
had made in the ShM with respect to Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God. The
Torah may have encouraged the belief in divine punishment but, at least
according to M., it is unlikely that such a 'necessary' belief, as opposed to a
true opinion, would have been enshrined as a commandment.
As we move on to Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah, we note a significant
change. No longer does Thou shalt fear the Lord, thy God express a belief in
the expectation and inevitability of divine punishment. M. says in halakhah
2,
And what is the way that will lead to the love of Him
and the fear of Him? When a person contemplates His
great and wondrous works and creatures and from
them obtains a glimpse of His wisdom which is
incomparable and infinite, he will straightaway love
Him, praise Him, glorify Him, and long with an
exceeding longing to know His great Name. . And
when he ponders these matters, he will recoil
affrighted, and realize that he is a small creature, lowly
and obscure, endowed with slight and slender
intelligence, standing in the presence of Him who is
perfect in knowledge (Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 2:1-2;
my emphasis).
In place of fear of divine punishment, we find a feeling of
worthlessness and insignificance in front of the awesomeness of God. Some
commentators
33
have noticed this change and suggested that the
33
This is a relatively popular view. See, among others, Qarqovsky, M., 'Avodat ha-
Melekh (Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav Kook, 2002), on Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah 2:2;
Babad, Minhat Hinnukh , mitsvah 432; Cases, "Qinat Sofrim," on P4. Insisting that M.
340
commandment is now being redefined as yirat ha-romemut, fear of His
exalted presence or fear of His majesty, as distinguished from yirat ha-
onesh, the fear of punishment.
I believe, however, that these commentators, too, miss the point,
unaware of the technique that M. is alluding to, as we now explain. Fear of
God in the Halakhot is a self-imposed act of restraint on moving headlong to
discover God's essence; it is a form of cognitive humility. I follow here
Kreisel, who delicately notes that
. t h e fear that M. describes in [Hilkhot Yesode ha-
Torah] designates a type of humbleness of spirit that
belongs to the intellect....Despite the fact that M.
treats love and fear of God as two sides of the same
coin, it is important to note the essential distinction
between these commands. The former focuses directly
on God. The latter command too focuses on God, but
involves self-focus. Love always seeks union. The
ultimate desire of the lover is to unite with the beloved,
to become one. Love of God, if left unchecked, leads
to the pursuit of unio mystica, which is an
impossibility for M. Fear serves to preserve the gap
between the individual and the object of fear.
34
did not change from the ShM and held that fear of God was nothing other than fear of
punishment, see Kafih, Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah, chapter 2, note 2, and Hilkhot
Teshuvah, chapter 10, note 5, in his edition of MT. Nagar, Eliyahu, "Fear of God in
Maimonides' Teaching [Hebrew]," Da' at 39 (1997), sees in the ShM two definitions of
fear, the popular one, which is simply fear of punishment, and the philosophic one, which
has the enlightened individual fearing the loss of divine providence and his consequent
exposure to the vagaries of chance as a result of the "estrangement" of sin. I fail to see,
however, how one can read this into the ShM. Nagar cannot find yirat h-romemut in the
ShM (which I believe is correct) but then derives from this that M. never meant to
describe this type of fear/reverence even in the MT. This is, of course, methodologically
flawed; the MT reversed and changed from the ShM on scores of occasions.
34
Kreisel, Maimonides' Political Thought: , 265-6. Kreisel acknowledges Dr. Alan
Flashman for this "perceptive interpretation."
341
M.'s words, "endowed with slight and slender intelligence, standing in
the presence of Him who is perfect in knowledge," leave little room to doubt
that he is referring to an intellectual humility, rather than an existential one.
In GP I:5:29, M. ascribes to "the chief of the philosophers", Aristotle,
35
the idea that man should not hasten to reach conclusions in "great and
sublime" matters without first, among other things, undergoing great training
in the sciences. After he has achieved the requisite knowledge, he should be
sure not to make
categoric affirmations in favor of the first opinion that
occurs to him and should not, from the outset, strain
and impel his thoughts towards the apprehension of the
deity; he rather should feel awe and refrain and hold
back until he gradually elevates himself. It is in this
sense that it is said, And Moses hid his face, for he was
afraid to look upon God [Exodus 3:6]...Moses was
commended for this; and God, may He be exalted, let
overflow upon him so much of His goodness that it
became necessary to say of him: And the figure of the
Lord shall he look upon [Numbers 12:8]. The Sages,
may their memory be blessed, have stated that this is a
reward for his having at first hidden his face so as not
to look upon God.
It is precisely to this type of humility that M. is alluding when he says,
And when he ponders these matters, he will recoil
affrighted, and realize that he is a small creature, lowly
and obscure, endowed with slight and slender
intelligence, standing in the presence of Him who is
perfect in knowledge.
35
Pines identifies the Aristotelian observation with a passage from De Caelo
ii.12.291b24. ff.. See GP I:5:29 n.1.
342
Fear of God has been transformed in the Halakhot from a
commandment to be mindful at all times of the inevitability of divine
retribution for transgressions into a counsel on how to advance in the
acquisition of metaphysical knowledge. Fear must accompany the love of
God, the great longing to know His name, lest one come to erroneous
conclusions.
To summarize, then, Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God is one of those
verses that is non-specific and that M., in his Rules, carefully and
methodically disqualifies as articulating a positive commandment. Since in
the Halakhot M. abandons the idea of designating Thou shalt fear the Lord
thy God a mitsvat 'aseh, we can reasonably presume that M. was not able to
sustain the attempt that he made in the ShM to find specificity. Instead, M.
treats the verse very much as an exhortation, allowing it to express
philosophic desiderata that go beyond the strict confines of the law. This is
indicated by his use of the term mitsvah: "This God, honoured and revered,
it is a mitsvah to love Him and to fear Him, as it says And thou shalt love the
Lord thy God [Deuteronomy 6:5] and it says Thou shalt fear the Lord, thy
God [Deuteronomy 10:20]."
36
As with the love of God, fear of God is
designated as simply a mitsvah, a commendable act. The mitsvah, to repeat,
36
The anonymous commentary (perush) interprets M. ' s remarks in light of the pedagogic
remarks M. makes in Hilkhot Teshuvah 10:1, cited above, arguing that " . l o v e can only
come after fear." Yet, by putting love ahead of fear in his formulation, M. clearly rejects
this type of interpretation. The curious but meaningful syntax has already been noted by a
number of aharonim. See Sefer ha-Mafteah on Yesode ha-Torah 2:2. Quite correctly,
Kreisel notes, "It is clear from M. ' s approach in the Mishneh Torah that he posits
different types of fear.. .For the most part he treats fear as antithetical to love. At best it
serves as a means to attain love." Kreisel, Maimonides' Political Thought: , p. 259.
343
is to restrain our intense desire to rush to conclusions in metaphysical studies
by allowing ourselves to be overcome by a feeling of cosmic worthlessness.
To imitate His good and upright ways (P8)
M. draws scriptural support for this claim from the words And thou
shalt walk in His ways (Deuteronomy 28:9). Yet this directive, like many
similar ones, appears to lack specific content, for exactly what does one do
to walk in His ways but obey His commandments? This question was asked
of Abraham Maimonides by a reader who was familiar with the Rules of the
ShM. He called And thou shalt walk in His ways "a commandment that
included the entire Torah," and referred to the strictures of Rule 4. In his
reply, Maimuni insisted that tradition, manifested in the rabbinic warrant
cited in the ShM, infused the verse with specific content.
37
This, as we shall
see, is not at all clear.
37
"Teshubot Rabbenu Abraham ben ha-RaMBaM", p. 218. Maimuni' s second answer is
as interesting as it is original. He argued that the phrase that immediately precedes and
walk in His ways, namely, if thou shalt keep the commandments of the Lord
(Deuteronomy 28:9), is indeed a general, non-specific command, one that encompasses
all of the commandments. However, the subsequent phrase, and walk in His ways, came
to focus exclusively on the improvement of traits, and as such, was quite specific.
Maimuni argued that the Torah felt it necessary to spell this out since
it would be possible to think that it [this command] is not
obligatory like the obligatoriness of the commandments,
because commandments are action-laden [maasiyot] and the
going in His ways are things that depend on moral virtues, as
explained by the tradition 'just as the Holy One, blessed be He,
is called Merciful, etc.,' even though the goal of these moral
virtues is also actions.
Maimuni was addressing an issue that was still exercising the minds of Jewish
theologians, namely, can (or did) the Torah command virtues, correct notions and correct
344
The commandment claim, as formulated in the ShM, is simply that we
are "to be like God (praised be He) as far as it is in our power." In his
argument, M. notes that in addition to And thou shalt walk in His ways
(Deuteronomy 28:9), the commandment is repeated in two other ways: to
walk in all His ways (Deuteronomy 10:12 and 11:22) and After the Lord
your God shall ye walk (Deuteronomy 13:5).
M. cites the following midrash on the verse to walk in all His ways:
Just as the Holy One, blessed be He, is called Merciful
(rahum), so shouldst thou be merciful; just as He is
called Gracious (hanun), so shouldst thou be gracious;
just as He is called Righteous (tsadiq), so shouldst
thou be righteous; just as He is called Saintly (hasid)
so shouldst thou be saintly.
38
M. also alludes to a second midrash (bSotah 14a), this one on the
verse After the Lord your God shall ye walk, which he sums up as saying
that
we are to imitate the good deeds and honourable
(nikhbadot, or, others, hashuvot, "distinguished")
attributes (middot) by which the Lord (exalted be He)
is described in a figurative way He being indeed
immeasurably exalted above all such descriptions.
To better understand M.' s summation, I quote the entire midrash:
character dispositions, as it commands physical actions? Recall that M. proved that the
Torah did command correct notions, i.e., the existence of God, because he had found an
explicit rabbinic warrant. See our discussion in section 5.3.1.
38
Sifre Deuteronomy, 'Eqev pisqa 49 (p. 114), with only minor variants. Some printed
editions lack 'just as He is called Righteous, so shouldst thou be righteous' See Sefer ha-
Mitsvot, ed. Heller, ad loc., n.18. In HilkhotDe'ot 1:6, when quoting this dictum, M.
omits any reference to righteous and to saintly and substitutes them for holy (qadosh).
345
R. Hama son of R. Hanina further said: What does
this text mean: Ye shall walk after the Lord your God?
Is it, then, possible for a human being to walk after the
Shekhinah; for has it not been said: For the Lord thy
God is a devouring fire? But [the meaning is] to walk
after the attributes of the Holy One, blessed be He. As
He clothes the naked, for it is written: And the Lord
God made for Adam and for his wife coats of skin, and
clothed them [Gen 3:21], so do thou also clothe the
naked. The Holy One, blessed be He, visited the sick,
for it is written: And the Lord appeared unto him by
the oaks of Mamre [Gen 18:1], so do thou also visit the
sick. The Holy One, blessed be He, comforted
mourners, for it is written: And it came to pass after
the death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac his son
[Gen 25:11], so do thou also comfort mourners. The
Holy one, blessed be He, buried the dead, for it is
written: And He buried him in the valley
[Deuteronomy 34:6], so do thou also bury the dead.
39
In short, following a strictly literal reading, the midrash attributes to
God a number of acts of kindness and offers them up as examples for man to
imitate.
The view of the ShM, then, is that to be like Him is "to imitate the
good deeds and honourable attributes by which the Lord is described."
While "good deeds" clearly refer to the benevolent acts described in the
talmudic midrash, "honourable attributes" have no specific referent and
leave the full meaning imprecise. Those looking for some allusion to the
39
Qayyara's entry Pq32 reads "to go in His ways" and it is immediately followed by "to
clothe the naked, to bury the dead, to console the mourner and to visit the sick." It is not
clear if Qayyara intended these special acts of benevolence to represent separate
commandments, as M. thought, or if, as is more likely, these attributes explained the
general command to "go in His ways," exactly as the above midrash does. For a useful
survey of the issues, see Hildesheimer, Haqdamat , notes 329 and 330.
346
doctrine of the middle way are unlikely to find it here. In the words of
Schwarzchild, "Maimonides, conspicuously.. .makes no reference at all to
the doctrine of the mean in defining the commandment of imitation. On the
contrary, he places heavy emphasis on the infinite, unattainable, radical
character of imitatio dei."
40
Still, there are those who read M.' s words in the
ShM in the light of the Halakhot and came to the conclusion that M. was
indeed foreshadowing here the doctrine of the middle ways.
41
I believe that
this reading is more eisegetical than exegetical. It is a reading that robs the
student of the richness that comes from observing M.'s intellectual journey
through one of the most difficult and fundamental issues with which he had
to grapple.
Either way, an important change takes place in the Halakhot. M.
abandons the notion that to imitate Him consists of doing good deeds as
described in the talmudic midrash. In fact, these benevolent deeds are now
40
Schwarzchild, S., "Moral Radicalism and 'Middlingness' in the Ethics of Maimonides,"
Studies in Medieval Culture XI, eds. John R. Sommerfeldt and Thomas H. Seiler
(Kalamazoo, Mich.: The Medieval Institute, Western Michigan University, 1978), pp. 65-
94.
41
This is the view of Wurzburger, who correctly noted that the Halakhot, as we shall see,
abandoned the idea of imitating God' s deeds proposed in the ShM and "felt constrained to
limit the scope of the commandment Thou shalt walk in His ways exclusively to the
cultivation of virtues." That is, Wurzburger understood that the expression "honourable
attributes" of the ShM is identical with the concept of the mean between the extremes of
all character dispositions. Wurzburger, Walter, "Imitatio Dei in Maimonides' Sefer ha-
Mitsvot and the Mishneh Torah," Tradition and Transition: Essays Presented to Chief
Rabbi Sir Immanuel Jakobovits, ed. Jonathan Sacks (London: Jews College, 1986) .
Raymond L. Weiss noted that M., in the Halakhot, did not call any of the middle
character traits "beautiful" or "noble," but in the GP (III:38:550), when referring to the
morality set forth in Hilkhot De 'ot, called these traits "noble" (karim in the Arabic,
translated as nikhbadot, "honourable," by Samuel ibn Tibbon, the classical Hebrew
translator of the GP). Weiss, Raymond L., "Language and Ethics: Reflections on
Maimonides' Ethics," Journal of the History of Philosophy 9 (1971).
347
described as positive commandments ordained by the rabbis (mitsvat 'aseh
shel divrehem) and the discussion of these rabbinic commandments is
42
moved to Hilkhot Avel (14:1). More important, M. infuses imitatio dei with
a novel ethico-philosophical meaning, one that, as we saw, was not likely to
have been intimated in the ShM.
42
That is, three out of the four acts mentioned in the midrash above, namely, to visit the
sick, to comfort the mourners and to bury the dead. M. specifies that the fourth
benevolent act, to clothe the naked, is part of the positive commandment of charity
(Hilkhot Aniyim 7:3) and is directly covered by the verse [and thou shalt surely lend him]
sufficient for his need [in that which he wanteth] (Deuteronomy 15:8). M. had already
suggested in the ShM, Rule 1, that to clothe the naked falls under the category of
sufficient for his need and attacked Qayyara for listing the obligation to clothe the naked
as a separate commandment when in fact it was part of the broader obligation of charity.
Strangely, M. was not willing to view Qayyara's claims "to clothe the naked, to bury the
dead, to console the mourner and to visit the sick" which follow in Qayyara's list
immediately after "to go in His ways" as simply details of this scriptural command,
just as the midrash of R. Hama son of R. Hanina had suggested. See note 39 above. M.' s
criticism reveals a certain incongruity in his own work. To explicate the commandment
of to go in His ways, M., in P8, makes reference to a midrash that, as we saw, lists a
number of good deeds. One of these good deeds is to clothe the naked. Yet in Rule 1,
besides castigating Qayyara for listing this deed as as separate entry, he wonders what
might have been Qayyara's source for this claim. He says, "it is [this point] which has
eluded someone [i.e. Qayyara], and for that reason he counted the clothing of the naked
[among the commandments] because he found in Isaiah: When thou seest the naked, thou
shalt cover him (Isaiah, 58:7)." He appears to shows no awareness of the midrash
referred to in P8! Of course, the Rules, or at least Rule 1, may have been written quite a
bit earlier and it is only at a later date, when he was writing the short glosses on each
commandment, that he first became aware of this midrash. An alternative explanation is
that he may have been aware of the midrash at the time he criticized Qayyara but
temporarily forgot it in the heat of the polemic. A more interesting possibility is that M.
wrote the Rules after he wrote the glosses on each commandment, by which time he no
longer thought that the midrash represented a valid source for these obligations since his
understanding of imitatio dei had taken a dramatic turn away from the idea of imitating
God' s good deeds. Thus, judging Qayyara generously, M. suggested that Qayyara leaned
on a prophetic passage rather than on a homiletic midrash. Until we know more about the
order of writing of the various sections and compositions of M. ' s works, we will not
follow his train of thought with more certainty. I want to thank my dear son-in-law, Avi
Horowitz, for not only helping me clarify some of these issues but also for making some
very insightful and helpful observations throughout the discussion of this commandment.
348
After a thorough discussion of human traits and dispositions at the
beginning of Hilkhot De 'ot (HD), M. states,
The right way [in moral dispositions] is the mean in
each group of dispositions common to humanity;
namely that disposition which is equally distant from
the two extremes in its class, not being nearer to the
one than to the other. Hence, our ancient Sages
(hakhamim ha-rishonim) exhorted us that a person
should always evaluate his dispositions and so adjust
them that they shall be as the mean between the
extremes...whoever observes in his disposition the
mean is termed wi s e.
4 3
Following a long introduction, spanning five halakhot, M. finally cites
the scriptural text that governs this commandment. He says that "we are
bidden to walk in the middle paths which are the right and proper ways, as it
is said, and thou shalt walk in His ways (Deuteronomy 28:9)" There is no
possibility nor I believe there is any presumption that the verse intimates an
ethical theory and much less the doctrine of the mean. Rather, as Marvin Fox
notes, M. treats this theory "as an established truth to which one need only
refer but which does not require any evidence to support it."
44
This
presupposition is also noted by Herbert Davidson, who says
43
HD 1:4. Hyamson rendered hakhamim ha-rishonim as "our ancient Sages" The correct
translation is of course "the ancient Sages," which raises the question as to who M. was
referring to. One possibility may be Aristotle and the Islamic philosophers who followed
Aristotle. But see following note
44
Fox, Marvin, "The Doctrine of the Mean in Aristotle and Maimonides: A Comparative
Study," Interpreting Maimonides: Studies in Methodology, Metaphysics and Moral
Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p. 93-123. He further notes
that if one accepts that M. ' s reference to the ancient Sages is a reference to the Sages of
Israel, a view that he considers plausible enough in the context,
then we have the remarkable situation of Maimonides telling us
that the principle that the middle way is good is known as an
349
God's ways are mercy, graciousness and the like.
Mercy, graciousness, and the like, are plainly ethical
virtues, and in fact, the Rabbis called them middot,
which means precisely psychological or moral
qualities. The philosophers, notably Aristotle and al-
Farabi, clarified what ethical virtues are. They are
intermediate psychological characteristics. By
directing man to walk in God's ways, Scripture must
accordingly be instructing man to cultivate
intermediate psychological characteristics.
45
The idea that that we are dealing with an established truth that needs
no proof gains further strength from what M. says in the next few lines,
In explanation of this directive [mitsvah], the Sages
taught, 'even as God is called gracious, so be thou
gracious; even as He is called merciful, so be thou
merciful; even as He is called Holy, so be thou holy.'
Similarly [ve-al derekh zu], the prophets described the
Almighty by all the various attributes [kinuyim] 'long-
suffering and abounding in kindness, righteous and
upright, perfect, mighty and powerful,' and so forth to
teach us that these qualities are good and right and that
a human being should cultivate them, and to imitate
46
[God], as far as he can (HD 1:6).
It is difficult to read into the attributes gracious, merciful and holy anything
else than what these terms connote, virtuous (in a non-Aristotelian, non-
independent truth, and that because it is known to be true, the
Jewish religious authorities accepted it as their rule of conduct
and character development.
45
Davidson, Herbert, "The Middle Way in Maimonides' Ethic," PAAJR 54 (1987), p.64.
46
U-le-hidamot. So the principal MSS., especially Huntington 80. See RaMBaM
Meduyaq, ed. Shailat, ad loc., note 4. Hyamson' s "thus imitate God" is interpretive.
350
philosophic sense), honorable behavior. This is very much the way M.
described these attributes in the ShM. There is absolutely no indication in the
rabbinic dictum that the Sages were referring to the way of the mean. And
yet M. posits that the Sages bid one "to walk in the middle paths which are
the right and proper ways". In light of this, we are forced to believe that for
M. the middle path is the "established truth", a truth so self-evident that it
requires no proof. Lest the reader make a mistake and think that these
attributes ought to be understood for what they are, M. repeats, in HD 1:7:
"And as the Creator is called by these attributes, which constitute the middle
path in which we are to wa l k . " (1:7). It is therefore surprising that a
scholar like Raymond L. Weiss should state,
It is questionable whether such qualities, [referring to
gracious, merciful, and holy] are strictly in accordance
with the middle way. The qualities of holiness and mercy
certainly do not lie in the middle. Being gracious, like
being abundant in loving-kindness, which is also among
the ways of God that a Jew must imitate, supplements the
essentially self-centered orientation of philosophic ethics.
Whereas the middle way aims at man's own perfection
(HD 1:4), Jewish law directs the sage to act graciously and
with hesed in his conduct with other people.
47
47
Weiss, Raymond L., Maimonides' Ethics: The Encounter of Philosophic
and Religious Morality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991),
p.134. A derivative of this reading is that M. vacillates and/or conflates the
philosophic and the moral demands. Weiss believes that M. distinguishes
between philosophic ethics, i.e., wisdom and Jewish piety but then moves
351
Weiss is stating the obvious but his reading runs counter to what M.
unequivocally states in halakhot 5 through 7 because he fails to take into
account the powerful and assumed 'facts' of Aristotelian ethics.
In sum, while M. uses the same Sifre that he cited in the ShM, now he
effectively voids God's attributes of their simple meaning and instead
infuses them with an ethico-philosophical one that appears to have no root or
echo in rabbinic writings. Concretely, the idea of imitating God that is
expressed in the Halakhot is not about emulating His lofty attributes, i.e.,
cultivating good moral traits, but rather about evaluating one's dispositions
and adjusting them so "that they shall be as the mean between the extremes."
M. has skillfully and naturally woven Aristotelian ethics into the rabbinic
exposition.
While M.'s writings throughout enjoin the goal of attaining the middle
path and the manner in which to do so, it is only the ShM and the Halakhot
that provide a scriptural proof-text for the pursuit of the middle path.
Consider how M. concludes Chapter 4 of Eight Chapters (EC), a chapter
dedicated to describing the goodness of the way of the mean and to
demonstrating that instilling these ethical qualities is the goal of most
commandments of the Torah. He says:
If a man will always carefully discriminate as regards
his actions, directing them to the middle course, he
to soften the sharp distinction in an attempt to reconcile contradictions in
HD between both approaches (pp. 93-128, in particular 114 and 115).
Weiss may be right in stating, that "The more pressing problem that M.
had to confront and which he resolves is how to adapt both the
philosophic and the Jewish precepts to the specific needs of jurisprudence
required by a code of Jewish law," But this is not true of the M. of HD
chapter 1, as we discuss below.
352
will reach the highest degree of perfection possible to a
human being, thereby approaching God and attaining
what is by Him.
48
This is the most acceptable way of
serving God which the Sages, too, had in mind when
they wrote the words, 'He who ordereth his course
aright is worthy of seeing the salvation of God, as it is
said, to him that ordereth his course aright will I show
the salvation of God! [Ps 50:23]. Do not read ve-sam
but ve-sham derekh [bSotah 5b; bMoed Qatan 5a].
Shumah means 'weighing' and 'valuation.' This is
exactly the idea which we have explained in this
chapter. (EC, p.68)
No mention is made here, or anywhere in the chapter, of And thou
shalt walk in His ways. It was inevitable that such a fundamental notion be
given some sort of scriptural basis. As we saw, M. finally did this in the ShM
and in the Halakhot.
But perhaps one can make a further, more subtle, observation
regarding this evolution, one that goes beyond the simple exegetical
explanation that we have noted. In EC, M. puts the full weight of the
presumed directive of attaining the middle path on the commandments. It
is worth quoting here the passage at length:
The Law did not lay down its prohibitions, or
enjoin its commandments, except for just this purpose,
namely, that by its disciplinary effects we may
persistently maintain the proper distance from either
extreme. For, the restrictions regarding all the
48
I adopted here Shailat's reading, a literal translation of the Arabic (v-yndl ma 'ndal).
Ethical Writings of Maimonides, eds. Raymond L. Weiss and Charles E. Butterworth
(New York: Dover Publishing Inc. , 1975), p.74 has "what belongs to Him." Gorfinkle
has "sharing in His happiness", a close approximation to Tibbon' s "sharing in His
goodness", while Kafih reads "attaining His will". The exact meaning of this phrase is
uncertain, see Sahilat's discussion, Haqdamot, p.290.
353
forbidden foods, the prohibitions of illicit intercourse,
the fore-warning against prostitution, the duty of
performing the legal marriage-rites which,
nevertheless, does not permit intercourse at all times,
as, for instance, during the period of menstruation, and
after child-birth, besides its being otherwise restricted
by our Sages, and entirely interdicted during the
daytime, as we have explained in the Tractate
Sanhedrin all of these God commanded in order
that we should keep entirely distant from the extreme
of the inordinate indulgence of the passions, and, even
departing from the exact medium, should incline
somewhat towards self-denial, so that there may be
firmly rooted in our souls the disposition for
moderation.
Likewise, all that is contained in the Law
concerning the giving of tithes, the gleaning of the
harvest, the forgotten sheaves, the single grapes, and
the small bunches in the vineyards for the poor, the
law of the Sabbatical year, and of the Jubilee, the
giving of charity according to the wants of the needy
one, all these approach the extreme of lavishness to be
practised in order that we may depart far from its
opposite, stinginess, and thus, nearing the extreme of
excessive prodigality, there may become instilled in us
the quality of generosity. If you should test most of the
commandments from this point of view, you would
find that they are all for the discipline and guidance of
the faculties of the soul. Thus, the Law forbids
revenge, the bearing of a grudge, and blood-revenge
by saying, "Thou shalt not avenge nor bear any
grudge"; "thou shalt surely unload with him" (the ass
of he who hates you); "thou shalt surely help him to
lift them up again" (thy brother's ass or ox which has
fallen by the way). These commandments are intended
to weaken the force of wrath or anger. Likewise the
command, "Thou shalt surely bring them back" (thy
brother's ox or lamb which has gone astray), is meant
to remove the disposition of avarice. Similarly,
"Before the hoary head shalt thou rise up, and honour
354
the face of the old man," "Honour thy father and thy
mother. etc.," "thou shalt not depart from the sentence
which they may tell thee. etc.," are intended to do
away with boldness, and to produce modesty. Then, in
order to keep away from the other extreme, i.e. of
excessive bashfulness, we are told, "Thou shalt indeed
rebuke thy neighbor, etc.," "thou shalt not fear him"
(the false prophet) etc., so that excessive bashfulness,
too, should disappear, in order that we pursue the
medium course. Should, however, anyone who
would without doubt be foolish if he did so try to
enforce these commands with additional rigor, as, for
instance, by prohibiting eating and drinking more than
does the Law, or by restricting connubial intercourse to
a greater degree, or by distributing all of his money
among the poor, or using it for sacred purposes more
freely than the Law requires, or by spending it entirely
upon sacred objects and upon the sanctuary, he would
indeed be performing improper acts, and would be
unconsciously going to either one or the other extreme,
thus forsaking completely the proper mean. (EC, pp.
64-66)
One might say that this extremely broad rationalization of the
commandments takes its cue from M.'s desire to see in Scripture an
endorsement of the ethical summum bonum. As M. discovers a direct
scriptural proof-text for this ethical counsel, he is able to relax somewhat the
sweeping ethics-shaping rationalization that he makes for the majority of
commandments in EC. A cursory look at the sections of the GP dealing with
ta 'ame ha-mitsvot will confirm that other rationalizations are advanced in
the GP, many of them of a strictly political rather than ethical nature. That is
not to say that M. abandons the ethical rationalization altogether; it simply
means that he has now found a scriptural basis for advocating focused
355
"exercises" with which to address the ethical objectives. This is how he puts
it in HD 1:7:
How shall a man train himself in these dispositions, so
that they become ingrained? Let him practice again
and again the actions prompted by those dispositions
which are the mean between the extremes, and repeat
them continually till they become easy and are no
longer irksome to him, and so the corresponding
dispositions will become a fixed part of his character.
Fox
49
argues correctly in my opinion that despite the fact that M.
follows the Aristotelian tradition faithfully,
when we move away from the general theoretical
foundations to his specific way of understanding and
applying the doctrine of the mean, the differences
emerge sharply and clearly...while Aristotle construes
moral virtue as a case of art imitating nature, M.
teaches that the model of human virtue is the standard
provided by the ideal of the imitation of God.
Again,
As in the case of Aristotle's prescription for the
imitation of nature, this general rule is insufficient as a
guide to man. It must be made specific and concrete.
For M. this is achieved simply enough. According to
his view the commandments of the Torah are, in fact,
the specification of ideal behavior in conformity with
the rule of the mean, and this is what is meant when
we are commanded to imitate the ways of God.
Then he adds that "M. is absolutely consistent in his adherence to this
principle that the rule of the Torah is, in actual fact, the rule of the mean ...."
49
Fox, "The Doctrine of the Mean," p. 114-116.
356
Fox adduces proof from what M. says in EC, which is summarized in the
following: "The Law did not lay down its prohibitions, or enjoin its
commandments except for just this purpose, namely that by its disciplinary
effect we may persistently maintain the proper distance from either
extreme." Fox then adds a critical observation:
There is, however, more to be considered. We recall
that the main interest in ethics is the development of
virtuous states of character, not merely the
performance of virtuous actions. The latter are derived
from the former and are significant especially as outer
evidence of a stable moral character. The passages we
cited make the Torah the standard of the mean in
action, but it is obvious that M. must also provide for
the Torah as the standard of the mean with respect to
states of character. This is, in fact, precisely what he
does in Hilkhot De 'ot.
I suppose that with this distinction Fox is trying to anticipate the
absence in HD of any discussion concerning the usefulness of
commandments in helping one attain the middle path. I am not so certain,
however, that Fox is right. In the passage of EC that we cited, M. makes it
clear that these actions are designed to mould our character, to "train" us. In
HD, on the other hand, M. suggests instead direct exercises, as we have
noted. In both instances, M. makes it clear that the Torah's main interest is
the development of character, the only difference being the means of
attaining this goal. In HD, M. is totally and tellingly silent on the matter of
the commandments shaping our character because, I argue, having located a
scriptural basis directing one to attain the way of the mean, he now feels
freer to recommend special practices that are directly focused on attaining
specific goals. There are then two tracks that one can follow to achieve the
357
way of the mean: specific commandments that shape one's character, as
posited in EC
50
and direct exercises that build virtuous behavior, as in the
Halakhot.
At this point, we should note M.' s failure to designate And thou shalt
walk in His ways a positive commandment. In 1:5 he states merely that "we
are bidden (u-metsuvin, a participle of the root ts.v.h, whence the noun
mitsvah) to walk in the middle paths. In 1:6, he says "In explanation of this
mitsvah, the Sages taught...", and again avoids the term mitsvat 'aseh. This
suggests, as I have posited, that we are in the presence of a counsel or useful
advice rather than a full-fledged obligation. The somewhat less forceful
character of this command can also be picked up in other remarks that M.
makes in the first chapter of HD. For example, "to cultivate either extreme in
any class of dispositions is not the proper course for any person (ein raui lo
le-adam) to follow or to teach to onesel f . . " (1:3). Rather than "not the
proper course," one would have expected to read "it is forbidden" if in fact
the middle way is an obligation. Even when M. uses the strong term hayav
(he is obliged), as in 1:6, he tempers it with the qualifier "as far as he can."
50
I might add that this is also the position of M. in the Rules. Through the performance of
certain commandments, a person can acquire desirable traits. M. begins Rule 9 as
follows:
You are to know that all charges and admonitions of the Torah
relate to four things: opinions, deeds, traits of character, and
s peech. I n a similar way, the Torah commands us to conduct
ourselves in certain qualities of character, such as the command
to act with kindness, mercy, pity and love, this being contained
in the verse And thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself, or it
admonishes against certain other traits of character, such as the
admonition against bearing a grudge, recompensing evil, or
taking vengeance, and other qualities of char act er .
358
A short diversion. As we follow the development of M.'s thinking we
should note that the view expressed in P8 to the effect that one is to imitate
His ways and the way to do so is to imitate his good deeds and honorable
attributes, is already superseded in the Rules. In effect, in Rule 9 M. states
that "the Torah commands us to conduct ourselves in certain qualities of
character, such as the command to act with kindness, mercy, pity and love,
this being contained in the verse And thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself"
the prooftext for these obligations no longer being the verse And thou shalt
walk in His ways. Rule 9 already foreshadows the manner in which M. treats
these obligations in the Halakhot.
51
In sum, imitatio dei is characterized as a mitsvah in the Halakhot, a
commendable goal, a good counsel and perhaps a wise advice. It is certainly
not a positive commandment. Therefore it is not an obligation. Just as in P3
and P4, M. in the Halakhot provides the means for attaining these goals. It is
in connection with these three counsels that we permit ourselves to take
issue with Ben-Menahem, whom we quoted earlier (chapter 3) as arguing
that
the thesis advanced by Hart, that the law should be
individuated so as to reflect the fact that it directs and
guides, not only through commands and prohibitions,
but also by outlining the means for achieving desired
ends, is not upheld by M.. (Emphasis added).
51
See note 42, above. Again, this raises questions with regard to the chronological
sequence in which M. wrote the SE, ShM and the Rules. See also note 51 above and notes
24 and 30 in chapter 5.
359
On our reading of the way in which the Halakhot presents these
'commandments', the Law does indeed outline "the means for achieving
desired ends."
* *
The extra-scriptural bit of wisdom is first ascribed to the "early
Sages" (hakhamim ha-rishonim) at HD 1:4, an allusion to the Sages of Israel
but just as likely an allusion to the ancient philosophers. It is only at the end
of 1:5 that M. suggests that "we are bidden to walk in middle paths which
are the good and right ways, as it is said, And thou shalt walk in His ways."
The juxtaposition of these two halakhot and the secondary place given to the
scriptural verse strongly suggest that the latter should be taken only as an
intimation (remez) rather than a proof-text, as we had argued in the
preceding section.
As M. tells it (HD 1:7), this ethical norm can be traced at least as far
back as the patriarch Abraham:
This path is called the way of God and this is what the
patriarch Abraham taught his children as it says For I
love him, because he will charge his children and his
household after him, that they may keep the way of the
Lord [Gen 18:19].
52
The way of the mean is the path to earthly happiness, as he says in HD
1:7 immediately after his assertion that Abraham taught the way of the mean
to his children: "Whoever walks in this way secures for himself happiness
52
This dichotomy between the Abrahamic and Mosaic approaches in Maimonidean
writings has been intriguingly explored in Diamond, James, Maimonides and the
Hermeneutics of Concealment: Deciphering Scripture and Midrash in the Guide of the
Perplexed (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002).
360
and blessing, as the text continues In order that the Lord might bring upon
Abraham that which He spoke concerning him." Note, not happiness and
blessings in the world to come, as one would expect if the way of the mean
were a commandment,
53
but plain happiness and blessings, implying
happiness and blessings in the here and now. This is as would befit a wise
counsel.
The way of the mean is a tenet of wisdom rather than a stipulation of
the law. M. identifies it with the "way of God," traces it back to the patriarch
Abraham and promises that whoever practices it "secures for himself
happiness and blessings."
* * *
Curiously, M. abandons the doctrine of the mean in the Halakhot
almost as soon as he enunciates it.To appreciate this unusual phenomenon,
we first need to examine the beginning of HD. HD 1 and 2:1-2 constitute a
close re-statement of the doctrine of the middle ways as described in EC. M.
recommends that one should order all of one's character traits, without
exception, toward the mean. The two extremes, indicating too much or too
little of one trait, constitute vices; only the mean is a virtue. One's
disposition can be altered by performing actions that express the mean. As
these virtuous actions become habitual, they will then flow naturally,
without effort, from one's character. One who sets his ways toward the
middle is a wise man (hakham). The crucial factor here is that the attainment
53
See Hilkhot Teshuvah 9:1.
361
of moral virtue is a goal to be sought for its own sake. HD 1:7 leaves no
doubt about this: "Whoever walks in this way secures for himself happiness
and blessing, as the text continues In order that the Lord might bring upon
Abraham that which He spoke concerning him." Here, too, M. merely
restates what he has already indicated in EC:
This is the most perfect of the ways of worship. If a
man will always carefully discriminate as regards his
actions, directing them to the middle course, he will
reach the highest degree of perfection possible to a
human being, thereby approaching God and attaining
what is by Him.
54
This is the most acceptable way of
serving God. (EC, p. 68)
Here, M. adheres closely to Aristotle, to whom the moral life is an end
in itself. Noble and moral deeds are, like happiness, "self-sufficient."
55
The
direct source for M.' s statement that the virtuous man "will reach the highest
degree of perfection possible to a human being, thereby approaching God" is
probably al-Farabi, who stated,
When at any time there exists someone who is by
nature completely disposed towards all the virtues and
they become established in him by habit, this man is
superior in virtue to the virtues found in the most of
mankind, so that he almost passes beyond the human
virtues to what is a higher class than man. The ancients
named this man di vi ne. .
56
54
See note 48.
55
Nichomachean Ethics X.6 (1176b8-9); VI.5 (1140b6-7).
56
Al-Farabi, Aphorisms, ed.Dunlop, [11], p.32.
362
One whose character deviates from the mean is the pious man
(hasid); he is said to act more generously than the law requires (li-fnim
meshurat ha-din, lit., "within the limits of the law"). M.'s description of the
hasid is brief, lacks in value judgment and fails to explain the reason (s) why
one should or would order his character traits away from the mean.
57
In the
fourth chapter of EC, M. argues that one may order his dispositions away
from the mean for preventative reasons, that is, to avoid slipping towards the
more repulsive of the two extremes:
. T h e saintly ones were not accustomed to cause their
dispositions to maintain an exact balance between the
two extremes but deviated somewhat by way of
[caution and] restraint, now to the side of
exaggeration, now to the side of deficiency. Thus, for
instance, abstinence would incline to some degree
towards excessive denial of all pleasures; valor would
approach somewhat towards temerity; generosity to
lavishness; modesty to extreme humility, and so forth.
This is what the rabbis hinted at in their saying, 'Do
more than the strict letter of the law demands.' (EC,
pp. 60-62)
57
Nevertheless, Schwarzchild purports to see in the Code a "pull in the radical moral
direction. In The Laws of Beliefs [HD] the practitioners of the ethics of the mean are
called 'sages' while the higher religious level of moral life is called that of the
'righteous/gracious/saintly' ones (Hassidim) (1:5)." Steven S. Schwarzchild, "Moral
Radicalism," p. 69. An interesting observation, particularly if we take into account that
hasid is a derivative of hesed and hesed becomes one of the cornerstones of Maimonides'
new ethics, as we discuss below. See what we said earlier in this connection, in particular
note 40. A problem that 1:5 presents is that to describe one who "deviates somewhat from
the exact mean" M. gives the example of one who avoids haughtiness "to the utmost
extent and is exceedingly humble." The contradiction is much too blatant to be resolved
satisfactorily, unless one posits, here too, that the example is a late interpolation. See our
discussion of HD 1-2:1-2 below.
363
Though it appears that this deviation from the mean is a commendable
goal, one would not know it from the way M. describes the hasid in the HD.
The reason why one should undertake actions that deviate from the mean is
given in the EC and is repeated in HD 2:2: "If in any of them [character
traits] he is at one extreme, he should move to the opposite extreme, and
keep it there for a long time till he has regained the right path which is the
normal mean in every class of dispositions."
The first sign that this section of HD is not of a piece with the rest of
the Halakhot and that the balance of the Halakhot may not share the EC's
high regard for the moral mean is the absence of any discussion of prophecy
in HD 1 to 2:1-2. In EC 7, M. proposes that the acquisition of moral virtues
is integral to the making of a prophet, along with the acquisition of
intellectual virtues. He says:
In accordance with what we have made clear in
chapter 2, virtues are either intellectual or moral.
Similarly, vices are intellectual, as ignorance,
stupidity, and want of understanding; or they are
moral, as inordinate lust, pride, irascibility, anger,
impudence, avarice, and many other similar
defects....Each of these defects is a partition
separating man from God, the Most High. (EC, p.80)
He then goes on to interpret a rabbinic dictum to support this idea of
the importance of possessing the two kinds of virtues:
Know then that no prophet received the gift of
prophecy unless he possessed all the mental virtues
and a great majority of the most important intellectual
ones. So, the Rabbis said, 'Prophecy rests only upon
the wise (hakham), the brave (gibbor), and the rich
('ashir).' By the word 'wise,' they undoubtedly refer
to all the mental perfections. By 'rich,' they designate
the moral perfection of contentment, for they call the
364
contented man rich, their definition of 'rich' being,
'Who is rich? He who is contented with his lot,' that is,
one who is satisfied with what fortune brings him, and
who does not grieve on account of things which he
does not possess. Likewise, 'brave' stands for a moral
perfection; that is, one who is brave guides his
faculties in accordance with intelligence and
reason....The Rabbis say, 'Who is brave? He who
subdues his passions.' (EC, p.80)
M. refers to this very same dictum in Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah, the
treatise that precedes HD. There, he says:
. t h e spirit of prophecy only rests upon the wise man
who is distinguished by great wisdom; commanding
over his moral traits (gibbor be-middotav, lit., strong
in his traits) whose passions never overcome him in
anything whatsoever, but who by his rational faculty
always has his passions under control, the possessor of
a broad and exceptionally correct mind (bal de'ah
rehavah nekhonah ad meod) (Hilkhot Yesode ha-
Torah 7:1).
In Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah the prophet is described as one who
exercises great restraint over his passions, a continent man. In EC, on the
other hand, the prophet is the epitome of a temperate man. The contrast with
EC is subtle but real. Note that M. is content using the rabbinic term middot
rather than his own term de 'ot. In fact, Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah knows
nothing about de 'ot, a term that has as yet to be defined.
Note too that the Halakhot fail to define "rich," the trait that the EC
identifies as "contentment, for they call the contented man rich." It would
seem that according to Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah, the prophet need not
possess this specific moral virtue, contentment. In other words, the prophet
365
need not be an all-round virtuous man. The Halakhot appears to represent a
clear departure from the EC.
To round up this discussion we should note that M. struggles with the
question of who is a superior individual, a continent man or a temperate one
already in EC (chapter 6). He notes there that, on the one hand, philosophers
praise the temperate man because he does not possess the urge to perform a
vicious act. On the other he shows that the Sages lauded the continent man.
In the EC M. ends up reconciling Rabbinic ethics with Greek ethics by
arguing that the rabbis, too, would agree that the temperate man is superior
but that their various dicta praising restraint only related to the traditional
laws (shim'iyyot). With regards to the moral laws, laws that are eminently
rational (sikhliyyot), the rabbis would have to agree that temperance was
superior to continence.
58
The Maimonidean exposition of Aristotelian ethics in HD is firmly
bound by the beginning of chapter 1 and the end of halakhah 2 of the second
chapter. Though al-Farabi, his most direct source, never contemplated the
standard of the pious individual (hasid), one can well excuse M.' s insipid
and very brief excursus by ascribing it to his desire to acknowledge the
58
Davidson has correctly noted that "Maimonides, having found a philosophic view in
apparent opposition with a view of the rabbis, endeavored to preserve the philosophic
view fully intact." Davidson, "Maimonides' Shemonah Peraqim," p. 128. I would note
only that, in line with the thesis developed here, M. ends up preserving the rabbinic view.
The change may have something to do with the fact that M. ultimately rejected the
Kalamite distinction between rational (sikhliyyot) and traditional (shim 'iyyot)
commandments and was therefore left with no grounds on which to harmonize the
philosophic and the rabbinic views. In effect, if traditional commandments are also
'rational', as M. argues in the GP, then no distinction can be made between rational and
traditional commandments, as M. did in the EC. Therefore, the Sages' praises of the
continent man prove that the rabbis held continence to be superior in every respect to
temperance.
366
rabbis' position without necessarily endorsing it. In chapter 1 and the first
two halakhot of chapter 2, M.' s exposition is relatively formal, twice
punctured with some vague and general scriptural references (e.g., 1:4),
which at best provide homiletic support for the thesis. No rabbinic support is
offered.
The demarcation line of this aberrant section lies between HD 2:2 and
2:3 and it is marked by a blatant contradiction that can be explained, in my
opinion, only by a late correction to an early stratum.
59
I first quote the
relevant portions of 2:1and 2:2 and then quote 2:3, to illustrate the sharp
divide between them. In 2:1, M. advises "human beings whose souls are
sick" to go to the wise, who are "physicians of the soul" and "they will heal
their maladies by instructing them in the dispositions which they should
acquire till they are restored to the right pa t h. . " In 2:2, he says:
What is the method for affecting their cure? If one
is irascible, he is directed so to govern himself that
even if he is assaulted or reviled, he should not feel
affronted. And in this course he is to persevere for a
59
The order and sequence in which M. wrote the MT is not known, although it is possible
to reconstruct parts of it on the basis of inter-treatise references. It is possible that Sefer
ha-Madd'a, though the first book of the MT, was written, or was heavily edited, towards
the end of the massive enterprise, an enterprise that spanned more than ten years. Thus,
the writing of parts of HD, now the second treatise of Sefer ha-Madd'a, may have
preceded all or part of Hilkhot Yesode ha-Torah while other parts may have followed it.
HD itself could have been written at different times, the first section for example at an
early stage, the balance at a much later time, etc. When introducing corrections, M. was
generally careful to correct previous passages that clearly contradicted the new material.
At times, however, one finds residues of the early literary strata that for one reason or
another were left uncorrected. See Henshke, D., "Le-Darkhe Pitronan shel Setirot ba-
Mishneh Torah le-RaMBaM," Sinai 112 (1993). The piecemeal composition of the work,
the possibility that M. made late interpolations from memory and without the full text in
front of him and the difficulty of recalling written drafts from the public or semi-public
domain may help explain many of the earlier literary strata texts that were left
uncorrected.
367
long time till the choleric temperament has been
eradicated. If one is arrogant, he should accustom
himself to endure much contumely, sit below every
one, and wear old and ragged garments that bring the
wearer into contempt, and so forth, till arrogance is
eradicated from his heart and he has regained the
middle path, which is the right way. And when he has
returned to this path, he should walk in it the rest of
his days. On similar lines, he should treat all his
dispositions. (My emphasis).
This is in line with everything that he has said earlier. The middle way
is the only right way and once one has reached it, he should stay on it the
rest of his days. Note that, out of all the character dispositions featured in,
for example, HD 1:4, M. chooses irascibility and pride or arrogance as the
paradigms of vice, and the eradication of these extreme traits as the
paradigms of what is desirable and to be maintained for the rest of one's
days.
Immediately thereafter, in 2:3, M. reverses course:
There are some dispositions in regard to which it is
forbidden merely to keep to the middle path. They
must be shunned to the extreme. Such a disposition is
pride. The right way is not to be merely meek, but to
be humble-minded and lowly of spirit to the utmost.
(My emphasis)
After adducing a number of rabbinic dicta to support this dramatic
reversal, he continues, "Anger too, is an exceedingly bad passion, and one
should avoid it to the last extreme. One should train oneself not to be angry
even for something that would justify anger" (my emphasis). Again here, he
adduces a number of supporting rabbinic dicta.
368
Herein lies the contradiction: If M. thought that the proper way is to
move to the extreme when it came to irascibility and arrogance and that it is
forbidden in such cases to merely keep to the middle path, why did he use
these traits as examples in halakhah 2, telling us that their middle path is the
right way and one should walk in it the rest of his days? The contradiction is
so blatant that I find it difficult to believe that M. wrote halakhah 3 at the
time of writing, and in the presence, of halakhah 2. More likely, halakhah 3
comes from a later period, a time when M. had already abandoned the
formality and the spirit of the doctrine of the middle way.
In HD 2:4 through 2:7, M. returns to a discussion of the mean
qualities that one should strive for. This section is almost a repetition of HD
1, but with a crucial distinction. The tenor of the discussion is informal and
the discussion is suffused with rabbinic dicta (see in particular 2:7). In the
following chapters of HD, M. continues to move away from the Aristotelian
concepts represented by HD 1, 2:1-2 and EC. For example, while 3:2-3
parallels for the most part the beginning of EC 5, it differs from it in a very
subtle matter. Both the EC and the HD agree that bodily health is important
and both works agree that the goal of the soul is to come to know God. EC,
however, maintains that
. h i s only design in eating drinking, cohabiting,
sleeping, waking, moving about, and resting, should be
the preservation of bodily health, while in turn, the
reason for the latter is that the soul and its agencies
may be in sound and perfect condition, so that he may
readily acquire wisdom, and gain moral and
intellectual virtues, all to the end that man may reach
the highest goal of his endeavors. (EC, p.69)
369
The HD, on the other hand, skips over the acquisition of moral virtues
and simply says that "a man should aim to maintain physical health and
vigor, in order that his soul may be upright, in a condition to know God." M.
confirms here what we had intuited earlier, with respect to prophecy: the
acquisition of moral virtues in the Aristotelian sense is no longer a necessary
condition for apprehending God.
I now move to adduce more explicit evidence of M.' s turn away
from his near-total embrace of the Aristotelian ethics (haughtiness and anger
had been the only exceptions) of HD 1 to HD 2:1-2. M. begins to introduce
exceptions to the 'established truth' of the goodness of the way of the
middle. On closer look, God's ways more precisely, God's actions do
not reflect the Aristotelian moral virtues at all. Rather, God is portrayed in
Scripture as exhibiting traits that in human beings are considered extreme.
60
Two examples will suffice. In Hilkhot 'Avadim 9:8, M. says:
It is permitted to work a heathen slave with rigor.
Though such is the rule, it is the quality of piety and
the way of wisdom (middat hasidut ve-darkhe
hokhmah) that a man be merciful and pursue justice
and not make his yoke heavy upon the slave or distress
him, but give him to eat and to drink of all foods and
drinks..Cruelty and effrontery are not frequent except
with heathens who worship idols. The children of our
father Abraham, however, i.e. the Israelites, upon
whom the Holy One, blessed be Him, bestowed the
60
It is only at this point that we can begin to agree with Weiss' statement that "The more
pressing problem that M. had to confront and which he resolves is how to adapt
both the philosophic and the Jewish precepts to the specific needs of jurisprudence
required by a code of Jewish law." See note 47 above. One point of difference. It is not
"the needs of jurisprudence of Jewish Law" as Weiss posits but rather the radical aspect
of God' s hesed that drives this change, as I discuss below.
370
favor of the Law and laid upon them statutes and
judgments, are merciful [people] (rahmanim hem) who
have mercy upon all. Thus also it is declared by the
attributes of the Holy One, blessed be He, which we
are enjoined to imitate. And His mercies are over all
His works (Ps 145: 9) . . (my emphasis).
Here, mercy is not a middle disposition, but an extreme one. In HD
1:1, where M. lists extreme character traits, "merciful" is paired with
"cruel," its extreme opposite. Note that M. fuses here middat hasidut with
darkhe hokhmah, two terms (hakham, hasid) that HD 1 considered
absolutely distinct. In other words, M. has blurred the carefully constructed
distinction of HD 1:5. The wise man now comports himself like a hasid by
moving away from the mean.
The second example, showing the kind of divine attributes that one
must imitate, is given in Hilkhot Megillah 2:17:
It is preferable to spend more on gifts to the poor than
on the Purim meal or on presents to friends. For no joy
is greater or more glorious than the joy of gladdening
the hearts of the poor, the orphans, the widows, and the
strangers. Indeed, he who causes the hearts of these
unfortunates to rejoice emulates the Divine presence
(dome la-Shekhinah), of whom Scripture says, To
revive the spirit if the humble, and to revive the heart
of the contrite ones [Isaiah 57:15].
Compassion does not appear to be an Aristotelian virtue, and yet,
according to Scripture, acts of compassion issue from God. A Jewish-driven
virtue, grounded in Scripture and rabbinic thought, has clearly left behind
the Aristotelian ethics of HD 1 to 2:1-2.
371
When we move to GP, we find that with the exception of two brief
exceptions,
61
GP "consistently and unambiguously rejects the ideal of the
middle way."
62
The idea that Aristotelian ethics are a goal to be sought for
their own sake is nowhere to be seen in GP. Instead, moral virtues have a
political end rather than an ethical one. In GP II:40:383 , where M. makes a
distinction between religious law and secular law or nomos, he says, " . i f
you find a law the whole end of which ... [is] directed exclusively toward
the ordering of the city and of its circumstances and the abolition in it of
injustice and oppression," the law is a nomos because it is not directed
toward speculative matters and perfecting the rational faculty, as religious
law is.
It is clear, though, that both laws, the secular and the religious law,
share a political objective. Neither regime is directed towards the self,
towards attaining the happiness and bliss that presumably comes from moral
perfection. In another instance, after stating that the Mosaic law aims at the
perfection of the body and the perfection of the soul, M. says,
The first perfection consists in being healthy and in
the very best bodily state, and this is only possible
through his finding the things necessary for him
whenever he seeks them. These are his food and all the
other things needed for the governance of the body,
such as a shelter, bathing and so forth. This cannot be
achieved in any way by one isolated individual. For an
individual can only attain all this through a political
association, it being already known that man is
political by nature. (GP III:27:511)
61
II:39:380, which deals only with acts and not characteristics, and III:49:605.
62
Davidson, "The Middle Way," p. 47.
372
And a little later:
For a man cannot represent to himself an intelligible
even when taught to understand it and all the more
cannot become aware of it of his own accord, if he is
in pain or is very hungry or is thirsty or is hot or is
very cold. (GP III:27:511)
There is no mention here of attaining moral virtue; rather, bodily
health is seen as the perfect prelude to the second perfection, intellectual
virtue.
In GP III:35:535, M. summarizes the fourteen classes of
commandments that comprise the law, each of which he discusses at some
length in later chapters. Regarding the commandments that were subsumed
in the MT under HD, he says: "It is well known that through fine moral
qualities human association and society are perfected, which is necessary for
the good order of human circumstances."
A little later on, M. deals with this class in greater detail and yet
dedicates only a few lines to it, representing by far the shortest exposition of
any of the classes of commandments. He says,
The utility of them is clear and evident, for all concern
moral qualities in virtue of which the association
among people is in good condition.they are all
explicitly stated to have as their purpose the
acquisition of the noble (karim) qualities in question.
(GP m:38:550)
Gone, as we can see, is the unequivocal endorsement of the middle
paths as "the right and proper ways," and gone as well is the sentiment that
moral virtues are worth attaining for their own sake. In fact, the purpose of
virtuous behavior or at least of fine moral qualities is not the
373
ennobling of man as such but its salutary effect on society and its "good
order." That is, moral virtues have a political aim, not an ethical one.
These conclusions are fully confirmed at the end of GP, where M.
discusses what the ancient and modern philosophers
63
have chosen to
constitute the human perfections. Before arriving at what he considers the
true human perfection, which consists of the acquisition of the rational
virtues, M. discards the perfection of possessions, the perfection of bodily
constitution and shape and the perfection of the moral virtues. The latter, M.
acknowledges, is a perfection that "to a greater extent than the second
species [bodily health] subsists in the individual self." This perfection, M.
states,
consists in the individual's moral habits having
attained their ultimate excellence..But this species of
perfection is likewise a preparation for something else
and not an end in itself. For all moral habits are
concerned with what occurs between a human
individual and someone else. The perfection regarding
moral habits is, as it were, only the disposition to be
useful to people; consequently it is an instrument for
someone else. For if you suppose a human individual
is alone, acting on no one, you will find that all his
moral virtues are in vain and without employment and
unneeded, and that they do not perfect the individual in
anything; for he only needs them and they again
become useful to him in regard to someone else. (GP
III:54:635)
63
Altmann, A., "Maimonides' 'Four Perfections'," Essays in Jewish Intellectual History
(Lebanon: University Press of New England, 1981), p. 66, has already shown that by
modern philosophers M. had in mind Ibn Bajja.
374
In no uncertain terms M. rejects here the Aristotelian idea that the
moral life is an end in itself and that the virtuous man, as he says in EC,
"will reach the highest degree of perfection possible to a human being,
thereby approaching God." The moral virtues have a political aim; their
excellence is only "the disposition to be useful to people."
M. goes on to say that "the fourth species is the true human
perfection; it consists in the acquisition of the rational virtues I refer to
the conception of intelligibles, which teach true opinions concerning the
divine things." For M., however, the contemplative life has limits, for man is
unable to apprehend God's true essence. At best, he can come to know only
the attributes of his actions. M. holds up a passage in the prophet Jeremiah
as providing the key to the purpose of man:
Thus saith the Lord: Let not the wise man glory in his
wisdom, neither let the mighty man glory in his might,
let not the rich man glory in his riches; but let him that
glorieth glory in this, that he understandeth and
knoweth Me. That I am the Lord who exercises loving-
kindness, righteousness and judgment in the earth (Jer
9:22-3).
Based on this verse M. then comes to a remarkable conclusion:
It is clear that the perfection of man that may truly be
gloried in is the one acquired by him who has
achieved, in a measure corresponding to his capacity,
apprehension of Him, may He be exalted, and who
knows His providence extending over His creatures as
manifested in the act of bringing them into being and
in their governance as it is. The way of life of such an
individual, after he has achieved such an apprehension,
will always have in view loving kindness,
righteousness and judgement, through assimilation to
His actions, may He be exalted, just as we have
375
explained several times in this Treatise. (GP:III:54:
635-6)
Commentators have been baffled by this statement. Though M. had by
all accounts discarded the moral virtues, he seems to bring them back as part
of the fourth and true human perfection. A number of solutions have been
proposed, none of them entirely satisfactory. The three briefly discussed
below do not by any means pretend to be exhaustive. For example, Altmann
has noted that
M. obviously distinguishes between the moral virtues
(the acquisition of which is aided by fulfilling the
Divinely revealed Law, as he had pointed out before)
on the one hand and the imitation of the Divine
attributes, which, unlike the moral virtues, is not the
result of practical reasoning, but follows from
theoretical, metaphysical considerations. Imitatio Dei
is therefore, but the practical consequence of the
intellectual love of God and is part and parcel of the
ultimate perfection.
64
Along similar lines, Davidson has suggested that M. advocates a
metaphysically-discovered ethics, one that leads to dispassionate actions. M.
dismisses as extrinsic to man the perfection of moral qualities, "the
perfection consisting in intermediate psychological characteristics." God's
ways, he says, are "the acts emanating from Him," not characteristics of His
soul. The man that walks in His ways "will n o t . b e merciful, gracious or
vengeful, in the sense that he fosters mercy, graciousness, and anger, in his
soul. As far as humanly possible, he will perform merciful or vengeful acts
64
Altmann, ibid., p. 73.
376
dispassionately, as God does." (Davidson, The Middle Way, p.66) But, we
should ask, in what manner are man's dispassionate acts qualitatively
different from those acts arising out of balanced traits? Moreover, could
anyone think of a practical difference between moral virtues that result from
practical reason aided by the commandments and moral virtues that are
consequent on theoretical, metaphysical knowledge?
Pines
65
opined that M. distinguished the final ethic from the third ethic
by suggesting that the lawgiver must remove sentiment from the final ethic:
A man engaged in the highest form of practical
activity, that of the legislator and the statesman, should
in his imitation of God, be, according to the
circumstances, either beneficent or cruel, not because
he has the corresponding sentiments, but because these
modes of action are necessary for his purpose, which
consists in the creation and preservation of the highest
possible type of community. In 1:54 M. adds the rider
that, in point of fact, the ruler of a country should
indulge more frequently in beneficent than in punitive
action.
Pines appears to be saying that the ultimate human perfection is the
political life, the life of the statesman and legislator. But it is not to the
legislator that M. is addressing himself at the end of III:54. On the contrary,
Jeremiah is made to address each and every member of the nation, the
individual, to the effect that "this should be our way of life."
M. in fact is quite clear that he is not referring to the assimilation of
the thirteen attributes as a guideline for achieving the ultimate perfection. He
says,
65
Introduction to his translation of the Guide, cxxii.
377
He [Jeremiah] means that it is My purpose that there
should come from you loving-kindness, righteousness,
and judgement in the earth in the way we have
explained with regards to the thirteen attributes:
namely that the purpose should be assimilation to them
and that this should be our way of life. (GP III:54:
637)
Pines notes that the words "in the way we have explained with regards
to the thirteen attributes" refers back to I:54. This is true. A lawgiver and a
statesman (like Moses) must imitate God's governance by fashioning his
governance along the lines of the thirteen attributes. And M. stated in I:54
that , on account of the fact that God has no passions, "it behooves the
governor of a city.. .to acquire similarity to these attributes , so that these
actions may proceed from him according to a determined measure and
according to the deserts of the people who are affected by them and not
merely because of his following a passion." (GP I:54: 126). As Pines
explains "these modes of action are necessary for his purpose, which
consists in the creation and preservation of the highest possible type of
community." There is little question that I:54 is directed to the
lawgiver/prophet or governor. In III:54, however, M. speaks to the
individual seeking ultimate perfection, saying "there should come from you
loving-kindness, righteousness, and judgement in the earth in the way we
have explained with regards to the thirteen attributes: namely that the
purpose should be assimilation to them." The reference to the thirteen
attributes is simply to repeat what he has already stated in I:54:128: "the
attributes ascribed to Him are attributes of His actions and . t h e y do not
mean that He possesses qualities."
378
The ultimate perfection is the ethical life, but not the ethical life of the
third perfection, the attainment of those moral habits that are put at the
service of society, "the disposition to be useful to people." Instead, the
ethical perfection is made up of loving-kindness, righteousness, and
judgement in the earth, terms that M. had already carefully defined in III:53.
While a full exposition of M.'s new ethics would require more space than
would be justified in this study of the mitsvot, this much can be said: the
term loving kindness embodies a moral ethic that goes well beyond the
cultivation of the middle path.
Loving kindness, M. says,
is applied to excess of beneficence . the exercise of
beneficence toward one who deserves it, but in a
greater measure than he deserves i t . In most cases the
prophetic books use the word hesed in the sense of
practicing beneficence toward one who has no right at
all to claim this from you. (GP III:53:631)
Next, M. re-defines the term righteousness (tsedaqah), derived from
tsedeq, or justice. Justice is no longer "granting to everyone who has the
right to something, that which he has a right to and giving to every being
that which corresponds to his merits." Instead, justice is to be interpreted as
doing justice to one's intellectual faculty, "a good action performed by you
because of a moral virtue with which you perfect your soul." M. explains
that if one pays a hired man his wages or repays a debt, he is merely
fulfilling a debt. But if one heals the wounds of a suffering person, he is
fulfilling the duty of his moral conscience, he is in effect doing justice to his
soul. M. transcends the purely utilitarian notion of acquiring good habits for
the sake of an ordered and well functioning society, "an instrument for
379
someone else", and advocating the perfection of one's moral habits for their
own sake.
Most of the commandments, the subject of the third book of the GP,
belong to the third perfection. Here and there the MT follows this utilitarian
rationale, though moves beyond it when it advocates, as I have shown, an
attitude of li-fnim meshurat ha-din. In the final chapters of the GP, M.
returns to moral excellence as a goal to be sought for its own sake, the
position he first advanced in EC and in HD 1:1-2:1. The commandments
have refined the person and have stabilized,so to speak, society. Now the
individual must move towards the fourth and ultimate perfection: he/she
must practice beneficence towards the Other in measures that go well
beyond the Other's claims or rights. This is loving kindness. The individual
must also strive to improve his moral qualities for their own sake, as part of
his effort to perfect his or her soul. This is righteousness.
In both instances M. has redefined the terms according to the
prophetic books, signaling that he has gone beyond the strict confines of the
law and beyond an ethic that merely serves the needs of an ordered society.
The ethics of imitatio dei, as M. describes in III:54, are the ethics of the
hasid (a word derived from hesed), the radical ethics of li-fnim meshurat ha-
din.
66
The ethic of the hasid, imitatio dei par excellence, is precisely the
same ethic that animated Hilkhot 'Avadim 9:8 and Hilkhot Megillah 2:17.
66
Schwarzchild, too, comes to this conclusion:
. Us i n g an essentially Platonizing approach, Maimonides
teaches an ethic of Aristotelian moderateness only as an initial
and lower stage of ethics. This is still an ethic derived from and
thus bound to existing society. From this he goes on to a higher
and ultimate stage of moral radicalism, which is determined by
imitatio Dei (Schwarzchild, "Moral Radicalism," p. 82).
380
9.4 Mitsvah as a Commendable Deed: More on the hermeneutic
drivers for the choice of mitsvah as a legal category (or where positive
scriptural statements do not appear to be sufficiently unambiguous to declare
them obligations)
As I indicated in section 9.1, the term mitsvah as used by M. in the
Halakhot enjoyed a relatively wide semantic range. It stood variously for
"advisable," "commendable," "preferred," "praiseworthy," "correct," and
"proper". In the following halakhot, therefore, I will not render mitsvah
uniformly. Instead, I will use the nuance that appears to me most appropriate
for the circumstance.
That when the Ark is carried, it should be carried on the shoulder (P34
in the SE and the ShM enumeration)
He further states that traveling through M.' s works
can convey the impression that his ethical views developed
throughout his life from a more simplistic Aristotelian to a more
sophisticated Platonizing imitatio theory. The facts tend to rebut
such an i mpressi on. j ust about everything in M.' s EC,
Commentary to the Mishneh, and Code can be shown to be
entirely compatible with the mature reasoning of the Guide that
we have now arrived a t . . (71).
Schwarzchild finds allusions to ethical radicalism "strewn through and only fragmentarily
discernible in the earlier writings" in the form of "apparently unintegrated,
unsystematized theoretical theses." But I believe that I have convincingly shown that
certainly the earlier writings fully embrace the Aristotelian paradigm. Surprisingly, while
Schwarzchild also overlooked the definitions that M. offered in III:53, he arrived, to his
great credit, at what I believe is the correct interpretation of the final and true human
perfection. I owe my conclusions to his insight.
381
The claim advanced in the ShM, that it is incumbent on the priestly
clan to carry the ark of God on their shoulder, is abandoned in the Halakhot.
This change is foreshadowed in the SE, which simply states "that when the
ark is carried, it should be carried on the shoulder."
67
Hilkhot Kele ha-
Miqdash 2:12 reads:
When the ark is being transported [be-et she-molikhin]
from one place to another, it is not transported (ein
molikhin) on a beast and not on a wagon but it is
proper [mitsvah] to carry it on the shoulder. And
because David forgot [the halakhah] and carried it on
wagons, a bursting out burst out on Uzza [based on 1
Chr. 13:11.]. It is therefore proper [mitsvah] to carry it
on one's shoulder, as it says because the service of
holy things belonged unto them: they bore them upon
their shoulders.
It is immediately apparent that M. has dropped any reference to a
definite or particular subject. The new formulation most likely reflects a
reassessment of the source material and a conclusion that possibly follows
the one proposed by Nahmanides.
68
While there is no unconditional
obligation on anyone in particular to carry the ark on his shoulder, the ark
should nonetheless be carried on the carriers' shoulders when it is being
transported. Note that with the change of emphasis comes a change in
purpose. Instead of a commandment designed to exalt the priest, carrying the
67
The direction of change has diachronic implications with respect to questions of
composition and redaction of the SE and the ShM. This is not the place, however, to
discuss this complex issue.
68
See P34, chapter 5.
382
ark on shoulders rather than on wagons is "clearly due to the intention to
exalt it," that is, the ark.
69
What is also of interest is that M.' s formulation is relatively soft he
does not say that one must carry the ark on his shoulders. Instead, he uses the
term mitsvah, which we translated here as "proper," but which could also
stand for "commendable," "advisable." One might describe the tenor of the
halakhah as, "not only should you not transport the ark on a beast or wagon
but it is proper, and perhaps even commendable, to transport it on your
shoulders." While the scriptural verse they bore them upon their shoulder
70
(Numbers 7:9) hints to the propriety of carrying the ark on one's shoulder,
M. resorts to an historical incident to prove that indeed it is advisable to do
so. Still, the very fact that M. conveys the gravity of the sin by means of a
passage lying outside of the Mosaic books implies that there is not enough
clarity in the Pentateuchal text to convey a scriptural obligation.
To heed the call of every prophet in each generation, provided that he
neither adds to, nor takes away from the Torah (P172)
See our earlier comments (6.1.1). The Sages treat the verse Unto him
ye shall hearken (Deuteronomy 18:15) as an inferred prohibition. The sense
would simply be that one may not disobey a prophet. We showed that in the
ShM, M. uses this hermeneutic device to prove that the commandment in
69
GP, III:45, 580.
70
The objective case of the plural pronoun "them" refers to all kinds of holy utensils.
Still, M. restricts the mitsvah to the ark, as per the Uzza incident.
383
question is a positive commandment. Once the criteria for positive
commandment changed to those of an unconditional obligation as we
argue they did in the Halakhot inferred prohibitions could no longer stand
for positive commandments. It is obvious that one is not obligated to search
for a prophet for the purpose of obeying his message. Yet the prohibition
against disobeying the prophet and the punishment associated with this
disobedience imply that it is indeed commendable to listen to him.
Therefore, the use of the term mitsvah throughout these Halakhot, in the
sense of advisable or commendable, is well justified.
To appoint a king (P173)
In the ShM, M. tells us that "we are commanded to appoint a king
over ourselves that is an Israelite (me-yisrael, lit., from I sr ael ) . , " implying
that the commandment is to appoint an Israelite as king, if and when the
71
Israelites chose to appoint a king. Interestingly, this too is the way the
commandment is formulated in the Heading to Hilkhot Melakhim, prompting
a number of commentators to conclude that there is no particular obligation
(mitsvat'aseh) to appoint a king.
72
To complicate matters, the SE reads, "to
71
The term "that is an Israelite" (mi-yisrael) is missing in some printed versions. See
Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Hasagot ha-RaMBaN, ed. C. D. Chavel (Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav
kook, 1981), based on the first printing in Constantinople, 1516; and see Sefer ha-
Mitsvot, ed. Heller, where an asterisk informs the reader that his MSS. supplied the term.
72
See the commentary of Abarbanel on Deuteronomy 17:14. Abarbanel, Yitshaq ben
Yehudah, Commentary on the Torah [Perush al ha-Torah] (Jerusalem: 1994). There can
be little doubt that the correct formula in the heading is "from Israel," as reflected in all
the good MSS., and not "in Israel," as some printed editions have it, though it is not
384
appoint a king," leaving little doubt that M. intended to convey that there is
in fact a commandment/obligation to appoint a king. Since the SE is
probably sandwiched chronologically
73
between the ShM and the Headings,
it is difficult to believe that M. started out with an idea that there is no
obligation to appoint a king but just an obligation to make sure he is Jewish,
moved to the notion that there is an obligation to appoint a king, as per the
SE, and reversed course again when he composed the Headings. It is more
likely that the ShM was corrected by later hands on the basis of the Headings
or by M. himself, after he had concluded that there was no obligation, that is,
mitsvat'aseh, to appoint a king. This thesis can be substantiated by a simple
fact: the argument in the ShM moves unequivocally in the direction of
proving that there is an obligation to appoint a king.
If this thesis is correct, we can establish that, originally, M. held that
there was an obligation to appoint a king. This is attested by the SE and
some versions of the ShM. By the time M. wrote the Headings, he had
reversed course and no longer maintained that position. By adding "that is an
Israelite" (mi-yisrael), M. effected a radical change in the claim: the only
obligation was now to make certain that the king that was to be chosen was
an Israelite. We shall see that, in the Halakhot, M. treats the appointment of
a king as merely a desirable act (mitsvah).
I now proceed to show evidence of the reversal and the possible
reasons behind it.The scriptural source for the commandment of the king is
impossible that M. himself was responsible for the change in formulation. For the
variants, see "Yalqut Shinuye Nushaot," Mishneh Torah, ed. S. Frankel (1975-2006),
"HilkhotMelakhim," Perate ha-Mitsvot. For an understanding of the issues involved, see
our continuing discussion.
73
A matter to which I have alluded a number of times throughout this work but,
admittedly, have not demonstrated. I hope to do so in the near future.
385
found in Deuteronomy 17:14-15: When thou art come unto the land which
the Lord thy God giveth thee, and shall possess it, and shalt dwell therein;
and shalt say: 'I will set a king over me, like all the nations that are round
about me'; (15) thou shalt in any wise set him king over thee, whom the Lord
thy God shall choose; one from among thy brethren shalt thou set king over
thee; thou mayest not put a foreigner over thee, who is not thy brother.
The interpretation of these verses was the subject of a tannaitic
dispute. While there are very significant variants in the sources (bSanhedrin
20b, tSanhedrin 4:3 and Sifre Deuteronomy, Shoftim pisqa 156, p. 208), the
gist of the dispute is clear. R. Nehorai argues that these verses do not
mandate the appointment of a king. Rather, these verses were "spoken only
in anticipation of their future murmurings" (bSanhedrin 20b). In other
words, they represent a prophecy. The incident to which these verses allude
is found in 1Sam 8:5, where it is recounted that the Israelites demanded from
the prophet Samuel a king "to govern us like all other nations." In response
to this demand God tells Samuel to heed the demands of the people. Sensing
his displeasure and hurt, God says to Samuel, For it is not you that they have
rejected; it is Me that they have rejected as their king. R. Nehorai adds that
this section conveyed "a disgrace for Israel" (Sifre, ibid.). R. Judah instead
viewed this section as commanding the appointment of a king. in accordance
with what he had already stated earlier (Sifre Deuteronomy, Reeh pisqa 67,
p. 132): "Three commandments were given to Israel when they entered the
land: [i] to appoint a king, [ii] to cut off the seed of 'Amaleq, and [iii] to
build themselves the chosen house." Why then, if R. Judah is correct, was
God displeased at their demands? To which apparently R. Judah answers
that it was because they rushed the events (she-hiqdimo al yadam). An
unattributed source suggests that the masses of the people did not make the
386
request in the proper manner (ka-hogen). In sum, one tanna believes that the
Deuteronomic passage does not mandate the appointment of a king but
instead reflects a concession to an unlawful demand that would occur many
centuries later. A second tanna believes that the passage commands the
Israelites to appoint a king, in fulfillment of one of three national goals.
We should note that later plain-sense exegetes, too, saw these
passages as permitting the appointment of a king rather than as an obligation
to do so.
74
This sense flows naturally from the fact that verse 15 does not
stand by itself but comes as a response to a request.
M. in the ShM cites R. Judah's dictum (but without attributing it to
him!) as proof for the claim that there is an obligation to appoint a king. He
further cites another unattributed exposition found in the same Sifre
Deuteronomy, Shoftim pisqa 157, (p. 209) that, commenting on the verse
Thou shalt in any wise set him king over thee, says, "This is one of the
positive commandments (mitsvat 'aseh)" M. goes on to say that the Sifre
explains this statement "as meaning that he must be held in a we . . "
If M.'s text of the Sifre is the same as ours, this last interpretive twist
is not entirely persuasive. The comment that to appoint a king is a positive
commandment is the second of two opinions and is introduced by the well-
known "another interpretation" (davar aher) formula. The midrashic
concern turns on the unusually strong infinitive-imperative (som tasim)
language used by Scripture and translated here as thou shalt at any wise set
him king over thee. Was this language meant to allude to a special quality of
his rule ("that his fear should lord over you") as in the first interpretation
74
See the commentaries of Ibn Ezra and Saadia Gaon on Deuteronomy 17:15.
387
or was it meant to convey the obligatory nature of appointing a king
("this is one of the positive commandments")?
There seems to be little doubt that these two meanings are mutually
exclusive, with the davar aher coming to offer an alternative interpretation.
M.' s move is presumably forced by the fact that the author of the exposition
"that his fear should lord over you" is no other than R. Judah (according to a
baraita cited in the Talmud) and it is he who stated that the appointment of a
king is a commandment. Therefore, the first and second expositions of the
Sifre on the verse thou shalt at any wise set him king over thee were
harmonized as representing one view. This, of course, need not be so.
In sum, M. offers rabbinic evidence in the ShM for the claim that
appointing a king is a positive commandment. The claim suffers from a
number of hermeneutic weaknesses. For one thing, there is no reliable way
to adjudicate in disputes involving R. Judah and other tannaim; there are
reasonable arguments for deciding in favor of R. Nehorai (and some have R.
Nehemiah) instead of R. Judah.
75
Second, although it is quite probable that
R. Judah in fact believed that there was an obligation to appoint a king just
as there was an unconditional obligation to destroy the seed of 'Amaleq and
to build a Temple, he confused matters for us by calling these obligations
mitsvot. As we saw above in section 2.1, this term tends to have in the
Talmud a much softer connotation, mostly standing either for a good deed or
commendable act.
76
Third, we saw that the opinion in the Sifre that thou
75
See Perla's extensive discussion in this respect, Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 3,
pages 230-1.
76
In his own commentary on this section, Abarbanel argued, in the alternative, that R.
Judah himself may have meant to say only that there is an obligation to appoint an
388
shalt at any wise set him king over thee signifies that the appointment of a
king is a positive commandment is offered as an alternative (davar aher) to
the exposition that "his fear should lord over you." R. Judah may have felt
that the appointment of a king is commendable (mitsvah) but not quite a
mitsvat'aseh, and the anonymous tanna articulating the davar aher may in
fact represent a third possibility, that there is an obligation to appoint a king.
And finally there is the matter of the plain sense of the text, which, as we
have shown, plays such an important role in M.' s hermeneutics. The
command to appoint a king appears almost beyond doubt to represent a
Divine concession to the popular clamor for appointing a king. It is unlikely
to have represented an unconditional obligation. I believe that these
difficulties weighed heavily in M.'s final decision.
M. opens Hilkhot Melakhim with R. Judah's opinion:
Three commandments [mitsvot] to be carried out on
entering [the land of] Israel were enjoined upon the
Israelite nation: to appoint a king as it is said: Thou
shalt in any wise set him king over thee...to destroy
the seed of 'Amaleq.. .and to build the sanct uary.
In halakhah 2, M. continues:
The appointment of a king was to precede the war with
'Amaleq, as it is written: The Lord sent me to anoint
thee to be king over His people...Now go and smite
'Amaleq [1 Sam 15:1, 3]. The destruction of the seed
of 'Amaleq was to precede the erection of a sanctuary,
as it is written: And it came to pass, when the king
dwelt in his home....[2 Sam 7:1-2]. Seeing that the
setting up of a king was a commandment [mitsvah],
why did the Holy One, blessed be He, look with
Israelite king and that he will be chosen by God, as the verses go on to describe, but not
that there was an obligation to actually appoint a king.
389
disfavor upon the request [made by the people] of
Samuel for a king? Because they asked in a querulous
spirit. Their request was prompted not by a desire to
fulfill the commandment [ha-mitsvah] but by a desire
to rid themselves of Samuel the prophet, as it is
written: for they have not rejected thee, but they have
rejected Me [1 Sam 8:7].
For the by-now sensitized reader, M.' s introductory remarks should
stand out clearly. Not only does M. use the term mitsvah three times in these
two halakhot, but he also fails to inform the reader that to appoint a king is a
mitsvat 'aseh, as he had done on previous occasions. The historiographic
note the fact that M. felt impelled to state right at the outset that these
commandments were given immediately upon the Israelites entering the
Land and that he mentioned two commandments that are discussed under
separate cover raises the suspicion that the appointment of a king is not a
typical commandment, one like all others.
I submit that it is the very ambiguity that we noted in the sources that
did not permit M. to state boldly and unequivocally that the appointment of a
king is a positive commandment. Instead, M. took a constructively
ambivalent stance, limiting himself to quoting R. Judah's dictum verbatim
and continuing to refer to the commandment as a mitsvah. It is likely that, in
accordance with common usage, R. Judah was simply referring to the
commendability and not to the obligation of carrying out the three
commandments in the proper sequence: king-'Amaleq-sanctuary. This may
be what M. means when he states that their request had to be prompted "by a
desire to fulfill the commandment (ha-mitsvah)." The entire sequence, king-
the destruction of 'Amaleq-the building of the sanctuary, constitutes, then,
"the" mitsvah.
390
It is interesting to note that M. grounds this sequence-mitsvah in the
prophetic writings rather than in the Torah. It would then appear that we are
in the presence of a halakhah mi-divre qabbalah, i.e., a law derived from
prophetic writings, rather than a scriptural law, a good reason why this
mitsvah should not be called a positive commandment. Note that in contrast
to M.'s exegesis, both the Sifre and bSanhedrin offer scriptural proof-texts, a
fact that does not escape the attention of Joseph Karo and Abraham di
Boton.
77
I would consider that M. probably used the prophetic texts
deliberately to remove any possible doubt about the non-scriptural status of
the advisable sequence.
*
It is interesting to note M.'s changing conception of the role of the
king over time. In the ShM, M. tells us that the king will "unite our words
and lead us all." That is, the king will speak for the nation with one voice.
78
My guess is that M. intended that this single voice or opinion would cover
all matters, legal, political and theological. The king would become the true
representative of the nation.
While M. does not in the Halakhot endow the king with the role of
national spokesman, he does allude to two other, very specific roles, a
77
Kesef Mishneh on 1:1 and Lehem Mishneh on 2:1. The latter argues that M. chose the
prophetic texts because they were more compelling than the scriptural ones and notes that
this practice is common in the Halakhot whenever the new exegesis does not contain
halakhic implications.
78
See Kafih, Sefer ha-Mitsvot, n. 55. In MnT, "who will unite our nation and lead us."
391
military and a religious one. These can be deduced from the introductory
comments quoted earlier and may be one of the reasons M. presented R.
Judah's dictum at the very outset of his presentation. The appointment of the
king precedes the commandment to destroy 'Amaleq and the commandment
to build the sanctuary. In other words, the king is encharged with carrying
out these two commandments. By centralizing power in the hands of the
king and uniting the Israelites, the monarchy allowed the Israelites to fulfill
what R. Judah considered the two principal national missions. This then
appears to be the role of the king in the Halakhot.
Surprisingly, in the GP the king's role is reduced to that of enforcing
the law:
It is clear that as there must be punishments, it is
indispensable to have judges distributed in every town.
There must be testimony of witnesses, and a ruler who
is feared and held in awe and who uses all sorts of
deterrents and fortifies the authority of the judges and
in his turn draws strength from them. (GP III:41: 562)
Gone are the sublime attributes of national spokesman, unifier of the
nation, warrior nonpareil, builder of the divine residence, and even extra-
biblical judge if and when he required it to gain authority (Hilkhot
Melakhim 3:10). In M.'s City, the king rules over his subjects to enforce the
law. The law is supreme.
* *
Traces of M.'s politico-philosophical outlook can be found in a gloss
that explains the commandment in question, though the allusion is,
admittedly, subtle.
392
M. says in the ShM gloss to this commandment, that the king must not
only be held in awe but
our unique respect for him and estimation of his
greatness and pre-eminence must be such as to place
him on a higher level of honour than any of the
prophets of his generation. The Talmud says explicitly:
'The king takes precedence over the prophet'; and
when this king gives an order which is not in conflict
with a commandment of the Torah, we must obey his
behest, and he has the right to put to death by the
sword anyone who disobeys him....The life of anyone
who rebels against the kingly authority, be he who he
may, is forfeit to the king duly appointed in
accordance with the Torah.
Recall that in his introduction to the ShM, M. offers that his intention
in this treatise
is by no means to delve into the details of the laws of
any of the commandments; only to enumerate them.
And if I shall explain some small part of it in the
process of mentioning [the commandments] it will
only be by way of explaining its name, so that the
contents of that positive or negative commandment be
understood, and the reason why that name has been
attached to it. (ShM, ed. Frankel, p.12)
It would seem that these long remarks about the king contradict the
character of the treatise and his programmatic statement. As with other
similar expatiations, however, I suggest that M.'s remarks point to a polemic
of sorts.
The king plays a central position in the political thought of Plato and
the Islamic Platonists, from whom M. took his cue. The philosopher-king, as
is well known, stands at the apex of the Platonic City. At the same time, the
393
prophet, according to the Islamic Platonists, is not only a philosopher but
also a political figure. As Strauss pointed out, "the end of prophecy is
political.. .the supreme role of the prophet is not mantics but political
government."
79
It follows that M.'s statement that "the king takes
precedence over the prophet" is only another way of saying that the king is
the supreme philosopher and the supreme political leader. Following this
brief introduction, M. registers his dissent with al-Farabi when he adds that
unlike the ideal Farabian philosopher-king the Israelite king cannot legislate
nor can he contravene the already revealed law. The king must be obeyed
only when he gives an order "which is not in conflict with a commandment
of the Torah."
In short, using rabbinic language but following in the tradition of the
Islamic Platonists, M. is the first to draw a connection between prophecy and
politics. Then, contra his Islamic colleagues, he goes on to diminish the role
of the king vis-a-vis the law, putting him in an absolutely secondary
80
position. By the time he wrote the GP, M. had reduced the role of the king
to one of merely enforcing the Law.
That one who possesses evidence shall testify in court (P178 in the SE
and ShM enumeration)
79
Strauss, Leo, Philosophy and Law, trans. with an introduction by Eve Adler, SUNY
Series in the Jewish Writings of Strauss (Albany: State University of New York Press,
1995), p. 122.
80
Here and there in his comments in the ShM, M. offers furtive glimpses of his political
philosophy. See, for example, our comments to P191 in section 4.1.
394
This commandment was discussed at some length in section 5.2. Here
I deal with M.'s formulation of the commandment in the Halakhot.
In Hilkhot 'Edut 1:1, M. says, "The witness is commanded
(metsuveh)
81
to provide in Court any testimony he may h a v e . as it says, he
being a witness, whether he hath seen or known, if he do not utter it, then he
shall bear his iniquity." Note that while M. cites the expected proof-text, he
fails nonetheless to declare that providing testimony is a positive
commandment.
The answer, as one may guess from the earlier discussion in chapter 5,
lies in the fact that the verse does not explicitly command one to provide
testimony. As a result, one is merely "advised" (metsuveh) to act in this
manner. The good advice is derived from the implications of the scriptural
pericope. This more nuanced characterization should therefore come as no
82
surprise.
81
This term is ambiguous. There is no way to know if M. meant scripturally
obligated, as in a mitsvat 'aseh, or rabbinically obligated by way of inference from the
scriptural prohibition. What is certainly missing, and this is our issue, is a categorical
statement to the effect that it is a mitsvat 'aseh to testify in court for somebody who
possesses evidence. There are instances where the term metsuveh stands clearly for a
scriptural obligation. See for example Hilkhot Talmud Torah 5:1: "Just as a person is
commanded [metsuveh] regarding the honor of his father and the fear of him, so is he
obligated [hayav] with regards to the honour and fear of his t e a c he r . " In this instance
we can be certain that metsuveh stands for scripturally obligated because M. tells us in
Hilkhot Mamrim 6:1 that to honor and to fear one' s parents is a mitsvat 'aseh. Note the
interesting terminological shift in this halakah: one is metsuveh with regard to one' s
father but one is hayav with regard to one' s teacher. M. needed to draw a difference
between both obligations, the former is scriptural, the latter is merely rabbinic. See infra
our discussion on P209.
82
It is also possible that M. did not refer to this advise or command as a mitsvat 'aseh
because it is a contingent commandment. However, the more convincing reason is that
there is no scriptural basis for the positive commandment. Surprisingly, the Halakhot do
not include the prohibition to withhold evidence in the formulation of the negative
395
That the hired laborer eat [of the produce he is reaping] while he is
employed (P201)
This commandment was also examined in some detail in 5.1.2.c.
This is how M. phrases the halakhah in Hilkhot Sekhirut 12:1:
. behol d, it is proper [mitsvah] of the employer that he
should allow them [the laborers] to eat from [the
produce] with which they are working, as it says When
thou comest into thy neighbor's vineyard, etc.
[Deuteronomy 23:25] and it says When thou comest
into the standing corn of thy neighbor, etc.
[Deuteronomy 23:26]...
Note M.'s deliberate avoidance of the term mitsvat 'aseh; instead, he
calls the commandment a mitsvah.
M. had already used rabbinic sources to demonstrate in the ShM that
Scripture permits the laborer to eat the produce on which he works (at a
certain stage of production). As formulated in the SE/ShM, one could
conclude, mistakenly as it turns out, that this permission is a right and that,
moreover, the owner is obligated to let the laborer eat from the produce. In
the Halakhot, in my opinion, M. corrects this impression: the laborer has no
right to the produce; he is merely permitted to eat it. Moreover, there is no
obligation on the part of the owner to allow the laborer to eat from the
commandment. In Hilkhot Rotsheah 1:14, M. lists a number of occasions on which one
must come to the help of a person in trouble, covered under the admonition Neither shalt
thou stand idly by the blood of any neighbor, but fails to list among them, as he did in his
ShM comments to N297, the prohibition to withhold evidence.
396
produce; it is only proper, a special case of "exceeding kindness,"
83
that he
do so. This explains the halakhahs peculiar use of the term mitsvah,
conveying the sense of "proper, commendable" rather than mitsvat 'aseh,
which conveys obligation.
84
To rebuke the sinner (P205 in the SE and ShM enumeration)
This commandment claim is formulated in the ShM as follows:
to rebuke one who is sinning or is disposed to sin, to
85
admonish him verbally against sinning and to
reprove him... This injunction is contained in His
words, exalted be He, Thou shalt surely rebuke thy
neighbor [Leviticus 19:17].
Immediately thereafter, M. adds:
Included in this commandment is [the obligation] on
anyone who is injured by another to rebuke him, and
not to bear him a grudge or entertain any evil thought
of him. We are commanded to rebuke [the offender]
aloud, so that no [ill-feeling] against him shall be left
in our heart.
83
GP III:42: 569. See comments to P201 in the Appendix. Note that "exceeding
kindness" could also cover the less formal category of mitsvah min ha-muvhar, a good
deed that is beyond the call of duty.
84
Rabbinic sources do not support the idea that the owner is obligated to let the hired
hand take from the produce. See Perla' s extensive discussion of this issue and the
objections that he raises to M.' s position. It turns out that these objections emerge from
his understanding that mitsvat 'aseh in the ShM implies an obligation. Perla, Sefer ha-
Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 2, N267, pp. 653-5. The nuanced reading that I suggest could at
least resolve this problem.
85
Or, following MnT, "to restrain him verbally."
397
Though M. does not cite direct rabbinic evidence for either of these
two interpretations, it is reasonably clear from the sources to which he
alludes that he believes that the Sages understood the term rebuke
(hokhahah) as rebuking one who is sinning. This is indicated by the
explanation that he gives:
that this commandment is binding upon every person,
so that even an inferior is under obligation to rebuke a
man of high rank, and even if he is met with curses and
insults, he may not desist or cease rebuking him until
he is beaten as explained by those who handed
down the tradition: they said 'to the point of suffering
blows.'
The apparent source for this comment is b'Arakhin 16b. The talmudic
passage states:
Whence do we know that if a man sees something
unseemly in his neighbour, he is obliged to reprove
him? Because it is said: Thou shalt surely rebuke. If he
rebuked him and he did not accept it, whence do we
know that he must rebuke him again? The text states:
surely rebuke all ways. One might assume [this to be
obligatory] even though his face blanched, therefore
the text states: Thou shalt not bear sin because of him.
That M. has this talmudic passage in mind is made evident when he
says, "As explained by those who handed down the tradition: they said 'to
the point of suffering blows.'" M. is referring to the amora Rav, quoted
towards the end of the above passage, who in response to the question,
"How far shall reproof be administered?" answered: "Until he [the reprover]
be beaten." Now, M. adduces further support for the idea that one must not
desist from rebuking until the message is accepted from a midrash:
398
How do we know that even if one has rebuked the
offender four or five times, he must still rebuke him
again and again? Because Scripture says Thou shalt
surely rebuke thy neighbor [Leviticus 19:17] even a
thousand times. One might think that in rebuking him
you may cause him shame [and should therefore
refrain]: Scripture therefore says, Thou shalt not bear
sin because of him
8
(Sifra, Qedoshim pereq 4:8, 89a)
In rabbinic literature, the term hokhahah often has the connotation of
admonishing for the sake of disciplining, changing wayward behavior, and it
is in this sense that we see it used in b 'Arakhin 16b. This too appears to be
what the aforementioned Sifra has in mind when it speaks of admonishing
repeatedly, presumably to change behavior. M.' s second interpretation,
however, has a distinctly different flavor. Here, one informs his offender that
he has been hurt so that he does not harbor further ill-will towards him. The
rebuke in this case is of therapeutic benefit. This, I believe, is clearly the
import of his words, "We are commanded to rebuke [the offender] aloud, so
that no [ill-feeling] against him shall be left in our heart." In the Halakhot,
M. is even clearer: "But it is his duty to inform [mitsvah 'alav le-hody'o] the
offender and say to him 'Why did you do this to me? Why did you sin
against me in this matter?'" Note that he informs the offender; he does not
rebuke him. That M. believes this to be the plain sense of the verse is evident
from his comment at N303. After explaining that the Sages indicated that
86
Since one would bear sin by shaming the rebuked, one must not go that far. M. uses
this passage to support the claim that it is prohibited to shame a person (N303), though,
interestingly, in light of our further discussion, he rejects this fanciful reading: "The plain
sense of the verse, however, is that we are forbidden to retain any thought of his sin or to
remember it." In other words, the purpose of rebuking someone is to put the offense out
of one' s own mind, not to discipline the offender.
399
one must rebuke the sinner repeatedly but stop just before he suffers shame
hence the source for the prohibition to shame a person he says: "The
plain sense of the verse, however, is that we are forbidden to retain any
thought of his sin or to remember it." Rebuking a person for a sin does little
to erase the thought of the sin. If the sin is simply an offense done against a
person, however, rebuking the offender does help the aggrieved to dismiss
the incident.
We allow ourselves two further observations. M.'s second
interpretation is as psychologically valid and textually sensitive as it is
original. He adduces no sources for this view, though, to be fair,
commentators have put forth one possible rabbinic source.
87
My assumption
is that M. did not see this source, or he would have cited it. I base this on the
fact that the ShM is an argumentative work. As such, it stands to reason that
M. would use every opportunity and every source that could reasonably help
him to substantiate his case. Second, it is interesting to note that M.
considered the novel and original interpretation secondary, "included in this
commandment." This points to an ambiguity in the scriptural text that is
difficult to countenance, one that expresses two totally unrelated thoughts.
What precisely, we are entitled to ask, is the law?
In the Halakhot, M. changes direction. He presents both claims side
by side, without indicating which of the claims is linked to the primary
meaning of the verse and which to the secondary one. Just as important, he
87
"R. Elazar ben Matia said: If there is a matter [davar] between him and yourself, tell
him and do not be a sinner about it [bo]. This is the meaning of Thou shalt not hate thy
brother in thy heart, etc. and not bear sin because of him." Seder Eliyahu Rabah ve-Seder
Eliyahu Zuta, ed. Meir Ish Shalom (Jerusalem: Sifre Wahrman, 1969),chap 18, p. 109.
See also Yalqut Shimoni, (Saloniki: 1526-7(part I), 1521 (part II)), ad loc.
400
reverses the order of the ShM, insinuating that the interpretation that is closer
to the plain sense is primary. In HD 6:5, M. rules that "[w]hoever entertains
in his heart hatred of any Israelite, transgresses a prohibition, as it is said
Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart...." This is followed in halakhah
6 by its natural correlative:
When a man sins against another, the injured party
should not hate the offender and keep silent, as it is
said concerning the wicked And Absalom spake to
Amnon neither good nor evil, for Absalom hated
Amnon (2 Sam 13:22). But it is his duty [mitsvah] to
inform the offender and say to him 'Why did you do
this to me? Why did you sin against me in this matter?'
And thus it is said Thou shalt surely rebuke thy
neighbor [Leviticus 19:17].
M. sees this text as enjoining one to express displeasure to an offender
for having injured him in some fashion, which, as we noted earlier, accords
with the plain meaning of the words and with the context of the verse.
It is only in halakhah 7 that M. discusses the commandment in the
manner that he had defined it in the ShM:
If one observes that a person committed a sin or walks
in a way that is not good, it is proper [mitsvah] to bring
the erring man back to the right path and point out to
him that he is wronging himself by his evil courses, as
it is said Thou shalt surely rebuke thy neighbor. .
Both halakhah 6 and halakhah 7 are constructed as good counsels
instead of obligations, since they use the term mitsvah and not mitsvah
'aseh. Moreover, the message of halakhah 6 is reinforced rhetorically by
suggesting that it is "wicked" to hate an offender and keep silent and by
illustrating the concept with a reference to the infamous Absalom. It appears
401
that the scriptural injunction by itself is not sufficiently persuasive to support
the claim.
In sum, M. is torn between two interpretations of a verse, each
offering an entirely different understanding of Scripture. Perhaps unhappy
with the idea that a positive commandment about which, recall, there was
not supposed to be dissension can express two such disparate notions at
the same time, M. opts for the juridically more cautious option and
characterizes both ideas as simply good counsels (mitsvot). Or perhaps this
is simply a case of constructive ambivalence.
88
To honour the wise (P209)
M. supports this claim in the SE by citing the first half of Leviticus
19:32, Thou shalt rise before the hoary head. In the ShM, M. cites the entire
verse to help him make an additional point: "to respect scholars and to rise
before them in order to do them honour. It is contained in His words Thou
shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the face of the old man." In
support of this reading, M. adduces a midrash Sifra (not found in our
edition, but see ShM ed. Heller, note 10) that connects the two adjoining
verbs in the proof-text to produce a meaning of "rising in the manner of
manifesting honour."
88
It is worth noting that M. did not list this commandment among the sixty
unconditional obligations (mitsvot hekhrehiyot), a sign perhaps that already at an early
stage he did not consider it as an obligation.
402
M. does not tell us in the ShM what prompted him to read "wise" into
the verse rather than simply "old man." Uncharacteristically, he does not
adduce a single rabbinic warrant to support this interpretation. This is
methodologically odd, especially since the literal sense of the terms hoary
head and old man present no interpretative difficulties
89
and should, by
itself, support a claim to honour the aged. The gap is not due to a lack of
rabbinic interpretative material, as we shall see, but rather suggests a certain
degree of discomfort with the "authoritativeness" of the material.
A baraita cited in bQiddushin 32b reports the following three-way
tannaitic controversy on the interpretation of our verse:
Our Rabbis taught: Thou shalt rise up before the hoary
head; I might think, even before an aged sinner [zaqen
ashamai]; therefore it is said, and honour the face of a
zaqen, and zaqen can only refer to a sage, for it is said:
Gather unto me seventy men of the elders of Israel
[Numbers 11:16]. R. Yose the Galilean said: Zaqen
means only he who has acquired wisdom,
90
for it is
said: The Lord possessed me [sc. wisdom personified]
as the beginning of his way [Proverbs 8:22] Issi b.
Judah said: Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head
implies even any hoary head. [Even a gentile and a
sinner!]
[Gemara:] But is not R.Yose the Galilean identical
with the first tanna? They differ in respect to a
young sage: the first tanna holds that a young sage is
89
See the comments of Ibn Ezra and Saadia, ad loc. On the other hand, the Aramaic
translator Onqelos, influenced by rabbinic exegesis as we shall see, translates hoary head
as "someone who knows Torah."
90
R. Yose the Galilean renders zaqen as "one who acquired wisdom" by means of a word
play: zaqen=Zeh she-QaNah hokhmah.
403
not [included in the precept], whereas R.Yose the
Galilean holds that he is.
Issi b. Judah said: Thou shalt rise up before the
hoary head implies even any hoary head. R.Yohanan
said: The halakhah is as Issi b. Judah. R.Yohanan used
to rise before the heathen aged, saying: 'How many
troubles have passed over these!' Raba would not rise
up, yet he showed them respect. Abaye used to give
his hand to the aged. Raba sent his messengers.
The tannaitic material is discordant and, with the exception of Issi b.
Judah, exhibits a strong leaning away from the literal sense. Even Issi b.
Judah's position is qualified by the later Amoraim, who refuse to grant the
heathen aged a full measure of honour. One might reasonably conclude from
the above passage that tradition rejected the literal sense but was seriously
divided on the true meaning of the verse.
We can now gain a better appreciation of what M. does in the
Halakhot. The tannaitic rejection of the peshateyh di-qra, in this case the
literal sense, precludes M. from adopting it as the mitsvat 'aseh. At the same
time, the lack of consensus on the matter militates against the possibility of
any of these opinions being called a halakhah mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah. This
leaves M. with only one choice -that of calling the command to honour the
wise/scholar a mitsvah. As used on this occasion, the term is constructively
ambivalent, standing for a scriptural counsel or a rabbinic obligation. Thus
we find (6:1): "It is commendable [mitsvah] to honour every scholar, even if
he is not one's teacher, as it is said Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head,
404
and honour the face of the old man, he who acquired wisdom [zaqen, zeh
she-QaNah hokhmah].. .."
91
A bit further on (6:9), M. adds:
One rises (omdin le-fanav) before an old man,
advanced in years, even if he is not a sage. Even a
learned man who is young rises up before an old man
of advanced age. He is not obliged however to rise to
his full height but need only raise himself sufficiently
to indicate courtesy. Even a gentile who is aged should
be shown courtesy in speech [mehadrin oto bi-
devarim]; and one should extend a hand to support
him, as it is said Thou shalt rise up before the hoary
head, and honour the face of the old man, without
qualification.
92
While the term mitsvah used here is conceivably sufficient warrant for
our claim that the commandment to honour the wise/scholar does not enjoy
the force of a scriptural obligation, I believe to have found a subtle
confirmation of this view in the peculiar arrangement of chapters 5 and 6 of
the Halakhot. We begin with the ShM. In his lengthy comments on this
commandment in the ShM, M. digresses from the original claim in order to
include in it a more intense application of the commandment, the duty to
honour one's teacher. He says:
91
M. follows here the opinion of R. Yose the Galilean, who makes no distinction
between a young and an aged scholar. See Karo, Joseph, Kesef Mishneh (Printed in
standard editions of Mishneh Torah), ad loc.
92
M. follows here the opinions of R. Yohanan, Raba and Abaye, who qualify Issi b.
Judah' s position. See Karo, Kesef Mishneh , ad loc. Qarqovsky, 'Avodat ha-Melekh ,
citing an earlier authority, wonders why M. does not enumerate in TaRYaG the
commandment to honour any old man, as per 6:9. See his discussion in comments to 6:1.
As argued earlier, the watered-down version of Issi b. Judah cannot be made to denote the
literal sense of the verse, which thereby precludes it from being enumerated.
405
. whi l e this commandment to respect scholars is a
duty incumbent on all alike . i t is especially and in a
large measure obligatory on a disciple, who owes
much greater respect to his teacher than to any other
scholar, and has the duty of fearing him as well, since
the Sages state clearly that one's duty to one's teacher
is greater than one's duty to one's father, whom one is
enjoined to honour and to f e a r .
M. goes on to prove, in midrashic style, that contending against one's
teacher is like contending against God. M. concludes: "All the foregoing is
deduced from the scriptural injunction to honour scholars and parents, as is
clear from the language of the Talmud, not that this
93
should be an
independent commandment."
It is clear from these comments that the special obligation to give
honour to one's teacher is subsumed under the general obligation to honour
a scholar. Yet, in the Halakhot, M. places the laws relating to honouring
one's teacher in the chapter immediately preceding the one dealing with the
commandment to honour the wise/scholar. Moreover, M. completely
detaches the commandment to honour one's teacher from the commandment
to honour a scholar and instead makes it totally dependent on the
commandment to honour and fear one's father: "Just as a person is
commanded [metsuveh] regarding the honour of his father and the fear of
him, so is he obligated [hayav] with regards to the honour and fear of his
t eacher . " (Hilkhot Talmud Torah 5:1).
93
Chavel adds here on his own and in brackets: "and the fear of one' s teacher" to indicate
that M. was speaking about the command to fear the teacher. But this need not be so; M.
could be referring to both fear and honour or perhaps just honour.
406
Why this change? I believe that this literary arrangement reveals M.'s
new appreciation of the commandment under review. Seeing that no explicit
references can be found in Scripture for the duty to honour and fear one's
teacher, M. attempts to anchor this important notion on a scriptural
commandment. In the ShM, M. anchors the duty to fear one's teacher on the
commandment to fear one's father and the duty to honour one's teacher on
the commandment to honour scholars in general. If, however, as we argued
above, M. ended up relegating the duty to honour scholars to a non-
scriptural status, then it stands to reason that he could no longer anchor the
duty to honour one's teacher on the duty to honour scholars. This would
explain the strategic re-positioning of the duty to honour and fear one's
teacher in the Halakhot and its total dependence on the commandment to
honour one's father.
In sum, what may have been held out in the SE/ShM as an obligation
with scriptural force to honour scholars becomes simply a mitsvah in the
Halakhot, a commendable deed probably with the force of a rabbinic
obligation.
9.5 Absolute Reversals
To give the Levites cities to dwell in (P183)
In the SE, M. states that these cities are to serve as cities of refuge.
The ShM adds that the Levites are to receive these cities "because they
received no portion in the Land." This link, cities of refuge in compensation
for a territorial portion in the Land, is made even more explicit in the
407
heading to Hilkhot Shemitah ve-Yovel: "That the entire tribe of Levites must
not take possession in the Land of Israel; instead, they are granted cities that
they may dwell in them in the form of gifts."
94
Problematically, the directive that they give unto the Levites of the
inheritance of their possession cities to dwell in appears to be binding only
for the time of the Conquest, and, under Rule 3, commandments that are not
binding for all time must not be enumerated.
95
In the Halakhot, M. seems to
have come to precisely this conclusion. In 13:1 of Hilkhot Shemitah ve-
Yovel, he writes: "Even though the tribe of Levi has no portion in the Land,
the Israelites were already commanded (kvar nitstavu) to give them cities to
dwell..." (my emphasis). Note the narrative mode with its use of the past
tense, and note, too, that no mention whatsoever is made of the possibility
that this is a positive commandment. It is clear that the handover of these
special cities of refuge was an historical event; it did not constitute a
commandment binding for all time.
The appearance of this claim in the ShM, in contravention of
Rule 3, may be due to M.' s desire to emphasize the landless status of the
Levites and their (here unspoken) spiritual role in society. They were to be
the servants of the Lord and the teachers of Israel. Similarly, in N169 and
94
Note that Deuteronomy 18:1-3 prohibits the Levitical priests from owning territory in
the Land of Israel but makes no mention of their being given cities of refuge. The
compensatory aspect of the gift is original.
95
Horowitz, Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Perush Yad ha-Levi , ad loc., in an attempt to get
around this problem, speculates that other cities, which would not function as cities of
refuge, would also be given to the Levites, especially as their population increased. I
could find no indication of this in any of M. ' s writings. Perla, in Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-
RaSaG, vol. 3, 423, suggests that neither Gabirol nor Eliyahu ha-Zaqen counted this
commandment because the commandment was not binding for all time.
408
170, M. goes to great efforts to prove that the prohibitions against the
Levites acquiring a portion in the Land of Israel and sharing in the spoil of
the conquest of the Land represent two prohibitions, not one as they may
seem at first. Again here we find a tendency towards emphasizing the
Levites' special status. The Levites, as well as anyone who agrees to divest
himself of earthly goods and dedicate himself to the service of the Lord, are
to be supported financially by the rest of Israel
96
That the newly married husband shall give happiness to his wife
(P214)
The claim in the ShM is "that a bridegroom is to devote himself to his
wife for a full year, in the course of which he is not to go on a journey,
97
or
on a war abroad, or to undertake any obligation of a like nature." The
commandment claim undergoes a substantial revision in the heading to
Hilkhot Melakhim, where it appears as follows: "That those who betroth a
woman (meares, from erusim), or build a house or plant a vineyard be happy
with their acquisition a full year and they are returned from the war [front]."
To appreciate this change, one needs to look more closely at two
scriptural sections: Deuteronomy 20:1-9, which deals with the anointed
priest pericope (P191), and Deuteronomy 24:5, a section dealing with a new
husband's deferral from military service. In the anointed priest section we
96
. See Hilkhot Shemitah ve-Yovel 13:12-13.
97
MnT reads here "not to go outside the city."
409
are told that a man is returned from the battlefront under any of the
following three circumstances: he has built a house but not yet dedicated it,
he has planted a vineyard but not yet harvested it, or he has betrothed a
woman but not yet married her. The text is silent with respect to being able
to enjoy these acquisitions for any specific period of time. Deuteronomy
24:5, on the other hand, stipulates that a new husband is exempt from
military service one full year and shall give happiness [instead of cheer;
Hebrew ve-simah] to his wife whom he hath taken.
In the SE/ShM, M. treats these two sections separately. The
commandment to return certain individuals from the battlefront is subsumed
under P191, and the commandment to exempt a new husband from military
service and to (or so that he can) give happiness to his wife for one year
becomes P214.
By way of contrast, in the Heading to Hilkhot Melakhim, M.
conflates these two sections. He extends on the basis of tradition the one-
year reprieve in which one is "to be happy" with his acquisition to those who
have built a house and/or have planted a vineyard
98
and he confirms the
three types of returnees from the battlefront. This formulation is not entirely
precise
99
and can probably be attributed to considerations of brevity and the
strains of the conflation. The Heading is non-committal with respect to
actively entertaining the new wife; it is content with stating that those who
98
mSotah 8:3 parses Deuteronomy 24:5 and expounds it to include the acquisitions
discussed in the section on the returnees from the battlefront.
99
While it is true that the bridegroom (arus) is returned from the battlefront, only married
men are enjoined to make their wives happy for the first year (hanose et arusato)
according to mSotah 8:3. The Halakhot corrects this imprecision.
410
betroth a woman, or build a house or plant a vineyard "be happy with their
acquisition a full year."
In the Halakhot, M. introduces two corrections to the heading's
formula and omits any reference to a positive commandment to give
happiness to the new wife. Hilkhot Melakhim 7:3 discusses the return from
the battlefield of men who find themselves in the three above-noted
situations. This is done in the context of the speech that the anointed priest
makes prior to entering battle, making this stipulation clearly part of the law
of the anointed priest (P191). M. repeats verbatim the speech that Scripture
puts in the mouth of the specially anointed priest: a house that has as yet
"not been dedicated," a vineyard that has as yet "not been eaten" (lit., "not
been treated as non-sacred"), a woman whom he has betrothed "but not
married." The halakhah is silent about these men taking one year off upon
their return home, as claimed in the heading. On the contrary, when they
leave the battlefield, they return to logistical support, providing water and
food for the troops and repairing the roads (ibid, 7:9).
Halakhah 10 prescribes with respect to men who do not go out
to the battlefield "at all [kol iqar] and are not inconvenienced (matrihin) for
anything in the world," namely, a man who has built a house and "dedicated
it," one who has "married the woman whom he had betrothed," and one who
"has eaten from his vineyard." Note that the one-year reprieve is not for him
who has betrothed a woman, as stated in the heading, but for "one who
married the woman whom he had betrothed." Halakhah 11 fleshes out this
exemption, which runs for an entire year:
He neither provides water and food (to the troops), nor
does he repair the roads, guard the walls of the city or
contribute to the pillars of the city, as it says, He shall
not go out in the host, neither shall he be charged with
411
any business [Deuteronomy 24:5], [this teaches that he
may] transgress on two prohibitions, regarding the
needs of the city and regarding the needs of the troops
[lit., "not the needs of the city and not the needs of the
troops"].
This law, or rather this exemption, is stated in the negative, "and these
men don't go out.. .they are not inconvenienced.. .he neither provides water,
etc.," in keeping with the adduced proof-text. It is clear that in 7:10-11, M.
conveys only prohibitions those that were formulated in N311 in the ShM
(N310 in the SE). Crucially, the positive commandment of shall give
happiness to his wife is never articulated. Moreover, there is an interesting
difference between the ShM and the Halakhot. While the former claims, as
part of the positive commandment, that the new husband is not to go on a
journey or go outside the city, the Halakhot are silent on this point, even as
they spell out the prohibitions, namely, that he is not to repair roads, nor
watch the city gates nor join the army. There are no traces of the legal
obligation stipulated in P214 of the ShM. The new reading simply takes shall
give happiness to his wife as a volitional activity.
100
To sum up, the commandments concerning the returnees from the
battlefront and the obligation of the newly married man to give happiness to
his wife during the first year underwent a complex development and were
subjected to substantial revisions throughout M.' s various compositions.
With respect to what concerns us, we demonstrated that the Halakhot omit
100
True, the proof-text he shall be free at home one year and shall give happiness to his
wife is adduced in 7:10. Nevertheless, it is cited only to present the text underlying the
traditional exposition, which parses this text in a way to show that the one-year
exemption also applies to one who has bought a house and one who has eaten from a new
vineyard.
412
any reference or allusion to a presumed obligation to make a newly married
wife happy or to the impropriety of the new husband's going on a journey or
out of the city. I should note that M. did not adduce support of any sort for
his claim in the ShM other than the scriptural proof-text itself, which, as we
saw, could be read as merely stating a fact husbands make their new
wives happy in their first year of marriage. Alternatively, and shall give
happiness to his wife could be read as granting the husband the opportunity
to gratify his wife rather than obligating him to do so. Whatever the reason
for M.' s reversal, the fact is that P214 finds no echo in the Halakhot, not as a
mitsvat 'aseh, not even as a correct practice nor as a commendable
activity.
101
101
In a very recent article, D. Henshke, too, concludes that the Halakhot omit the
supposed commandment. Henshke ascribes the reason for this change of heart to a
number of technical factors, among them, Alfasi' s silence on the matter and the
municipal tax exemptions stipulated in Tosefta and Talmud Yerushalmi, which imply that
the one-year holiday is not for the purpose of giving happiness to the wife since these
taxes do not force the new husband to absent himself from the home. As an aside
Henshke notes that the ShM follows Qayyara's lead in claiming that there is positive
commandment to give happiness to a new wife. In effect, Qayyara' s entry reads "to cheer
a bride" (le-sameah kallah; Pq149). In footnote 26, Henshke explains that this
interpretation of Qayyara' s entry is not all that certain and refers the reader to Perla and
to Hildesheimer, Haqdamat , note 387. Although Henshke acknowledges those who
disagree with his interpretation of Pq149, he does not appear to be swayed by their
argument. And yet, it is quite plausible that le-sameah kallah stands for the rabbinic
obligation imposed on the public at large to entertain a bride on her wedding day, based
on Qayyara's use of the word "bride" (kallah) instead of "his wife" (ishto). Henshke, D.,
"Ve-Simah et Ishto: Le-Toldot Shitat ha-RaMBaM," Qovetz ha-RaMBaM (Sinai), ed.
Yosef E. Mobshobitz, vol. 135-136 (Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav Kook, 2005).
413
Summary and Conclusion
In chapter 6 we identified an unusual phenomenon in the Halakhot,
namely, M.' s failure to designate as positive commandments 109 claims that
he had previously made in the SE and ShM. More precisely, these
designations are notably absent from the statement(s) M. makes as he
introduces these commandments. For reasons given, I argued that these
failures were deliberate omissions and suggested that they reflected a more
cautious and more detailed reassessment of the sources. For the balance of
chapter 6 and in chapters 7 through 9, I developed a framework by which we
might come to explain the reason or reasons for which M. withheld the said
designation in each instance.
Explanations came under three broad categories: 1) alternative
individuations, mostly of a more inclusive nature; 2) a failure to meet the
new criteria of what constitutes a positive commandment (in contrast to what
we saw in the SE/ShM, positive commandments in the Halakhot equate to
unconditional obligations and obligations that are contingent on the ordinary
life of an ordinary person, as spelled out by M. in his appendix to the
positive commandments in the ShM [mitsvot hekhrehiyot]); 3) reversals, that
is, a change of opinion with respect to the original commandment claim.
Reversals, in turn, took the following forms: a. some commandments were
reformulated as correct practices rather than as scriptural obligations,
evincing the use of a very common mishnaic linguistic feature, the
participle. I conjectured that these practices had their origin in scribal
activity and were meant for the most part to concretize/ objectify scriptural
metaphors; b. other commandments were denoted simply "mitsvah" to better
414
reflect their more subtle standing of counsel rather than obligation. We noted
that behind each of these designations stood one or more hermeneutic
difficulties that would not permit M. to designate the commandment a
mitsvat 'aseh; c. finally, the balance, representing just two commandments,
disappear entirely from the count of obligations, recommendations or
practices. They represent, so to speak, absolute reversals vis a vis the
TaRYaG count of the SE/ShM.
Table 2, below, summarizes our findings (notations for the column
"Reason for the Omission" correspond to the description given in the
paragraph above):
Reason for the omission Positive commandment Section
where dealt with
P18 8
P41-51 6.4
P68 6.4
P113 6.4
P114-117 6.4
P149-152 6.4
P159-160 6.4
P162-163 6.4
P166-167 6.4
P169 6.4
1 P191 6.4, 4.1
1 P226-229 6.4
415
2 P9 6.3.1
2 P14 6.3.1
2 P26 6.3.1
2 P70 6.3
2 P71 6.3
2 P72 6.3
2 P74 6.3
2 P75 6.3
2 P76 6.3
2 P77 6.3
2 P87 6.3
2 P95 6.3
2 P96-108 6.3
2 P109 6.3
2 P119 6.3
2 P139 6.3
2 P145 6.3
2 P148 6.3
2 P172 6.1.1, 9.4
2 P181 6.3
2 P190 6.3
2 P199 6.3
2 P221 6.3
416
2 P222 6.3
2 P232-234 6.3
2 P236-246 6.3
2 P247 6.3
2 P248 6.3
3a P10 8
3a P11 8
3a P12 8
3a P13 8
3a P15 8
3a P 1 2 7 - 1 30 8
3a P 1 6 8 8
3b P3 9.3
3b P4 9.3
3b P8 9.4
3b P34 9.3
3b P 2 0 9 9.4
3b P 2 0 1 9.4
3b P 2 0 5 9.4
3b P 1 7 3 9.4
3b P 1 7 8 9.4
3c P2 1 4 9.5
3c P 1 8 3 9.5
In light of this, one can safely state that M. in the Halakhot had
abandoned his original project of identifying and listing precisely 248
417
positive commandments. Moreover, there is no indication whatever in the
body of the work that M. attempted to replace the missing commandment
claims. I found only one instance in which M. identifies a new positive
commandment, that at Hilkhot Rotsheah 11:4, where he says:
Similarly, regarding any obstacle which is dangerous
to life, there is a positive commandment (mitsvat
'aseh) to remove it and to be beware of it, and to be
particularly careful in this matter, for Scripture says,
Take heed unto thyself and take care of thy life
[Deuteronomy 4: 9] . .
1
Arguably, changes in the manner that M. individuated certain
commandments do not constitute a fundamental revision to the original
conception of what a commandment is, even as these changes clearly
impacted the count. Similarly, while the more conventional use of the term
mitsvat 'aseh in the Halakhot eliminated quite a number of commandments
from the original TaRYaG count, such as commandments and procedures
contingent on extra-ordinary conditions, these same commandments and
procedures became obligatory nonetheless under a new set of circumstances.
It should be remembered that M.'s assumption - explicitly spelled out in the
list of sixty compulsory commandments - that contingencies in the course of
1
This commandment is clearly independent of Then thou shalt make a parapet for thy
roof (Deuteronomy 22:8), enumerated in the SE/ShM as P184. I suggest quite hesitatingly
that the language of the ShM at P184 could accommodate this injunction, under what
initially may have been a broader and more figurative understanding of Then thou shalt
make a parapet for thy roof but what is now narrowly defined as an injunction related
only to physical structures. Babad, Minhat Hinnukh , mitsvah #546, paragraph 11,
struggles to find M.' s source but nonetheless agrees with our assessment, namely that
Take heed, etc. is an independent commandment. For another possible exception, see
Hilkhot Avel 2:6 and what we have to say with regard to it in comments to P37, section
5:2, above.
418
"normal conditions" are to be enumerated as obligations is quite arbitrary
since widely different results would be obtained under slightly different
personal, social and political circumstances. Nevertheless, it seems clear that
the sum total of all these factors makes the list of commandments highly
malleable and the task of arriving at a precise and single number impractical
and even futile. In short, the need to create an outline did not justify the
enormously complex task of compiling an enumeration of scriptural
commandments that would total exactly 613 entries. This, I believe, was
tacitly acknowledged in the Halakhot.
Of special interest and perhaps of more fundamental import, however,
is that in the process of tracking M.'s commitment to TaRYaG we
discovered that he had made significant changes in the Halakhot in the way
he presented a number of particular commandments. We deemed these
changes to be deliberate and worth exploring. After examining all such
occasions, we concluded that M. had indeed reclassified and /or redefined
certain previously enumerated commandments, and that he had studiously
and methodically indicated such changes by means of subtle linguistic and
literary devices. As we understood them, these commandments no longer
were held to be scriptural obligations, either because they did not convey the
true sense of Scripture or because they lacked the force of obligation. For
example, while M. the authoritative decisor, or poseq, rules that the
recitation of the Shema is an obligation, M. the legal philosopher and
scriptural exegete posits that the obligation to recite the Shema is merely a
"correct practice" and that the true scriptural commandment entails a
cognitive act. We see much the same in a number of other instances. M. the
poseq rules that one is obligated to learn Torah, to put on phylacteries, and
to affix a mezuzah to one's doorpost, while M. the legal philosopher reduces
419
these obligations to correct practices, rabbinic expressions of scriptural
intentions and therefore mitsvot mi-divre sofrim, rather than genuine
scriptural obligations. By the same token, M., the poseq, rules that one must
love God, fear Him and imitate Him. M., the legal philosopher, on the other
hand, finds that while Scripture recommends and encourages these acts, it
certainly does not obligate one to do so.
At the risk of too facile a generalization, one might say that in the
ShM/SE and in their derivative, the Headings, M. offers little more than
halakhic conclusions, the praxis of Judaism. He is the classic poseq. In the
Halakhot, on the other hand, M. examines rabbinic sources with a view to
differentiate man-made interpretation from the true intent of Scripture. In
consequence of the above, it is important to maintain a firm distinction
between the Headings and the Halakhot. Not only do the Headings not fill in
'gaps' in the Halakhot, but, often, they stand in flagrant contradiction to
later formulations, as we have seen on many occasions. Here again M.
demonstrates an extraordinary capacity to address two audiences
simultaneously, as Kellner has already shown: the multitudes and the
Talmudists interested in praxis, the jurisprudential and exegetical
community interested in the whys, the whererefores and the intentions of the
Law. If the Headings serve a purpose, it is that they serve as a faithful
outline to the contents of the Halakhot, much as M. had planned at the outset
of his ShM project.
If M. had not intended to conceal this lack of interest in TaRYaG by
providing Headings to the 89 treatises of the MT that totaled in fact 613
commandments -and I certainly believe he did not -he certainly succeeded
in diverting scholarly attention from this issue. To the unsuspecting reader
of the text of the Halakhot, it seemed that M. merely followed the original
420
plan and that he was dealing with the commandments in the same way he
had dealt with them in the SE, ShM and the Headings. Perhaps as a result of
this presentation, little or no attention was paid to the way M. formulated the
commandments in the text of the Halakhot themselves. Slight differences in
the way the commandment claims were formulated in the SE/ShM and the
Headings, or the Headings and the legal text, were occasionally noted and
(for the most part) widely accepted, being ascribed to the inevitable product
of a fertile and maturing mind. That M. had changed his mind with respect
to certain commandments, that he no longer considered some of them
obligatory nor scripturally ordained, was never suspected. Surely, it was
assumed, M. remained wedded to the tradition of the TaRYaG.
We began our inquiry with a simple question. Why would M. base a
table of contents for the contemplated Code of Law on a midrash that
suggested a set number of commandments for which absolutely no criteria
existed and which therefore could never be reconstructed? The question
gained additional force, in our opinion, when we observed that this very
number, TaRYaG (613), which claimed to represent the totality of the
Torah's commandments, was homiletically derived. This suggested that the
midrash was of an aggadic rather than of a halakhic nature, a less-than-
compelling precedent on which to base a juridical work. We noted that,
perhaps for this reason, some of M.'s predecessors declared themselves not
bound to this tradition. What is more, they dismissed the mathematically
precise pretensions of the midrash, well aware of its dependence on some set
of criteria for which no rabbinic precedent existed.
421
The problems multipled. To arrive at the desired numerical target, M.
was forced to change the meaning of a well established term. The term
mitsvat 'aseh, used in rabbinic literature to represent an unconditional
obligation was implicitly redefined to include procedures and legal concepts,
rubrics which lack even a minimal trace of obligatoriness. The proposed
typology of mitsvot went well beyond the rabbinic understanding of the term
and well beyond the description given in the homiletic midrash itself.
According to the midrash, the number 613 was assigned to represent every
limb in the body and every day of the year, and these figures urged the
person to constantly perform the commandments. This suggests that the
midrash did not have in its purview legal concepts and laws. Moving even
further away from the implications of the term mitsvah, M. claimed an
important number of mitsvot that were related to the ways uncleanness is
imparted. These were no more than legal concepts. Sensing the difficulty,
M. explained that he did not mean "commandment" in the conventional
sense of the word, since "if a man wants to become unclean, he does, and if
he does not, he does not." Still, he did not explain why he thought these
claims should be counted, prompting his most thorough and thoughtful
critic, Nahmanides, to exclaim in exasperation that these commandments
"are optional [reshut] from all angles. They have no connection to mitsvah
(ein ba-hem inyan mitsvah) that they should deserve to be counted."
I hope to have demonstrated that the general thesis, that M.' s
enumerative project was logically and hermeneutically untenable, and that it
was eventually not confirmed, rests on firm ground. Yet this thesis prompts
a number of urgent questions. For instance, was M. already aware of the
fatal flaws of the count at the time he wrote the ShM? And if he was, as is
quite likely, why did he go to such great lengths to compile such a list? Why
422
not, instead, create a comprehensive outline for the Code of Law, one that
would indeed follow most or much of the methodological insights presented
in the Rules, but that would be free of the constraints imposed by the
tradition of 613 commandments? We identified this problem as the central
question of our inquiry at the beginning of this study.
Certainty with regard to solving this problem would demand the
impossible task of penetrating the inner recesses of M.'s mind. The historical
context and what we know of M.'s mode of thinking suggest a way of
resolving some of the above questions.The geonic azharot, written in the
form of a poem, had become extremely popular among the masses of Jews,
particularly in Spain, in the centuries preceding M. M. was witness to this
phenomenon:
Similarly, whenever I heard the many azharot which
have been composed among us in the land of Spain
'My pangs have come writhing upon me [Dan 10:16],
because I saw how popular and disseminated they
were.
Some azharot, like Saadia's, had entered the Siddur; others circulated
orally. Different communities recited different azharot on the festival of
Shavu ot, but all the azharot shared a common ancestry, as M. was aware. It
is quite likely that the common people treasured these poems, especially at a
time when codes of law had as yet not made their appearance. They offered
a synthesis of the Torah that was easy to remember; it is not difficult to
imagine that some azharot even attained creedal status, a sort of Jewish
catechism.
For M., who was about to commence a systematic book of rulings that
encompassed all areas of halakhah, these enumerations were very troubling:
423
none of the azharot, or at least those that broadly followed Qayyara's
enumeration, listed the commandments to know God and to unify Him. As
we discussed in chapter 5, these commandments represented for M. the
foundations of Jewish beliefs. It was these two commandments that
differentiated the nomos of the early societies from the perfect Law of
Moses, the former concerned only with dispensing order, the latter with
helping the faithful attain eternal happiness. In a world suffused with the
Torah of azharot, the claims that to know God and to unify Him were
positive commandments would likely have met with resistance among the
masses. In his own words, referring to the possible reaction of some people
to the undocumented enumeration that he had contemplated at first, "the first
person that will chance to read it will suppose that this is a mistake." Proof
had to be submitted to overcome the skepticism of the masses.
It was at this point that M. invoked Rav Hamnuna's exegetical
explication of R. Simlai's dictum. The relevant passage says: "The two
commandments I am the Lord thy God and Thou shalt have no other God
before Me we heard from the Almighty Himself." "Thus," M. notes, "it has
been made clear to you that the verse I am the Lord thy God is one of the
613 commandments, and is that whereby we are commanded to believe in
God, as we have explained." M. had succeeded in demonstrating that the
affirmation I am the Lord thy God was a positive commandment. It matters
not that, as we saw in our analysis of the commandment, the affirmation had
been infused with a content that was not congruent with the message of the
verse. The point had been made; knowing God's existence and
understanding His unity were positive commandments. I cannot fail to
emphasize here that M. was not merely engaged in a rhetorical project. As
424
we showed in chapter 5, M. believed that Rav Hamnuna's explication also
contained a great esoteric truth about the revelation at Sinai.
The midrashic proof that to acknowledge the existence of God and His
unity was to be reckoned among the positive commandments constituted a
brilliant argumentative move but also imposed a heavy rhetorical and literary
burden. Having accepted the TaRYaG tradition though for no other
reason than to demonstrate that I am the Lord thy God is a positive
commandment M. had to further demonstrate that he was able to
construct a list of 613 commandments. To start with, and at the very
minimum, M. had to eliminate two commandments from the geonic list to
accommodate his two new claims. But the cut-and-replace exercise went
much further. M. had counterpoised R. Simlai's midrash to the rabbinic
tradition used by the geonim. Recall that while both traditions agreed that
the total number of commandments reached 613, each tradition categorized
the commandments differently. Qayyara and the other geonim divided the
commandments into four categories, namely, punishments (71), negative
commandments (277), positive commandments (200) and parashiyyot (65).
M., on the other hand, following the midrash of R. Simlai, divided the
commandments into only two categories, positive commandments (248) and
negative commandments (365). In defense of his way of counting, M. had to
do away with the four-part division. And so he set out to do. M. thought it
absurd that one would count punishments as commandments; after
demonstrating its nullity, he dismissed the idea, saying that "God knows and
is witness that all this in my opinion, is sheer confusi on. . " This dismissal
implied, of course, that M. had to replace an additional 71 commandments.
M. argued further that, while counting sections had something to commend
it, Qayyara did not fully apprehend their categoric significance and ended up
425
counting among the sections "matters he had already enumerated before,
without being aware of [the repetition]." Once again, M. was led to replace a
significant number of "redundancies." When all was said and done, the
adoption of R. Simlai's midrash forced M. to begin the enumerative project
anew. This should explain the great effort that M. expended on a project
which, on close inspection, was not likely to readily yield 613 compellingly
individuated commandments. Still, from a popular point of view, M. had
managed to prove that his enumeration was more consistent, more logical
and better documented than the geonic lists.
M. proceeded as best he could to turn the enumeration into an
organizing list of laws, regardless of whether they constituted unconditional
obligations. This is why we find procedures, contingent obligations and legal
concepts among the so-called commandments, most of them finely broken
down and ready to be "unpacked" in the soon-to-be-written Code of Law.
The list was as comprehensive as could be achieved given the constraints of
working with a set number and with scripturally explicit laws.
In short, I submit that M. sought to achieve t wo simultaneous goals.
First and foremost , t hough he never spelled it out, M. set out to present a well
document ed TaRYaG list that woul d persuasively displace the enumerations
proposed by the popul ar azharot so that the dogmas of God's existence and His
unity could decisively and authoritatively enter the world of halakhah. I believe
that the evi dence points in this direction, as I tried to show. Secondly, M. sought to
construct an outline based on logical rules, as spelled out in the Shorashi m. In
truth, M. ' s enumeration is no more than a list of all the legal themes found in
Scripture, a concept that bears little or no affinity to the idea of mitsvat'aseh,
individuated and arranged according to classificatory criteria that, for the most
part, have no counterpart in traditional sources.
426
Before concluding, I wish to elaborate on a point mentioned just
briefly a few paragraphs earlier. I do not want to leave the impression that
M. had necessarily pre-determined that understanding correct metaphysical
notions was a matter that belonged to the corpus of commandments. This
need not be, even as we appreciate M.' s attachment to the idea that a perfect
law includes the acquisition of correct metaphysical notions. The reason is
that the law could have simply guided or aroused the faithful to seek such
knowledge without having to be commanded to do so. With other Muslim
philosophers, M. could have been satisfied with the idea that the Law
"arouses and directs attention as a propaedeutic to philosophical
understanding." It is quite possible that Rav Hamnuna's explication
persuaded M. that the acquisition of the two correct notions, God's existence
and His unity, constituted formal commandments rather than simple,
advisory, 'arousals'. To M., as he explains in GP II:33, a message lay
hidden in Rav Hamnuna's exegesis, and that was that the knowledge of God
and His unity, unlike the balance of commandments, represented
philosophical truths, capable of being understood without prophetic
mediation. It so happens that this distinction between the first two
commandments and the rest of the commandments coincide neatly with M.'s
politico-philosophical views. I conclude that, in the end, M. upheld the
halakhic consequences and the theological implications of the midrash but
2
Kraemer, "Naturalism and Universalism,", p. 66. This is what the law does with respect
to correct moral dispositions, as we saw in our analysis of the commandment to imitate
God and to go in His ways. The law could have simply aroused the faithful to seek
philosophic truths rather than having to command them to do. After drawing our attention
to the term tanbih ("arousal," "stimulus"), and calling it a pivotal term throughout the
Guide, Kramer states that, for M., "the Law does not contain knowledge of being in its
true form. It arouses and directs attention as a propaedeutic to philosophical
understanding," and this was also the belief of other Muslim philosophers.
427
abandoned the TaRYaG tradition. Despite his initial claims, M. viewed the
number 613 as representing no more than the product of a pious homily.
428
Excursus 1: An estimate of the number of entries that M. omitted
from Qayyara's list of positive commandments and possible reasons for
these omissions
This is a speculative exercise. In the methodological section (Rules),
M. provides a number of examples of the erroneous enumerations proposed
by Qayyara and his followers. Summing up these examples yields only a
partial list of disqualifications. To get a more complete picture, one could
compare Qayyara's list to M.' s and note the omissions. Unfortunately,
matters are not so simple. As explained in the text, Qayyara's entries are
terse and often vaguely worded. The entries require careful interpretation. As
in most subjective exercises, the range of meanings is quite wide: Qayyara's
interpreters, often driven by no more than intuition and a great deal of
imagination, differed a great deal in their readings. As one can imagine,
these differing perceptions, in turn, have a meaningful impact on our
conclusions. Matters are further complicated by the existence of a number of
recensions of this list, each containing important variants. These variants
bear significantly on Qayyara's enumerations. (Associated with this problem
is our inability to identify the version that M. would have seen.) Finally, all
the lists suffer from the crucial inconvenience of lacking punctuation; where
one commandment ends and a new one begins is itself a matter of
interpretation. Most of these problems have been highlighted by Naftali Tsvi
Hildesheimer, Haqdamat, pp. 18-24.
In the list below I have identified entries in Qayyara's list of Positive
Commandments (Pq) that the Rules appear to discount. Where relevant, I
have noted M.'s reason for the disqualification.
429
For simplicity's sake, I have adopted N.T. Hildesheimer's version,
1
his division of commandments and most of his interpretive conclusions. This
is not to say his list is not open to emendations and corrections on the basis
of manuscript evidence and general critique. Nonetheless, it would serve
little purpose in identifying M.' s original Qayyara's text. Hildesheimer's
notes on the individual commandments provide a brief but informative
survey of commentators' interpretations and are helpful in choosing the
meaning that comes closest to the plain sense of the entry.
In all, the exercise can be said to be highly conjectural, though I
believe that, regardless of the text, interpretation and application of Rules to
be used, the conclusion would not vary greatly: M. reduced Qayyara's count
of positive commandments by approximately 60 and the total count (not
dealt with here) by as many as 100.
Pq # Description Eliminated by Rule
20 "the hides of the most consecrated offerings" 12
21 "that which is raised from thanksgiving offering" 12
22
3
"the breast and thigh (of the thanksgiving offering)" 12
27 "one-hundred blessings each day" 1
33
4
"to clothe the naked" 1
1
Hildesheimer, Haqdamat , Based on ms. Oxford Genizah, c18. In Hildesheimer's
opinion, this version is similar in many respects to the B version and to ms. Ambrosiano
(Milan) # Sup. C116.
P20. In V, but missing in B. M. makes it part of the commandment outlining the
procedure of the burnt offering (P63).
3
P21-22. M. would make it part of the commandment outlining the procedure of the
burnt offering (P63).
430
34
4
"to bury the dead" 1
35
4
"to console the mourner" 1
36
4
"to visit the sick" 1
37
5
"the love of peace" 1
38
6
"righteousness" 1
39
7
"faith" 1
49 "joy of Sabbath" 1
50
8
"its pleasure" 1
80
9
"to keep it [Passover] seven days" Redundant
83-90
10
(eliminates 7) "qiddush eight days" 1
4
P33-36. These entries follow P32 "to walk in His ways." M. understood that each of
these entries represented a separate commandment (Cf. Rule 1). Arguably, these four
entries could represent details of P32, in accordance with the Talmudic tradition, and not
separate commandments. See chapter 9, note 39.
5
P37. My explanation is conjectural and is based on understanding this entry as enjoining
peace with other members of society. See the baraita cited in bShabbat 127a. It appears
to me that M. excluded this entry because, like other rabbinic mitsvot, it lacked an explicit
scriptural proof-text. It is not clear, however, what Qayyara meant here; moreover, we
find a number of significant variants in the various recensions. See Hildesheimer,
Haqdamat , note 333.
6
P38. Rabbinic? See previous note. Alternatively, Rule 4, for being nonspecific. See also
Hildesheimer, Haqdamat' s note 334.
P39. "Faith," as in dealing with honesty (nasata be-emunah), a rabbinic precept. See
section 5.3.1. V has here "truth." Hildesheimer, Haqdamat equates this entry with
religious faith and finds its correlate in M. ' s P1 and P2.
P50. To delight in Sabbath is a mitsvah mi-divre sofrim (Hilkhot Shabbat 30:1).
9
P80. This entry has puzzled commentators, who offer a variety of interpretations.
According to Eliezer ben Shmuel me-Mitz, Sefer Yereim (Vilna: 1904), it is a general
commandment that covers all the injunctions of the Passover, in accordance with Thou
shalt therefore keep this ordinance in its season from year to year (Exodus 13:10). As
such, it can be considered redundant. For other possibilities, see Hildesheimer,
Haqdamat, n. 361.
431
103-121 "18 days and one night to recite the full Hallel" 1
134-8
11
(eliminates 2) "the five [restitutions of] one fifth" 7
139 "the Sabbath candle" 1
140 "the Hanukah candle" 1
141
12
"to give the carcass of an animal (nevelah) to a ger toshav" 7
143
13
"to uphold [the righteousness of] judgement" 1
145
14
"to be whole" 4
147
15
"to pursue justice" 7
148
16
"to do (or repay) kindness" 2
10
P83-90. Refers here to the recitation of the qiddush that introduces the Sabbath and the
seven festival days (A.S.Traub). According to M., only the Sabbath qiddush is scriptural.
M. would therefore be eliminating here seven entries out of eight. For other
interpretations, see Hildesheimer, Haqdamat, n. 364.
11
P134-138. Five commandments, following A.S.Traub, see Hildesheimer, Haqdamat, p.
84, n. 376. M. enumerates three of these under P118 (see Horowitz, Yad ha-Levi ad loc.);
the other two should not be enumerated since they would constitute details of "holy
things," thus Rule 7.
12
P141. Detail of P175, the obligation to give charity (so Nahmanides' additions to the
positive commandments, #16). Ibn Ezra (Abraham ibn Ezra, Yesod Mora , Second Gate,
p.105) and Simeon Duran (Duran, Zohar ha-Raqia , positives, siman 77) consider the
verse reshut and not a hovah. This rationale, however, cannot be adduced in favor of M. ' s
omission in view of the broad typology of commandments claimed in the SE/ShM
enumerations.
13
P143. A number of commentators have understood it as the rabbinic precept urging one
to accept divine judgement (tsidduq ha-din). If taken instead in a juridical context, Pq 143
would be subsumed under P177. See Hildesheimer, Haqdamat, note 382.
14
P145. Not specific. This probably refers to various forms of witchcraft (so Megillat
Esther, on Nahmanides' additions to the positive commandments, #8).
15
P147. Meaning uncertain. Possibly subsumed under P177.
16
P148. Mi-divre sofrim. At any rate, M. notes (Rule 2) that this obligation is subsumed
under the scriptural commandment to love one' s neighbor as oneself (P206). See
Hildesheimer, Haqdamat, n. 329.
432
155 "to fear the Sages" 2
164
17
"you shall sanctify yourself and you shall be holy" 4
165
18
"be lowly in spirit" 1
181
19
"pourings (yetsiqot)" 12
182
19
"minglings (belilot)" 12
183
19
"crumblings (petitot)" 12
185
19
"liftings (tenufot)" 12
186
19
"the bringing near (hagashot)" 12
187
19
"fist-fulls (qemitsot)" 12
188
19
"the offerings of incense (haqtarot)" 12
189
20
"slaughterings" 12
190
21
"nipping off (meliqot)" 12
191
22
"receiving [the blood]" 12
192
23
"sprinkling [the blood]" 12
2 0 0
2 4
"reading the megillah" 1
The above deletions total 64.
17
P164. Based on Leviticus 11:44. In his discussion of Rule 4, M. criticizes those who
counted a similar injunction, one based on a slightly different verse (Leviticus 19:22).
18
P165. mAvot 4:4. This is possibly subsumed under P8, to imitate God.
19
P181-188. This lists various steps in the preparation of the meal offerings. M. refers to
these in his discussion of Rule 12 and points out the error in enumerating them as
separate commandments rather than as parts of bringing a meal offering. I have omitted
"saltings (melihot)" from this list because M. also enumerates "salting," though in
connection with all offerings (P62).
20
P189. M. would make this procedure a part of bringing the various offerings (P63-66).
21
P190. M. would make this procedure a part of bringing various bird offerings included
in P63 and P64.
22
P191. See note on P189, above.
23
P192. See note on P189, above.
24
P200. A rabbinic precept (Rule 1).
433
Excursus 2: Cross Cultural Influences and the Possible Role of
Competition in the Selection of Some Commandments
M. opens the Introduction to the Code of Law with a verse from Ps
(119:7): Then I would not be ashamed when I regard all Your
commandments. What was the source of his putative embarrassment? In a
letter to his close disciple, Joseph ben R. Judah
1
, M. explains that he had
undertaken to write the Code for two reasons. First, for himself, as a
reference book to consult when he faced pressing legal matters, particularly
as he grew older. Second, in his zeal for the glory of God, "in seeing a nation
bereft of a truly comprehensive book [diwan] of law, and bereft of correct
and clear [theological] notions. Therefore I have done what I did, only for
the sake of Heaven." M. was not reacting to the impiety of his
coreligionists; there is no good reason to believe that the Jews of Cairo and
its environs were less punctilious in the observance of the commandments
and the study of the Torah than any other Jewish community at the time or in
the recent past. Nor does M. appear to complain about the people being so
ignorant of the law that he felt impelled to write a Code of Law. What M.
does complain about is that the "nation is bereft of a comprehensive book of
law, and bereft of correct and clear [theological] notions." M. is embarrassed
for and about his people and he wants to act "for the sake of Heaven." What
is it all about?
1
Iggerot ha-RaMBaM, ed.Y. Shailat, vol. 1, p.301.
434
I submit that just possibly M. may have felt a strong sense of
embarrassment in front of his royal court colleagues, judges, medics and
state administrators. Systematic and comprehensive works of jurisprudence
as well as elaborate theological disquisitions circulated widely among the
upper strata of Muslim society. By contrast, God's "chosen people"
appeared to be intellectually barren. In M.'s mind the lack of a diwan
constituted a hillul ha-shem, a profanation of the Name, because the world
was likely to ridicule a god that was worshipped by such an intellectually
impoverished nation.
M. finds no better way to describe the extraordinary zeal that drove
him to undertake the writing of the Code of Law than to quote verbatim the
prophet Elijah (Kings I:19:10). The latter, in a fit of zealousness, had
exclaimed, I am moved by zeal for the Lord, the God of Hosts, in response to
the Israelites having forsaken God's covenant, torn down His altars and
killed His prophets. The Israelites of Elijah's time, too, had caused God's
name to be profaned among the nations. Then and now, God's honour was at
stake.
As Kramer has pointed out, M. was immersed in the cultural and
intellectual life of Cairo, maintaining close relations with some of the city's
most prominent men. He notes, for example, that Abu Imran Musa ibn
Maymun al-Qurtubi (as M. was called in Cairo) became a friend and protege
of al-Qadi al-Fadil al-Baysani, Saladin's adviser, chancellor and chief
administrator, and perhaps the most powerful political figure in Cairo. In
gratitude, M. wrote a treatise On Poisons and Antidotes and dedicated it to
435
the Qadi with an extremely generous and laudatory encomium. Through
him, M. no doubt became familiar with the workings of the Muslim courts.
M. was not only part of this vibrant cultural milieu, but went so far as
to assimilate many linguistic elements of the surrounding milieu into his
rulings. Cross-cultural influence can be detected, for instance, in M.'s use
of Islamic legal terminology, especially in the area of procedural law.
Writing with respect to M' s use of the technical terminology of Islamic law
in the realm of procedure, Bloomberg says:
M' s writings are replete with this vocabulary,
although, to be sure, he does not always employ
Muslim technical terms in precisely the same manner
as do the Muslim legal writers. Thus, the parties to a
lawsuit are called khasman, as in Muslim law, and the
action at law itself is called by the Muslim term dawa.
In addition, witnesses are called shuhud (singular:
shahid), the plaintiff is called al-muddai, the defendant
is referred to as al-muddaa alayhi, and the object
claimed in the action is referred to as al-muddaa bihi.
In regard to evidence in particular, the presence of
Muslim terminology is striking. Virtually the entire
technical vocabulary of Islamic law's system of proof
2
Kraemer, Joel, "Maimonides' Intellectual Milieu in Cairo," Maimonide: philosophe et
savant (1138-1204), eds. Tony Levy and Roshdi Rashid (Leiven: Peeters, 2004).
See Libson, Gideon, "Parallels Between Maimonides and Islamic Law," The Thought
of Moses Maimonides: Philosophical and Legal Studies (La Pensee de Maimonide:
etudes philosophiques et halakhiques) ed. Ira Robinson et al. (Lewiston, NY: Edwin
Mellen Press, 1990). For parallels between Maimonides and the Shafi' i school, see
Libson, Gideon, "A Guarantee to Present the Debtor: Shmuel ben Hofni's Treatise on
Surety, the Responsa of the Geonim, Maimonides and Analogous Muslim Legal
Literature," Shenaton ha-Mishpat ha-Ivry 13 (1987) and Libson, Gideon, "Surety for
Liability in Geonic Literature, Maimonides and Muslim Law [Hebrew]," Mehqere
Talmud, eds. Y. Sussman and D. Rosenthal, vol. 1 (Jerusalem: 1990).
436
appears in M.. The oral testimony of witnesses the
proof par excellence is termed bayyina. An
acknowledgement is termed iqrar, while a denial is
termed inkar.
The judicial oath is called yamin, and its refusal is
called nukul. A formal legal document, in addition, is
termed wathiqa.
.... In addition to the very presence of so much of
the Muslim technical terminology in M., that which is
most significant is the fact that, in virtually all cases, it
can be demonstrated that M. is working with an
established usage of Judeo-Arabic legal writing as
reflected both in theoretical legal writings and
responsa and in court documents from the Genizah.
4
Given his proximity to the Egyptian administrative and judicial
authorities, it would not surprise if M. was anxious to demonstrate that, at
the very least, Mosaic laws held their own against Islamic laws.
5
Procedural
law was one area where M. may have felt the particular sting of his
colleagues, especially given the emergent sophistication of the Islamic
courts.
6
M.'s appreciation for the progressive aspects of procedural law in
4
Bloomberg, Jon Irving, "Arabic Legal Terms in Maimonides," (Ph.D. dissertation:
Yale University, 1980), p. 63.
5
Twersky noted, but perhaps not emphatically enough, this competitive aspect: "Codes
of law were common in the Islamic world, and inasmuch as M. was generally aware of
the surrounding tendencies, this could have provided stimulus." Twersky, Introduction to
the Code of Maimonides , p. 77. Cf. Fox, "Maimonides on Aging," 352, who asks
whether the impetus to write the Guide came from the Islamic court philosophers who
challenged Maimonides "to a demonstration of the inherent logic and theosophical rigor
of the Judaic faith."
6
On the progressive nature of Islamic procedural law, see for example, Ziadeh, Faraht J.,
"Adab al-Qadi and the Protection of Rights at Court," Studies in Islamic and Judaic
Traditions: Papers Presented at the Institute of Islamic-Judaic Studies, eds. William M.
Brinner and Stephen D. Ricks, Brown Judaic Studies (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986). On
the development of Islamic law in general, see Schacht, The Origins of Muslim
437
the Islamic courts and the embarrassment that these may have caused him if
they were found not to be part of the essence of the Mosaic law may have
led him to individuate, consciously or unconsciously, the unwarranted
claims of abiding by majority opinion (P175), the duty to testify in court
when in possession of evidence (P178) and the duty to thoroughly examine
the testimony of witnesses (P179).
This thesis may also explain a longer-than-usual and seemingly out-
of-place discourse that M. makes in connection with N290. As M. notes in
his introduction, the ShM's glosses on the individual commandments are
intended to be concise and to convey only some of the most basic
information, such as proof of the claim and a description of the
commandment. Deviations from this programmatic statement, as when they
contain a rationale, are extremely unusual and tend to reveal in my opinion a
heightened sensitivity to the particular subject matter. This is clearly the case
with N290 the claim that the Torah forbade the court from carrying out a
sentence in a capital case on the basis of a strong presumption and it may
have been directed as much to his coreligionists as to his colleagues. The
discourse reflects the best tradition of courtroom justice. The lengthy
passage, only part of which we quote here, parallels some of the concerns
expressed in P179:
If we do not give judgement even on the basis of a
very strong presumption, the worst that can happen is
that the sinner will be acquitted; but if we punish on
the strength of presumptions and suppositions, it may
be that once we shall put to death an innocent person;
and it is better and more satisfactory to acquit a
Jurisprudence , and Schacht, Joseph, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1982).
438
thousand guilty persons than to put once a single
innocent man to death.
439
Excursus 3: Peshateyh di-qra and Scripture's Original Intent
In an important article, first published in 1979 and only slightly
revised in 1989,
1
Jacob Levinger proposed the existence of a dual
esoteric/exoteric track in M.' s understanding of the development of oral law.
Levinger argued that for M. the masses needed to believe in a static
theological history, one in which the law was handed down to Moses in
Sinai and remained in its pristine and immutable form for all generations.
GP II:39 provided, in Levinger's opinion, the rationale for this belief. Moses
was a unique and perfect prophet, no other prophet before or after could
compare to him. Consequently, the law that Moses handed down was unique
and perfect, and not subject to change.
Another aspect of this dogmatic position, propounded for the benefit
of the masses, could be seen, according to Levinger, in a particular claim
made by M. concerning oral law. In the categorization of oral law presented
in the introduction to the Mishnah, M. averred that the first two categories of
oral law consisted of interpretations of written law that had come down
uncontroverted through the ages. M. labeled these categories "accepted
traditions from Moses" because of the alleged consensus and unanimity that
had been built around them. Yet, Levinger noted, this claim was not
consistent with the fact that one finds controversies in the details of the
1
Levinger, Jacob, "Ma' amadah shel ha-Torah she-bi-Ketav be-Mahshavat ha-RaMBaM
ke-Tsiyyun Derekh Didakti bi-sh-Vilenu," Ha-Miqra ve-Anahnu, ed. Uriel Simon (Tel
Aviv: Hotsaat Devir, 1979), revised version can be found in Levinger, Ha-RaMBaM ke-
Filosof , pp. 56-66.
440
2
scriptural commandments. Levinger thought that M. adduced such a view
as a way to ward off Karaite attacks and followed for this purpose the widely
circulating juridical notions among Muslim legists, which treated consensus
(ijma) as one of the epistemological pillars of the true faith.
By contrast, Levinger noted, M.' s true but, in his view, esoteric
position was expressed in GP III:41. Whereas in II:39 M. had argued that a
perfect law implied no change, in III:41 he argued that the ideal law is one
that is able to accommodate changing conditions. Levinger cited the
following passage:
Inasmuch as God may He be exalted, knew that the
commandments of this Law will need in every time
and place as far as some of them are concerned
to be added to or subtracted from according to the
diversity of places, happenings and conjunctures of
circumstances, He forbade adding to them or
subtracting from them, saying: Thou shalt not add
thereto, nor diminish from it [Deuteronomy 13:1]. For
this may have led to the corruption of the rules of the
Law and to the belief that the latter did not come from
God.
Levinger astutely noted that M.' s rationale for the prohibition to add
to or subtract from the law did not say that the law is perfect and therefore
one ought not to add to or subtract from it. Instead, he argued that the law
warned against adding or subtracting precisely because changing conditions
would tempt the courts to do so. Notwithstanding this, M. suggested that the
law provided a solution:
2
See our comments in section 7:4, where we highlight a number of such difficulties,
especially note 47.
441
Withal He permitted the men of knowledge of every
period, I refer to the Great Court of Law, to take
precautions with a view to consolidating the
ordinances of the Law by means of regulations in
which they innovate with a view to repairing fissures,
and to perpetuate these precautionary measures
according to what has been said by [the Sages]: Build
a hedge for the Torah [mAvot 1:1]. Similarly, they
were permitted in certain circumstances or with a view
to certain events to abolish certain actions prescribed
by the Law or to permit some of the things forbidden
by it; but these measures may not be perpetuated, as
we have explained in the Introduction to the
Commentary on the Mishnah in speaking of temporary
decisions. Through this kind of governance the law
remains one, and one is governed in every time and
with a view to every happening in accordance with
that happening.
In other words, the ideal law contained within itself a mechanism to
cope with changing conditions. This built-in mechanism consisted of the
power of the Great Court to make necessary changes, either by suspending
Torah law for a definite period of time or by means of innovative
regulations. True theological history is dynamic, as it reflects a continuous
accommodation of the law to changing conditions. Of course, this
conception of the law had to be kept perhaps hidden from the masses lest
they come to think less of the law and surrender to the appeals of new
religions.
With this insight, Levinger set out to explain a passage in GP III:41:
558 that baffled Maimonidean students for centuries. The chapter begins
with a discussion of court-mandated punishments. After stating that "the
punishment meted out to anyone who has done wrong to somebody else
442
consists in general in his being given exactly the same treatment that he has
given to someone else," M. says:
And he who has deprived someone of a member, shall
be deprived of a similar member: As he hath maimed a
man, so shall it be rendered unto him [Exodus. 21:19].
You should not engage in cogitation concerning the
fact that in such a case we punish by imposing a fine.
For at present my purpose is to give reasons for the
[biblical] texts and not for the pronouncements of the
legal science. Withal I have an opinion concerning this
provision of the legal science, which should only be
expressed by word of mouth. A fine was imposed in
the case of wounds in requital of which exactly similar
wounds could not be inflicted: Only he shall pay for
the loss of his time, and shall cause him to be
thoroughly healed [Exodus 21:19].
It was widely assumed that M. was hinting at a secret position, for, it
was argued, why else would he say that he has "an opinion concerning this
provision of the legal science, which should only be expressed by word of
mouth"? If so, what might this secret position have been?
Narboni, a fourteenth century philosopher and commentator on GP,
suggested in the name of "philosophers and those who philosophize" that M.
was espousing a literal view and that he was in fact hinting at a disagreement
with the talmudic opinion. Narboni immediately rejected this suggestion as
being antithetical to M.' s overall approach to rabbinic interpretation. Instead,
Narboni interpreted M.'s remark to mean just the opposite, namely, that he
had a way to reconcile the talmudic position with the scriptural text, but that
he would not care, for whatever reason, to expatiate on it at this time.
3
She-af be-divre ha-talmudyesh li da'at al she-lo yahloqu al mah she-amro ha-pasuq. I
believe that Levinger misread Narboni' s own suggestion, thinking that Narboni was
443
Narboni notwithstanding, the impression that M.'s veiled remark hid an
antinomian view persisted. Taking issue with M.' s statement that he was
only trying "to give reasons for the [biblical] texts and not for the
pronouncements of the legal science," R. Shem Tov b. Yosef b. Shem Tov, a
fifteenth century commentator on GP, painfully noted:
and this our teacher [M.] taught us, that if the Messiah
would come and say that the verse should be taken
literally, an 'eye for an eye,' he would be liable to
death for contradicting the Talmud. I do not know to
which direction our teacher and our master has turned,
for this is not what he taught us. God should atone for
him and for us!
Levinger rejected Narboni's critique of the opinion of the
"philosophers and those who philosophize," and argued that M.'s true
position was indeed antithetical to that of the Talmud. Accordingly,
Scripture's intention could be gauged and analyzed at only one point in time,
the moment of Revelation before the jurists of the successive Great
Courts moved to adapt the words of the Torah to changing conditions. Since
M. sought to discover Scripture's original intent "to give reasons for the
[biblical] texts" he had no choice but to discard the pronouncements of
the legal science. M.' s "opinion concerning this provision of legal science"
was none other than the idea that the courts could "innovate to repair
fissures," what Levinger came to call the dynamic conception of the law.
suggesting that M. was trying to hide from the masses what Levinger had described as a
dichotomy of the ideal (written) law vs. the practical (oral) law. It is not surprising,
therefore, that Levinger could not find a good reason for M. to hide such an elegant but
inoffensive opinion. On our reading, M. was not trying to hide an opinion but simply to
postpone discussion of a possible reconciliation, much as we would say today, "space
does not allow such a discussion."
444
Because this dangerous notion had to be kept away from the masses, it was
imperative that it be expressed only by word of mouth.
Levinger never explained what M. thought was the intent of the
scriptural pronouncement and how it might have differed from the
"pronouncement of the legal science." We surmise that Levinger thought
that M. subscribed to the view that Scripture should be read literally, an eye
for an eye and a limb for a limb, and that it is for this reason that M. did not
wish to express this view publicly since it disagreed with the rabbinic
interpretation which demanded monetary compensation.
4
Is this the best
explanation of M.' s alleged disagreement with the talmudic interpretation? I
submit that a comparison of the MT, where M. lays out the rabbinic/halakhic
view, with GP, could yield a more meaningful difference and still stay
within the framework of Levinger's innovative interpretation of M.' s thesis
of the theological history of the Law.
In chapter 1 of Hilkhot Hovel u-Maziq, M. writes:
1. If one wounds another, he must pay
compensation to him for five effects of the injury,
namely, damages, pain, medical treatment, enforced
idleness, and humiliation.
2. How are the damages determined? If one cuts
off another's hand or foot, we determine as if he
were a slave being sold in the market how much the
injured man was worth previously and how much he is
worth now. The offender must then pay the amount by
which he has diminished the other's value, for when
4
One should note, however, that on this reading, Scripture would be seen as insensitive
to equity considerations, the very same considerations that made the talmudic Sages
change the meaning of an "eye for an eye" to "the monetary equivalent of an eye for an
eye."
445
Scripture says, An eye for (Heb. tahat, lit., under) an
eye [Exodus 21:24; Leviticus 24:20], it is known from
tradition that the word translated for signifies payment
of monetary compensation.
3. When Scripture says, As he hath maimed a
man so shall it be rendered unto him [Leviticus
24:207, it does not mean that the injurer himself is to
be wounded in the manner he wounded the other, but
only that the injurer deserves to be deprived of a limb
or to be wounded to the same extent, and consequently
that he need only pay for the injury he inflicted.
Moreover, Scripture says, Ye shall take no ransom for
the life of a murderer [Numbers 25:31], meaning that
it is for the slayer alone that ransom may not be taken,
but ransom may be taken for causing the loss of limbs
or for inflicting wounds...
5. How then do we know that when Scripture
says, concerning limbs, An eye for an eye, etc.
[Exodus. 21:24], it means compensation? It says in the
context, Stripe for (tahat) stripe [Exodus. 21:25], and
also says explicitly, And if a man smite another with a
stone or with his fist... he shall only pay for the loss of
his time and shall cause him to be thoroughly healed
[Exodus. 21:18-19]. We thus learn that the word for
[tahat] in the case of a stripe signifies compensation.
The same conclusion applies to for (tahat) in the case
of the eye and the other limbs.
6. Although these rules appear plausible from
the context of the Written Law, and were all made
clear by Moses, our Teacher, from Mount Sinai, they
have all come down to us as practical rules of law. For
thus did our forebears see the law administered in the
court of Joshua and in the court of Samuel, the
Ramatite, and in every court ever set up from the time
of Moses, our Teacher, until the present day.
446
From the above set of rules it is clear that monetary compensation is
the only punishment that can be exacted for injuring someone's limb.
5
There
is no hint anywhere in these halakhot that the court is permitted to enforce
the scriptural provisions of a limb for a limb even if it were feasible to do
so equitably. The Halakhofs only interpretive concession when dealing with
the verse as he hath maimed a man so shall it be rendered unto him is that
"the injurer deserves to be deprived of a limb or to be wounded to the same
extent." This, we should recall, was not the way M. understood the scriptural
text. In GP he says: "A fine was imposed in the case of wounds in requital of
which exactly similar wounds could not be inflicted: Only he shall pay for
the loss of his time, and shall cause him to be thoroughly healed [Exodus
21:19]." In other words, monetary compensation was a last resort.
Note that in GP, M. refers to the exact same midrash that he cites almost
verbatim in the Halakhot,
6
except that in GP he allows that monetary
5
di-Boton, Lehem Mishneh , ad loc., wonders why M. needs to adduce the special
exegesis of halakhah 5 showing that tahat connotes monetary compensation in view of
the fact that halakhah 3 infers from the verse Ye shall take no ransom for the life of a
murderer that ransom can be taken for the loss of a limb. Di Boton concludes that the
inference was not a sufficient warrant, for it would allow, under certain circumstances,
the taking of a limb for the loss of a limb. Accordingly, M. wished to indicate
unequivocally that this was not an option available to the courts. The exegesis of tahat
did precisely that, by mandating monetary compensation exclusively.
6
The midrash can be found in Mekhilta de-RaSHBY on Exodus 21:24. See Kasher,
Torah Shelemah , paragraph 436. In his notes, Kasher faults Epstein/Melamed, editors of
an updated Mekhilta de-RaSHBY, for omitting a few lines from this midrash in their
reconstruction of the Mekhilta on the assumption that the author of the Midrash ha-
Gadol, from which Hoffman reconstructed Mekhilta de-RaSHBY, obtained these lines
from the Halakhot. Kasher argues that M.' s language is far from being an exact parallel
of the midrash and that therefore these lines appeared to be original to the midrash. It
should be noted that di-Boton, Lehem Mishneh , had intuited that M. based his argument
on a midrash that was no longer extant.
447
compensation is possible "in the case of wounds in requital of which exactly
similar wounds could not be inflicted." That is, this reading upholds what he
had already asserted at the beginning of GP III:41, namely, that a principle
of the Law is that if one has injured someone's body the same shall be done
to him. An "eye for an eye" should be rendered literally unless an exactly
similar wound could not be inflicted on the offender. That is where the text
and legal science differ. By unconditionally requiring compensation, the
latter did not preserve the intent of the law. M.'s statement in halakhah 6
that "although these rules appear plausible from the context of the Written
L a w. they all have come down to us as practical rules of law" suggests, as
Levinger argued, that this interpretation is part of the dynamic process of the
law and was not so mandated from day one. Practical considerations were
what drove the courts to impose monetary compensation. As an aside, I can
find no rabbinic source for the surprising assertion that "For thus did our
forebears see the law administered in the court of Joshua and in the court of
Samuel, the Ramatite, and in every court ever set up from the time of Moses,
our Teacher, until the present day." The statement appears to be fed by
polemical considerations. Note, too, that M. does not include the court of
Moses in the list of courts, an odd omission unless M. believed that, for a
time at least, the stipulations of the lex talionis were fully operative!
We are now in a position to understand M.' s impatience with the
pronouncements of the legal science. By insisting on compensation and
eliminating the possibility of lex talionis, the Sages, in M.' s view, subverted
permissibly I might add the original intent of the law. The teleology of
the law could be comprehended only if we attune ourselves to the text, since
the text makes clear that the principle to be observed in all cases is a limb for
448
a limb. While no compensation could ever take the place of capital
punishment in accordance with Ye shall take no ransom for the life of a
murderer some flexibility was allowed in non-capital cases. Nevertheless,
and for all practical purposes, the verse As he hath maimed a man so shall it
be rendered unto him [Leviticus 24:20] continued to reflect Scripture's
operating principle and original intent.
I should also note that while Levinger discussed what M. may have
thought regarding Scripture's original intent, he made no explicit reference
to the manner by which M. might have captured it in general. M.'s assertion
in GP that he is interested in the reasons behind the biblical text suggest that
M.'s conception of Scripture's original intent may be grounded in peshateyh
di-qra, a form of plain reading that captures Scripture's original intent at a
point in time prior to the time that the Rabbis or the Great Court of Law
as M. would have it applied their adaptive interpretation
In what follows I hope to show an example of how M. uses peshateyh
di-qra to discover Scripture's original intent. The example is drawn from the
ShM, and it relates to the command to build an altar.
Following Rule 12 the successive stages in the performance of a
commandment are not to be counted separately M. designates the
building of the Sanctuary as the commandment to be enumerated (P20), and
ignores the making of the various components the candlestick, the table,
the altar and so on even though their making was commanded separately.
M. then says:
It is true that He has said with regard to the altar
[mizbeah], an altar of earth thou shalt make unto Me
[Exodus 20:21], so that one might suppose this to be
an independent commandment, apart from the
449
7
commandment to build the Temple ; but the true state
of the case is as I will explain to you. The sense of the
verse [peshateyh di-qra, so too in the Arabic version]
refers to the time when high places were permitted to
us, and we were allowed to make an altar of earth in
any place, and to offer sacrifices on it; and the Sages
already declared that the purpose of the verse (inyan
ha-dibbur) was to command us to build an altar
attached to the earth, which was not to be movable as
it had been in the desert. This was said by them in the
Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, where the verse is thus
interpreted: 'When you enter the land you are going to
make Me an altar attached to the ground.' This being
so, the commandment [about the building of the altar]
is one which is binding for all time, relating to one of
the parts of the Temple that is to say that [Chavel
adds here: the verse in its entirety means] the altar to
be built must be of stone.
The Sages struggled with this verse as it contradicted the accepted
halakhah that the altar of the Sanctuary was to be made of uncut stones
[Deuteronomy 27:6]. To reconcile these disparate commands, the Rabbis of
the school of Rabbi Ishmael recast the verse and made it read "an altar
[attached to the] earth," that is, an altar made of stone that, being attached to
the ground, would not be movable. This corresponds to the halakhah
regarding the altar of the Sanctuary. One should note, however, that the
context of the verse does not easily support the rabbinic interpretation since,
a little further on, the verse adds in every place where I cause My name to be
mentioned I will come unto thee and bless thee. This freedom to sacrifice
anywhere can hardly be squared with the requirement that all offerings were
7
One might think so because it precedes the instructions to build the Sanctuary given at
Exodus 25:8ff.
450
to be brought to a centralized Sanctuary [Deuteronomy 12:13-14]. It is
therefore unlikely that the passage discussed details of the eventual
Sanctuary.
M.'s absolutely original peshateyh di-qra's reading solves the
apparent paradox: the Exodus passage does not deal with the time of the
eventual centralization of the cult but rather with an historical contingency,
the period of the conquest and settlement of the land, when the Israelites
were permitted to bring sacrifices on high places (bamot) anywhere
throughout the Land. Note that, on this reading, the commandment to build
an earthen altar is simply a temporary commandment. As such, it would not
qualify as a TaRYaG commandment (Rule 3). At the same time, the rabbinic
interpretation, that the altar be attached to the ground, becomes a mere detail
of the eternal commandment to build the Sanctuary. As such, it too should
not be enumerated (Rules 7 and 12).
In M.' s hermeneutics, peshateyh di-qra and rabbinic exegesis (divre
sofrim) do not co-exist in a sort of unresolved tension, as they would in the
hands of exegetes like Ibn Ezra and RaSHBaM. Instead, M. historicizes the
passage and offers a perfectly reasonable solution: while the text of the Law
is read-able, perfectly comprehensible and applicable at the very instant of
Revelation, subsequent events will force the Rabbis to adapt the text of the
law to fit the changing conditions. In our case, the changing condition
though one need not posit that it was unanticipated was the centralization
of the cult.
In an attempt to provide a rationale for M.' s momentous Rule 2, one
might say in accordance with what has just been discussed that only those
laws that are intimately connected with the original intent can be
451
enumerated. These laws represent the roots (Heb. shoresh, Ar. usul) of the
Torah. Divre sofrim legislation, on the other hand, and this applies to
analytic derivations as well as reinterpretations, cannot be so enumerated
because it forms part of the evolving and adaptive nature of the law. As M.
explains in Rule 2,
Everything that is derived is to be considered as
branches from the roots that were explicitly
commanded to Moses at Sinai, and these constitute
613 commandments; even if Moses himself was the
exegete, they still cannot be enumerated.
And then again, "Everything that was not heard explicitly on Sinai is
considered divre sofrim."
452
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457
Appendix
Further notes to the commandments discussed in Chapter 5
P146
Two major objections have been raised against this commandment
claim, but both can reasonably be dealt with. One objection argues that
Scripture should be read as simply forbidding the consumption of meat
unless it is slaughtered ritually - in essence, an inferred prohibition (issur
'aseh or lav ha-ba mikhlal 'aseh)} But, as we saw earlier, M. drew support
from Sifre that compared non-sacrificial animals to consecrated offerings.
Just as the latter must be slaughtered in a prescribed manner and it is
considered a positive commandment so too must the former. The second
objection is that ritual slaughter is merely a contingent command that is,
when and if one wants to eat meat he must first ritually slaughter the animal.
Since the command does not obligate one to go around and ritually slaughter
animals, it should not be counted as a positive commandment. This
1
So suggested by RaBaD in his glosses on the SE found in the introduction to the MT.
RaBaD' s view was probably informed by mHullin 2:3, which rejects as unfit for
consumption an animal that was slaughtered by a falling knife, even though it was
slaughtered according to the proper ritual manner. The reason given is that Scripture
requires human force, "for it is written And thou shalt slaughter...and thou shalt eat
[Deuteronomy 12:21], that is to say, 'that which thou dost slaughter mayest thou eat.' "
The proof-text is used to invalidate a type of slaughter, not to prescribe slaughter.
2
Note that RaBaD saw the SE but not the ShM.
3
Commenting on RaBaD' s gloss, Karo, Kesef Mishneh , says:
His [RaBaD] objection appears to me to be based on the fact
that this is not an obligatory mitsvah (mitsvah mehuyevet), for if
he wants not to eat meat or if he wants not to personally
slaughter the animal, he is permitted to do so. Rather, it is an
inferred prohibition, [meaning that] you ought to eat neither a
458
objection can be dismissed because we have already seen that for M.
positive commandments need not be of the unconditional obligation type. As
we saw earlier, M. incorporates contingent commandments and even
procedural commandments in his enumeration.
4
In sum, ritual slaughter is either a contingent commandment or a
procedural commandment ("in the prescribed manner"). In either case, the
rabbinic warrant appears to be adequate.
P34
Despite the ambiguity of numerous scriptural sources as to who was
in charge of carrying the ark, M. insists that the responsibility lay
exclusively with the priests.
5
He concedes that the commandment was given
living limb (ever min ha-hai) nor a dead carcass (nevelah), but
[you may] eat a slaughtered animal.
Karo' s restatement of RaBaD' s objection is problematic but this is not the place to
discuss it.
4
Asked why M. phrased this law as "we are commanded to ritually slaughter animals"
instead of less obligingly and more suitably "we are commanded concerning the law with
regard to ritual slaughter," Yehoshua ha-Nagid, M.' s grandson, replied, in the first
instance, that M. wanted to include the slaughter of sacrifices, which, he says, is
obligatory. Secondly, he suggested that it was indeed a mitsvat 'aseh type commandment
because it is impossible to eat animals without first slaughtering them ritually. In other
words, ha-Nagid saw contingent commands as being essentially of the mitsvat 'aseh type
under certain conditions. Yehoshua ha-Nagid, Teshuvot , p.50. In the Halakhot, M.
justifies the mitsvat 'aseh status by spelling out the contingency clearly: "It is a positive
commandment for someone who wants to eat the meat of a domesticated animal
(behemah), wild animal (hayyah) or fowl, to slaughter it and then he can eat it" (my
emphasis). See 6.3, below.
5
But see Nahmanides' categorical rebuttal, in his critique to Rule 3. In Nahmanides'
opinion, both priests and Levites were fit to carry the ark. The exclusive assignment of
this task to priests is by all accounts forced and does not resist Nahmanides' devastating
criticism. As we shall see in a later section, M. himself abandoned his claim in the
Halakhot, where no trace is found of this presumed priestly obligation. As an aside, I
459
to the Levites at the time of the Israelites' sojourn in the wilderness, but "this
was only because of the limited number of priests then available, for Aaron
was its founder." M.'s creative bit of historiography is not only original but
necessary in order to sustain this commandment claim.
The exclusive responsibility of the priestly clan to carry the ark on
their shoulders was a distinguishing mark of honour for them. M. nestled
this commandment between the obligation on every Israelite to show honour
to priests (P32) and the commandments that the priests "shall array
themselves in garments of special splendor and beauty before they minister
in the sanctuary" (P33), that their High Priests shall be anointed with the
special oil of anointment (P35), and that the priests must serve in divisions
(mishmarot). The exaltation of the priests was commanded, however, for
another, higher cause. As M. explains in GP, the law aggrandized the rank of
the priests, the sole servants of the Temple, to "fortify the belief in the
greatness of the sanctuary and the awe felt for it, so that on seeing it, man
should be affected by a sentiment of submission and servitude."
6
P175
The Halakhot, too, extend this principle to apply to "laws of the
prohibited and the permitted, impurity and purity [dine issur ve-heter, ve-
tumah ve-taharah)" (Hilkhot Sanhedrin 8:1).
The talmudic and midrashic sources support the idea that a court must
render a decision according to the majority opinion in all but capital cases, in
should note that the scriptural references are often equivocal and may contain traces of an
intra-tribal polemic.
6
GP III:45, 577 and 579.
460
which case a majority of one is required for acquittal and a majority of two
is required for conviction. This last feature, and in general the overall
construction of the verse that includes our proof-text, are not grounded in a
grammatically rigorous reading of a verse (Exodus 23:2) that happens to be
syntactically complex and difficult to understand. The loose, asmakhta-like,
character of the exegesis was recognized by a classical parshan like Ibn
7 8
Ezra and by M. in the Halakhot.
P201
This commandment claim is a Maimonidean innovation based on the
verse When thou comest into thy neighbor's vineyard, then thou mayest eat
grapes.when thou comest into thy neighbor's standing corn, then thou
mayest pluck ears with thy hand (Deuteronomy 23:25-6). Neither Qayyara
nor any of M.' s other predecessors enumerated this injunction. As we shall
see, there is good basis for this omission.
While it is undeniable that Scripture grants the laborer a right to the
produce, it is also true that nowhere does it impose on the owner an
obligation to offer this produce. This is how Duran puts it:
7
Ve-zeh ha-pasuq samuhu le-zekher, which roughly translates as "this verse acts as a
mnemonic device" (short commentary on Exodus 23:2).
M. opens the paragraph that explains the unusual feature of the two types of majorities
in capital cases with the expression mi-pi ha-shemu 'ah lamdu, a fixed formula commonly
used to indicate a tradition not rooted in the plain reading of the text. He ends that same
discussion with the statement ve-khol elu ha-devarim qabbalah hem, which translates as
"all these things are a tradition," that is, they cannot be easily read into the text (Hilkhot
Sanhedrin 8:1). Perla, in Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 1, pp. 653-5 argues that it is
linguistically inconsistent for M. to maintain that the first part of the verse signals a
negative commandment (N282) and the second part a positive commandment, and
accuses him of holding on "to the two ends of a rope."
461
This [commandment claim] is problematic as the text
only speaks about the laborer and the fact that he is
permitted [to eat from the produce] and [to tell us] that
there is no concern with respect [to the prohibition of]
stealing from the employer.
9
Since no obligation is put on the owner, Duran argues, this verse can
only be construed as a license and a right, but not a mitsvat 'aseh. On the
other hand, to characterize this verse as a mitsvat'aseh for M. should not
present a major difficulty in view of the typological variety of
commandments that he entertains in the ShM. Laborers' rights are not much
different than procedural commandment (dinim); they are certainly more of
a 'commandment' than P87, which states that a beast exchanged for one that
has been set aside as an offering becomes sacred, or than commandments
P95-108, which are mere descriptions of impurities.
The heading to Hilkhot Sekhirut follows the tenor of the SE/ShM:
"That the hired hand may eat of that at which he works from that attached to
the ground." A subtle shift in emphasis, however, occurs in the Halakhot,
where we now find that the owner is 'enjoined' (mitsvah, though see section
9.4) to facilitate the laborer's taking from the produce:
. behol d, it is incumbent [mitsvah] upon the
employer that he should allow them [ the laborers] to
eat from [the produce] with which they are working, as
it says When thou comest into thy neighbor's vineyard,
etc. [Deuteronomy 23:25] and it says When thou
comest into the standing corn of thy neighbor, etc.
[Deuteronomy 23:26]. Tradition taught [mi-pi ha-
shemu'ah lamdu] that the text speaks about a hired
worker. For if he [the employer] did not hire him, who
allowed him to come into his neighbor's vineyard or
9
Duran, Zohar ha-Raqia , siman 72, p. 84.
462
into the standing corn without his approval? Therefore,
this is what it says: if you come to the domain of the
employer to work, you may eat! (Hilkhot Sekhirut
12:1)
The essential difference between the way that the commandment is
characterized in the SE/ShM and the way it is characterized in the Halakhot
is this: in the former compositions, Scripture is seen as merely granting the
laborer a legal weapon, in the form of a right to consume from the produce
while he is working. Scripture makes no demand on the owner, other than to
obey the law. In the Halakhot version, Scripture keeps this right but,
critically, it directs the owner to allow the laborer to eat from the produce of
his work. It is a mitsvah
110
to allow the laborer to take from the produce; he
should not have to fight for this right. In this manner, Scripture seeks to
mold the owner's character. In the words of GP, "exceeding kindness is
shown to the hired man because of his povert y. i t is a matter of pity for him
that he or even a beast must not be prevented from eating some of the food
on which they wor k. . "
1 1
P17
This innovative claim presents a number of serious exegetical
12
difficulties. For one thing, M.' s first argument, namely, that the divine
10
Here we would translate it as "it is proper", "it is correct", or even "it is a good deed".
For rabbinic use of this term, see section 2.1 and in particular 2.1.d. For the way M. uses
it in the Halakhot, see section 9.4.
11
GP III:42 (569).
12
Some of the arguments below are summaries of Perla's objections found in his
discussion on Saadia's parshah "To write my Torah on stones," Perla, Sefer ha-Mitsvot
le-RaSaG, vol. 3, Parashiyyot, #60, pp. 425-6.
463
order Now therefore write ye this song for you could be carried out only by
writing the entire Torah scroll is built on the premise that there is a scriptural
prohibition against writing only fragments of it: "it is not permissible to
write [a Scroll of the Law containing only] certain sections [parashiyyot] of
it." There is, however, no indication that this is the case. Rather than a
13
scriptural prohibition, it is more likely to be a hoary tradition. Problems
with this argument persist even if we grant that a scriptural prohibition exists
against writing individual sections of the Torah. For example, M. rules in
Hilkhot Sefer Torah 7:14 that one can write individual books of the Torah
(Humashim). It follows therefore that writing the song of ha-Azinu need not
have required writing an entire scroll of law as M. argued; it could simply
have been written as an individual book. Perhaps even more critically, just
as Scripture enjoins one to write individual sections for the making of what
13
That no scriptural prohibition exists is true even according to the view that the Torah
was transmitted whole (hatumah nitnah). This is all the more so for the view that the
Torah was written scroll by scroll (megillah megillah), and where the rabbis ruled that
one ought not to write them in sections "now, since it has been joined together it must
remain so." Here is the relevant passage (bGitin 60a):
Abaye asked Rabbah: Is it permitted to write out a scroll
[containing a passage] for a child to learn from? This is a
problem alike for one who holds that the Torah was transmitted
[to Moses] scroll by scroll, and for one who holds that the
Torah was transmitted whole. It is a problem for one who holds
that the Torah was transmitted scroll by scroll: since it was
transmitted scroll by scroll, may we also write separate scrolls,
or do we say that since it has all been joined together it must
remain so? It is equally a problem for one who holds that the
Torah was transmitted whole: since it was transmitted whole, is
it improper to write [separate scrolls], or do we say that since
we cannot dispense with this we do write them? He replied:
We do not write. What is the reason? Because we do not
write.
That is, no reason is given, it is just tradition.
464
is affixed to doorposts (mezuzot), phylacteries (tefillin) and the ordeal of the
suspected adulteress (sotah), without the necessity of writing an entire scroll
of the Torah, so too Scripture could have enjoined one to write the Song of
ha-Azinu separately, without having to write an entire scroll of the Torah.
14
Finally, the full passage (v.19) cited by M. reads Therefore, write down this
Song and teach it to the people of Israel. Moses promptly did so, as it says
(v.22), That day Moses wrote down this Song and taught it to the Israelites.
Why does it say that Moses wrote down this Song shouldn't every
Israelite have done so? Would Moses not have been obligated to write down
the song by the fact that he was, like every one else, an Israelite? Hence, it
appears that in writing down the song Moses acted as an agent for all the
Israelites. The halakhic implication of this observation is that by writing one
scroll of law, one person can exempt an entire community and there is no
need for every individual to do so.
As to M.' s second argument, here too the evidence is not clear-cut.
We have no way to know whether Rabbah is referring to a precept with
scriptural force, since the term mitsvah is often used in conjunction with
rabbinic statutes.
15
Rabbah could just as well have been referring to a
rabbinic ordinance; the use of a scriptural biblical proof-text would merely
constitute an asmakhta.
The talmudic passage adduced by M. contains a further difficulty.
Abaye queried Rabbah from a baraita stating that a king must write for
himself a scroll of the Torah, implying that a commoner need not do so. Yet
14
See Sofer, Moses, Sheelot u-Teshuvot Hatam Sofer (Pressburg: 1841-1862), Yoreh
De 'ah, siman 254.
15
Perla, in Sefer ha-Mitsvot le-RaSaG provides a few such examples: mBerakhot 45b,
47b, bShabbat 21b, 25a,b. See the commentaries of RaSHi and Tosafot, ad loc.
465
Abaye could have queried Rabbah by drawing the same inference from the
biblical passage (Deuteronomy 17:18) that commands a king to write a
Torah for himself, in which case the inference would have been that a
commoner, by dint of a scriptural rule, need not write a scroll. It follows that
Abaye understood Rabbah to be enunciating a rabbinic, not a scriptural,
obligation.
P36
Admittedly, the exposition is stretched.
16
The verse describes the
Levites as coming from any of the cities of all Israel simply because the
Levites owned no territory and were scattered among all the tribes; there is
no indication that they came to just one gate.
17
Yet M. leans on this midrash
to make the point that any priest can come to participate in the service of the
sanctuary "when all Israel is assembled in one gate [i.e. in one city
Jerusalem] during the three festivals." Be that as it may, one may conclude
from this interpretation that the incoming Levites had a right to participate
16
The Sifre must have read "in one of your gates" not "from one of your gates." This is
confirmed by some of the Sifre MSS, which read be-ahad she-arekhah (using the
preposition b, "in") instead of the me-ahad she- 'arekhah of the masoretic text. See the
apparatus in Sifra, ed. L. Finkelstein, 5 vols. (Jerusalem/New York: Jewish Theological
Seminary, 1989-91), ad loc. See also Kahana, Menahem, "Qit'e Midreshe Halakhah min
ha-Genizah," (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 2005), p. 278, fragment 62, line 6. For a
fascinating discussion of non-masoretic readings in the midrash halakhah that often
illuminate interpretive cruces, see Kahana, Menahem, "The Biblical Text as Reflected in
Ms Vatican 32 of the Sifre [Hebrew]," Mehqere Talmud, eds. Y. Sussman and D.
Rosenthal, vol. 1 (1990).
17
See however previous note.
466
on an equal footing with their Jerusalemite brethren at the time of the
festivals.
18
Nahmanides does point out that M. presented a revised formulation in
the MT and that "this formulation is more precise than what he presented
here, in the essay [the ShM]." Indeed, the emphasis in the heading to Hilkhot
Kele ha-Miqdash ("That all the divisions (mishmarot) be equal on the
festivals") and in the Halakhot is on the equal sharing of the service on
festivals, or, more specifically, that all priests be allowed to share equally in
the offerings of the festivals. In 4:3 of the Halakhot, M. provides a brief
historical survey of the institution of mishmarot, their founders the
prophets from Moses down their structure, number, and frequency of
rotation. The implication of the Halakhot is that while the institution of
mishmarot appears to be Mosaic in origin, it is not scripturally ordained. In
4:4, M. informs the reader that
it is a positive commandment for the mishmarot to
share equally [lit., be equal] on the festivals. Any of
the priests who comes and wants to serve, can serve
and share with them. He is not told, 'go away until
your turn comes,' for it says And if a Levite comes
from any of thy gates, etc. [Deuteronomy 18:6-8].
As already noted, M. in the Halakhot retracted somewhat from his
principal and very original claim that the priests were ordered by Scripture
to serve in the sanctuary in mishmarot. We cannot be sure what went
through M.' s mind, but certainly the exegetical logic behind Nahmanides'
critique must have been sufficient grounds for such a re-appraisal.
18
This right is hard to reconcile with the Halakhofs statement that there is a positive
commandment (that is, an unconditional obligation), as we shall see later, to share the
sacrifices equally. Who is obligated? On whom does this responsibility devolve?
467
In the Halakhot, the positive commandment refers now to the right
enjoyed by the out-of-town Levites to share the festival sacrifices with their
Jerusalemite brethren. This is denoted by the words like portions to eat,
which M. interprets as referring to the communal offerings. Votive offerings
and the daily burnt offerings were allocated among the pre-established
mishmarot, as alluded to by the balance of the verse: They shall have like
portions to eat, beside that which cometh of the sale of his patrimony (4:5).
There is no indication in this halakhah that this institution of mishmarot was
mandated by Scripture; the verse simply reflects an old and established
practice.
With the change in emphasis, as in P34, comes a change in purpose.
The teleologically constructed ShM saw this commandment as another of the
group of commandments that set aside and aggrandized the priestly clan, for
the ultimate glorification of the sanctuary, by promoting the virtues of
neatness, tidiness, and orderliness. In the latest version, the legislation
merely attempts to prevent the monopolization of the service at the hands of
any one clan, at least during the festivals when a great number of offerings
were brought to the Temple.
P37
In the Halakhot, M. takes a novel exegetical approach and adduces a
new proof-text:
It is a positive commandment to mourn for relatives, as
it says Had I eaten Sin Offering today, would the Lord
have approved [Leviticus 10:19]. Mourning is
scripturally ordered only on the first day, which is the
day of death and the day of bur i al . .
468
The proof-text describes part of an exchange that occurred between
Moses and his brother and High Priest Aaron. The subject of the exchange is
a goat of sin offering, the remains of which had been burned instead of eaten
by Aaron's sons. Moses is furious that his instructions have been disobeyed;
Aaron defends their action. The talmudic reconstruction (bZevahim 101a) of
the dialogue is of no concern here, except for the last, and winning
argument: Aaron explains that his sons thought that they should not eat of
the sacrifice because they were in mourning for their two brothers who had
died that day. And when Moses heard this, he approved (Leviticus 10:20).
Yet even this passage can hardly qualify as a command. At best, the verse
presupposes the existence of such a commandment.
19
A little later on , however, M. returns to the defilement-mourning
connection and says:
[See] how grave [hamurah] is the duty of mourning
[mitsvat avelut]!
20
For [the laws of] defilement were
set aside [nidhit] for the priest on account of his
relatives so that he can care after their needs and so
that he can mourn after them, as it says except for the
relatives closest to him: his mother, his father.. .for her
he may defile himself [Leviticus 21:2-3]. It is a positive
commandment that he is compelled to defile himself if
19
Of course, Aaron may be pointing out that his sons could not bring themselves to offer
the sacrifice, not because they were fulfilling a commandment to mourn but simply
because of their grief. Alternatively, as RaDBaZ notes, the incident may only indicate
that sanctified food (qodshim) cannot be consumed on the day one' s relatives die.
RaDBaZ, Sheelot u-Teshuvot ha-RaDBaZ , vol. 5, #1495 (121).
20
This rare expression, mitsvat avelut, is actually found only once in rabbinic literature,
Midrash Zuta al Shir ha-Shirim, Ruth, Eichah, ve-Qohelet. Yalqut Shimoni al Echah, ed.
S. Buber (Berlin: 1894), parshah 7, s.v. (b) tov lalekhet, and then only as mitsvat avel. It
is therefore unlikely that M. used this rare expression found in rabbinic sources to
substantiate the existence of a positive commandment.
469
he does not want to do so (my emphasis). (Hilkhot
Avel 2:6)
From Hilkhot Avel 1: 1 and 2:6 it would appear that there are
now two positive commandments, one to mourn for relatives and one that
sees to it that priests defile themselves for relatives. While M. no longer
considers the latter a direct source for the former, he retains the connection.
He acknowledges that the laws of defilement are set aside for the priest
whose relative has died so that he can look after the needs of the deceased
primarily, one supposes, burial. Yet he insists that the motivation for the
commandment is also "so that he can mourn for them." It is as if M. makes
up for the lack of an explicit command by offering two speculative allusions,
a narrative that supposes such a duty and a commandment that is partly
motivated by such a duty.
21
If in fact there was a scriptural commandment to mourn, one that
tradition appears to have preserved, it can only be inferred from the various
texts.
21
RaDBaZ wonders why M. does not enumerate the positive commandment to compel a
priest to defile himself. First he suggests that "he [M.] did not mean a scriptural positive
commandment (mitsvat 'aseh de-oraita) but, rather, a rabbinic positive commandment."
Positive commandments of rabbinic authority, however, were generally qualified as such;
see for example the headings to Hilkhot Megillah ve-Hanukkah and Hilkhot Nahalah
11:10. On a separate occasion, RaDBaZ suggests that M. was describing one and the
same positive commandment in line with what he explicated in the ShM. He argued, in
effect, that the priest's obligation to suffer defilement and the obligation to mourn were
identical. See his comments on MT ad loc. See also his Responsa, RaDBaZ, Sheelot u-
Teshuvot ha-RaDBaZ , vol. 5, #1495 (121).
470
22
GP omits this commandment entirely. Hartman points out, correctly
I believe in light of the foregoing, that "the lack of any explicit biblical text
dealing with the commandment of mourning may very well explain why M.
in the context of GP does not mention the laws of mourning." I shall argue
in chapter 7 that the Halakhot, too, follow similar textual considerations,
encapsulated in a peshateh di-qra hermeneutic. Yet the Halakhot, in contrast
GP, do designate mourning as a positive commandment. Why the
difference?
In an attempt to break out of this impasse I offer two approaches. In
the first, I argue that at the time he wrote the Halakhot, M. was still of the
opinion that the talmudic warrant was sufficient evidence of the scriptural
status of mourning, despite the fact that no explicit reference to this
commandment could be found in Scripture. Moreover, he may have been
persuaded that the norm that required the priest to defile himself for the
benefit of the dead relative revealed a deep and implicit scriptural concern
for the dead and/or the mourner. The inference to a full-fledged
commandment to mourn the dead would follow the spirit of an interpretive
rule first enunciated in the ShM, namely, that, "if the Sages themselves
clearly affirm that 'it is of the essence of Torah' or that 'it is of scriptural
authority,' it is proper to count that particular law [among the
commandments]"
23
even if no explicit basis can be found in the text. By the
22
Cited by Kaplan, Lawrence, "The Unity of Maimonides' Thought: The Laws of
Mourning as a Case Study," Judaism and Modernity: The Religious Philosophy of David
Hartman, ed. Jonathan W. Malino (Guilford College, USA, 2004), p. 397.
23
Rule 2. In a celebrated responsum, M. stated that there were no more than "three or
four" such exceptions. Responsa, Blau, #355, Volume 2, pp. 631-632. Feintuch, Sefer
ha-Mitsvot im Perush Pequde Yesharim , vol. 1, pp. 43-45 attempts to identify these
exceptions, but concludes that M. did not intend to fix a definite number but rather to
471
time he wrote GP, however, M. no longer viewed the talmudic sugyah as
evincing what had earlier been taken for granted, namely, that mourning was
a scriptural obligation.
24
Thus, he no longer had to deal with this
commandment.
25
In the alternative, I argue that M. was willing to be
indicate that the number of exceptions is very small. The present suggestion assumes that
mourning was one of those exceptions.
24
It should be noted that not all medieval jurists believed that the Talmud supposed a
scriptural positive commandment as Alfasi maintained. See, for example, Tosafot s.v.
'aseh de-yahid (cited by Karo, Kesef Mishneh ), and the early medieval jurists (rishonim)
cited in note 31 of the Entsiklopedyah Talmudit, s.v. avelut, that the obligation to
mourn, even on the first day, is rabbinic. There is some indication that M.' s agreement
with Alfasi' s rulings was not as automatic as it may at first appear. In the Introduction to
PhM, M. writes that he was hard put to find as many as 10 errors in Alfasi' s Halakhot.
Yet, in a letter that he writes to a certain judge, Nehorai b. Hillel, M. indicates that he
disagreed with the master as many as "30 or more" times. Either his recollections were
hazy or, in the course of time, M. took a more independent course. See Blau, Teshuvot,
#251, vol. 2, p. 459, and note 7. In fact, M. disagrees with Alfasi in many more than 30
places. For a partial list and some bibliographical references, see Twersky, Introduction
to the Code of Maimonides , p. 169, n. 205. Could the scriptural status of mourning have
been one the matters in which he eventually disagreed with the halakhic master?
25
In a stimulating article, Lawrence Kaplan counters that he found "the 'missing' cross-
reference to the Laws of Mourning of the Mishneh Torah" in a section of the Guide
dealing with "the commandments concerned with the clean and unclean," namely GP
III:47. In this passage, M. notes that
every priest in particular was forbidden to expose himself to
being made unclean by a corpse unless it were a case of strong
necessity in which it would be difficult for nature to avoid this;
I refer to avoiding contact with one' s parents, children and
brothers.
Kaplan notes:
The rites of mourning, on the biblical level, are not self-
directed and commanded for the therapeutic benefit of the
mourner, but rather are other-directed, and like the obligation
incumbent upon the priest to defile himself for his deceased
relatives, are rites performed on behalf of those relatives.
They are, he says, "forms of personal kevod ha-met, of honoring one' s deceased
relatives" (406). In other words, according to Kaplan, M. redefined the scriptural concept
of mourning in the Guide and ceased seeking a scriptural reference for the traditional
472
hermeneutically accommodative to the talmudic evidence because of the
normative character of the Code, particularly since the practice was widely
accepted and deeply ingrained in the religious community. The hermeneutic
stresses that we noted give testimony to the extent of this accommodation.
Ultimately, no longer concerned with normative behavior, GP abandoned the
attempt.
P112
In the Halakhot, M. abandons the previously assumed telos,
namely, that the various requirements, jointly, have for an objective
making the leper recognizable as such. The halakhah is a simple list of
specific tasks:
It is a positive commandment that the head of a
confirmed leper be covered all the days of his certified
impurity [haluto], that he covers his upper lip like a
mourner, rends his clothes and informs passers-by that
he is impure as it s a ys . . Even a High Priest that
acquires leprosy lets his hair loose and rends his
clothes because a positive commandment overrides a
negative commandment [aseh doheh lo ta 'aseh]
(Hilkhot Tumat Tsara'at 10:6.)
Nowhere does M. say that if the leper fails to carry out one of
these actions, he "has accomplished nothing; his being distinguishable is
concept of mourning. As attractive as this argument is, the passage at III:47 hardly points
to a qualitatively different, so-called other-directed obligation to mourn; the words
"unless it were a case of strong necessity in which it would be difficult for nature to avoid
this" seem to imply, instead, some sort of unavoidable need to waive the laws of
defilement. Kaplan, "The Unity of Maimonides' Thought"
473
not achieved until he has done all [the things mentioned]," as he had
affirmed in the Rules.
26
In halakhah 8, M. extends to all impure persons the requirement of
identifying themselves and their impurities, a point that he already made in
the ShM: "Not only the lepers but all those who defile people must
inform everyone that they are unclean so that people keep away from
them, as it says, and shall cry 'unclean, unclean' - the leper informs that
he is unclean."
It is not unreasonable to believe that the classificatory aim of the ShM
forced M. to think teleologically. Much of this was understandably
abandoned in the Halakhot given its purely practical orientation.
P149-152
Despite the earlier noted difficulties, M. adopts the new exegesis in
the Halakhot. He opens Hilkhot Maakhalot Asurot thus:
It is a positive commandment to search the tokens with
which one sets apart those beasts, living creatures,
birds, fish and grasshoppers that are permissible to eat
from those that are not permissible to eat, as it says: Ye
shall therefore separate [ve-hivdaltem] between the
clean beast and the unclean and between the unclean
27
fowl and the clean [Leviticus 20:25].
26
The alternative view is that the actions to be undertaken by the leper bear no
relation to each other; some of the mandated actions may be designed simply to force
the leper to feel and act like a mourner, others may be designed to keep people away,
and so on.
27
Here, too, as in the ShM there are a number of variant readings, two of which parallel
those of the ShM. These are, "to search" (livdoq) and "[they] are the tokens" (hen ha-
simanim). A third variant, found in Shem Tov ha-Sefardi' s Migdal Oz, Hai-Raqah,
Masud, Ma^aseh Roqeah (Venice: Meir Da Zarah, Nella Stamparia Vendramina,
474
On noting the new exegesis and its departure from the ShM, a classic
commentator of the Halakhot offers to reconcile matters but admits that he
does so with "great difficulty"
28
The exegetical transformation is completed in the second chapter of
Hilkhot Maakhalot Asurot, where M. discusses the various prohibitions
broken by one who eats non-kosher animals. In 2:1, M. stipulates that one
who eats the meat of a prohibited animal has made two transgressions, of an
explicit prohibition and of an inferred prohibition, calling the latter by its
technical term, a "do" (aseh) that is inferred from that ye may eat, in line
with the principle that an inferred prohibition from a positive statement is
considered an 'aseh. Again in 2:4, M. lists the transgressions of one who
eats a non-kosher bird or fish, first the explicit negative commandment and
then the "do" (aseh), that is, a prohibition that is inferred from a positive
29
statement. In essence, the Halakhot do no more than to reconfirm the
(volume 1 (1742); volume 2 and 3 were printed in Livorno 1862, 1863), 1976, and all the
printed editions, is "to know the tokens" (le-yeda ha-simanim). For a useful survey of the
variants and their implications, see "Yalqut Shinuye Nushaot," , ad loc., p.597. Though
the Yemenite MSS. are known for their reliability, it is likely that they reflect an early
stage of M. ' s thought. See Shailat, Y, "Perush ha-Mishnah le-RaMBaM ve-Hadarato be-
Dorenu," Beit ha-Va' ad le-'Arikhat Kitve Rabbotenu, eds. Yoel Qatan and E.
Soloveitchik (Jerusalem: 2003), p. 72. I believe that these particular variants are not the
product of errors in transcription but rather that they arose from different conceptual
stages (and therefore reflect different literary versions), because they are too substantive.
2 8
Lehem Mishneh, halakhah 2, s.v. ve-nirah le-yashev zeh be-doheq. Lehem Mishneh
seems to have been unaware of, or unwilling to give weight to, the subtle shift
adumbrated in P152.
29
The summarizing statement at the end of halakhah 4 is problematic. M. states: "Here
then you have learned that anyone who eats an unclean fish, or unclean cattle or an
animal or an unclean bird, abrogates (bitel) a positive commandment and transgresses
(avar) a negative commandment." If M. was referring to the "do" prohibitions that he had
just listed at the beginning of the halakhah, he should have used the expression
"transgress" (avar) rather than "abrogate" (bitel), since the latter term is only applicable
475
innovative and original claim made in the ShM, this time free from the need
to find a suitable rabbinic warrant and totally unburdened by the need to
enumerate four independent commandments.
30
P172
It is extremely rare for a positive commandment to attract punishment
31
in case of transgression. On the other hand, this is not the run-of-the-mill
positive commandment; that is, there is no obligation, strictly speaking, to
find a prophet so that one can obey him. Rather, the words unto him ye shall
hearken should be read as inferring a prohibition: you must not disobey him
and if you do you are liable to the punishment of death at the hand of
Heaven.
32
It is for this reason that the Halakhot do not designate this
injunction a positive commandment.
33
to positive commandments. On the distinction between avar and bitel, see Perla, Sefer ha-
Mitsvot le-RaSaG, vol. 1, pp. 693-4. As a matter of fact, M. uses the correct term
"transgress" (avar) throughout halakhah 4 whenever he refers to the "do" prohibitions.
One possible solution is to argue that M.' s summary was referring to the positive
commandment, that of So you shall set apart [ve-hivdaltem] the clean beast from the
unclean, the unclean bird from the clean, and not the "do" prohibitions discussed in that
same halakhah. In other words, M. highlighted the practical fact that, besides the "do"
prohibitions, which add little to the explicit negative commandments, the transgressor
also abrogates the positive commandment of ve-hivdaltem.
30
With regard to this last point see section 6.4.
31
The exceptions are circumcision and the obligation to sacrifice the Passover lamb, both
punishable by excision (karet), and the requirement for priests to wash their hands before
commencing services, punishable by death at the hand of Heaven.
32
This is, in fact, the way M. describes this commandment in Hilkhot Sanhedrin 19:3.
33
See our discussion in 6.1.1.
476
P189
The Halakhot omits the public appeal to wage war found in the ShM,
which states that the commandment is "to speak of this [i.e., 'Amaleq's
despicable acts] at all times, and to arouse the individual members of the
nation [ha-nefashot] to make war upon him and bid the nation [ha-am] to
hate them." Instead, it is satisfied with merely stating that
It is a positive commandment always to bear in mind
his evil deeds and the waylaying [he resorted to], so
that we keep fresh the memory of the hatred
manifested by him,
34
as it is said: Remember what
''Amaleq did unto thee (Hilkhot Melakhim 5:5).
Be that as it may, the independent character of the commandment is
preserved: Remember is not connected with the commandment to destroy
'Amaleq, nor is it a declaration that formally precedes their annihilation.
34
The Hebrew kede le-orer evato is ambiguous; it could also mean "to stir [in us] or to
keep fresh the memory of [our] hatred for him." I have followed A. M. Hershman' s
translation, with slight changes. If this reading is correct, its implications are significant:
In the Halakhot, M. would be rejecting the idea that one must harbor hatred in one' s
heart, in line, I would suggest, with the ethical conclusions arrived at in Hilkhot De 'ot,
hatred being an extreme character disposition. Instead, the commandment turns into a
duty to remember ' Amaleq' s hatred towards oneself. The Code of Maimonides: Book 14,
the Book of Judges, trans. Abraham M. Hershman, vol. 14, 14 vols. (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1949).
477
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2. Works by Maimonides
2.1 Sefer ha-Mitzvot
The Book of Commandment s. Trans. C. D. Chavel. London: The Soncino Press, 1984.
Sefer ha-Mitsvot. Ed. S. Frankel. Jerusal em, 1995.
Sefer ha-Mitsvot. Trans. Moshe ibn Tibbon. Ed. Hayim Heller. Jerusal em: Mosad ha-Rav Kook,
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Sefer ha-Mitsvot. Ed. and trans. Joseph Kafih. Jerusal em: Mosad ha-Rav Kook, 1971.
Sefer ha-Mitsvot im Hasagot ha-RaMBaN. Ed. C. D. Chavel. Jerusal em: Mosad ha-Rav kook,
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2.2 Mishnah Torah, Code of Maimonides
The Code of Maimonides: Book 2, The Book Of Love. Trans. Menachem Kellner. Yale Judaica
Series. Vol. 2. 14 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 3, The Book Of Seasons. Trans. Solomon Gandz and Hyman
Klein. Yale Judaica Series. Vol. 3. 14 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 3, Treatise 8, The Sanctification of the New Moon. Trans.
Solomon Gandz, Julian Obermann and Otto Neugebauer. Vol. 3. 14 vols. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1956.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 4, The Book Of Women. Trans. Isaac Klein. Vol. 4. 14 vols.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 5, The Book Of Holiness. Trans. Leon Nemoy, Louis I.
Rabinowitz and Philip Grossman. Vol. 5. 14 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press,
1965.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 6, The Book Of Asseverations. Trans. B. D. Klein. Vol. 6. 14
vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 7, The Book Of Agriculture. Trans. Isaac Klein. Vol. 7. 14 vols.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 8, The Book Of Temple Service. Trans. Mendell Lewittes. Vol.
8. 14 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 9, The Book Of Offerings. Trans. Herbert Dan. Vol. 9. 14 vols.
480
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 10, The Book Of Cl eanness. Trans. Herbert Dan. Vol. 10. 14
vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 11, The Book Of Torts. Trans. Hyman Klein. Vol. 11. 14 vols.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 12, The Book Of Acquisitions. Trans. Isaac Klein. Vol. 12. 14
vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 13, The Book Of Civil Laws. Trans. Jacob J. Rabinowitz. Vol.
13. 14 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1949.
The Code of Maimonides: Book 14, The Book Of Judges. Trans. Abraham M. Hershman. Vol.
14. 14 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1949.
A collection of important commentaries on the code of Maimonides [Mefarshe Yad ha-
Hazaqah], 20 vols. Jerusal em: Otzreinu, 2006.
Madd' a, Ahavah: Ha-Sefer ha-Mugah. With an introduction of S. Z. Havlin. Jerusal em:
Facsimile edition of MS. Huntington 80, 1997.
Mahadurat Menuqedet im Perush le-Am. 10 vols. Jerusal em: Mosad ha-Rav Kook, 1987.
Mishneh Torah. Ed. S. Frankel. 15 vols. Bne Brak: Hotsaat Shabs e Frankel, 1975-2006.
Mishneh Torah. Ed. Joseph Kafih. 23 vols. Jerusal em, 1984-96.
Mishneh Torah Hu ha-Yad ha-Hazaqah le-Rabbenu Moshe b. Maimon: Haqdamah u-Minyan
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Mishneh Torah Hu ha-Yad ha-Hazaqah le-Rabbenu Moshe b. Maimon: Sefer Ahavah im Perush
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2.3 Guide of the Perplexed
The Guide of the Perplexed. Trans. Shlomo Pines. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1963.
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Les Guide des egares. Trans. S. Munk. Paris, 1856. Repr. Paris, 1960.
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2.4 Letters, Epistles
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88.
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2.5 Treatise on Logic
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1938. 34-65.
2.6 Responsa
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Sheelot u-Teshuvot ha-RaMBaM ' Peer ha-Dor'. Ed. David Yosef. Jerusal em: Makhon
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Teshuvot. Eds. A. Freimann and S. Goiten. Jerusal em, 1937.
482
2.7 Commentary on the Mishnah
Eight Chapt ers (Shemonah Peraqim) Ed. and trans. J. Gorfinkle. New York: AMS Press, 1966.
Ethical Writings of Maimonides. Eds. Raymond L. Wei ss and Charles E. Butterworth. New York:
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Haqdamot ha-RaMBaM la-Mishnah. Ed. and trans. Y. Shailat. Jerusal em: Hotsaat Maaliyot,
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Index of Texts from the Works of Maimonides
Wherever citations are discussed throughout a page, sometimes including
notes, I have indicated only the page number for the discussion; specific
citations appearing only in footnotes are noted.
ShM - Sefer ha-Mitsvot
2, 12, 16, 17 note 19, 19, 23, 24-8, 30, 38, 40-2, 44-5, 50-1, 61 note 34, 62,
68, 74, 77-9, 83, 87 note 8, 92, 104 note 31, 114, 115 note 6, 117-18, 120
note 14, 121, 122 note 17, 125-26, 128, 130, 131 note 30, 133-4, 136-37,
140, 142, 143 note 48, 145, 150-51 note 54, 156, 158, 161-62, 177, 181,
183, 186 note 103, 188, 190-3, 196, 198, 204, 206, 208-210 note 14, 213-16,
219, 224-5 note 20, 227-8, 231, 235-236 note 34, 241-42, 244-5, 249-50,
254-56, 264, 269 note 33, 276, 278 note 48, 281, 288-9, 292-3, 295-96, 299,
303, 306, 308-9, 315, 320-321 note 3, 323, 325-27, 333-34, 336-41, 343-48,
351-53, 359 note 51, 381-85, 387-88, 391, 393-97, 400-3, 405, 407-10, 412-
15, 418, 420-22, 432, 438, 449, 458 note 2, 463, 474 note 27
SE - "Short Enumeration of the Commandments" (minyan haqatsar)
24-8, 30, 40 note 10, 45, 61 note 34, 92, 114, 119 note 12, 125-26, 130, 131
note 30, 151, 181 note 95, 213-14, 228, 236 note 34, 243-45, 276, 278, 281,
288-89, 292, 299, 303, 308, 309, 315, 359 note 51, 381-82, 384-85, 395-97,
402, 407, 410, 412, 414, 415, 418 note 1, 420, 421, 432 note 12, 458 note 1-
2, 462-3
ShM/SE Positive and Negative Commandments
(P, N - Positive, Negative commandment, according to Maimonides)
Positive Commandments
1 173, 181, 188 note 108, 431 note 7
2 187, 292, 297, 431 note 7
3 198, 322, 359
4 43, 51, 198, 335, 340 note 33, 359
5 51, 253 note 8, 278 note 47, 294
7 40 note
8 51, 192 note 114, 198, 344, 348 note 42, 359, 432
509
note 14, 433 note 18
9 44, 198, 222,
10 44, 189, 191, 198, 291
11 295
12 66, 198, 298
13 66, 199, 298
14 55, 199, 222, 228
15 45, 199, 301
16 216
17 130, 167, 303, 305, 463
18 130, 199, 303
20 43, 272, 430 note 2, 449
21 430 note 2
22 114, 43, 114, 430 note 2
23 44, 120, 166
24 44, 209
25 44
26 45, 82, 199, 222, 230
27 45
29 43
30 135, 166
31 43, 77 note
32 121, 166, 431 note 4, 460
33 44, 431 note 4, 460
34 125, 135, 166, 199, 213, 272, 381, 382,
431 note 4, 459, 468
35 431 note 4, 460
36 132, 166, 253 note 3, 431 note 4, 466
37 43, 144, 418 note 1, 431 note 5, 466
38 40, 46, 337 note 30, 431 note 6
39 45, 240, 431 note 7
41 56, 83, 199, 240
42 83, 199, 240
43 83, 199, 240
44 43, 199, 240
45 83, 199, 240
46 199, 240
47 83, 199, 240
48 199, 240
49 199, 240-242
510
50 199, 240, 431 note 8
51 199, 240
54 244
57 82
59 82
60 40 note 10, 43, 337 note 30
62 433 note 19
63 86, 94, 95, 430 notes 2-3, 433 note 20-1
64 86, 94, 95, 433 note 20-1
65 86, 94, 95, 433 note 20
66 86, 94, 95, 433 note 20
67 86, 94. 95
68 87, 88, 89, 90, 200, 236, 238
69 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 236, 238
70 200, 218
71 200, 218
72 89, 200, 218
74 89, 200, 218
75 89, 91, 95, 218
76 89, 200, 218
77 89, 90, 200, 218
78 216
80 431 note 9
81 102
82 38, 63, 102
83 432 note 10
84 40 note 10, 114, 432 note 10
85 122, 160 note 64, 166, 28, 432 note 10
86 137, 160 note 64, 281, 432 note 10
87 115, 200, 219, 432 note 10, 462
88 432 note 10
89 40 note 10, 432 note 10
90 43, 116, 432 note 10
91 75, 92, 116 note 9
92 40 note 10, 75
93 75
94 75, 265
95 70, 71 note 3, 72, 73, 75, 151 note 54, 197 note 3,
197 note 3, 200, 216, 218, 321 note 3, 462
96 74, 200, 219, 321 note 3, 462
511
97 74, 200, 219, 462
98 74, 200, 219, 462
99 74, 200, 219, 462
100 74, 200, 219, 462
101 74, 148 note 52, 201, 219, 462
102 74, 201, 219, 462
103 74, 201, 220, 462
104 74, 201, 220, 462
105 65, 201, 220, 462
106 74, 201, 220, 462
107 74, 201, 220, 462
108 71 note 3, 74, 91, 201, 220, 244-5, 462
109 71, 73, 76, 91, 160 note 64, 192 note 114, 197
note 3, 201, 220, 281
110 65,91
112 46, 147, 149 note 52, 167, 473
113 93, 201, 244
114 71 note 3, 93, 201, 236, 238
115 71 note 3, 93, 201, 236, 238
116 93, 201, 236, 238
117 71 note 3, 93, 201, 236, 238
118 432 note 11
119 201, 220
126 306
127 201, 306, 309
128 160 note 64, 201, 281, 306
129 201, 306
130 202, 306
134 432 note 11
135 432 note 11
136 432 note 11
137 432 note 11
138 432 note 11
139 202, 220
141 432 note 12
142 40 note 10, 117, 118, 285 note 58
143 432 note 13
145 71 note 3, 202, 220, 432 note 14
146 40 note 10, 125, 167, 458
147 432 note 15
512
148 83, 202, 218, 432 note 16
149 40 note 10, 71 note 3, 150, 152, 154, 166, 202,
236, 238, 240, 474
150 40 note 10, 83, 150, 154, 166, 202, 236, 239,
240, 474
151 40 note 10, 83, 150, 166, 202, 236, 239, 474
152 40 note 10, 150, 154, 166, 202, 236, 239, 474,
475 note 28
153 192 note 115
154 99
155 124
157 43, 123, 167
158 43
159 86, 96, 99 note 21, 202, 236 note 35, 239
160 96, 202. 236 note 35, 239
162 96, 202, 236 note 35, 239
163 96, 99 note 21, 202, 236 note 35, 239
164 99 note 21, 433 note 17
165 99, 433 note 18
166 96, 202, 236 note 35, 239
167 96, 97, 99, 202, 236 note 35, 239
168 202, 310, 321 note 3
169 202, 242, 243 note 39
172 157, 158, 167, 202, 208, 210 note 14, 383, 476
173 43, 202, 278 note 47, 384
175 43, 127, 138, 167, 432 note 12, 432 note 12, 438,
460
176 128
177 128, 432 note 13, 432 note 15
178 159, 167, 202, 395, 438
179 128, 137, 138 note 39, 167, 438
181 201, 220, 433 note 19
182 82, 433 note 19
183 203, 407, 433 note 19
184 418 note 1, 433 note 19
185 43, 433 note 19
187 138, 142, 143 note 48, 166, 167, 433 note 19
188 43, 139, 433 note 19
189 148 note 51, 162, 167, 285 note 60, 433 note 20,
477
513
190 71 note 3, 100, 142, 143 note 48, 203, 220, 433
note 21
191 100, 143 note 48, 203, 237, 239, 394 note 80,
409, 410, 411, 433 note 22
192 142, 143, 166, 433 note 23
193 142, 143
197 43
198 40 note 43, 118, 256 note 14, 278 note 47, 281,
286 note 59
199 203, 218, 278 note 47
200 433 note 24
201 129, 167, 203, 396, 397 note 83, 461
203 44
204 43
205 203, 397
206 432 note 16
209 203, 214, 395 note 81, 402
210 44
213 43
214 203, 409, 410, 411, 413
216 102
217 63,102
221 203, 221
222 70, 73, 197 note 3, 203, 221
224 56,
226 61, 62, 203, 238, 239, 240
227 61, 62, 203, 238, 239, 240
228 61, 62, 203, 238, 239, 240
229 61, 62, 203, 238, 239, 240
232 66, 203. 221
233 63, 101, 102 note 28, 203, 221
234 63 note 37, 101 203, 221
235 203
236 204, 221
237 102, 204, 221
238 103, 204, 221
239 204, 221
240 102, 103, 204, 221
241 102, 103, 204, 221
242 103, 204, 221
514
243 103, 204, 221
244 103, 204, 221
245 105, 106 note 33, 204, 221
246 204, 221
247 204, 218
248 204, 221
Negative Commandments
4 270
42 56
45 264
46 269 note 33
47 170 note 78
48 140
51 141 note 44
52 141 note 44
58 141 note 44
66 43
72 137
77 77
89 40 note 10, 114
117 93
118 93
119 93
120 93
154 43
163 268
164 268
165 268, 269 note 33
169 408
179 266
180 56
194 44, 160 note 64
198 43, 278 note 47
201 43
210 43
228 276
229 43
267 397 note 84
515
281
282
290
297
299
300
310
311
303
353
129
461 note 8
138 note 39, 438
160, 161, 396 note 82
271
57
412
412
399 note 86, 400
253 note 8
MT - Mishneh Torah
I, 13, 14, 18, 24, 25, 40 note 10, 45, 106, 120, 141, 146, 151, 159, 182 note
97, 184, 191, 192 note 113, 193, 194, 197 note 3, 205 note 6, 206, 207 note
II, 214, 217, 244, 255 note 10, 280, 281, 295, 299, 315, 316, 332, 341 note
33, 367 note 59, 373, 380, 420, 445, 458 note 1, 467, 470 note 21
Sefer ha-Madd a
195, 40 note 10, 132 note 31, 167 note 74, 367 note 59
1:1 196
1:2 196
1:3 196
1:4 196
1:5 196
1:6 196
1:7 196
Sefer Ahavah
195
(Sections in Alphabetical Order)
Avadim
9:3
9:8
9:8
66
370
380
516
Avel
1:1 146, 470
2:6 418 note 1, 470
14:1 348
Avodah Zarah
7:1 195
Berakhot
1:1 195, 212
11:2 197, 198 note 4, 319
11:9 318
Biat ha-Miqdash
3:1 213
5:1 209
9:8 136
Bikkurim
12:1 38
De ot (HD)
352 note 47, 357 note 57, 365-7, 373, 477
1 352 note 47, 361, 363 note 57, 364, 366, 369, 370
1:1 364, 371, 380
1:2 363 note 57, 364, 380
1:3 358, 363 note 57, 380
1:4 349 note 43, 351, 360, 363 note 57, 364, 367, 368, 380
1:5 363 note 57, 364, 371, 380
1:6 350, 363 note 57, 364, 380
1:7 351, 356, 360, 362, 363 note 57, 364, 380
1:8 363 note 57, 364, 380
1:9 363 note 57, 364, 380
2 363 note 57, 364, 366, 380
2:1 361, 363 note 57, 364, 367, 369, 370, 371, 380
2:2 361, 363 note 57, 364, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371
2:3 367, 368
2:4 369
2:7 369
517
3:2 369
3:3 369
6:2 195
6:5 401
6:6 401
6:7 401
Edut
138 note 39
1:1 395
13:1 275
Eruvin
14
6:6 318
Hamets u-Matsah
2:1 281, 282, 290
6:1 212, 290, 319
7:1 124 note 21, 212, 290
7:2 319
Hovel u-Maziq
1 445
1:2 279 note 49
7 104 note 31
Ishut
1:2 255 note 10
1:8 210 note 13
3:19 318
15:17 205 note 6
Isure Biah
4:1 279 note 50
16:10 277 note 46
Isure Mizbeah
518
1:10 137 note 38, 281, 284
Kele ha-Miqdash
467
1:1 213
2:12 125, 213, 382
4:1 121-2 note 16
4:2 121-2 note 16
8:3 205 note 6
8:5 205 note 6
Kelim
17:12 256
Maakhalot Asurot
1:1 236, 474
1:10 279 note 50
2:1 475
2:4 475
4:17 205 note 6
Ma aseh ha-Qorbanot
18:1 281, 284
Ma aser Sheni
1:1 307
Malveh ve-Loveh
1:2 117, 281, 285
5:1 256 note 14, 281, 285
Mamrim
1:5 206 note 9
2:9 206 note 9
6:1 395 note 81
Matnot Aniyim
306. 307
519
7:3 348 note 41
7:10 321 note 3
Megillah ve-Hanukkah
14, 470
2:17 371, 380
Mehusre Kapparah
89, 103
Mekhirah
107
Melakhim
143, 303, 305, 384, 385 note 72, 389, 409, 410
2:5 318
3:1 303, 305 note 23
3:10 392
5:1 139 note 41
5:5 281, 286, 477
6:1 143 note 48
6:4 143 note 48
7:1 239, 100
7:2 237 note 37
7:3 237 note 37, 411
7:15 237 note 37
10:2 223 note 18
11:3 270 note 34
Metsora
16:10 167
Miqvaot
1:2 280, 284
Milah
1:1 195
1:8 317
520
Na arah Betulah
3:6 277 note 46
Nazir
1:1 195
Nizqe Mamon
103
Parah Adumah
244, 245
3:4 245
7:1 245 note 42
Pesule Muqdashin
93 note 13
Qiddush ha-Hodesh
8:1 279 note 49
Rotseah u-Shemirat ha-Nafesh
1:6 218 note 16
1:14 396 note 82
11:1 197 note 3
11:4 418
13:7 318
Sanhedrin
138 note 39, 209
3:3 277 note 46, 279 note 49
3:8 277 note 46, 279 note 49
8:1 460-1 note 8
14:1 237
14:2 237
18 59
19 59
19:3 209, 476 note 32
Sekhirut
104, 462
12:1 396, 463
Shabbat
1:1 195, 212
24:5 318
30:1 431
Shehitah
1:4 316
5:3 26 note
Sheluhin ve-Shutafin
14, 107 note 34
Sheqalim
1:1 212
Shevitat Asor
1:1 212
1:2 237
1:4 281, 286
Shegagot
14:1 27
14:2 27
15:1 89
15:2 89
Shekhenim
14, 107 note 34
Shemitah ve-Yovel
408
13:5 276
522
13:12 409 note 96
13:13 409 note 96
Shevitat Yom Tov
1:2 98, 236
Shofar ve-Lulav ve-Sukkah
1:1 198 note 4, 281, 282
7:5 243
7:13 243
7:20 64
7:21 64
8 243
Sotah
2:12 279
4:8 205 note 6
Ta anit
205 note 6
Talmud Torah
310, 327 note 15
1:2 279
5:1 395 note 81, 406
6:1 214
Tefillah
210
1:1 195, 281
14 231
15 231
Tefillin u-Mezuzah ve-Sefer Torah
302 note 18, 303
1:1 298
5:1 300, 301
523
5:4 302 note 17
5:10 301
6:12 301
7:1 195, 305
7:14 464
7:2 303
10:10 317
Temedin u-Musafin
135, 240
1:1 213
2:1 213
2:10 136
3:1 213
3:18 213
4:9 241
7:3 241
7:22 213
8:1 241
8:20 242
9:1 241
10:1 241
10:3 241
10:5 241
Terumot
2:1 306
3:12 307, 307 note 25, 319
Teshuvah
328
1:1 196
3:7 180 note 93
3:8 180 note 93
3:24 180 note 93
9:1 361 note 53
10:1 339, 343
10:5 341 note 33
524
Tumat Tsara at
10:6 473
10:7 148 note 52
11:1 65
Yesodei ha-Torah
210, 325 note 13, 341, 365, 367
1:1 23, 183
1:2 23, 183
1:3 23, 183
1:4 23, 183
1:5 23, 183, 184
1:6 23, 183. 184, 292, 297, 332 note 26
1:7 23
2:1 340
2:2 325, 327, 340, 341 note 33, 343 note 36
2:12 187 note 106
3:7 180 note 93
3:8 180 note 93
4:3 327 note 15
4:10 187 note 106
4:11 187 note 106
4:13 297 note 10, 327
5:1 23, 226
5:2 226
5:3 226
5:4 226
7:1 365
7:7 209
7:10 158
8:2 158
9:2 158, 210 note 14
9:3 158, 210 note 14
Yibbum ve-Halitsah
2:6 259 note 19, 277 note 46, 279 note 50, 318
6:8 279 note 50
525
Yom ha-Kippurim
205 note 6, 241
Yom ha-Tsom
205 note 6
Zekhiyah u-Matanah
14, 107 note 34
PhM - Perush ha-Mishnayot
12, 250, 278 note 47
Haqdamah
313, 472 note 24
Kelim
17:12 256
Miqvaot
6:7 255
Sanhedrin
2:5 304 note 21
Yevamot
2:6 279
2:8 259
GP - Guide of the Perplexed
24, 95 note 16, 182 note 95, 191, 347 note 41, 355, 366 note 58, 380, 392,
394, 443, 444, 445, 447, 449, 460, 471-3
1 2 179 note 91
1 5 342 note 35
1 35 185 note 101, 187 notes 105-7
1 36 182 note 95
1 50 182 note 95
1 54 328 note 16, 378
526
1:56 94 note 14
1:60 178 note 89
1:61 233 note 29
1:62 233 note 29
1:69 175 note 85
1:71 182 note 97, 184
2:33 177, 186, 427
2:39 207 note 10, 372 note 61, 440, 441
2:40 372
3:26 167
3:27 111 note 3, 112, 186 note 104, 372-73
3:28 111 note 3, 176, 187 note 105, 329, 339
3:29 111 note 3
3:30 111 note 3
3:31 111 note 3, 269 note 32
3:32 111 note 3
3:33 52, 111 note 3, 321
3:35 111 note 3, 373
3:38 111 note 3, 347 note 41, 373
3:41 111 note 3, 143, 274 note 43, 392, 441, 442, 448
3:42 111, note 3, 397 note 83, 463
3:43 111 note 3, 124 note 22
3:44 111 note 3, 132 note 31
3:45 111 note 3, 166, 383 note 69, 460
3:47 111 note 3, 146, 472 note 24-5
3:49 111 note 3, 372 note 61
3:50 124 note 23, 141 note 45
3:51 329 note 19
3:53 379
3:54 175, 374, 376, 378
4:32 463
EC - Eight Chapters
168, 353, 355, 357, 358, 361, 362, 364, 365, 366, 375, 380, 381 note 66
According to Gorfinkle citations:
Cited by Chapter reference:
2 168, 175
527
4 352, 363
5 369
6 366
7 364
Cited by page number:
68 353, 362
60-62 363
64-66 355
69 369
80 364, 365
528