Foreword

The Building and Construction Authoritys (BCA) Construction Quality Assessment System
(CONQUAS) has been widely adopted as the de facto national yardstick for measuring the quality
of building projects. Besides setting standards and measuring the level of workmanship through
CONQUAS, BCA is developing a series of publications of Good Industry Practices Guide for different
trades.

This Good Industry Practices Design and Material Selection for Quality Volume 1 shares with
the industry some of the good practices adopted by developers, practitioners and contractors who
consistently deliver high quality work through thoughtful design and choice of materials in construction,
particularly in residential buildings. These practices are taken from projects that achieved high
CONQUAS/Quality Mark scores. The examples in this guide highlight some of these noteworthy
projects. While the other guides in the series focus on doing things right, this guide focuses on
doing the right thing through careful design choices and materials selection.

This guide is not meant to be a denitive textbook on building design and material selection to achieve
high quality. Neither is it the nal word on quality, as there will be new materials and methods. To
obtain more comprehensive information and guidance, readers should seek advice from professional
designers and material suppliers. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of these practitioners
and trust that the industry will nd this publication useful in its pursuit of quality excellence. We
welcome any contributions from readers that may add to or improve future editions of this guide.

Lam Siew Wah

Deputy Chief Executive Ofcer
Industry and Corporate Development
Building and Construction Authority
Acknowledgement
This Good Industry Practices Guide Design and Material Selection for Quality Volume 1 was
developed with inputs from Architects, Developers, Builders, Specialist Contractors and members
from various industry associations.

We would like to thank the following rms for their support, contributions and sharing of knowledge
in making this possible:

Ando Singapore Pte Ltd

City Developments Ltd
Dragages Singapore Pte Ltd
Far East Organization
Kajima Overseas Asia Pte Ltd
Shimizu Corporation (Singapore)
Sumitomo Mitsui Construction Co, Ltd
Tiong Seng Contractors (Pte) Ltd
Woh Hup (Pte) Ltd

We would also like to thank the following organizations and individuals for their valuable feedback in
the review of this guide:

Boral Plasterboard (Singapore)

CapitaLand Residential Ltd
Design Studio Furniture Ltd
DP Architects Pte Ltd
Eastern Pretech Pte Ltd
Singapore Contractors Association Ltd
Singapore Institute of Building Ltd
Team Design Architects Pte Ltd
Wheelock Properties (Singapore) Limited
Wing Tai Property Management Pte Ltd
Yongnam Holdings Ltd
Mr Colin Tan
Mr George Soh
Mr Roger Lai
Dr Uma Maheswaran

Tan Tian Chong

Director
Technology Development Division
 GOOD INDUSTRY PRACTICES
DESIGN AND MATERIAL SELECTION FOR QUALITY - VOLUME 1

CONTENTS
Introduction 5

1.0 An Overview of Buildable Design and Quality 7

2.0 Inuence of Layouts/Shapes on Quality and Constructability 15

3.0 Quality Issues in Conventional Methods & Materials 21

4.0 Quality Features in Structural Elements 29

4.1 Steel Structures
4.2 Precast Concrete Elements

5.0 Quality Features in Architectural Elements 47

5.1 Prefabricated Bathrooms
5.2 Drywall Partitions

6.0 Design and Detailing for Quality in Architectural Components 73

6.1 Timber Doors
6.2 Cabinets and other Components

7.0 Design and Detailing for Quality at Adjoining Locations/Trades 91

7.1 Architectural Finishes
7.2 Embedded /Concealed Services

8.0 Example Projects 109

References and Further Reading 117

 5

INTRODUCTION

Since 1999, the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) have produced a series of 9 Good Industry
Practices Guides. These guides detail work processes and methods of installation for various nishing
trades e.g. ceramic tiling, timber ooring, waterproong works, etc. If the guidelines are followed
closely, one can expect the resultant end product to be a high quality building of workmanship
excellence. These guides have been used as reference standards in quality assessments under
BCAs CONQUAS or Quality Mark (QM) schemes.

While it is possible to achieve high quality standards by following closely these guides, sometimes
the proper design, detailing or choice of material can often reduce the time and effort required during
construction to achieve the same or better end result. Some conventional methods, materials or
designs may require the employment of more skilled workers to work in difcult circumstances and
therefore take a longer time to complete the works. Such skilled workers are invariably in short supply
and as projects usually have to be completed within very tight schedules, workmanship quality is
often sacriced.

Good design is an integral and essential part of construction. Good design facilitates construction work
to be carried out optimally within time and cost constraints. It addresses the following aspects:
Safety
Meeting endusers needs
Functionality
Build Quality
Buildability
Sustainability
Aesthetics

To strike a balance in all the aspects and achieve good quality in the nal product, plans and
specications should be carefully designed, reviewed at each stage and corrected before construction
starts. Overlooking any of these may result in additional time and cost to rectify the works.

This guide attempts to distill many good design practices and material choices observed in various
CONQUAS and QM projects that have achieved workmanship quality excellence as reected in
their high CONQUAS/ QM scores. Industry professionals can learn and apply these practices in
their projects for better quality achievement. As each buildings design objective may be different
from another, it may be necessary to be selective or customize the mentioned practices to meet the
specic needs of the project. This guide has made comparisons with some designs choices that may
be difcult to build or has inherent difculties in achieving quality. This does not mean such designs
cannot be employed. It only means that more time, attention and higher cost may be incurred to
achieve the same quality result.

This guide is the rst of 2 volumes and focuses on good design choices for workmanship excellence.
The subsequent volume will cover other design choices and material selection that impacts quality.
 1.0
AN OVERVIEW OF
BUILDABLE DESIGN AND QUALITY
8

1.0 AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDABLE DESIGN AND QUALITY

Buildabilty is the extent to which the design of a building facilitates ease of construction.

Buildable design often has a direct implication on quality achievement in a project. Projects with
better quality performance (as measured by CONQUAS- Construction Quality Assessment System)
invariably are also those that had adopted good buildable designs. Examples of such projects,
which can be found in I-QUAS (Information on Construction Quality-ref: www.bca.gov.sg) include
commercial, residential, institutional and mixed developments like The Esparis, Monterey Park,
Savannah Park, The Pier, Icon, One Marina and ITE Simei.

The developer, designer and builder each has a signicant role towards achieving better buildable
design and quality in construction. This chapter illustrates examples of good buildable designs and
its contribution to quality.

Fig. 1.1 - Examples of projects with good buildable designs and high quality performance scores.
 9

1.0 AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDABLE DESIGN AND QUALITY

1.1 EXAMPLES OF GOOD BUILDABLE DESIGNS

The following are examples from residential projects that adopted good design concepts such as
at plate slab, curtain wall, drywall partitions, prefabricated bathrooms, screed-less oor, etc. All
these buildable systems facilitate ease of construction leading to good quality workmanship.

Drywall

Flat plate slab Prefabricated bathrooms

Precast shear wall Screed-less oor

Curtain wall

Fig. 1.2 - Buildable systems contribute to efcient and quality construction.

10

1.0 AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDABLE DESIGN AND QUALITY

1.1.1 Flat plate slab

The oor slab has no intermediate or secondary

beams. This improves the construction cycle
time and productivity. The quality of the slab
surface is also better as there are less joints
in the system formwork. The M&E system
can be accommodated easily under the slab
since there are no intermediate beams causing
obstructions.

Fig. 1.3 - Flat plate slab: No secondary beams,

less joints and better nish.

1.1.2 Drywall partitions

Drywall partitions have many advantages

compared to conventional wet trade partitions.
Quality nish, speed of construction, ease of
installation and reconstruction are the key
attractions. See Chapter 5.2 for more details of
its features and advantages.

Fig. 1.4 - Drywall partitions: Increasing use in

residential building construction.

1.1.3 Prefabricated bathrooms

Bathrooms are prefabricated in a factory and

installed on site. This innovative method results
in better tolerances and the workmanship is
signicantly better than conventional bathroom
construction. The off-site production often
makes the manufacture of the bathroom no
longer a critical activity that may affect other
construction works on site. The different
techniques in production and installation are
explained in Chapter 5.1. Fig. 1.5 - Prefabricated bathrooms: Improved
technology for quick installation
 11

1.0 AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDABLE DESIGN AND QUALITY

1.1.4 Screed-less ooring

A combination of suitable adhesives and a

leveled concrete oor slab makes the system
practical. Using this method, screeding, one of
the messy trade in ooring installation, can
be eliminated. Hollowness in ooring, which
is caused mainly by incompatibility between
substrate and screed, can also be minimized.

Fig. 1.6 - Screed-less ooring installation: Better

productivity and quality.

1.1.5 Curtain wall

The fabrication of curtain wall components are carried out in the factory and this reduces site work and
allows greater control over component quality. The site operations require only installation works. The
process of installation is much faster compared to wet trade methods. Since the method of assembly
is a dry process, the required tolerances and workmanship can be controlled closely. When selecting
curtain wall system, considerations should be given to sustainability and environmental factors such
as using Low-E glass panels.

Fig. 1.7- Curtain wall systems: Saves time, better quality facade

Curtain walls
No scaffolding
No wet trades
Less workmanship issues
12

1.0 AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDABLE DESIGN AND QUALITY

1.1.6 Modular system walls

The modular system RC (Reinforced Concrete)

perimeter walls have less joints and the surfaces
are smoother. A thin skim-coat is sufcient to
carry the nal architectural nish. Construction
is neater and productivity higher compared to
conventional walls. This system reduces risk of
hollowness, surface cracks and unevenness in
wall surface, which are usually associated with
plastered nish walls.

Fig. 1.8 - Less joints and good surface nish in modular

system RC walls

1.1.7 Precast shear walls

The precast shear wall system eliminates inll work like brick or block work and wet trades like
plastering. External walls have better water tightness against the elements. Proper design and
execution of precast system will give good quality nish surfaces that require minimum preparatory
work before painting. Gondolas, instead of scaffolding, can be used to carry out the nishing work;
this saves costs and expedites the construction process. Other features and advantages of using
precast elements are highlighted in Chapter 4.2.

Fig. 1.9 - External shear walls: Better Fig. 1.10 - No scaffolding and plastering required
water - tightness to get nal nish.
 13

1.0 AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDABLE DESIGN AND QUALITY

Good buildable design requires careful consideration and planning. It should lead to designs that
improve construction processes, ease of construction, reduced dependency on on-site manpower
and improved quality. Although the initial cost of construction of buildable designs may be higher
than conventional methods in some cases, consideration should be given to its benets of higher
productivity, faster completion time and better build quality.
 2.0
INFLUENCE OF LAYOUTS/SHAPES ON
QUALITY AND CONSTRUCTABILITY
16

2.0 INFLUENCE OF LAYOUTS/SHAPES ON QUALITY AND CONSTRUCTABILITY

Straightforward and uncomplicated design layouts and shapes facilitate ease of construction and
maintenance, enhance productivity and lead to better quality workmanship. There is reduced need
for closer co-ordination between trades and hence less dependency to achieve the desired build
quality. This becomes more signicant where mass production is involved. This chapter shows some
examples of layouts, shapes and details and their inuence on quality and constructability.

2.1 ADVANTAGES OF CLEAR-CUT

LAYOUT

Layouts of regular shapes and without tight

corners facilitate ease of construction. It is
easier to achieve the desired workmanship
quality in the nishing work.

Fig. 2.1 - Regular layout with less tight-corners is

easier to build and achieve quality.

2.1.1 Less corners and turns Ease of architectural works

Layouts with standard room dimensions, less corners and turns facilitate execution of ne architectural
nishing works like skirtings, painting, silicon seals, etc. The ease of working over straight surfaces
results in consistent and better workmanship. The benets are enhanced where there is repetition
of similar design at every oor.

Fig. 2.2 - Less corners and turns: Easier to carry out architectural nishing works.
 17

2.0 INFLUENCE OF LAYOUTS/SHAPES ON QUALITY AND CONSTRUCTABILITY

2.1.2 Regular shapes suit prefabricated components

Regular shapes that are used repeatedly generally facilitate prefabricated components like curtain-
walls, full height windows and drywall partitions to be used. Such factory made components have
better dimensional accuracy and assembly tolerances can be better controlled during erection. This
leads to considerable reduction in site manpower and better quality output.

Fig. 2.3 - Regular and repeated shapes suit prefabricated components.

2.2 QUALITY AND CONSTRUCTABILITY CHALLENGES OF CREATIVE SHAPES

AND LAYOUTS IN INTERNAL FINISHES

Creative layouts (see Fig. 2.4) generally have more turns and joints. It poses a greater challenge
to complete the architectural works in internal nishes with the desired quality. More thought and
attention need to be paid to interfacing details, where one trade interfaces with another e.g. joining
of marble and timber oor, termination of wet and dry areas, etc. In addition, ne architectural works
like skirting installation, silicone application to gaps and llings, need to be executed carefully within
the constraints of the unique shape or layout. In many cases, using traditional wet trades that involve
intricate manual cutting of materials to suit the shape or layout may make it more difcult to achieve
workmanship quality in addition to slowing the progress of the works.

This has become more signicant in residential

properties where end-users expectations are
higher. Furthermore, more combination of
material nishes and ttings are involved in
residential buildings than commerical buildings.
Hence clear-cut layouts, precise detailing and
right sequence of execution are key factors to
achieve desired quality in internal nishes.

Fig. 2.4 - Creative shapes and layouts : A challenge

in nishing ne architectural details.
18

2.0 INFLUENCE OF LAYOUTS/SHAPES ON QUALITY AND CONSTRUCTABILITY

Fig. 2.5 - More attention/skill needed to get nal Fig. 2.6 - Too many skirting pieces/joints to get the
shape and nish. required prole.

Fig. 2.7 - Small recesses: Difcult to carry out Fig. 2.8 - Protrusions in aluminium capping due to
works like skirting, etc. too many jointing segments.

Fig. 2.9 - Circular columns with masonry nishes Fig.2.10 - Skirting requires many small segments
require more preparation time. to form curve.
 19

2.0 INFLUENCE OF LAYOUTS/SHAPES ON QUALITY AND CONSTRUCTABILITY

Fig. 2.11 - Circular column abuts wall: Jointing line Fig.2.12- Marble needs to be cut manually to suit
is a challenge to nish. prole.

The above examples are not meant to discourage professionals from creative designs. The emphasis
here is to highlight the challenges posed by creative shapes and layouts and its impact on quality and
constructability, particularly where a project has a large number of units which needs to be completed
within a limited time frame. In addition, workers with the right training and skills are needed to carry
out the ne architectural nishing works. Apart from employing workers with the appropriate skills,
the builder also needs to carefully organize and sequence the works so as not to impact construction
progress and its quality.
 3.0
QUALITY ISSUES IN
CONVENTIONAL METHODS & MATERIALS
22

3.0 QUALITY ISSUES IN CONVENTIONAL METHODS & MATERIALS

Conventional designs that comprise beams, columns, brick/block inlls and plastering have inherent
inefciencies during construction. Brick/block wall inlls are labour-intensive and cement-sand
plastering, a wet process, is often messy and requires more preparatory work. There are also
constraints in concealing and routing M&E services. Apart from using more intensive manpower
and longer construction duration, there are some inherent difculties in achieving high quality. Some
examples of the challenges posed by such conventional design and materials are highlighted in this
chapter.

3.1 CONSEQUENCES IN CHOICE OF INTERNAL FINISHES

More joints in formwork Bulging surface

Cement-sand plastering Hollowness

Fig. 3.1 - Choice of methods and materials affect workmanship quality.

 23

3.0 QUALITY ISSUES IN CONVENTIONAL METHODS & MATERIALS

3.1.1 Traditional formwork system: More joints and poor surface nish

Traditional formwork system has more connections and joints and it requires more manpower to erect,
maintain and dismantle. During erection, close monitoring and supervision is needed to achieve the
desired workmanship quality of the nished concrete. If the formwork is not erected properly, the end
product would not be satisfactory. Often this means another layer of thick plaster is required to cover
the uneven concrete surface.

Fig. 3.2 - Traditional formwork system: More Fig. 3.3 - Poor concrete surfaces: Thicker plaster
housekeeping. is required.

3.1.2 Restricted M&E services run

Many services in a building e.g. electrical, ACMV and sanitary plumbing, etc are concealed under
slabs or covered by false ceiling. If there are too many internal beams, especially non-shallow
beams, it may be difcult to locate such services under oor slabs. This may restrict the height of
false ceilings or the oor storey height may need to be increased to accommodate such services.

Fig. 3.4 - More columns and beams: Limits M&E Fig. 3.5 - Internal beams restrict height of false
services run. ceiling.
24

3.0 QUALITY ISSUES IN CONVENTIONAL METHODS & MATERIALS

3.1.3 More turns and corners

The width of RC column may be different from the width of the brickwall laid against it, especially
in internal partitions, e.g. a 200mm wide column and 100mm thick brickwall. In such situations,
an offset of 100mm will appear wherever an RC column adjoins brickwork resulting in a non-ush
surface with many corners and returns. There will be greater difculty in completing the architectural
nishing works like plastering, skirtings, architraves, etc.

Fig. 3.6 - The offset of RC and brickwork creates Fig. 3.7 - More precise work required for turns and
more turns and corners. corners.

3.1.4 Additional treatment to joint between

two different materials

At the joint interface between different materials

e.g. RC and brickwork, special treatment like
metal lathing is required to ensure there is
proper bond and to prevent cracking of plaster
wall at the joint. The additional number of joints
increase the time and cost of construction.

Fig. 3.8 - Providing metal lath on each RC and

brick joint.
 25

3.0 QUALITY ISSUES IN CONVENTIONAL METHODS & MATERIALS

3.2 CONSEQUENCES IN CHOICE OF EXTERNAL FINISHES

Brick and RC Joints: Need additional

Bulged RC surface: Require thick plaster.
treatment.

Scaffolding: More housekeeping and longer

Thick plaster: Possible waviness.
construction period.

Fig. 3.9 - Common issues in conventional methods.

26

3.0 QUALITY ISSUES IN CONVENTIONAL METHODS & MATERIALS

3.2.1 Scaffolding tieback holes

To carry out plastering, scaffolding is necessary.

The tie back holes used for securing scaffolding
can be patched and re-painted only after the
scaffold is dismantled. This is to be carried
out via gondolas. Due to the different stages
of operation, patchiness or uneven nishing on
the surface is inevitable on the external wall
surfaces.

Fig. 3.10 - Scaffolding tie-back holes on facade

plastering.

3.2.2 Possible cracks and hollow plastering

Depending on the background substrate,

plastering operations are usually 2 or 3 coats
work and may comprise a spatter-dash, base or
scratch coat and nal skim-coat. Proper curing
is also required between coats. This affects
the overall progress. Besides, if the plaster
thickness exceeds the allowable thickness,
there is possibility of defects like cracks and
hollowness appearing on the surface due to
shrinkage of mortar.
Fig. 3.11 - Surface cracks and hollowness appear
when plaster is too thick.
 27

3.0 QUALITY ISSUES IN CONVENTIONAL METHODS & MATERIALS

3.2.3 Additional waterproong treatment on joints

For external surface at RC and brick joints, besides laying metal lath, a layer of waterproong
treatment is required to ensure water tightness. Failure to execute these measures properly may
result in defects such as cracks and seepages. All these measures are needed to ensure quality in
construction and will add to construction time and costs.

Fig. 3.12 - External joints require waterproong Fig.3.13 - Potential water seepage if joints are not
treatment. treated properly.

3.2.4 Housekeeping and longer construction

period

Scaffolding, and wet trades like brickwork and

plastering evidently require more housekeeping
effort. More time is required to erect and
dismantle scaffolding. This may hinder other
concurrent activities and lead to longer
construction period.

Fig. 3.14 - More housekeeping is required for

scaffolding and wet trades.

Although adopting conventional methods and materials may lead to lower construction costs in some
cases, the majority of wet trades pose inherent difculties in achieving quality construction compared
to buildable dry construction. In its place, good buildable design systems that facilitate ease of
construction, depend less on-site labour, improve productivity and quality should be considered.
These are considered in the following chapters.
 4.0
QUALITY FEATURES IN
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES
4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS
30

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES

The physical properties of steel e.g. its durability, exibility and strength, lend itself to many varied
uses, one of which is in construction. The choice of structural steelwork system as an alternative to
reinforced concrete structures has many advantages. Steel can be easily formed and joined and its
strength to weight ratio is the highest among common building materials. This makes it lightweight and
yet strong as compared to concrete structures. Steel can also be recycled and is a good alternative
building material that contributes to sustainable construction. The following section highlights the
benets of using steel and its contribution to building quality.

Fig. 4.1 - Steels durability, exibility and strength Fig. 4.2 - Steel framed buildings have many
lend itself to use in construction projects. advantages and contribute to sustainable
construction.
 31

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES

4.1.1 Buildings with accurate tolerances

Steel is dimensionally more stable, unlike

other materials that shrink, expand, warp and
twist with age. This leads to less settlement
cracks or squeaking oors that require costly
repairs. Steel buildings can be built with better
tolerances and quality and are longer lasting.

Fig. 4.3- Steel is strong, lightweight and buildings

can be built with better tolerances.

4.1.2 Architectural aesthetics

The use of steel structures permits designers to experiment with many architectural forms and
artistic expressions which are more difcult to build in conventional concrete framed structures.
With steel, more challenging and creative designs can now be considered leading to buildings that
are aesthetically distinctive and of high build quality.

Fig. 4.4 - Complicated structures using steel: A dome shaped auditorium (left) and curved skylight entrance (right).
32

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES

4.1.3 Quality standards for steel buildings

Stringent requirements are imposed to ensure quality in steelwork construction. Though there can
be no meaningful comparison between standards for steel and reinforced concrete construction, the
tolerance requirements in CONQUAS are higher for the former. These result in buildings built to
more exact requirements and hence better build quality.

Detailed requirements on quality assurance for steelwork, especially for welding, bolting and
protection, are based on established international or national standards e.g. the National Productivity
& Quality Specications (NPQS), British National Steelwork Specications, etc. To ensure quality
construction, the stringent requirements are required to be met during fabrication and installation.

Fig. 4.5 - Steel structure ofce building with curtain wall envelope: More space without obstructive internal columns
and beams.

Fig. 4.6 - Quality internal nishing can be achieved in a steel structure building.
 33

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES

Quality checks in steel construction

The images below show typical inspections carried out during fabrication and installation of steel
structures.

Fig. 4.7a - Material inspection. Fig. 4.7b - Fit-up inspection.

Fig. 4.7c - Welding inspection. Fig. 4.7d - Dimension checks.

Fig. 4.7e - During erection checks. Fig. 4.7f - Post erection checks.

Fig. 4.7 - Stringent process checks during fabrication and installation ensure safety and quality in structural steelwork.
34

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES

4.1.4 Faster construction

Structural steel is lighter than other framing materials. This leads to less heavy foundations which
reduces both the time and cost of construction. Productivity is therefore improved and projects can
be completed faster.

Another example is the use of metal decking for oor construction. Once the steel framings are in
place, installation of metal decking can be completed rapidly. Reinforcement design for such slab
is simple and straightforward, and prefabricated reinforcement can be used. As a result, the works
can be completed earlier and there is better assurance of concrete quality because of the system of
construction.

Fig. 4.8 - Metal decking oor: Faster construction and better concrete quality.
 35

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES

4.1.5 Dry and clean construction

Steelwork enhances productivity because of its predominantly dry construction method. External wall
cladding systems (aluminium and glass) are used in conjunction with steelwork and this contributes
to rapid construction progress. The stringent tolerances specied for steel framing and cladding
systems contribute to good quality nishing.

Scaffolding can be avoided as installation of external wall systems can be carried out by tower
cranes and maximizing its use. This scaffold-free method saves on construction costs, makes the
site tidier and reduces housekeeping efforts on site.

Fig 4.9 - Scaffold free construction saves time and costs and is less cluttered.
36

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES

4.1.6 An example of steel structure construction process

A case example of a commercial project employing steel structure construction is Fusionopolis. It

comprises 3 uniquely designed steel structure towers each 24 storeys high. The major construction
works were completed within 25 months.

The fabrication of the steelwork is done offsite at factory locations where there is skilled labour and
the environment and systems are well controlled and conducive for quality output. This is an essential
consideration when deciding on the use of steel in design or the choice of steel fabricators.

Flexibility in design and the construction method allow many activities to be carried out concurrently
e.g. erection of trusses, metal deck ooring, curtain wall installation and other nishing work, etc, and
this leads to faster completion of the project.

FUSIONOPOLIS PROJECT PROGRESS

Fig. 4.10a Fig. 4.10b

2nd month: Core wall construction. 4th month: Core wall construction.

Fig. 4.10c Fig. 4.10d

7th Month: Core wall and steelwork framing. 11th Month: Core wall and steelwork framing.

Fig. 4.10e Fig. 4.10f

18th Month Framing, curtain wall and nishes. 23rd Month- Curtain wall and nishes.
 37

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 STEEL STRUCTURES

Fig 4.10g
25th month - Completion of curtain wall and other major architectural works.

4.1.7 Challenges in structural steelwork

While there are many advantages in choosing structural steelwork systems, there are also issues
particular to steelwork that need to be considered. The safe erection of structural steelwork requires
concerted effort by many parties during its fabrication and installation. Instances of poor quality
welds and other shortcomings if not detected and rectied early can compromise structural safety.
This can lead to serious consequences especially in long span structures.

Proper fabrication and installation require specialized knowledge, appropriate equipment and
resources and a comprehensive inspection and testing regime. To enhance safety of the installation,
the steelworks should be carried out by accredited steel fabricators, checked by qualied site
supervisors and tested by Independent Testing Agencies.

It is necessary to give attention to re and corrosion protection measures as steelworks exhibit

particular vulnerability in these aspects. The local re safety standards and codes should be complied
with. Finally, the higher cost of steelworks construction should be balanced against the expected
benets.
38

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

Precast concrete technology is widely used in the industry to support buildability and improve
construction productivity. Such technology also results in better quality workmanship as the precast
elements are manufactured under controlled factory conditions before its installation at site. BCA has
many publications that provide information on good practices for precasting e.g. Structural Precast
Concrete Handbook, Buildable Solutions for Landed Residential Development and Buildable
Solutions for High-Rise Residential Development. This section highlights the better workmanship
quality that can be achieved when precast technology is integrated in the design of the building.

Fig. 4.11 - Precast technology is integrated in the design to improve quality.

4.2.1 Dimensional accuracy

Precast concrete elements achieve superior dimensional tolerances and nished concrete surfaces
compared to cast in-situ concrete. This is largely due to the favourable environment in factories where
these elements are produced and the stringent quality control measures taken to meet specied or
national standards during production.

Fig. 4.12 - Precast elements are produced in a Fig. 4.13 - Dimensional tolerances and nished
controlled environment. surfaces are generally superior.
 39

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

Better dimensional control

results in precise openings
for window frame installation

Fig. 4.14 - Window frame installed by dry method Fig. 4.15 - Controlled gap with proper lling ensures
using backer rod and sealant. better water-tightness at window/ wall joints.

In traditional brickwork construction, it is a challenge to ensure consistency in forming openings for

windows and door frames. Any excessive gaps or improper lling of such gaps may lead to water
seepage at the frame and wall joints.

Fig. 4.16 - Difcult to ensure accurate openings Fig. 4.17 - Improper lling may lead to water
with on-site operations. seepage at frame/wall joints.
40

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

4.2.2 Better quality critical elements

Precasting is often the solution to quality problems when there are difculties in executing the
particular type of work in-situ. Staircases, refuse chutes and lift walls are examples where formwork,
rebar placement and provisions for openings often pose considerable challenges leading to grout
loss, inconsistent joints, surface damages and imperfections. Using pre-cast elements for these
components, such defects can be reduced.

Fig. 4.18 - Precast staircases: Better dimensional accuracy and quality nish.
 41

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

4.2.3 Better quality architectural elements

Precast architectural elements such as facades, fascia and gable end walls, parapets, sunshades,
secondary roong panels, bay windows, etc can be used instead of wet in-situ works to achieve
correct dimensional tolerances and better quality nish.

Fig. 4.19 - Architectural precast elements reduce wet works and enhance nish quality.
42

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

4.2.4 All-in-one components

In total precast concrete systems, architectural elements can also perform their structural functions.
It therefore reduces the number of construction operations and trades. Combining architectural and
structural members lead to better organized design and construction. The following precast elements
can be combined for greater efciency and quality:

Columns
Shear wall
Facade walls
Air-conditioning ledge
Sun shades
Bay window
Beams
Planter box
Pipe-duct
Staircase
Household shelter
Refuse chute

PC COLUMN

PC BALCONY

PC BEDROOM BAYWINDOW

PC EXTERNAL FAADE WALL

PC TOILET BAYWINDOW

PC PLANTERBOX

Fig. 4.20 - Total precast system results in better build quality building.
 43

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

4.2.5 Design exibility

Precast components can be custom made to match design requirements. Complex shapes,
sizes and specic technical requirements can be easily fabricated in precast plant. Without such
prefabrication, complex designs may be difcult to build or the desired quality hard to achieve on-
site using conventional construction. Precasting allows greater design exibility and repeated use of
similar shapes and sizes lead to better economy.

Fig. 4.21 - Complex shapes and elements can be fabricated and installed without compromising quality.

4.2.6 Speed and Productivity

Traditional concrete construction involves

many trades such as formwork, rebar and
concreting. These activities have to be carefully
planned and co-ordinated in a non-conducive
site environment which affects the speed of
construction and quality of output. In contrast,
precasting is carried out in controlled factory
environment leading to ease of production and
better quality output.

Fig. 4.22 - Precast construction is less

labour-intensive, faster and more productive.
44

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

4.2.7 Better quality external wall

Alignment, verticality and surface nish of external elements are critical areas in building facade.
Factory made precast wall panels require minimal surface preparation before nal nish. Scaffolding
is generally not required for the nishing works. This makes the construction site tidier and the works
can be carried out faster, apart from savings in scaffolding cost. Typical quality problems in traditional
plastered external walls such as hollowness, plaster waviness and cracks can be avoided when
precast external facade system is used.

Fig. 4.23 - No scaffolding and plastering required for nal nish of precast facade.

Fig. 4.24 - Traditional formwork construction: Untidy scaffolding and uncertain build quality outcome.
 45

4.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.2 PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

4.2.8 Challenges in precast installation

To reap the full benets of using pre-cast elements, it is important to ensure that pre-cast elements
are installed properly. Results from CONQUAS assessments show that despite the expected better
nish surfaces, cracks and damages are frequent non-compliances for precast elements. This is
often the result of damage to the components during transportation, lifting and installation.

Fig. 4.25 - Cracks and damages: Result of damage during transportation, lifting and installation.

Attention and planning are needed at the design and execution stage to prevent such damages.
Provision should be made for lifting and handling devices within the pre-cast elements. The capacity
of lifting equipment, gears, rigging arrangement, weight of precast elements, concrete strength and
expertise of the installers are to be considered during transportation, lifting and installation. This will
ensure the benets of using pre-cast elements are not negated during nal installation.

4.2.9 Optimizing design and use of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) in precast elements

The use of precast concrete elements should incorporate sustainable development practices. This
is in line with trends to optimize the use of natural resources and products and materials that are
environmentally friendly. Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) can be used to replace natural
aggregates in non-structural components e.g. non-structural precast internal partition walls. This
will reduce the depletion of natural resources by turning wastes into resources through reuse and
recycling.

Where it is not possible to use such alternative materials e.g. in structural precast concrete components,
the design should be optimized to achieve the most efcient sizes and reduced concrete usage.
 5.0
QUALITY FEATURES IN
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS
5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS
48

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Prefabrication technology is not new to the construction industry and has been in use for many
years. Prefabrication permits components to be assembled in the factory under strict quality control
before its installation on site. A prefabricated bathroom that integrates many trades can be employed
to achieve consistent and high quality workmanship in a building.

This section features prefabricated bathroom systems currently used in private residential projects in
Singapore, their advantages and contributions to high build quality.

5.1.1 Prefabricated metal panel wall system

A typical prefabricated bathroom comprises a 100mm thick concrete base slab, four surrounding
walls of galvanized metal plates internally, dry wall partition externally and rock-wool insulation inll.
It may weigh about 3 tonnes and the full bathroom assembly, including sanitary ttings and nishes
are produced at a factory in a controlled environment.

Fig. 5.1- Assembling bathroom in a factory environment: Allows proper coordination and achieves better quality.
 49

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Key assembly activities in factory

Fig. 5.2b - Arrange wall tiles for xing with glue

Fig. 5.2a - Base concrete slab casting. adhesive.

Fig. 5.2c - Metal panels mount on wall tiles. Fig. 5.2d - Fix metal panels to base slab.

Fig.5.2e - Carry out M&E installation & testing. Fig. 5.2f - Pack and deliver to site.
50

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Quality and other features in prefabricated

bathrooms

- Consistent and quality workmanship

In the conventional system of constructing

a toilet, many trades include concreting,
brickwork, waterproong, screeding, tiling,
plumbing, electrical works, components, etc
have to be properly sequenced and coordinated
on site to avoid delays. There is greater
difculty in achieving build quality as the work
of some trades may be damaged by others
in the process. The multiplicity of trades also
creates uncertainties on the project duration.
With prefabrication, the quality of the nished
Fig. 5.3 - Better quality and consistency in
product can be better assured with greater
prefabricated components.
consistency.

- Tile joint consistency

Inconsistency in tile jointing is one of the most

frequent non-compliances encountered in
wet method construction particularly for wall
tiles. This is substantially reduced when dry
installation method like prefabricated bathrooms
is employed. In this method, the tiles are placed
horizontally on a leveled platform and spacers
are used to ensure consistent joint widths.
Epoxy glue is then applied on both the tiles and
metal panels, and the panels are then mounted
on the tiles. The wall tiles exhibit consistent
joint widths after drying.

Fig. 5.4a -Tiles are placed on a leveled platform

with spacers and glue adhesive.
 51

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Fig. 5.4c - Consistent tile joints achieved in dry

Fig. 5.4b - Panels are mounted on the tiles.
installation.

- Less lippage or unevenness

In a typical wet method construction, lippage or unevenness in wall tiling is frequently the result of
unskilled workmanship. More skill is required when the tiles are placed vertically on walls using
adhesives. This dependency on skilled labour is reduced in prefabricated construction where the
tiling work is set out horizontally on a leveled surface and xed to the metal plate using a thin layer
of glue adhesive. The chance of lippage or unevenness is very much reduced if good quality tiles
without manufacturing defects are used.

Fig. 5.5a - Tiles are xed to metal panels with a

Fig. 5.5b - Flat and even tile surface nish.
thin layer of glue adhesive.
52

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

- No de-bonding or hollowness

Hollowness or de-bonding of tiles arises primarily due to improper workmanship or incompatibility

between the substrate/tile and adhesive. In some cases, inadequate tensile strength of the adhesive
may cause de-bonding. In prefabricated bathrooms, glue adhesive is used instead of normal
adhesives. The bonding strength of such adhesive is much greater than cement-based adhesives
and this reduces tile hollowness or de-bonding.

Fig. 5.6 - Use of glue adhesive reduces tile hollowness or de-bonding.

- Ease of forming gradient in base slab casting

Most wet areas including bathrooms need to be built with a gradient towards the oor trap to
discharge waste and prevent water puddling. Typically, the gradient is formed during oor screeding
using cement-sand mortar. In some situations e.g. protrusion of concealed pipes on the oor, it may
be difcult to form the required gradient using the base screed. As a result, the correct gradient is
formed using tile adhesives when laying the tiles. However, this is not a good practice to form the
required gradient.

In prefabricated bathrooms, the tiles are laid directly on the concrete slab without screed. The
correct gradient is formed by the mould and the concrete casting is carried out while the mould
is in reverse position. After curing and removal of the mould, the base slab is turned to its original
position. Therefore no screeding is required and consistent adhesive thickness can be maintained
when laying tiles. The nal gradient is also precise according to design.
 53

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Mould

Concrete

Gradient Floor trap

Fig.5.7 - Floor tiles are laid without screeding. The required gradient is formed while casting base slab.

- Non-critical path erection

Prefabricated bathrooms can be hoisted by a

tower crane and installed after completion of
structural slab castings. It can be considered as
a non-critical path process since its fabrication
and installation does not affect other concurrent
activities on-site as in conventional wet trades
method. The bathroom is simply supported on
the structure and the whole installation can be
executed rapidly in a tidy manner.

Fig. 5.8 - Bathroom is lifted into place by a tower

crane after completion of structural work.
54

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Fig. 5.9a - A cantilever platform is used to rest and Fig. 5.9b - Simply supported connections secure
direct bathroom into place. bathroom in place.

5.1.2 Prefabricated bathroom with precast concrete wall

Prefabricated bathrooms are produced using thin precast walls with a solid base as a frame. This
standardization allows close quality checks before installation. Careful planning, sequencing and
inspection of trade works are carried out in the factory to achieve the required quality. The following
images show the sequence of important activities in the process.

Fig. 5.10a - A standard mould casts precast base and Fig. 5.10b - Precast frames are cured before
walls together for better water-tightness. starting other trades.
 55

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Fig. 5.10c - Apply waterproof membrane and Fig. 5.10d - Checkered internal surfaces for
water-ponding test. installing tiles without basecoat.

Fig.5.10e - Final ponding test for completed

bathrooms. Fig. 5.10f - Install sanitary ttings and accessories.

Fig. 5.10g - Delivery and installation by tower Fig. 5.10h - Less intensive manpower needed
crane. during installation.
56

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Fig. 5.10i - Tidy and dry construction process. Fig. 5.10j - Quality internal nish.

The advantages of this system include:

Mould can be used for repeated production.

Time spent in unfavourable weather conditions at construction site is minimized.
Reduce on-site assembly.
Increase installation efciency and speed of construction.
Improve buildability and productivity.
Increase social and environmental benets.
(safe and healthier working environment through less site work).
Service pipes are concealed during casting of structure for better reliability, performance and
aesthetics.
 57

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

5.1.3 Prefabricated bathroom and integration of bay window

It is not uncommon for bay windows to be integrated with prefabricated bathrooms. This further
reduces the number of trade activities on site that includes bay window installation. The weight of
such integrated units, about 6 to 8 tonnes each, are heavier but the production, tting, testing and
nishing works can all be carried out in a controlled factory environment leading to better quality
product and workmanship.

The images below show the key sequences in fabrication and installation of the integrated system:

Fig. 5.11a - Precast base and bay window unit. Fig. 5.11b - Apply waterproong on metal wall panels.

Fig. 5.11d - Apply waterproong on oor and wall

Fig. 5.11c - Erect panels on base slab. joint.

Fig. 5.11e - Install tiles on panels with special

adhesives. Fig. 5.11f - Install window frames.
58

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Fig. 5.11g - Long-bath installation. Fig. 5.11h - Floor tiles installation.

Fig. 5.11i - False ceiling erection. Fig. 5.11j - Install window inner frames.

Fig. 5.11k - Install sanitary ttings. Fig. 5.11l - Water-ponding test.

 59

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.1 PREFABRICATED BATHROOMS

Fig. 5.11m- Delivery to site. Fig. 5.11n- Install by tower crane.

5.1.4 Key considerations in prefabricated systems

To maximize the benets of using prefabricated bathrooms, the project team should consider
integrating such systems during the early stages of the project (concept and scheme design). Once
the scheme design has been nalised, there is limited scope and value in exploring prefabrication
options. In fact, it may cause disruptions to the original design and this can delay the project.

Large prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes capable of handling and precise maneovreing
to place it in position. A proper sequence of erection and inspection should be established to ensure
quality in fabrication and installation. When adopting metal panel wall systems, attention has to
be paid to the strength, corrosion-resistance and treatment of joints on the panels to avoid future
malfunctions.. Furthermore, proper guidelines should be given to end-users when they wish to retrot
tiles and other ttings in the bathroom in future.
60

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

Recent trends in Singapore show wider

adoption of dry construction methods like
internal drywall partitions in substitution for
wet trades like brickwork and plastering. The
following section describes the quality features
of drywall partitions, its use, advantages
and contributions to improved workmanship
quality.

Fig. 5.12 - Internal drywall partitions: Increasingly

used in residential buildings.

5.2.1 Features of drywall partitions

Sustainable building material

Drywall partitions are produced mainly from

recycled materials available from many sources
and uses low energy in the production process.
It is therefore environmentally friendly and
contributes to sustainable construction. Some
brands of drywall partitions are certied as
green building material under Singapore Green
Labelling Scheme (SGLS).
(Ref: http://www.sec.org.sg)
Made
Fig. 5.13 -From Recycled
Some brands Material
of drywalls are certied
as green building material.
 61

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

Light weight and strong

Drywalls are light weight leading to signicant reduction in dead loads. This allows designers to
design for lighter structures and foundations, leading to savings in structural cost. The wall system is
able to resist high impact forces and it can support loads such as TV, cabinets, shelves, etc. attached
to it.

Fig. 5.14 - Proper anchorage system facilitates mounting of TV, shelves and cabinets on drywall partitions.

Enhance productivity

Drywall systems are faster to erect in contrast

to traditional construction methods such as
brick and block work. The productivity rate is
15-20m2 / manday compared to about 4-7m2 /
manday for brickwork. The partitioning works
can be completed faster leading to improved
construction duration.

Fig. 5.15 - Increased productivity & reduced

construction time.
62

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

Ease of installation and quality outcome

The method of installation is fast and efcient.

Alignment and verticality can be controlled
easily at the outset during setting out and stud
erection. The stud system facilitates alignment
of the boards in the same plane. A at and
smooth surface is achieved by applying only a
thin coat of plaster putty and sanding it before
painting.

Fig. 5.16 - Ease of installation.

Setting out Stud erection Run concealed services

Installation of drywall system

as internal partitions
M&E xing & rockwool
insulation

Painting Prepare for painting Close other side

Fig. 5.17 - Stages of drywall erection

 63

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

Neat concealment of services

Penetrating walls and concealment of services

are inevitable in construction works. Generally,
end-users prefer service pipes, cables
and trunkings to be concealed otherwise it
would affect the aesthetic appearance of the
building.

In drywall partitions, the two layers board

system can conceal many services without
hacking and damage. Penetration through the
boards can be achieved with neat cuts unlike
conventional wet methods of construction
where hacking (ref Fig. 5.20) and patching up
are often messy and untidy and may lead to
unwanted consequences like water seepage, Fig. 5.18 - Neat penetration of services.
hollowness, etc.

Fig. 5.20 - Hacking to conceal conduits in a brick

Fig. 5.19 - Installation of concealed services. wall.
64

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

Better acoustic performance

Provision of insulation like rockwool between

the boards enhances the soundproong and
acoustic performance of drywalls. The sound
transmission class (STC) value of brick or
concrete walls is typically about 40. Drywalls
with rockwool insulation can achieve better
STC values of 45-50.

Fig. 5.21 - Rockwool insulation enhances acoustic

performance.

5.2.2 Quality trends in internal nishes assessments

Internal wall nishes is one of the elements assessed under CONQUAS. The pie chart shows non-
compliance data on internal wall nishes collated from private residential projects assessed under
CONQUAS from 2005 to 2007. Among the 5 items assessed, the most frequent non-compliances
are in nishing and joints. The frequency of such defects are generally higher in cement-based
plastered walls.

Jointing (32.8%) Alignment & evenness (11.2%)

Cracks & damages (6.4%)

Hollowness (8.2%) Finishing (41.4%)

Fig.5.22 - % Defects distribution for walls of private buildings.

 65

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

A separate study on projects (see Chapter 8) with high CONQUAS scores reveals that adopting
drywall systems signicantly reduced the non compliances on internal walls. The quality of the
nishing works that can be attained is better than conventional plastering works.

5.2.3 Quality features in drywall partitions

The following highlights the inherent advantages in drywall systems leading to better workmanship
quality.

Minimize defects on wall finishes

Rough surfaces and inconsistent paint nishes are the most frequent non-compliances in plastered
walls. The smoothness, consistency and texture in paint work are very much dependent on the
substrate surface. If the substrate is smooth and not wavy, it will be easier to achieve good paint
work either by roller or spray method. Drywall systems present an even board surface which can be
prepared easily with a thin layer of putty and sanding it before painting.

Fig. 5.23 - Smooth drywall substrate surface aids Fig. 5.24 - Consistency in nished surface.
good paint nish.
66

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

No plaster hollowness

In conventional brickwork, thick coats of plastering may be required to compensate for bricks not
properly laid and to get a balanced smooth nish. This often results in hollowness and de-bonding
when the plaster work is too thick or not carried out properly. In drywalls, only a thin layer of skim coat
is sufcient to get a smooth surface. There is no risk of hollowness or de-bonding.

Fig. 5.25 - Thick plaster coat is main cause of Fig. 5.26 - No hollowness risk in drywall
hollowness in conventional masonry work. skim coat.

Less alignment and evenness defects

During erection of studs for drywalls, alignment and verticality can be easily controlled. Once the
studs are properly installed, the boards can be xed on them evenly. There is no need for thick
plastering to get an even surface.

Fig. 5.27 - Alignment and verticality are controlled Fig. 5.28 - Less occurrence of mis-alignment and
when erecting studs. unevenness.
 67

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

Less wall joint defects

In wet plastering works, more manual skill is required to make a joint between two straight walls
notwithstanding the use of additional aids like angle and inner beads to achieve a neat joint. This is
due to difculties in trying to combine two or three layers of plaster together. In drywall systems, only
a thin coat of joint compound is required as straightness and alignment are controlled during stud
erection leading to neat and straight joints at wall intersections.

Fig. 5.29 - A thin corner-bead helps make corner Fig. 5.30 - A neat and straight internal wall joint.
straight.

5.2.4 Examples of good practices in drywall construction

To derive maximum benets from using drywall systems to achieve workmanship quality, it is
important to pay attention to certain details.

Details to prevent cracks at joints

Hairline cracks may appear over time at

drywall joints. This is particularly so after the
air-conditioning is in use. Such cracks can
be prevented if proper installation and joint
treatment are observed.

According to a manufacturers recommendation,

in addition to following a proper method of stud
and board erection, a joint tape should be
provided to bridge the joints of the drywall before
Fig. 5.31 - Joint tape and joint compound to
the skim coat is applied. This will control the reduce risk of cracks.
movement between the boards and prevents
cracks from forming. It is also recommended
to avoid horizontal joints on the boards. An
appropriate paint system (silicone based)
may prevent hairline cracks from appearing in
certain cases.
68

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

Cracks can also appear at the joint between two different materials due to differential expansion
and contraction of the materials and temperature changes.

To prevent this, some projects use a drywall board to cover the RC surface (see Fig. 5.32).

Conventional detailing

RC Column
Drywall Drywall

Joint tape
Potential crack

Proactive detailing

RC Column

Drywall Drywall

Drywall board Joint tape Joint tape

Fig. 5.32 - Drywall board covers RC column to prevent cracks at joint.

This detailing will minimize the appearance of cracks at joints. In addition, the whole premises will
have a uniform nish and it is also easier to carry out the subsequent works like application of joint
compound and painting. However, this detailing may reduce the space in the room (by the boards
thickness of about 12 to 19mm).
 69

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

Additional supports for door frames and large openings

To prevent distortions and sagging of openings, the studs need to be stronger to cope with the weight
of the door and forces caused by slamming. Typically this would involve boxing the studs or sleeving
them with a channel, as well as including timber inserts. The standard details for forming door jambs
are illustrated in Fig.5.33, although other suitable timber framing assemblies may be required to
adequately support heavier doors. For large openings, a stronger lintel (Fig.5.34) may be required. It
is also important to ensure openings are accurately formed to prevent uneven gaps or creaks caused
by movement between ill tting members.

Plasterboard

Boxed or Timber insert Boxed or Timber insert

Steel Studs Steel Studs

Door frame

Fig. 5.33 - Additional timber inserts strengthen door frames.

Top track

Intermediate stud
min. 150mm

Boxed or timber insert

Fig. 5.34 - Timber insert at top acts as lintel for door frame.
70

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

5.2.5 New trends in use of drywalls

Drywall cladding over RC wall

In some projects, the whole inner RC surface areas are clad with drywalls to have a uniform nish
throughout the unit. In practice, RC walls require a skim-coat nish while drywalls require a joint
compound nish. Adoption of this method is to avoid using two different nishing materials for different
surfaces in the same unit. This system will reduce the internal area slightly and increase the cost.
However the surface appearance and paint nishes will be consistent throughout the unit.

Fig. 5.35 - Drywall cladding over inner perimeter Fig. 5.36 - Uniform surface nish throughout the
of RC walls. premises.

Board partitions in wet areas

Some boards are now fabricated with moisture resistant properties and are suited for use in wet
areas. The boards are also coated for bonding with tile adhesives and waterproong membranes
and are resistant to mould growth. It has a homogeneous structure that impedes de-lamination under
moist conditions. Although widely compatible adhesives are available in the market, it is a good
practice to carry out compatibility test prior to use. In addition, installing studs on concrete kerb in wet
areas is also a good practice to prevent consequences from stagnant water.

Fig. 5.37 - Stud erection on a concrete kerb in wet Fig. 5.38 - Drywall partition with waterproong
areas. membrane.
 71

5.0 QUALITY FEATURES IN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

5.2 DRYWALL PARTITIONS

The concealed services in wet areas like water and sanitary pipes can be installed without untidy
hacking and patch-up. This is a faster and less cluttered process. However, the use of board systems
for wet areas is only a recent trend and its performance should be further monitored and evaluated
based on end-user feedback.

Fig. 5.39 - Installation of wall nish on board Fig. 5.40 - A completed toilet with wall nish on
partition by using adhesive. board partitions.

5.2.6 Other considerations in drywall partitions

To achieve maximum benet in drywall construction, the manufacturers guidelines should be strictly
followed during the installation process. Some detailing may need to be revised to suit the project
and this should be claried with the supplier or specialist professionals. It is also advisable to provide
an instruction manual to the end-user illustrating, among other things, how to anchor and install TV,
cabinets or shelves on the board partitions.
 6.0
DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY
IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS
74

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS

Door is an essential element in buildings. Some door designs and detailing inherently lend itself
to good quality outcome. This section illustrates some such examples which can be considered to
improve workmanship quality.

6.1.1 Pocket door system

Pocket door (also called slide and hide) system is now widely used in residential projects. The sliding
door panel is hidden within the hollow section between walls and operated on a track and roller
system xed at the top of the door panel (Fig. 6.1). This system enhances spaciousness in the unit,
as the sliding door is hidden from view when it is open.

However, in most cases it is not feasible to provide tracks at the bottom of the door panel as this is
xed on the oor and may cause inconvenience to users e.g. tripping or creating a barrier. Dirt and
dust can also accumulate inside the track and this needs to be cleaned periodically. Most designs
therefore specify the track to be installed at the top only.

In such designs, the door panels are typically about 2.1m high and the whole panel hangs from the
top track. When the doors are in closed position and butt against each other, any misalignment can
be noticed easily due to uneven butt gap and different levels of the adjoining panels (Fig 6.2).

Fig. 6.1 - A pocket door system hung on top track Fig. 6.2 - When door is closed and butt against
enhances spaciousness in a unit. each other, any misalignment is easily noticed.
 75

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS

Tongue and groove profile to improve alignment

The inherent difculty in aligning top-hung pocket door panel system can be overcome or minimized
by introducing a tongue and grove prole on the butt edges of adjoining door panels (Fig. 6.3 & 6.4).
It provides a better t of the butt ends and less possibility of gaps or misalignment when the door is
in closed position.

Fig. 6.3 - Tongue and grove prole at butt edges in a pocket door system.

Fig. 6.4 - Alignment is improved using tongue and groove prole.

76

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS

6.1.2 Sub-frame door system

In conventional construction, door main frames

are fastened directly to masonry works. Major
architectural works like ooring and skirting are
carried out after the frame installation. These
subsequent activities can cause damage to
the door frames. In addition, where the ooring
adjoins the frame, it has to be cut to follow the
frames prole. This usually requires skill and
more time to complete. If the ooring comprises
high density material e.g. granite ooring, etc. Fig. 6.5 - Traditional main frame system: Flooring
material laid after installation of door frame needs
this task will be more difcult to execute. to be cut to suit door frame prole.

To get round this challenge, a sub-frame system which is widely used in private residential projects
but less so in public housing and commercial buildings, can be employed. A door sub-frame is rst
built into the wall construction and the main frame is installed at a later stage i.e. after completion of
the major wet trades. This reduces the risk of damage by other trades during construction. The other
advantages of such a system are:

The main frames are less likely to shrink and warp since it is not directly in contact with any
masonry structures.
The oor nish below the frame can be installed more easily. It need not be cut to suit the door
frames prole since the frame is installed after the oor nishing works.

Fig. 6.6 - Door sub-frames installed before main Fig. 6.7- Main frame installed after completion of
frames: Adjoining oor installation need not be cut oor nish. A neat joint is achieved below the door
to door frame prole. frame.
 77

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS

6.1.3 Rebate door with lift-off hinges

Rebate doors with lift-off hinges are gaining

widespread use in private residential projects.
The door panel has a rebate prole that aligns
with the door frame (Fig. 6.8). Furthermore, a
PVC gasket is provided in between the frame
and panel to make the gap less noticeable and
aid in smooth functioning of the door when
closing.

Fig. 6.8- A rebated door panel.

Fig. 6.9 - Better alignment consistency between door frame and panel.

Fig. 6.10 - A PVC gasket makes door gap less

noticeable and aids smooth operation.
78

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS

The lift-up hinges system allows the door, together with the hinges, to be fabricated off site and
slotted into place after the nishing trades have been completed. (Fig. 6.11)

Material damage on door is often a recurring non-compliance in CONQUAS assessments and

frequent item of complaint by home owners during hand over. This is largely due to damage caused
by other trades during construction, which can be minimized if the door panel is installed at the last
stage. This lift-up hinges system allows installation of door panels at a very late stage of construction.
Furthermore, the installation process is simple, quick and can be carried out without affecting other
activities.

Fig. 6.11 - Lift-up hinge allows door panels to be installed late in construction. This reduces damage on doors by
other trades.

6.1.4 Common quality issues in doors and its causes

The following data from CONQUAS assessments from 2005 -2007 highlight the key quality concerns
in door construction viz. material and damages, joints and gaps, and alignment and evenness
(Fig.6.12).

Accessories defects (3.5%)

Material & damages Alignment & evenness (23.6%)

(32.8%)

Functionality (1.8%)

Joints & gaps (30.8%)

Fig.6.12 - % Defects distribution for doors for private residential buildings.

 79

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS

Material and damages

Damages on doors are mostly caused by other

trade activities. This is due to the interfacing of
activities in traditional construction. To prevent
this, door panels should be installed at later
stage of construction and properly protected
with suitable materials. A method like lift-up
hinges door will help and expedite the installation
process at later stage of construction without
affecting other sequence of works.
Fig. 6.13 - Dent, damage and nail-hole: Common
damages on door panels.

Alignment

Inconsistent alignment between a frame and a door panel is usually the result of warpage and
twisting in the panel or frame. This could be due to inherent characteristics of the timber material
used and its tendency to warp/twist is more likely when longer lengths of panel or frame are used.
In such cases, the panel will not be aligned exactly with the frame, making it more noticeable. To
minimize such defects, it is important to use materials that are properly treated and protected from
moisture ingress and provision of better detail and prole on door panels.

Fig. 6.14 - Warpage and twist in door panel is easily noticeable in standard door design.
80

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS
 81

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.1 TIMBER DOORS
82

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

The typical components in a residential project include wardrobe, kitchen and vanity cabinets, shoe
rack, wash basin, shower screen and water closet (W.C.). This section highlights and compares the
advantages in using preassembled (modular) system components over components that are cut and
assembled on site. It also highlights how the selection of materials, accessories and its installation
impacts the quality of the component.

There are many types of nishes available for use in cabinets. The common nishes include:
Veneer
Melamine
Laminate
Polykem
Vinyl

These nishing materials can be installed on-site by manual labour or integrated into the component
by machines in the factory. The following highlights the challenges in ensuring quality of the nished
component when installation is carried on-site.

6.2.1 Challenges in on-site cutting,

lamination and installation

Reliance on workers skill

The quality of the component nishes is

dependent largely on the skill of the labour
employed. The more experienced and Fig. 6.19 - On-site cutting relies on labour skill.

competent worker will produce better quality

workmanship. However in mass production e.g.
in a large project where the same component
is replicated, it may not be possible to ensure
all workmen possess the same level of skill.
Therefore the quality outcome may not be
consistent since many workmen are deployed.
As a result, the following workmanship issues
are likely to surface due to lack of or variances Fig. 6.20 - On-site lamination of carcass: Possible
air bubble and blister defects.
in skill level:

Imprecise cutting
Air bubbles in lamination xing
Uneven lap or mitre joints.

Fig. 6.21 - Poor jointing at turning in manual

installation.
 83

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

Working space constraints

Very often, the installation work has to be carried out in narrow or conned spaces. The conned
space is not a favourable environment for the workman to carry out ne or precision work. This may
be compounded where there are many trade activities in the same area. In such situations, lower
quality workmanship and productivity are often the result.

Site environment Layout and specifications

If the site environment is dusty or polluted, it The more complicated the layout e.g. more
may affect on-site lamination process. There turns, corners, odd shapes, etc. more care and
is possibility of de-bonding, blistering and the in-depth planning is required before producing
nish surface may not be sufciently smooth. shop drawings. The installer should be capable
At the same time, it is also necessary to take of reading, interpreting and executing the
precautions during installation to avoid damage designs according to the specications. A
to other sensitive nishing trades like natural proper cutting schedule needs to be prepared
stone or timber ooring. and adequate skill is required to assemble
the works to minimize wastage during onsite
installation.

Fig. 6.22 - A typical on-site installation Fig. 6.23 - Turns and odd shapes: Need more
environment. attention.

Handling and storage

Materials can be easily damaged if they are not properly stored and protected against dust or wet
and damp conditions. For certain products, improper storage and insufcient ventilation may affect
the moisture content of the material leading to warpage and twist.

Fig. 6.24 - Damage caused by improper storage and other trades

84

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

6.2.2 Advantages of factory assembled components

Smooth joints and finish

Factory assembled components generally have consistent joints and smooth nish especially
in critical areas like rounded edges and mitre joints. The factory environment with good quality
control results in better and more consistent component quality compared to on-site fabrication and
assembly.

Fig. 6.25 - Joints at turns are smooth and precise in factory assembled cabinets.

Less manpower on site

The factory environment favours producing

components with good dimensional accuracy.
The carcass and door panels are produced
in standard sizes and no further alteration,
trimming or alignment adjustment is required.
Therefore, the components can be installed on
site faster and with less manpower.

Fig. 6.26 - Less installers required when using

pre-assembled components.
 85

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

Fig. 6.27 - Pre-assembled modular kitchen cabinet system generally gives good nish, quality and dimensional
accuracy.
86

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

6.2.3 Examples of component design and detailing for quality

To maximize the benets of using factory assembled components, it is necessary to pay attention
to design and detailing when installing the components on site. The following examples show how
such benets can be maximized.

Using strips on joint between cabinet and wall

The traditional way of mounting a cabinet on a wall is by drilling and plugging. The small gap between
cabinet and wall is then lled with silicone material. If the quality of silicone used is inferior, it will
deteriorate and discolour with time. The jointing consistency will also depend on the skill of the
applicator. If the gap between wall and component is too wide or inconsistent, the operation becomes
more difcult. Very often this results in a joint that is not neat and aesthetically pleasing.

To overcome this, a PVC / rubber strip insert is placed at the joint instead of silicone inll in some
modular system cabinets. It results in a neat, simple and consistent joint.

Fig. 6.28 - Gap between wall and component Fig. 6.29 - A PVC strip introduced in the gap
sealed by silicone material applied manually. results in consistent and neat nish.

Additional hinges and magnetic catches for taller

doors

In hinged swing cabinet doors where the door

height is taller than usual e.g. 2.5m, it is good to
provide additional hinges and magnetic catches
to hold the heavier door panels in place. This
prevents sagging and the door panel is held
in position and aligned with the door frame. In
addition, if there is any minor warping on the
panels, the appropriate catch system makes it
less noticeable. Fig. 6.30 - A small warp becomes more noticeable
in taller door panels.
 87

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

Fig. 6.31 - Additional magnetic catches help to hold the door in position for taller panels.

Cushion in-lay for carcass

Some cabinet systems come with rubber/PVC

in-lay on the carcass inner face. This has a
cushioning effect preventing the door panel
from hitting the carcass surface and reducing
noise. It also prevents surface damage to the
panel and the carcass resulting from repeated
use. The gap between the panel and carcass is
also neat and consistent.

Fig. 6.32 - Door panel hitting directly on carcass

creates noise and may cause damage.

Fig. 6.33 - Provision of in-lay to carcass cushions Fig. 6.34 - Gap between door panel and carcass is
against noise and prevents damage. consistent and neat with in-lay.
88

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

Rebate profile on component doors

In many cases, any warp in door panels becomes more noticeable when the adjoining gaps are
wide. A rebated door panel prole can be introduced to make this less noticeable when the door is
in closed position.

Fig. 6.35 - Door panels with rebate feature can make gaps better aligned and consistent.

Joint -less counter top material

Some nishing materials like natural stone

counter top have length limitations and joints
have to be formed for continuity. In some
designs, a backsplash of 75-100 mm height
may be required and this needs to be joined
with the counter top. All such jointing requires
skilled installation to prevent liquid ingress and
ensure a consistent smooth and ushed nish.
It is also necessary to match the material at the
joints to cater for inherent variations in quality Fig. 6.36 - Too many joints cause difculty in
ensuring smooth and ush nish.
like tonality, pinholes, porosity and texture.
 89

6.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

6.2 CABINETS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

To minimize such problems, some acrylic polymer materials that are suitable for counter tops and
which come in long sizes together with backsplash can be used. The homogenous material generally
has good resistance to liquid ingress and can be polished if there are any minor scratches on the
surface. Less jointing is required and it gives a better quality nish appearance.

Fig. 6.37 - Long counter top with integrated Fig. 6.38 - Fewer joints facilitate easy installation
backsplash: No on-site joint required. and better quality nish.

Integrated components for less joints

Wash basins are usually xed to a vanity counter using a bracket system. The joints between the
basin and counter top are then sealed with silicone material to prevent water ingress. Some projects
eliminate this sealing process by using factory made integrated counter top with built-in basin and
sink as a single component. This reduces site work and results in a uniform and quality nish.

Fig. 6.39 - Integrated vanity counter and Fig. 6.40 - Integrated kitchen top, back - splash
washbasin. and sink.

To reap the benets of high productivity and quality by using pre-assembled components, careful
planning is required at the design stage. The plinths, kerbs, room dimensions and other spaces
should be constructed accurately to suit the components. Once the components are fabricated,
it would not be possible to alter or modify dimensions and sizes to suit changes in site conditions
without additional time, cost and impact on quality.
 7.0
DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY
AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS/
TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

7.2 EMBEDDED /CONCEALED SERVICES
92

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

The design at adjoining locations i.e. where one architectural element meets another often has an
adverse impact on quality, if little consideration is given as to how it is to be executed or maintained
during use. Some designs are complicated and difcult to construct and may require more skill,
planning and co-ordination among trades. Such designs should be reviewed at the shop drawing or
mock-up stage and a simpler detail that facilitates construction and subsequent maintenance should
be considered. The following examples illustrate such situations and suggest how the design and
detailing can be modied to achieve better constructability and quality.

7.1.1 Adjoining door frame, wall and skirting

Generally, door frames are installed within the wall opening. However, when the frame is positioned
too close to the adjacent wall running perpendicular to it, the gap between the wall and frame may
become too narrow (about 15mm or less) and this may pose difculty to complete the other nishing
trades e.g. skirting, painting, etc. at this gap location (Fig 7.1 & 7.2). The same constraints will also
occur when two adjoining door frames are positioned close to each other resulting in a narrow gap
between them (Fig. 7.4).

Fig. 7.1 - Difcult to install skirting or carry out Fig.7.2 - Filling for the narrow gap is difcult and
painting in the narrow gap. looks untidy.

Fig. 7.3 - Too small space: Difcult to seal by a Fig. 7.4 - More time and skill required to nish the
skirting piece. gap.
 93

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

These situations can be avoided by positioning one side of door frame touching or very near the wall
instead of leaving a gap. As the frame nearly touches the adjacent wall, any remaining gap can be
easily lled with materials like silicone.

Fig. 7.5 - One side of the frame touches the wall and the other side has more working space. This facilitates
execution of other nishing trades.

7.1.2 Architrave installation at wet areas

Some designs extend the architrave on door

frames right to the oor. If this is located at wet
areas like bathrooms, there is a high chance
the architrave will absorb excess moisture
leading to swelling, aking of surface and damp
rot over time.

Fig. 7.6 - Door architrave terminates on the wet

area oor: Potential water contact.
94

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

To prevent such situations, the architrave should terminate above the oor level e.g. at threshold
level. It is also good practice to install sub-frames above the screed level to reduce the chance of
water ingress from the wet oor through the masonry works.

Fig. 7.7 - Sub-frame is installed above screed to Fig. 7.8 - Architrave terminates at threshold to
avoid rising damp. minimize water contact.

7.1.3 Timber oor near wet areas

It is common in residential units for wet and

dry oors to be nished with dissimilar ooring
materials e.g. the toilets can be nished with
marble or stone tiling and bedrooms use timber
ooring. If the drop at the interface between
these functional areas is insufcient, there is
the possibility of water ingress, thereby causing
damage to the timber oor. Water ingress
can also occur when wet areas are graded to
falls, and the drop can be shallower at certain
Fig. 7.9 - Timber oor near toilet: Insufcient drop
locations at the interface. Inadequate detailing can increase chances of water ingress.
or improper application of waterproong
membrane at the interface also increases the
risk of water ingress.

Fig. 7.10 - Water penetration damages timber oor and door frame.
 95

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

To minimize such occurrences, sufcient drop

should be provided during the structural works.
In addition, the kerb at the junction should be
properly treated with waterproong material
(Fig. 7.13). An extended stone threshold (Fig.
7.11) can also be employed to prevent water
ingress, but the difference in ooring material
will be noticeable when the door panel is in a
closed position.

Fig. 7.11 - Sufcient drop and extended threshold:

Possible ways to reduce water ingress.

Fig. 7.13 - Kerb below

screed with waterproong
membrane.

Fig. 7.12 - A small kerb below the screed may reduce water ingress.
96

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

7.1.4 Window frame and wall off-set

In some designs, window frames are positioned

in the middle of a wall. This is to divide the wall
with equal off-sets internally and externally.
However when the off-sets are too narrow, it
may be difcult to carry out the nishing works
like plastering or tiling. Angle beads are usually
provided to get a straight edge plastering and
a vertical line. As it is not possible to install
angle-beads around the window, it would be
more difcult to achieve a quality plaster nish.
Fig. 7.14 - A narrow off-set around the window:
Furthermore, if the surfaces are to be tiled, it More difcult to carry out plastering or tiling works.
would be more time consuming and labour-
intensive as the tiles need to be cut to t the
narrow off-set width.

These difculties can be overcome by proper

positioning of the window frame. For example,
if there is a sunshade or canopy at the external
face, the frame can be xed ush with the
external surface of the wall. This will leave a
wider off-set on the inner recess of the wall
where the nishing works can be more easily
carried out. Alternatively, the frame can also be
ushed with the internal wall nishes to facilitate
works on the external off-set. Fig. 7.15 - Window frame ush with one face of
wall creates wider off-set to facilitate subsequent
works.

7.1.5 Groove between oor and wall

Instead of skirting, some detailing provides a

small running groove (about 20mm x 20mm)
along the base of walls. It may be difcult to
maintain dimensional consistency of such
grooves particularly in a project with many
units with such a design. This becomes more
challenging to construct if the layout has many
turns and tight corners or where the grooves
are to be formed on masonry works. Fig. 7.16- A groove line between wall and oor
instead of skirting.
 97

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

Fig. 7.17 - Forming grooves on masonry works: Challenging and time-consuming to maintain consistency.

Skirting can be considered to avoid such complications. Timber skirting is one of the options to cover
joint between oor and wall and offers the following advantages:

Long pieces of timber permit less joints on the skirting.

Dry installation (by glue and nailing) can be employed and the small gap between the wall and
skirting can be sealed by silicone material.
Skirting can be installed after completion of oor polishing.
Ease in installation.
Consistent and better nish quality.
98

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

Fig.7.18 - Marble ooring with timber skirting: No wet works required for skirting installation.

Fig. 7.19 - Granite oor with timber skirting: Less joints on skirting.
 99

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.1 ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES

Good interfacing design and detailing not only address quality issues but also facilitate constructability
and minimize maintenance difculties. However, to derive maximum benet, a thorough review of
interfacing design and detailing should be done early during the shop drawing or mock-up development
stage.
100

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.2 EMBEDDED / CONCEALED SERVICES

Building services that are to be embedded or concealed should be properly planned and coordinated
with other structural and architectural works to ensure they are functional and aesthetically pleasing.
The locations and interfaces of the services with other trades should be determined early to avoid
undesirable consequences during construction and maintenance. The examples below highlight some
practices in positioning, concealing or embedding service pipes, their weaknesses and deciencies,
and some practical measures to overcome them.

7.2.1 Floor trap and sleeve coordination

For aesthetic reasons, oor trap grating cover

is aligned with tile joints (Fig.7.20). To achieve
this, proper tile setting out and the sleeve
position must be well coordinated. If the pipe
sleeve position is not directly below the grating
cover opening, the oor screed or the concrete
slab needs to be hacked to align it, otherwise
the opening may be partially covered or half
moon position (Fig.7.21). This will affect
liquid ow, full functionality and maintainability.
Fig. 7.20 - Floor trap grating cover is aligned with
Further, the partial opening makes it difcult to tile joints for better aesthetics.
install any additional ttings like mosquito or
cockroach traps (Fig. 7.22).

Fig. 7.21 - Half moon position affects liquid ow, Fig. 7.22 - Additional traps cannot be installed if
functionality and maintainability. sleeve opening is partially blocked.
 101

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.2 EMBEDDED / CONCEALED SERVICES

Causes of sleeve misalignment and partial opening

The common reasons for sleeve misalignment are:

Inaccurate installation of sleeves during structural works stage,

Misalignment of partition walls during its erection,
Increase in basecoat plastering thickness in wet areas, and
Incorrect setting-out of tiling works.

Dimensions and locations of oor traps and sleeves can be clearly dened in shop drawings. However,
with many different trades involved during construction, it may not be possible to achieve accurate
positioning unless there is sufcient planning, coordination and strict control during construction.

Accurate alignment is made more difcult when the concealed sleeve is the same size as the grating
opening, which leaves no margin for any error. This challenge becomes more acute in large scale
operations and where heavy reliance is placed on skilled labour to ensure consistent positioning.

Fig. 7.24 - Final constructed position must

be aligned accurately to get full opening.

Fig. 7.23 - Sleeve is exactly as grating opening size i.e. 100mm.

102

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.2 EMBEDDED / CONCEALED SERVICES

Enlarged sleeve system

To overcome the challenge, a sleeve larger than the gratings opening can be considered. It gives
some tolerance (about 15mm) all round for errors in positioning. This also provides exibility in
aligning the oor trap grating cover with the sleeve to achieve the full pipe opening without hacking
the screed or concrete.

Fig. 7.25 - Funnel shaped cast-in pipe/socket Fig. 7.26 - Flexibility in achieving full opening.
sleeve.

7.2.2. Provision of concealed oor pipes

Concealed in floor screed

Discharge pipes leading from ttings to oor traps are often designed to be concealed in the oor.
For proper ow and discharge, they have to be sufciently sized and installed with a gradient. If such
pipes are not properly integrated during construction, they have to be installed after the concrete slab
has been cast. The concrete slab surface has to be hacked to a certain depth to receive the pipe.
The usual size (diameter) of the pipe is 40mm or more and it is not possible to provide a full recess in
the slab without affecting the reinforcement cover. Hence the maximum recess can only be about 15
to 20mm. The rest of the pipe protrusion will need to be concealed within the cement- sand screed.
As the screed needs to slope towards the oor trap, it will be thinner near the oor trap and may not
fully cover the protrusion of the pipe.

Eventually, any pipe protrusion not concealed by the screed will be covered by tiling adhesives. This
means some portions of the tiles are directly resting on the pipes without a screed base. Such areas
have weak bonds resulting in hollowness in the oor tiling.
 103

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.2 EMBEDDED / CONCEALED SERVICES

Pipe Protrusion

Fig. 7.27 - Washing machine drain pipe of 40mm Fig. 7.28 - Screeding may not fully cover pipe
diameter connects to oor trap. protrusion due to forming gradient.

Weak bonding areas

Fig. 7.29 - Weak bonding of tiles on top of pipe protrusion.

Embed into concrete slab

To minimize such undesirable consequences in

concealing pipes after concrete casting, pipes
sleeves could be embedded with concrete
casting. This requires proper planning and
co-ordination to integrate the sleeves with the
reinforcement before casting.

Fig. 7.30 - Floor trap sleeve with pre-arranged drain

pipe provisions: Embedded into concrete slab
104

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.2 EMBEDDED / CONCEALED SERVICES

The advantages of embedding sleeves include:

Avoid additional operations like trimming for recess, installing pipe, spot screed and
waterproong below pipes,
Avoid thin screeding near oor trap,
Avoid de-bonding of tiles,
Avoid potential damages when the end-user decides to re-tile in future, and
Single application of waterproong system on the oor

Fig. 7.31 - Concealed sleeves with pipes after Fig. 7.32 - No risk of de-bonding of tiles on fully
casting. embedded pipes.

7.2.3 Positioning of discharge pipes

Discharge pipes (eg. washing machine discharge) are usually placed near wall corners to maximize
working space. In some circumstances, due to increase in plaster thickness, misalignment of wall or
inaccuracy in sleeve installation the sleeve position becomes too close to the wall. This will hinder or
obstruct other architectural works like oor skirting, wall painting, applying sealant, etc. in its vicinity.
This can be minimized by positioning the pipe a short distance away from the walls.

Fig. 7.33 - Pipe sleeve obstructs other Fig. 7.34 - A small clearance between wall and pipe
architectural works in its vicinity. facilitates execution of other trades.
 105

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.2 EMBEDDED / CONCEALED SERVICES

7.2.4 Concealed pipes in walls

Hacking of brick or block walls is often required

for installation of concealed pipes especially in
wet areas. This weakens the wall construction
and may lead to water seepage if the patching
up is not done properly.

Careful planning and proper sequencing of

works should be adopted before and during the
erection of walls. Concealed pipes with proper
support should be installed prior to the erection
of the wall. The wall should be stopped a short
distance from the pipes as shown in the Fig.
7.36. A connector and mesh reinforcement can
be used to provide further stability to the wall.
After a few days, the opening can be sealed
with concrete and simple formwork. This will
Fig. 7.35 - Hacking brick walls weakens its
ensure strength and better water-tightness in strength and may lead to water seepage.
the wall.

Fig. 7.36 - Concealed pipes are erected before Fig. 7.37 - Pipe cast with concrete to ensure
construction of brick walls. strength and water-tightness.
106

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.2 EMBEDDED / CONCEALED SERVICES

7.2.5 Routing of air-conditioning drain pipes

Air-conditioning drain pipe design usually starts with the pipe from the FCU (Fan Coil Unit) passing
through a wall and oor slab to a wet area oor trap. The vertical and horizontal pipes are concealed
in the wall and oor screed. As a gradient is required in wet oor areas, the screed often becomes
thinner nearer the oor trap. This may result in de-bonding of oor tiles near to the oor trap (Fig.
7.29).

Similarly, where drain pipes pass over drops between wet and dry areas e.g. bedroom and toilet, the
protrusion has to be covered by the screed and it will result in a shallower drop. This may lead to
water ingress to the adjacent dry area.

Fig. 7.38 - Running air-con drain pipes across Fig. 7.39 - Floor screed cannot cover high
drop leads to shallower drop. air-con pipe protrusion at oor trap.

Rout air-conditioning drain pipes through ceiling

to pipe shaft discharge

To overcome the challenge in routing drain pipes

through oor slabs, one alternative is to run the
pipes from FCU through the false ceiling and
join to a pipe stack. To do this, careful planning
is required at the design stage and there must
be a false ceiling in the design.

Fig. 7.40 - Fan Coil Unit (FCU) drain pipes are

run through false ceiling and connect to discharge
stack.
 107

7.0 DESIGN AND DETAILING FOR QUALITY AT ADJOINING LOCATIONS / TRADES

7.2 EMBEDDED / CONCEALED SERVICES

The drain pipes are to be properly supported and insulated before connecting to the discharge stack.
It should be laid to an adequate gradient and tested before closing the false ceiling. A cleaning eye
provision before the main discharge should be considered for maintenance purpose. The works
should be properly sequenced and coordinated with other architectural works.

Fig. 7.41 - Drain pipes are properly insulated, Fig. 7.42 - Drain pipe connects to stack pipes
supported and laid to required gradient. above false ceiling.

The incorporation of embedded/concealed services requires careful planning at the design stage.
Locations and interfaces of the services should be determined in the early stage of construction
to avoid unpleasant consequences during construction and maintenance. The embedded services
positions and routes should be properly documented in the as-built drawings for end-users future
reference and maintenance purposes.
 8.0
EXAMPLE PROJECTS
The good design practices in this guide are based on observations of various projects

with high CONQUAS/Quality Mark scores (Quality Mark Scheme is applicable only to residential

projects). These projects invariably employ some or more of the good design and material

selection practices in this guide to achieve better quality outcomes. Seven of these projects are

highlighted here. It should be noted that the material for this guide also came from many other

high scoring projects but due to space constraints, it is not possible to highlight all.
110

8.0 EXAMPLE PROJECTS

8.1 SAVANNAH PARK CONDOMINIUM

CONQUAS
Score: 94.1

Average Quality
Mark Score: 86.6

18 Blocks of 10-Storey Condominium Housing Development (Total 648 Units)

DESIGN AND FEATURES FOR QUALITY

Prefabricated components:
Precast planks: Full height windows:
Off-site production and better
Better atness of oors. Minimize wet trades processes.
quality.

Drywall partitions: Rebate door with lift-off hinges:

Screed-less ooring:
Consistent atness and nishing Good alignment of door frame &
Less de-bonding of oor nish.
on walls. leaf.
 111

8.0 EXAMPLE PROJECTS

8.2 MONTEREY PARK CONDOMINIUM

CONQUAS
Score: 92.3

Average Quality
Mark Score: 86.6

6 Blocks of 12-Storey Condominium Housing Development (Total 280 Units)

DESIGN AND FEATURES FOR QUALITY

Precast facade: Full height windows:
Flat plate slab:
Factory production, better - Minimize wet trades
Flat surface, no internal beams.
dimensional accuracy. - No lintels required.

Light weight partitions: Lift-off hinges door: Sub-framed windows:

Good control on alignment and Facilitates late installation and Easy to grout and better water
evenness of nish surface. reduce damages. tightness.
112

8.0 EXAMPLE PROJECTS

8.3 ICON

CONQUAS
Score: 90.4

Average Quality
Mark Score: 83.6

A Mixed Development of 646 Residential and 110 Commercial Units

DESIGN AND FEATURES FOR QUALITY

System formwork: Flat plate slab: Engineered wood oor:

Better quality surface nish and Good surface nish and no Pre-polished surface nish and
buildabilty. obstruction for M&E works. consistent tonality.

Sub-framed Door: Full height windows:

Clickt sockets:
Minimize damages and neat joint Reduce wet trades and faster
Installed after nal painting.
on oor. construction.
 113

8.0 EXAMPLE PROJECTS

8.4 THE PIER

CONQUAS
Score: 88.7

Average Quality
Mark Score: 81.2

A Mixed Development of 201 Residential and 13 Commercial Units

DESIGN AND FEATURES FOR QUALITY

Precast planks:
All in one precast concrete components:
No formwork required and
Neat construction and good surface nish.
good at surface.

Drywall partitions: Lift-off hinges door: PP-R (Polypropylenee Random

Better quality nishes and ease of Fast installation and better Copolymer) pipes:
installation. alignment. Ease of handling and no corrosion.
114

8.0 EXAMPLE PROJECTS

8.5 THE ESPARIS CONDOMINIUM

CONQUAS
Score: 88.3

Average Quality
Mark Score: 85.3

Five Blocks of 10-Storey Condominium Housing Development (Total 274 Units)

DESIGN AND FEATURES FOR QUALITY

Precast components: Precast external wall: Flat plate slab:

Better quality surface nish and No scaffolding and no plastering No obstruction by internal beams
good buildabilty. required. and good surface nish.

Agglomerated stone ooring: Fine-wall (light weight) internal Sub-framed windows:

Consistent tonality and better partitions: Fast installation and Controlled gap between wall and
quality nish. good alignment. frame. Better water-tightness.
 115

8.0 EXAMPLE PROJECTS

8.6 ONE MARINA BOULEVARD

CONQUAS
Score: 88.0

A 32-Storey Commercial Building

DESIGN AND FEATURES FOR QUALITY

Fully unitized glass curtain wall
Column-free oor plate slab: system: Off-site prefabrication
Post-tensioned beams:
Provides maximum clearance for speeds construction and brings
Ease reinforcement congestion.
other trades. up quality.

Modular suspended acoustic

Modular raised oor system: Pre-fabricated stair formwork:
ceiling: Uniform size and better
Flexibilty to run M&E services. Precise dimensions & good nish.
surface nish.
116

8.0 EXAMPLE PROJECTS

8.7 ITE COLLEGE EAST @ SIMEI AVENUE

CONQUAS
Score: 87.6

ITE Campus Comprising Administration, Technology, Business and Sports Blocks

DESIGN AND FEATURES FOR QUALITY

Precast components: Steel structures: Curtain wall claddings:

Elimination of formwork and better Superior in strength, exibile in Accuracy in fabrication and ease
quality nish. design. of installation.

Drywall partitions: Raised oors: Prefabricated steel stiffener:

Speed up construction process, - Flexible for M&E services Eliminates wet work and
better quality surface nish. - No wet screeding. expedites process.
 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Jong-Jin Kim, (1998). Qualities, Use and Examples of Sustainable Materials:

Michigan: National Pollution Prevention Centre for Higher Education.

2. David Langboard and Arkady Retik, (1996).

The Organization and Management of Construction: UK: Routledge.

3. Buildable Solutions for High-Rise Residential Development, (2004).

Singapore: Building and Construction Authority.

4. Good Industry Practices Guide Series: Singapore: Building and Construction Authority.

5. Sustainable Construction Series: Singapore: Building and Construction Authority.

6. http://www.bca.gov.sg

7. http://www.wbdg.org/wbdg

8. http://www.factorysteelbuildings.com

9. http://www.ciria.org.uk

10. http://www.allsteelbuildingcomponents.com

11. http://www.strescon.com

12. http://www.metal-buildings-guide.com

13. http://www.cement.org/newsroom/greenbuild_2006/precast.htm

14. http://www.livingsteel.org/features/replacement-not-displacement

15. http://www.steelbuildingadvice.com

16. http://www.theamericas.org/steel_frame.advantages.html

17. http://www.mapaprecast.org/precast-wall.asp

18. http://test.wecims.com/pages/managementservies

19. http://www.qualitydigest.com

20. http://www.kajima.co.jp/success/design/index.html

21. http://www.emeraldinsight.com