The Evolution of Materials in Arms and

Armors: The Viking Seax Knife

An Interactive Qualifying Project Report

Submitted to the Faculty
of the
WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of Science

By:
Connor Morette
Luke Proctor
Matt Ryder
Frederick Wight

Date: March 6, 2015

Submitted to:
Professor Diana A. Lados
Mr. Tom H. Thomsen

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Table of Contents
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 4
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. 6
Authorship.................................................................................................................................. 7
Matt Ryder: ............................................................................................................................. 7
Connor Morette: ..................................................................................................................... 7
Luke Proctor: .......................................................................................................................... 7
Frederick Wight: ..................................................................................................................... 7
1. Abstract.................................................................................................................................. 8
2. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 9
3. Who Were the Vikings ...........................................................................................................10
3.1. Geography......................................................................................................................10
3.2. Farming ..........................................................................................................................11
3.3. Politics ............................................................................................................................13
3.4. Longships .......................................................................................................................14
3.5. Pillaging and Raiding ......................................................................................................15
3.6. Society ...........................................................................................................................16
3.7. Weaponry .......................................................................................................................17
3.7.1. Bow and Arrows…………………………………………………………………………….18
3.7.2. Melee Weapons…………………………………………………………………………….19
3.7.3. Side Arms……………………………………………………………………………………19
4. The Seax Knife .....................................................................................................................20
4.1. Evolution from Tool to Weapon.......................................................................................20
4.2. Weapon Material ............................................................................................................21
4.3. Origins ............................................................................................................................24
5. Stock Material Used for Replicas ..........................................................................................25
5.1. Manufacturing and Properties of the Steels Used in the Replicas ...................................25
5.2. Steel Stock Fabrication ...................................................................................................30
6. Our Blade Replica Design .....................................................................................................33
7. Manufacturing of the Blade ...................................................................................................34
7.1. Basics of Blacksmithing ..................................................................................................34
7.2. Blacksmithing Tools and Techniques..............................................................................34
7.3. Fundamentals of Forging ................................................................................................37
7.4. Blade Forging .................................................................................................................40
7.5. Attaching the Grip ...........................................................................................................42
8. Evolution of Blacksmithing Techniques .................................................................................43

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9. Blacksmithing of the Replicas ...............................................................................................46
9.1. First Replica ...................................................................................................................46
9.2. Second Replica ..............................................................................................................49
10. Sample Preparation for Microstructure Analysis ..................................................................52
11. Stock vs. Replicas ...............................................................................................................54
11.1. Predicted Microstructures .............................................................................................54
11.2. Actual Replica Microstructures .....................................................................................59
12. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................62
13. Appendix .............................................................................................................................63
14. References..........................................................................................................................66

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List of Figures
Figure 1. Map of Scandinavia. [1]. ............................................................................................... 10
Figure 2. Extent of Viking Expansion. [10]. .................................................................................. 11
Figure 3. A.Viking Warship. [2]. B. Viking Merchant Ship. [3]. ..................................................... 15
Figure 4. A.Codex Aureus. [4]. B. Lindisfarne. [5]. ....................................................................... 16
Figure 5.Viking Bow and Arrows. [6]. .......................................................................................... 18
Figure 6. A.Viking Spear. [7]. B.Viking Halberd. [8]. .................................................................... 19
Figure 7. Viking Seax. [9]. ........................................................................................................... 20
Figure 8. Seax Knives with Sheaths. ........................................................................................... 20
Figure 9. Bloomery. ..................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 10. Varying Steel Compositions within Blade. .................................................................. 24
Figure 11. A Graph only Going up to 6.67% Carbon. .................................................................. 26
Figure 12. Cross Section of a Carburized Steel Gear. [23]. ......................................................... 27
Figure 13. Seax Knife Solidworks Model. .................................................................................... 33
Figure 14. Seax Knife Engineering Drawing. ............................................................................... 33
Figure 15. Flash. [28]. ................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 16. Motion of Upset Forging. [30]. .................................................................................... 40
Figure 17. Case Hardened Steel Microstructure. [60]. ................................................................. 41
Figure 18. Clay and Horse Manure Bloomery.............................................................................. 43
Figure 19. Viking Iron Bloom. ...................................................................................................... 43
Figure 20. Viking Horseshoe. ...................................................................................................... 45
Figure 21. Original 1018 Steel Stock. .......................................................................................... 46
Figure 22. Grinding the First Replica into the Rough Shape. ....................................................... 46
Figure 23. Connor Hammering the Blade Edge of the Steel Replica. .......................................... 47
Figure 24. Rough Blade Portion Finished, Tang Next to be Worked on. ...................................... 48
Figure 25. Final Replica Without Handle. .................................................................................... 48
Figure 26. Second Blade Being Hammered. ............................................................................... 51
Figure 27. Second Replica Before Tang...................................................................................... 51
Figure 28. Mounting Press. ......................................................................................................... 52
Figure 29. Example of PhenoCure Premold with Sample. ........................................................... 52
Figure 30. Grinding Machine Used in Polishing of Samples. ....................................................... 53
Figure 31. Additional Polishing Machines Used........................................................................... 53
Figure 32. Sample Pieces After Mounting and Polishing. ............................................................ 53
Figure 33. Light Micrograph of Lath Martensite in 4340 steel. [32]. ............................................. 55
Figure 34. Scanning Electron Micrograph Showing Pearlite in Rail Steel. [33]. ........................... 55
Figure 35. Light Micrograph Showing Upper Bainite (Dark) Formed in 4150 steel. [33]. .............. 56
Figure 36. Light Micrograph Showing Lower Bainite (Dark Plates) Formed in 4150 steel. [33]. ... 56
Figure 37. Effects of Cold Rolling on Steel Grain Structure. ........................................................ 57
Figure 38. Microstructure of 1018 Steel....................................................................................... 57
Figure 39. Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram. [58]. ...................................................................... 57
Figure 40. Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram. ............................................................ 58
Figure 41. Rolled 1018 Stock Steel 600x. ................................................................................... 59
Figure 42. Rolled 1018 Stock Steel 1000x. ................................................................................. 59

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Figure 43. 1018 Hammered Steel 600x. ...................................................................................... 60
Figure 44. 1018 Hammered Steel 1000x. .................................................................................... 60
Figure 45. Quenched 1018 Steel x600. ....................................................................................... 60
Figure 46. Quenched 1018 Steel 1000x. ..................................................................................... 61
Figure 47. Map of Medieval Europe ............................................................................................ 63
Figure 48. Info Page Linked From the Map. ................................................................................ 63
Figure 49. Info Page Linked From the Map Cont. ........................................................................ 64
Figure 50. The Central Page with Links to Both Replicas. ........................................................... 64
Figure 51. The Page Linking to the Final Report. ........................................................................ 64
Figure 52. The Page Listing the Members of Each Team. ........................................................... 65

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List of Tables
Table 1. AISI Material Grades [24] .............................................................................................. 28
Table 2. Principal Effects of Major Alloying Elements for Steel [25] ............................................. 29
Table 3. Mechanical Properties for Different Types of Steels [26] ............................................... 30
Table 4. Heat Chart for Blacksmithing [57] .................................................................................. 58

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Authorship
Matt Ryder:
 1. Abstract
 3.1. Geography
 3.3. Politics
 3.4. Longships
 3.5. Pillaging and Raiding
 3.6. Society
 3.7. Weaponry
 3.7.1. Bow and Arrows
 3.7.2. Melee Weapons
 3.7.3. Side Arms
 6. Our Replica Design
 8. Progression of Blacksmithing Techniques
 11. Microstructures: Stock and Replicas
 11.1. Predicted Microstructures
 11.2. Actual Replica Microstructures
 14. References
Connor Morette:
 2. Introduction
 4.1. Evolution from Tool to Weapon
 7. Manufacturing Expectations
 7.1. Basics of Blacksmithing
 7.2. Blacksmithing Tools and Techniques
 7.3. Fundamentals of Forging
 9. Blacksmithing of Replicas
 9.1 First Replica
 10. Sample Preparation for Microstructure Analysis
Luke Proctor:
 4.2. Weapon Material
 4.3. Origins
 5.1. Manufacturing and Properties of the Steel Used in the Replicas
 7.3. Fundamentals of Forging
 12. Conclusions
Frederick Wight:
 3.2. Farming
 5. Stock Material Used for Replicas
 5.2. Steel Production
 7.2. Blacksmithing Tools and Techniques
 9.2. Second Replica
 12. Conclusions
 14. References

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1. Abstract
For this IQP, our team seeks to research the historical evolution of the Viking Seax
knife from its origins as a farming tool to its future use as a weapon, and to investigate the
varying material properties of the blade through the various stages of forging that it would
be subjected to. Our project will begin with a thorough examination of the background in
which the knife was initially used, with supporting information including the culture of the
Vikings, their influence on surrounding areas, the strategies they employed to survive and
thrive up in their Scandinavian homeland, and a comparison of the various weapons they
relied on coupled with the typical manufacturing methods employed by their blacksmiths.
An introduction to the Seax knife will follow, and in this section we will begin to discuss
the progression of this tool into a weapon exclusively used for combat. An integral part of
this project is the creation of a Seax knife of our own through historically accurate
methods. With this in mind, we will forge a blade of our own and fuse it to a wooden hilt
which should ensure historical accuracy in our recreation of the Viking Seax knife, albeit
with a ground down cutting edge. Through the smithing process, we will also take cut
samples from a steel bar identical to the one that will be turned into the knife so that we
will be able to examine the material properties of the blade without needing to cut
samples out of it.

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2. Introduction
The Vikings were a nomadic group, meaning they often traveled from place to
place, fighting along the way. This leads to many developments in the process of making
actual weaponry and also in the design of the weapons themselves. The Seax Knife was
one of the most popular Viking weapons of the time. It was often used as a secondary
weapon however its reliability increased its popularity and use on the battlefield. As times
went on the size of these blades also increased, starting with a basic sized knife, roughly
6-12 inches, too a much larger version that could often reach 24 inches. The paper will
discuss why exactly the Vikings developed such a weapon, why it had certain
characteristics, and how they produced them. As well as research in the blacksmithing of
the Seax knife by the Vikings, the process of how we made the replicas will also be
shown. There will be two replicas, one using some modern methods such as plasma
cutting in order to speed the process up and make it simpler, and the other being done
the same way the Vikings did just solely by heating and hammering. This will provide
some insight on what the Vikings had to go through in order to make a Seax knife as
opposed to what we are capable of today. During the working of the replicas that we
produced we studied the microstructures of the materials under microscopes in order to
find out certain characteristics such as phases, grain sizes, imperfections, and how the
material changes as it is worked by heating, hammering, and quenching.

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3. Who Were the Vikings
3.1. Geography
The Vikings were people indigenous to what are now the countries of Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark from the late 8th through late 11th centuries. They lived in an
environment that was difficult to traverse on land, as a result of the mountainous
characteristics of the region, instead opted to take to the sea for means of transportation.
The cold climate and long winters made farming more difficult that it was further south,
motivating the Vikings to rely heavily on fishing for food production in addition to farming.
Due to the general shape of the Vikings Scandinavian homeland, it was much more
advantageous to hone their ability as sea farers and improve the speed with which they
could move through water, as trading and looting overseas was an enormous source of
profit for the Vikings. The alternative route to Northern Europe would have been a land
route that would have taken the Vikings along an extremely long round about trek through
some of the northernmost locations on Earth, and the time and energy required to make
the trek on foot would render it a complete impossibility where profitability would be
concerned.

Figure 1. Map of Scandinavia. [1].

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 Figure 2. Extent of Viking Expansion. [10].

3.2. Farming
Although better known for their more exciting pursuits, the Vikings were a primarily
agricultural society. Most Norsemen lived and worked on small farms, thickly settled in
areas where the soil was particularly good and spread thin where it was not. These farms
were usually run by a farmer and his family, who hired servants and farm hands and
bought the occasional slave to tend to the crops and livestock. The people and animals
usually lived in a fenced in group of buildings centered around a longhouse. Originally
home to people and animals alike, the longhouse eventually became a devoted barn for
the livestock as people and their workspaces were moved to other buildings. An ideal
location for a longhouse and the other nearby farm buildings was a hill or other raised
piece of ground with a good view, preferably with nearby running water for drinking.
Although most farmers both grew crops and raised livestock, their most important
source of income and sustenance was their cattle. This dependency is expressed in the
Norse language with the word “fé,” which translates to “cattle” as well as “money.” Like

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most agricultural societies, the Vikings had many uses for their cows. They were milked to
produce fresh dairy and to allow the production of cheeses, butters, and curds (called
skyr) which could be more easily stored for the winter. Oxen could be used to pull plows
or sleighs. Wealthy farmers could also afford to slaughter some of the animals for beef.
These animals were often allowed to roam about during the summer, but they had to be
kept inside and fed with hay over the winter months. Other animals raised by Viking
farmers included sheep, goats, and pigs. Although all of these animals were used for
meat, sheep were especially valued for their wool and both sheep and goats were used
for milking. Horses were not only raised by many farmers for meat and transport, but
actively bread by some farmers to be used in horse fights, a common form of
entertainment for the wealthier members of society.
All these animals required a substantial amount of hay to survive over the winter.
Each cow would usually consume more than two tons of hay over the winter months. A
large farm could have needed as much as 200 acres to produce a sufficient quantity of
hay. The hayfields were protected from animals by walls constructed from stone and turf.
The existence and upkeep of these walls were sufficiently important that laws were
created to set minimum dimensions, “shoulder-height of a man and five feet thick at the
base.”
In addition to hay for their prized livestock, farmers grew a wide variety of crops.
Barley was the staple grain, but they also grew oats and rye, with some wheat in the
southernmost areas. Vegetable crops included cabbage, peas, onions, and beans.
Farms needed to be self-sustaining and could not afford to depend on outsiders to
provide important services like producing and maintaining tools. Maintaining the edges on
scythes and other sharp implements was a constant struggle, and grinding them on a
whetstone was not enough to deal with the wear and tear of daily use. For this reason,
every Viking farmer had at least a basic blacksmith’s forge and understood how to use it.
The farmers also had to rely on themselves for any carpentry work which needed to be
done.
The places where the Vikings lived (modern day Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and
Iceland, among others) were further north and much cooler than the rest of Europe. This
made cultivation of very common crops like wheat far more difficult, even impossible in

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some places. However, there is evidence that the climate in the region has cooled since
the Viking times. Examination of the Arjep Ruotesjekna glacier in Sweden unveiled
fossilized moss beneath the glacier dating back to around the 12th century, proving “that
the glacier was smaller during the Viking Age than it is today” [41]. Evidence from that
area also suggests that the tree line was higher at that time.

3.3. Politics
The topographies of the different regions of Scandinavia resulted in low degrees of
unity among Viking groups. In the more northern regions that are now Sweden and
Norway, “mountainous terrain and fjords formed strong natural boundaries. Communities
there remained independent of each other” [47]. This dissociation of the various Viking
groups resulted in a multitude of kingdoms forming, without the generation of any
organized, centralized government. For example, in northern Scandinavia “By 800, some
30 small kingdoms existed in Norway” [47]. As a result of geographic isolation, the
communities of Vikings were not able to easily interact with each other, hence their
inability to communicate with enough ease to form any sort of single Scandinavian
kingdom. This sort of disunity was not unique to the Vikings, and is attributed to other
groups in the same relative geographic region. According to an article published by the
International World History Project, “Viking political organization resembled that of other
early Germanic peoples: a society of warrior chiefs and loyal followers.” [48], which
presents almost a feudal outlook on the Viking political structure, where the individual
kingdoms are led by a strong ruler who in turn protects those who serve him, in return for
taxes, from which the chief or leader is able to maintain his position through his wealth
and power. Despite the diffusion of power across the many minor kingdoms of
Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden and Denmark ultimately each ended up unifying under a
single king. In an article on the history of Sweden, “The first undisputed king of
Sweden was Eric the Victorious, who lived around 970–994” [49], which dates the reign of
the first Swedish King a few decades after the unification of Denmark under a single king,
Gorm the Old, who “was the first historically recognized King of Denmark, reigning from c.
936 to his death c. 958 [50]. Prior to both of these kingships, and ancestor to the eventual
king of England, Norway, Denmark, and parts of Sweden, Cnut the Great; was Harald

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Fairhair, who “was remembered by medieval historians as the first King of Norway … he
reigned from c. 872 to 930.” [51]. As the Viking Age waned, kings rose and fell until the
late 11th century, where “In Scandinavia the Viking age is considered to have ended with
the establishment of royal authority in the Scandinavian countries and the establishment
of Christianity as the dominant religion” not as a result of all of the kings being deposed
and replaced, but due to the fact that this deviation from traditional societal and religious
roots ushered in a new era, the Middle Ages, one in which Scandinavians would no
longer be called Vikings, though this is more due to the definition of what constitutes a
Viking than anything else.

3.4. Longships
The Vikings were renowned for their superb boat building ability and seamanship.
Boasting one of the best navies of the era, the Vikings were able to sail farther, faster,
and in more variable situations than the majority of the other European nations. The
Vikings relied on their signature longships for all means of sea faring, with various size
vessels filling different niches in the Vikings maritime operations. Viking longships were
“characterized as a graceful, long, narrow, light, wooden boat with a shallow-draft hull
designed for speed” [2]. These ships were able to quickly change direction, even allowing
the ship to reverse direction without requiring that the ship turn around, as a result of “the
symmetrical bow and stern” [52]. Another crucial feature of the longships was their ability
to sail in extremely shallow water, due to the fact that “The ship's shallow draft allowed
navigation in waters only one metre deep and permitted beach landings” [52]. From this
base model, the Vikings adapted the longship to suit whatever needs they had. Various
types of longships included warships and merchant ships. Warships included the Snekke,
the Drekkar, and the Skeid. These ships were all long (approximately 30 meters) and
narrow and could accommodate 18 pairs of oarsmen in addition to a large square sail.
The two main classes of merchant ships were the Knarr, which “was 16.5 meters long,
built of pine and it could carry up to 40 tonnes of goods” [53], and the Byrding, which was
much smaller and more maneuverable. Some of the overarching characteristics that set
merchant ships apart from warships is that the Vikings had adapted them to be “broader
in proportion to their length than the warships. They had a wider and deeper hull for

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cargo, and they were clearly much more dependent on the sail than the oars” [53]. These
ships did not operate according to the same Modus Operandi as the warships, where
speed if of the essence, instead relying more heavily on the sail for longer, slower
journeys with less exciting destinations in store. Due to the reliance by the Vikings on
waterways for transportation, the bulk of the Viking watercrafts were neither warships nor
merchant vessels. “The vast majority of boats which were used during the Viking Age
were neither warships nor merchant ships. They were small boats which were needed for
day to day life ..., boats designed for fishing, transporting people, goods and local news
from one settlement to another” [53]. Just as other countries used horses or oxen for
transportation, the Vikings used ships.

A B
Figure 3. A.Viking Warship. [2]. B. Viking Merchant Ship. [3].

3.5. Pillaging and Raiding

While originally “The Old Norse feminine noun víking refers to an expedition
overseas”, it evolved over time to take on a new meaning, where “the phrase "to go on
a viking" implie[d] participation in raiding activity or piracy and not simply seaborne
missions of trade and commerce” [55]. The Vikings were defined by their lifestyle of
exploration and raiding. Their raiding exploits were largely facilitated by their advanced
longships, which allowed the Vikings to sail up shallow rivers, even lifting their crafts over
obstacles, and attack and loot a target, then make a hasty escape without even needing
to turn their ship around as it could be sailed in either direction, forwards or reverse.
Common targets included coastal towns and cities, populations on riverbanks, and the

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treasure trove of all Viking raids, a wealthy church or monastery. The Vikings tended to
opt for more poorly defended targets that they could raid and escape with their spoils
before any sort of organized defense could begin to fight them off. The Vikings have also
been reported as taking to blackmail to make a profit. Upon realizing the importance that
the Christian Church placed upon holy books and manuscripts, the Vikings began to take
these writings hostage and demanded a price for their safe return. A notable account of
such a practice, and it’s successful result for the Vikings, can be read in “Notes added to
a page of the Codex Aureus, a magnificently decorated Gospel Book, [that] record how
the Anglo-Saxon aristocrat Ealdorman Aelfred and his wife paid pure gold to the Vikings
to ensure the book’s safe return to Christchurch” [54]. One of the most well documented
Viking raids is the looting of Lindisfarne, which “was the first major Viking attack recorded
in England“ [56]. The Vikings set a precedent with this raid that shocked England. The
Vikings, as Pagans, had no qualms with attacking a monastery. They saw a poorly
defended target that held great riches, within easy striking distance and with easy escape
routes. The Vikings continued to pillage churches and monasteries, even burning them to
the ground in cases, until the eventual conversion of Scandinavia to Christianity, a
process that took centuries.

A B
Figure 4. A.Codex Aureus. [4]. B. Lindisfarne. [5].

3.6. Society
The Vikings were a society that truly lived and died by the sword. While they did
maintain farms to sustain themselves, the Vikings were notoriously successful raiders,

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where their signature flat bottomed longships were able to sail up rivers far too shallow for
other vessels of such size, raiding commenced, and then a swift getaway was made. The
extent of their raiding took the Vikings overseas in a multitude of directions, but a main
focus for the Vikings was England and the European coast. Vikings have been known to
raid monasteries in England, where they made off with incredible amounts of gold and
other valuable objects. While the Vikings were often portrayed as cruel, or bullies for
picking on those who couldn’t defend themselves, the Vikings viewed the whole activity in
a very different light. “In the mind of the Norse people, raiding was very distinct from theft.
Theft was abhorrent. According to the Norse mythology as told in Snorra Edda, theft was
one of the few acts that would condemn a man to a place of torment after his death. On
the other hand, raiding was an honorable challenge to a fight, with the victor retaining all
of the spoils” [36]. This coincides perfectly with the value placed by the Vikings on
constantly being prepared and constantly staying armed. In their minds, if the people that
they were raiding lived by the same societal code as they did, the inhabitants of the
monasteries would be armed and able to repel the raiders. As a result of their negligence,
they suffered the consequences, in the Vikings’ opinion.

3.7. Weaponry
As a society largely shaped by warfare, all Vikings owned weapons, as per societal
standards, and viewed weaponry and armor as a means by which the various social
classes could be distinguished from one another. The Vikings deemed it necessary to
carry their weapons with them everywhere which can be justified by an excerpt from the
Hávamál, a collection of Norse poems believed to have been delivered to the Vikings
from their God Odin as a set of moral and social codes, that states: “Let a man never stir
on his road a step without his weapons of war; for unsure is the knowing when need shall
arise of a spear on the way without” [37]. This quote is the Viking equivalent of the motto:
“Always be Prepared,” where weapons are advised to be carried at all times. The
armament of a Viking was also indicative of his social status, where the nobility and
warriors would be equipped with ornate armor and a multitude of weapons such as battle
axes and spears, while a farmer or peasant might only own a spear or hand axe. Vikings
placed enormous emphasis on their weapons, as these weapons provided them with a

17
means of hunting, of waging war, and of protecting themselves from harm. Some of the
more prominent weapons used by the Vikings included the bow and arrows, spears,
halberds, knives, swords, and axes; to mention the offensive armaments.

3.7.1. Bow and Arrows

It was not uncommon for Vikings to bring hunting bows into battle when lacking a
proper longbow, which were massive, some even necessitating a 130lbs draw weight,
which is extremely high when compared to many of the typical bows used today. For
instance, most recurve bows currently used for hunting have draw weights less than
50lbs. The typical maximum range of these bows was 800 feet, and this value was even
used as a unit of length by the Vikings who aptly referred to this distance as a
bowshot. The major benefits of fighting with the bow and arrows is the obvious range
advantage, where squads of archers can take out a large number of infantry long before
the foot soldiers reach the archers. A drawback of fighting with the bow is that once an
enemy managed to bring the fight to close quarters, a bow would be worse than useless,
leading to reliance upon melee weapons, which were the weapons of choice for the
majority of the Viking soldiers.

Figure 5.Viking Bow and Arrows. [6].

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3.7.2. Melee Weapons
Spears and halberds provided a range advantage over other hand weapons, while
still allowing the person wielding it to fight at close quarters with relative ease. These
weapons were particularly effective against charging infantry or cavalry, of which there
were none of the latter group in Scandinavia. Axes and swords had an even shorter range
of operation than spears and halberds, and these weapons were best suited to extremely
close quarters fighting where spears and halberds could possibly be at a disadvantage
due to their increased length. Axes in particular/ as well as spears, were the cheapest and
most prominent weapons seen among the Viking ranks. The fact that these weapons
were mostly wood with a relatively small cutting head made them cheaper to manufacture
and therefore more easily accessible to the peasants and farmers who constituted the
bulk of the Viking armies.

A B

Figure 6. A.Viking Spear. [7]. B.Viking Halberd. [8].

3.7.3. Side Arms

Worn primarily as a side arm was the knife. This weapon was used more as a last
resort than anything else, where if your sword or axe broke or an enemy entered the
range at which a bow would be useless, the knife could be pulled out. The Seax knife was
a large single bladed knife that was worn in a scabbard with the blade facing up, which

19
would allow a soldier to draw the blade and continue upwards inflicting a cut on an enemy
in one stroke without needing to turn the blade in midair.

Figure 7. Viking Seax. [9].

4. The Seax Knife

The usefulness of a heavy knife for farming and other aspects of daily life are
obvious. Smaller Seax knives known as “hadSeaxs” could be used to skin animals, carve
wood, eat food, and other mundane tasks. S.C. Hawkes [61] argues that the primary
purpose of the Seax was for hunting, specifically ritual hunting of deer and distribution of
the venison.

Figure 8. Seax Knives with Sheaths.

4.1. Evolution from Tool to Weapon

In most circumstances, knives in the Viking community were used as tools for
various everyday tasks such as cutting food, chopping, cutting ropes, and other daily

20
tasks. The Seax knife specifically served mainly for hacking due to its thicker back side
(which could be as big as 3/8 in thick) and its heavier weight compared to other knives.
Due to this, the Vikings began using the knife as a weapon in combat. The knife generally
could be made rather crudely by the local blacksmith and still serve its purpose, and in
most cases this was the method sought out to make these knives. Since their benefits lie
in the weight, the blade did not need to be fine craftsmanship. This helped the
widespread use of these knives in both everyday life and combat. The Seax knives found
in combat generally tended to be of greater length than those found in use for general
uses, however both sufficed for either task due to the usefulness of the knife and its
attributes. The Vikings liked using the Seax knives in combat for various reasons, one of
which being the weight of the blade. The smaller sized Seax knife already was both thick,
sturdy, and heavily as well as easy and quick to make, not requiring any large amount of
craftsmanship to make an effective blade making it an attractive option for a secondary
weapon in combat. So taking these attributes, by simply making it longer they made the
weapon heavier and have a longer range making it that much more useful in battle.
Almost all Vikings would be found with some version of these knifes in a horizontal
hilt on their waists. This served as an easy to reach weapon when in close range in
combat, and in some cases the Vikings would even use it as a weapon of choice,
replacing their one-handed swords. Although on heavy padded or chain-mailed targets
the knife may not make any visible damage such as lacerations, the sheer weight of the
blow from the heavy knife could cause internal bleeding and break bones. If the target
was not wearing armor, the blade could easily cause lacerations and cut off limbs. The
other perk of these blades was that due to the slightly smaller size than most hand
weapons, they were able to be concealed behind their shields making them excellent for
surprising the target when in close range. All these benefits factored into the increase
and spread of the usage of the Seax knife in combat, they were not only effective but also
easy to make, making them a common item of most Viking warriors.

4.2. Weapon Material

The primary material used in the manufacturing of the Vikings weaponry was iron.
The Vikings knew how to mine, and mined to some extent throughout parts of

21
Scandinavia. However, their primary method of obtaining raw iron was through the use of
bog iron. Bog iron is found in deposits of impure iron unsurprisingly found in bogs or
swamps, locations where mountain streams ran through soft ground, carrying dissolved
iron from the mountains. In a bog location, iron concentrates into deposits primarily
through the environment itself and anaerobic bacteria. A bog is a highly acidic natural
environment with low amounts of dissolved oxygen. In this environment, a chemical
reaction forms insoluble iron compounds. Additionally, certain bacteria, Gallionella and
Leptothrix, concentrate iron as part of their life process.
Another byproduct of this process is the oily film so often found on water surfaces
in bogs. This is referred to as jarnbrak in Iceland, iron slick. This slick would make in very
simple to find deposits of bog iron. The top layer of the bog, the peat, must be cut,
exposing small balls of iron, no larger than a marble. They are mostly pure, though few in
number. Oddly enough, they are a renewable resource, and the bog can be harvested
approximately ten to 20 years. Alternatively, in some regions where bog iron was not as
plentiful, iron ore was used. Rather than mined, it was found as “red earth”, a rough
powder. After the raw ore was accessed, it would be heated to remove moisture and
make it more porous so the iron could be more easily smelted.
Smelting the iron ore made use of a bloomery furnace, shown in Figure 9, and
were made of clay. The clay itself was actually made of sand, clay, water, and horse
dung, the undigested hay in the dung providing structural support. The mixture was strong
enough to contain the weight, as well as the correct insulating properties. Once the
furnace was built, a fire was started with a natural draft, intended to prevent the rapid
change in temperature from fracturing the furnace. Once partially heated, air was forced
in with bellows, and it was filled with charcoal. As with any smithy or furnace, airflow was
used to control the burn rate. Charcoal and ore were consistently added to the top at a
one to one ratio. Temperatures near the base of the furnace approached 1100-1300
degrees Celsius. This creates a reduction atmosphere, with a high concentration of
carbon dioxide. The environment shapes the ore into elemental iron, with the following
formula:

22
 Figure 9. Bloomery.

During the process, more charcoal and ore would be added to the furnace and
constantly attended to, adjusting fuel, iron ore, and air flow for the best results. Slag, the
byproducts of any smelting process, was drained through the base of the furnace. When
the smelting process was complete, the bottom section of the furnace was removed, and
the bloom, a mixture of low-carbon iron, slag, slag and charcoal, was removed. The
surface slag and charcoal would be knocked off, and then the bloom was refined through
folding, removing impurities. The final end product of the smelting would be a malleable
low-carbon steel, ready for the next step, forging. Despite consistent quality iron, a large
amount was wasted in the slag. The amount of waste, combined with the time, skill, and
energy necessary for smelting, made iron a very valuable commodity.
Once the relatively pure iron was obtained, a process for forging called pattern
welding was used. The smith would weld multiple layers of metal together, iron in the
case of the Vikings, then heated and hammered into a single composite mass. The
process of composite welding allows smaller pieces of carburized iron to be worked at
once, creating a stronger blade than would exist with only iron, the carburized iron plates
having formed a thin layer of harder higher carbon steel on the surface. The multiple
types of iron in the metal would create a blade that had the necessary strength and
flexibility and the differing hardness of the respective metals formed intricate patterns.
The metal would be drawn out into a longer thinner bar, possibly multiple times,
depending on the desired outcome. It would eventually be shaped completely into a blade
shape, then allowed to cool and filed and ground to sharpness and finished polish.

23
 Figure 10. Varying Steel Compositions within Blade.

4.3. Origins
It is difficult to track the origin of the Seax. It was clearly most well-known from the
Saxons, who were named for their blades. However, it is unlikely they created the Seax.
Burials sites, and the tools and weapons buried with the interned, allow for a basic
historical outline and geographical spread of the blade. The earliest known findings put
the beginning of the blade around the fifth century, though the earliest findings in Europe
date approximately at the seventh century. The Saxons settled South-east Britain,
bringing their weapons and tools with them. As creating a sword was prohibitively
expensive at the time, a tool that was also useful as a weapon was used, becoming an
essential tool, not merely bound to the men for war, but also useful for the women, for
food and farming. As something so important, it spread with every aspect of their culture,
and touched each culture they came in contact with in turn.
Seax of Beagnoth is a unique find that allowed historians some insight into the
blades history and background. It was found in the Thames in 1857 and is estimated to
have come from the ninth or tenth centuries. Part of what makes it unique is its
inscriptions, a full set of Futhorc runes, the old runic alphabet.

24
5. Stock Material Used for Replicas
The original piece we ordered was a 1/4 inch by 1 ½ inch bar of cold rolled 1018
steel. “1018” is a numerical code which indicates the type and content of the metal. The
initial “1” represents carbon steel, while the following “0” indicates that the metal contains
no “major secondary elements” [15], as some types of steel have sulphur, lead, calcium,
or other “impurities” added to make machining the replica easier. Finally, the last two
digits indicate the carbon content. In this case, the “18” means that this piece of steel is
approximately 0.18% carbon, although controlling the precise carbon content throughout
the process is impossible and the “true” carbon content is somewhere between 0.15 and
0.20%. Our piece was purchased from MSC Industrial Supply Co., who bought it from
Nessteel Inc., who bought it from an unspecified steel mill.

5.1. Manufacturing and Properties of the Steels Used in the Replicas

Steel is a carbon-iron alloy of which up to 2.14wt% consists of carbon. The usage
of various other alloys such as manganese, vanadium or tungsten can alter the material
properties of the metal. To use carbon as an example, carbon breaks up the clean body
centered cubic crystal (BCC) structure of pure iron, strengthening it. This occurs as a
result of the carbon fitting into holes in the structure, and preventing slippage. The end
result is a stronger material, but one that is less ductile.
Steel had long existed, produced in bloomer forges, but experienced an increase in
production once better and more efficient methods were found in the 17th century for
blister steel and crucible steel. In the mid nineteenth century, the Bessemer process was
invented, but were followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas
process that refined the quality of steel. Basic Oxygen Steelmaking refined it even more,
leading to today, with over 1.6 billion tons produced annually.
Pig iron is generally used in the production of steels. It has higher carbon content,
usually 3.5-4.5% [59], making it far too brittle to use on its own, but ideal for the
production of steels. Originally, pig iron would be melted and agitated, and a current of air
directed over it, causing the impurities to be oxidized. The modern technique involves
pouring molten pig iron into a furnace which is either electric arc, induction, or basic

25
oxygen. The furnace burns off the impurities, and allows for adjustment of the
composition.
When steel began bigger production, it began to replace many things normally
made with iron. It is currently used in the construction of roads, rails, basic appliances,
and buildings. Most tall buildings have a steel skeleton, and much concrete is supported
by steel rebar. Many components of cars, despite aluminum and plastics are still made of
steel. Screws, nails, silverware, ships, pipes, mining vehicles and devices, washing
machines and heavy equipment, all made primarily of, or containing steel. Before the 17 th
century, and the Bessemer process, steel was highly costly, and used only when nothing
else could be used, such as for knife blades, springs, and clocks and watches. Plastic is
now replacing some steels and carbon fiber in cases where cost does not matter.
Long steel is used in steel rebar, rail tracks, structural steel in buildings and
bridges, wires. Flat carbon steel is used in major appliances and magnetic cores, and
inside and outside body of cars, trains, and ships. Stainless steel is used in cutlery, rulers,
surgical instruments, watches, and guns.
As mentioned before, steel is stronger than pure iron, but less ductile. As carbon
content increases, steel increases in strength, and decreases in ductility. At higher than
2.14wt%, it is considered cast iron.

Figure 11. A Graph only Going up to 6.67% Carbon.

26
 Mild steel, also known as low carbon or plain-carbon steel, is very common due to
its relatively low cost while still gaining better material properties sufficient for most
applications. It contains about .05% to .32% carbon and has a low tensile strength, but
surface hardness can be increased via carburizing. Carburizing is a heat treatment where
the treated metal is exposed to carbon, usually in the form of charcoal or carbon
monoxide, to make it stronger. Longer time and higher temps can increase the depth.
When quenched and cooled fast, the exterior becomes hard as the surface austenite
turns to martensite, and the core is soft and tough as a ferritic or pearlite microstructure.
This only works for low carbon steels, and has a case hardness maximum of .25 inches.

Figure 12. Cross Section of a Carburized Steel Gear. [23].

Figure 12 shows a cross section of a carburized steel gear. Mild carbon steel is
used when a large amount is required. Useful in structural steel, cars, street furniture, etc.
Medium to high carbon steels contain .25-.6% and .9-2.5% carbon respectively.
Medium carbon steel balances ductility, strength and has good wear resistance. It is used
in large parts, forging, and car parts. High carbon steel is used for springs or high strength
wires. At this level of carbon, other trace elements might be added to control the alloy
properties. Manganese is added for better hardenability of lower carbon steels. Likewise,
the addition of only 0.17% phosphorus increases both the yield and tensile strength of
low-carbon sheet steel by about 62 MPa (9 ksi) while also improving the bake hardening
response and deep drawability. Others components added might include sulfur,
chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, and
zirconium. Some traces of silicon, oxygen, nitrogen, and aluminum may also be included.
27
 Ultra high carbon steel refers to steels containing 2.5-3.0% carbon. These are
usually used for special instances, such as knifes, axles, or punches. Shaping of these
steels is done with powder metallurgy. At this point, it is generally considered cast iron.
The naming convention for steels is given by four digits. The first two are the type
of material, and the second are the amount of carbon given by Table 1.
Table 1. AISI Material Grades [24]

AISI Steel Specifications

Carbon Steel 10XX Plain carbon steel , Mn 1.00% max
11XX Resulfurized free cutting
12XX Resulfurized - Rephosphorized free cutting
15XX Plain carbon steel, Mn 1.00-1.65%
Manganese Steel 13XX Mn 1.75%
Nickel Steel 23XX Ni 3.50%
25XX Ni 5.00%
Nickel Chromium Steel 31XX Ni 1.25%, Cr 0.65-0.80%
32XX Ni 1.75%, Cr 1.07%
33XX Ni 3.50%, Cr 1.50-1.57%
34XX Ni 3.00%, Cr 0.77%
Molybdenum Steel 40XX Mo 0.20-0.25%
44XX Mo 0.40-0.52%
Chromium Molybdenum Steel 41XX Cr 0.50-0.95%, Mo 0.12-0.30%
Nickel Chromium Molybdenum Steel 43XX Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50-0.80%, Mo 0.25%
47XX Ni 1.05%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.20-0.35%
Nickel Molybdenum Steel 46XX Ni 0.85-1.82%, Mo 0.20-0.25%
48XX Ni 3.50%, Mo 0.25%
Chromium Steel 50XX Cr 0.27-0.65%
51XX Cr 0.80-1.05%
50XXX Cr 0.50%, C 1.00% min
51XXX Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min
52XXX Cr 1.45%, C 1.00% min
Chromium Vanadium Steel 61XX Cr 0.60-0.95%, V 0.10-0.15%
Tungsten Chromium Steel 72XX W 1.75%, Cr 0.75%
Nickel Chromium Molybdenum Steel 81XX Ni 0.30%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12%
86XX Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.20%
87XX Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.25%
88XX Ni 0.55% Cr 0.50% Mo 0.35%
Silicon Manganese Steel 92XX Si 1.40-2.00%, Mn 0.65-0.85% Cr 0.65%
Nickel Chromium Molybdenum Steel 93XX Ni 3.25%, Cr 1.20%, Mo 0.12%
94XX Ni 0.45%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12%
97XX Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.20%, Mo 0.20%
98XX Ni 1.00%, Cr 0.80%, Mo 0.25%

28
 While carbon composes at a maximum of 3% of steels for practical uses, with alloy steel,
additional elements can make up between 1 and 50% of the steel. The difference between low
alloy and high alloy steels is somewhat arbitrary and not well agreed on. Smith and Hashemi use
4%, while Degarmo makes use of 8%. Generally, alloy steel still refers to low alloy steels. Alloys
are created to improve any number of properties of steels above that of normal carbon steels,
including, strength, toughness, hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, hardenability,
and hot hardness. Often this requires heat treating to achieve these properties. These are
usually used in very specific scenarios such as jet engines, spacecraft, or reactors. Alloy steel is
also often used for objects where magnetism matters, like electric motors or transformers.
Alloyed elements are added in small amounts for smaller things, like strength,
hardenability, or higher for special things, like corrosion resistance or temperature
stability, Table 2. Table 3 shows typical strength values for various types of steels.
Table 2. Principal Effects of Major Alloying Elements for Steel [25]

Principal effects of major alloying elements for steel

Element Percentage Primary function

Aluminum 0.95–1.30 Alloying element in nitriding steels

Bismuth - Improves machinability

Boron 0.001–0.003 A powerful hardenability agent
Chromium 0.5–2 Increases hardenability
4–18 Increases corrosion resistance
Copper 0.1–0.4 Corrosion resistance
Lead - Improved machinability
Manganese 0.25–0.40 Combines with sulfur and with phosphorus to reduce the brittleness. Also helps to remove excess oxygen from
molten steel.

>1 Increases hardenability by lowering transformation points and causing transformations to be sluggish
Molybdenum 0.2–5 Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth. Increases the toughness of steel, thus making molybdenum a very valuable
alloy metal for making the cutting parts of machine tools and also the turbine blades of turbojet engines. Also used
in rocket motors.
Nickel 2–5 Toughener
12–20 Increases corrosion resistance
Silicon 0.2–0.7 Increases strength
2.0 Spring steels
Higher Improves magnetic properties
percentages
Sulfur 0.08–0.15 Free-machining properties
Titanium - Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness in chromium steels
Tungsten - Also increases the melting point.
Vanadium 0.15 Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility; promotes fine grain structure. Increases the toughness
at high temperatures

29
 Table 3. Mechanical Properties for Different Types of Steels [26]

5.2. Steel Stock Fabrication

Steel is a key industry in the modern era, as the material is essential for production
of a wide variety of products including cars, industrial machinery, buildings, and
electronics. More than 1.6 billion tons of steel were produced worldwide in 2014 [18].
Although the basic principles remain the same, modern techniques for producing steel
(including the bars we used for our knives) are considerably more advanced.
Unlike the Vikings (who relied primarily on “bog iron”) today’s steel is produced
from iron ore, mined in roughly 50 countries across the world. Brazil and Australia are the
largest contributors, each responsible for approximately one third of global ore exports.
This iron ore is fed into a blast furnace along with coal coke, limestone, and heated air.
The hot air allows the coke to combust, producing sufficient heat to melt the iron as well
as additional carbon. The limestone acts as a “flux,” bonding with various impurities
known as slag and floating to the surface to be skimmed off. In the past, this iron was
usually poured into troughs and allowed to cool into bars of pig iron, but most modern

30
steelmaking facilities are constructed to allow the molten iron to be moved to the next
step while still in its liquid state.
There are several methods for converting this iron into steel, but the most popular
is known as Basic Oxygen Steelmaking, or BOS. The molten steel is poured into a large
container called a ladle, where it is mixed with a smaller amount of solid scrap steel which
makes up roughly 25-30% of the metal mass. Maintaining the correct amount of scrap
relative to the molten iron (called the charge balance) is essential because it absorbs
additional thermal energy produced later on in the process. After the hot and cold metal
has been added, fluxes (typically a mix of lime and dolomite) are poured into the ladle,
and a water cooled copper “lance” is dipped into the mixture. The lance blows 99.5% pure
oxygen into the molten metal at supersonic speeds, triggering several key chemical
reactions. Oxidized silicon forms silica and reacts with the lime and dolomite fluxes, while
carbon ignites and forms carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. These combine to form a
gaseous cloud of slag impurities. These reactions are exothermic, producing enough heat
to raise the temperature to 1700 degrees Celsius and melting the scrap metal. After the
blowing process is complete (it usually takes 15-20 minutes), the molten steel is poured
into a new ladle to be cast into a bar, ingot, or other shape suitable for further work. The
accumulated slag is removed separately and sold for use in asphalt production or as
railroad ballast.
Another common method for producing steel is the Electric Arc Furnace, or EAF. It
uses similar concepts as the BOS design, but the primary source of heat is a high voltage
electric arc (hence the name). The EAF is gradually growing in popularity in the United
States. Unlike the BOS method, the EAF is not autogenous, generating most of the
necessary heat via electrical charges or burning natural gas instead of from reactions with
purified oxygen. None the less, the general principles are the same: A carefully selected
quantity of scrap must be mixed in with the hot metal, a quantity of oxygen must be blown
through, and fluxes like lime must be added to convert unwanted elements like sulphur
and phosphorus into slag so it can be more easily removed.
Our piece would have been taken to a manufacturing plant to be reheated to above
its recrystallization temperature (typically 925 degrees Celsius) and fed between large
rollers to reduce it to the desired shape and thickness. This is known as “hot rolling.” After

31
this step, our steel was allowed to cool and then given further processing, rolling it again
while below the recrystallization temperature. This is sometimes referred to as “cold
rolling,” although “cold finishing” is considered to be the proper term for bar products like
our piece.
Hot rolled steel is typically cheaper than cold rolled, but it is also less consistent in
size, shape, and tolerance because the heated metal tends to shrink as it cools. On the
other hand, cold rolled material is generally harder (due to a higher carbon content) and
has a cleaner surface. This makes it more difficult to work in the forge, but should also
produce a superior final product.

32
6. Our Blade Replica Design
To aid in the manufacturing process, our team generated Solidworks models of the
Seax knife with accurate dimensions, as well as engineering drawings, Figures 13 and
14. The plan is to make a Seax with a 14 inch blade attached to a 5 inch long handle.
This handle will begin with an elliptical piece of metal at the base of the blade that just
barely circumscribes the blade profile at the base. The tang will protrude 4.5 inches from
the ¼ inch thick metal ellipse, and the handle will have a ¼ elliptical pommel identical to
the one at the base of the blade, albeit even more rounded. We will take a piece of ash
wood and sand it down to the shape that we desire for our handle and then we will cut it
in half and remove material from the inside of the elliptical prism so that the tang will fit
inside. We will then seal the hilt onto the tang, most likely with glue, however if we are
able to attach the hilt with a piece of metal pushed through both sides of the wood and
passing through a hole in the blade, then we will attempt to do that first.

Figure 13. Seax Knife Solidworks Model.

Figure 14. Seax Knife Engineering Drawing.

33
7. Manufacturing of the Blade
The materials process that will be used in order to create the Viking Seax knife will
be forging, also called blacksmithing. We will be using a square bar of 1018 low carbon
steel for our Seax knife. Through the basic process of heating and hammering we will
slowly shape our workpiece into the desired shape. Throughout the process we will study
the microstructure of the material we are using in order to view the changes that occur
throughout the process.

7.1. Basics of Blacksmithing

Blacksmithing is, in the basic sense, the process of heating a metal up to make it
soft, and then hammer it to form it in a desired shape. The first metals used for
blacksmithing were bronze and iron, however iron was found to be more useful and
easier to obtain. The refined skills of a blacksmith likely began in the Iron Age.
Blacksmiths were generally the center of the towns, often holding high ranking positions.
They would be sought out for to make tools, horseshoes, armor, weapons, and anything
that was made from metal for the most part. The major event that brought about the rise
of blacksmithing was the discovery of being able to make the coals burn hotter by the use
of manually operated bellows. Once the demand for blacksmiths increased due to
discovery of more things they could be used for, it quickly spread throughout Europe. As
the ages went on the process of blacksmithing stayed relatively the same, aside from
inventions of larger furnaces and using water power. The decline of blacksmithing began
when the blast furnace was invented. That as well as advancements in the production of
iron around 1700 lead to the decline of blacksmiths. These days, blacksmiths have
become highly specialized in order to survive, making artisan pieces as well as replicas
for various museums.

7.2. Blacksmithing Tools and Techniques

There are a number of tools which are required in order to manually smith a piece
of steel into a finished product. To start out, some form of a forge is necessary to heat the
metal hot enough to work. Typically the fuel of choice was coal, with charcoal as a

34
possible alternative in places where wood was common but coal was scarce. Some
modern smiths have also made use of propane fueled forges. A coal fired forge generally
consists of a large flat hearth and a firepot. A chimney is also required to allow smoke and
other gasses to escape. The firepot is located below and often behind the hearth, and is
connected to a bellows or other form of mechanical pump designed for blowing air. When
the forge is in use, this is the hottest part of the fire, containing a “ball” of combusting coal
and coal coke, surrounded by heated but non-combusting coal and kept oxygenated by
air forced in through the bellows. The extra oxygen is necessary to allow the coal to burn
properly. The hearth generally contains a decent quantity of fresh coal, which is
progressively moved closer to the fire as more coal is consumed and new coal is placed
around the edges. This process allows the coal to heat up and gradually turn into coke, a
superior fuel, before being burned in the fire or removed to be used later for a particularly
fuel intensive process like welding.
Probably the most important hand tools for a blacksmith are the iconic hammer
and anvil. The anvil is a large piece of metal with a roughly triangular shape, generally
weighing several hundred pounds and attached to a large wooden stand. Anvil heights
vary from person to person, but are usually designed to align with the height of the
blacksmith’s knuckles when his arm is hanging at his side. The anvil is the surface on
which the blacksmith shapes his work, and is therefore designed to be as hard and
smooth as possible. There are also a wide variety of useful features on a typical anvil,
each with a clear purpose. The flat top is obviously designed as a surface to hammer on,
while the long rectangular shape and the sharp 90 degree edges are there to make it
easier to form a “shoulder” in a bar of metal, and flatten one part while leaving the rest
untouched. The rounded, conical “horn” on one side of the anvil is used to bend metal into
even curves and circles. The two holes also have specific purposes: the roughly 1”x1”
square “hardy hole,” for inserting tools like the “hardy” or “softy,” and the ½” circular hole
used primarily for flattening the head of a nail without disrupting the tapered end. Finally,
the small “ledge” on many anvils allows the blacksmith to keep a piece straight while
hammering on one end, usually to start a bend or curve.
The blacksmith’s hammer is a very versatile tool when used in conjunction with his
other implements. With it he can reshape a piece of metal to make it longer, shorter, thinner,

35
or thicker on any axis. He can make simple bends and elaborate curves, draw out an end
into a point. The hammer can also be used indirectly, applying the force which allows
another tool to do its job. Some examples include the hardy, the punch, and the flatter.
A hardy is essentially a large, blocky chisel with a square base designed to fit into
the hardy hole on the anvil. It is used to cut notches or grooves into a piece of metal,
which is held on top of the edge and struck from above. Notches can be used to denote a
specific point on a piece of metal (where the blade ends and the handle begins, for
example), as a “guide” for the metal to bend into, or even to cut it into two pieces.
A punch is generally an elongated, conical shape of various lengths and widths,
made from metal treated to be especially hard. They are sometimes connected to a
handle for safety and ease of use. The purpose of a punch is fairly intuitive: it it positioned
vertically above the work, narrow end down, and struck from above such that it either
indents the material or punches through it, forming a hole.
A flatter is similar to a punch in operation, if completely opposite in effect. It closely
resembles a hammer with an unusually broad and often square head. To use it, the flatter
is placed on top of a piece and struck with a hammer, flattening out the work and reducing
or removing indentations caused by normal hammering.
Tongs are another crucial blacksmithing tool. Although it is possible and often
easier for a blacksmith to work long pieces or metal while holding the cool end in their
hand, this is impossible for pieces small enough that both ends become too hot to safely
hold. Tongs allow the blacksmith to grab onto and control any part of his work, no matter
how hot it may be. The most basic set of tongs consists of two metal rods connected by a
pin in the same way as the blades of a pair of scissors. The shorter ends of both rods are
modified to hold on to pieces of specific shapes or sizes, from small, flat grips for narrow
bars to matching semicircles several inches across, designed to hold half-brick size
blocks. Due to the very specific use of each form, a typical blacksmiths workspace has a
tremendously large number of differently shaped tongs available to be used.
Finally, a blacksmith requires a container of water, usually referred to as a “slack
tub.” This is primarily used for quenching and cooling the work, but it also doubles as a
valuable safety precaution in the event of burns caused by accidental exposure to hot
coals, metal, or tools.

36
7.3. Fundamentals of Forging
Forging is one of, if not the, oldest metalworking processes. In the twelfth century,
the introduction of the water wheel and water power made the use of a hand powered
hammer and anvil impractical, but instigated the beginning of powered forging. In modern
production, forging is done with massive presses and hammers powered by compressed
air, electricity, hydraulics, or steam. These hammers have weights in the thousands of
pounds, and smaller ones, 500 lbs or less, are often used in art smithies or small
metalworking shops. Steam powered hammers still exist, though are uncommon as other
power sources are more efficient.
Forging is useful as the parts created are much stronger than a similar cast or
machined part. When shaped, the grain warps, leading to a continuous grain and
improved strength characteristics. Steel and iron are usually forged hot, though some
metals can be forged cold. Hot forging prevents the strain hardening that would result
from cold working. Strain hardening refers to the process of deforming a metal to
strengthen it. This makes it difficult to perform other operations on the metal. When strain
hardening would be desired, in most instances it is more efficient and more controllable to
heat treat the piece.
Forging in large amounts requires high expenditure in machinery, tooling, facilities,
and personnel. For high temperature forging, a furnace is needed to heat ingots. Due to
size and dangers, an entire building is usually required. For drop forging, vibration needs
to be absorbed. Dies are very often used to shape the metal, which must be precisely
machined, built, and treated to withstand the repeated high forces.
Though there are many forging processes, they can be grouped into three
sections. Drawn out, where the length increases and the width decreases. Upset, where
the length decreases, and the width increases. And squeezed in closed compression
dies, which results in a multidirectional flow.
Forging processes are usually classified according to temperature, thought they
can be done at multiple temperatures. Temperature classification refers to the
crystallization temperature; if forging occurs above recrystallization temperature, it is
called hot forging. If lower, but above 30%, it is called warm forging. If below 30%, in
which the metal is generally worked at room temperature, it is called cold forging. Hot

37
forging prevents work hardening as the effects are negated by the recrystallization
process, whereas cold forging does result in work hardening.
Drop forging drops a hammer onto the piece to bludgeon it into the shape of the
die. There are two types of die forging, open and closed. Open die does not fully enclose
the piece, while closed die forging does.
Open die forging is also called smith forging, a modern and powered equivalent of
a hammer and anvil. The hammer hits and deforms the metal which has been placed on
an anvil. Open die forging is referred to as such because the dies, the surfaces in contact
with the work piece do not surround it, allowing the metal to move.

“Advantages
· Reduced chance of voids
· Better fatigue resistance
· Improved microstructure
· Continuous grain flow
· Finer grain size
· Greater strength”
[29]

Closed die forging is also called impression die forging. The metal is placed into a two
part mold, top and bottom, which the hammer then strikes. Excess metal is forced out of
the sides, resulting in flash.

Figure 15. Flash. [28].

Flash cools more quickly than the rest of the piece, and as such is harder. This
makes it more difficult for more flash to form, ensuring that the soft metal fully fills the die.

38
Flash is removed at the end of the process. Commercially, the work piece is put through
several dies, starting with molding the metal into a general shape of the end goal, and
getting closer with each step. Impression forging has become more effective in recent
years with automation, allowing for induction heating, mechanical feeding, positioning and
manipulation, and the direct heat treatment of parts after forging.
To get around the formation of flash, flashless forging, or true closed die forging
may be used. The dies are completely closed, preventing flash as well as saving up to 20
– 40% of material, but the process is much more expensive due to more complex die
designs and the required better lubrication and equipment.
The overall process of closed die forging has high manufacturing cost to begin
with, but each recurring piece costs little extra.
Press forging refers to a similar process to normal drop forging, but it is a slow
continuous process rather than quick and abrupt. This allows for the deformation of the
entire work piece, versus drop forging which generally only deforms the exterior of the
piece. It also allows for full knowledge and control of the strain rate, as well very high
tolerances. The downsides are the time and amount of heat necessary to make it work.
Upset forging is the lengthwise compression of metals in order to increase diameter. It
is generally used to create valves, couplings, bolts, and screws. Most often used for small
parts, but can be used for round bars of up to 9.8 inches in diameter. There are three
rules that must be followed for upset forging. [29], pp. 395–396.
 “The length of unsupported metal that can be upset in one blow without
injurious buckling should be limited to three times the diameter of the bar.
 Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset
successfully, provided that the diameter of the upset is not more than 1.5 times
the diameter of the stock.
 In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the
stock, and where the diameter of the cavity is not more than 1.5 times the
diameter of the stock, the length of unsupported metal beyond the face of the
die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.”

39
 Figure 16. Motion of Upset Forging. [30].

Roll forging describes a process where round or flat bar stock is flattened between
a set of two rollers to reduce thickness and increase the length. Roll forging can be used
for simple shapes such as sheet metal, or more complex shapes, like leaf springs or
railroad tracks.

7.4. Blade Forging

We shall begin by taking the piece of 1018 mild steel we purchased for the creation
of our replica and studying the microstructure of it under a microscope. We will look at
the various grain structures in the replica and take note of what they look like before the
process of forging takes place. We will also take note of any flaws we may see in the
structure of the material. We may also do various hardness and impact tests in order to
see the characteristics of the untreated metal. The material will then be taken to
Ferromorphics, a local blacksmith workshop, where the process of forging shall begin.
We shall heat the steel up using the forge and then using a hammer, we shall hammer
the workpiece into the shape of the Seax knife.
The first section of the knife to be worked on shall be the blade itself. The steel will
be hammered down to a smaller thickness as well as slightly wider due to the original
stock being slightly thicker and narrower than the desired finish product. This was done
due to the process of hammering causing the metal to spread and thin out. After the blade
has been thinned out and widened we shall hammer in the angle on the edge of the

40
blade. After blade itself is complete we will create the tang in order to put on the wooden
handle of the blade.
After the piece of steel has been hammered into the shape of the knife we will
then again study the microstructure of it in order to see and compare the differences from
before it was forged to after. We may also draw the metal, which is the process of
stretching and thinning out the metal, in order to achieve a certain length if we originally
hammer it to be too small or simply want a longer piece. One method that is used to draw
out a piece of metal in blacksmithing is by using a chisel to make notches in the blade.
Then when the blade is hammered it spreads out and lengthens easier due to these
notches, resulting in a longer and thinner replica. If we do draw the metal out, we will
once again study the structure. Depending on which way we stretch the piece out, it can
cause the grain structures to look different.
The last process in the creation of the blade, depending on the result of the blade
after the forging, is case hardening. Case hardening is a process that makes the outer
layer of the metal harder by first heating the metal red hot and then plunging it into a case
hardening compound that is typically high in carbon content. After that you heat the metal
once again and then plunge it into cold water. This will leave the outside layer of the
metal hard while the inside remains softer, hence the name case hardening. This
process will also change the microstructure of the metal and you will be able to see the
differences between the hardened outside and the softer middle. Due to this we will once
again study the microstructure of the replica in order to take another look at the changes
that have occurred.

Figure 17. Case Hardened Steel Microstructure. [60].

41
7.5. Attaching the Grip
The last step to making the blade is to make the wooden handle to go over the
tang, which is the tail end of the blade that is inserted into handles. For this we will be
using untreated ash wood, and by means of sanding we will shape the wooden handle in
the correct shape for the handle. The handle will be two replicas that will close over the
tang and then either be glued of riveted on. After this is complete we may wrap the
wooden handle in leather to give an additional authentic look. Depending on whether we
go with the leather or not, we may also etch a design in the wood and blade in order to
give a more artistic and professional appearance. Here is a theoretical example of what
our knife could potentially look like, assuming we do not have any complications with the
forging process and have the skill to make such a high quality knife.

42
8. Evolution of Blacksmithing Techniques
The Vikings were forced to make due with limited raw iron supplies and very
rudimentary forges with which they smithed their weapons and armor. Far from an ideal
furnace, bloomeries were constructed out of clay, and were used to heat the iron ore to
suitable temperatures for metalworking.

Figure 18. Clay and Horse Manure Bloomery.

Figure 19. Viking Iron Bloom.

A common misconception is that Viking blacksmiths were able to melt down the
iron ore and mold it into whatever shape they desired. The bloomeries that the Viking
smiths had at their disposal were capable of melting iron down into a softer substance
that still contained lots of impurities, however this was very much not a liquid. It was not
until the “Fourteenth Century in Europe with the introduction of the blast furnace which
used a much greater volume of air and layered the iron ore with charcoal” [10] that this
was possible. The only technique available to Viking smiths to purify the iron bloom,
which refers to the soft iron blob left in the base of the bloomery, was hammering, which

43
“was the only way to get rid of the impurities that made bloom iron so brittle. Hammering
closed up the pores in the iron bloom and welded them shut” [12]. Each time iron is
heated and cooled down, approximately 1% of the mass of the metal is lost, and much of
this loss is in the form of impurities. The Vikings were capable of making steel, by infusing
iron with pure carbon, but doing so was very difficult and the capacity of their steel making
operations were so limited that the Vikings elected to alternate strips of iron with steel
along the cutting edge of a blade in an effort to make the small steel reserve last as long
as possible. For example, “An expensive and very strong knife, sword or axe could be
made by forging alternate layers of iron and steel together” and exclusively for “the cutting
edges and points of iron tools and weapons” [11]. This technique of using the minimal
amount of steel and iron to do the job is a common theme that can be observed in Viking
weapons and armor, where weapons such as the spear and hand axe were among the
most popular combat weapons, while requiring only a modest supply of metal to create
the blade. Viking blacksmiths specialized in a very complex trade, and “carefully
guard[ed] the secrets of their craft, revealing them only to their chosen apprentices, who
would often be their own sons or other members of the family.” [11] This trend resulted in
blacksmiths being renowned for their skill, understood by only a few people in a Viking
settlement, as it was a skillset that was kept close to the chest, and was invaluable in that
day and age. Smiths were so important that “Rulers and important noblemen would often
have their own personal smith” [11] to craft them custom weapons and armor, as both
weaponry and armor were prominent signs of class status, and the more ornate and
expensive a noble’s armament appeared, the wealthier, and therefore more powerful he
appeared as well. Stemming from the almost cult-like tendencies of smiths and their
private circles, “The skills and processes of working metal (especially iron) were a
mystery to most people in ancient and Viking times and were thought by superstitious
people to be magical. 'Magical' iron and skilled smiths feature in the myths and legends of
the Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian and other Germanic peoples” [9]. As a result of this
association with the supernatural, and with respect to superstition, “The iron horseshoe -
one of the typical products of the smith - is still regarded as a 'magical' symbol today and
is hung on walls and doors to bring good luck” [11].

44
 Figure 20. Viking Horseshoe.

Viking blacksmiths were extremely skilled in their work, especially considering the
sparse supply of metal from which to work, and the primitive design of their forges. They
were held in high esteem for their talent, and valued immensely because of the invaluable
service that they could offer their community.

45
9. Blacksmithing of the Replicas
The first step in the process of making our blade was ordering the material. For this
blade we decided to use 1018 steel due to its low carbon content making it easier to
forge. The bar was ¼ inches thick by 1 inch wide and would be hammered out to be thicker.

9.1. First Replica

Figure 21. Original 1018 Steel Stock.

From the stock we cut roughly a 14 inches piece and began by plasma cutting a
general shape of our replica. In the era of the Vikings of course they were not fortunate
enough to have such technology, however we took this method as to speed up the
process slightly and simplify things. After this was completed, we had to grind down the
edges of the metal to make a more straight finish do to the cut not being very straight and
consistent. This inconsistency was due to not moving the tip at a constant speed as well
as cutting too much in on one section making a notch that had to be grinded out. During
the grinding process we also smoothed out all the edges in order to make the replica not
have sharp edges and slightly easier to handle during the forging process.

Figure 22. Grinding the First Replica into the Rough Shape.

46
 After grinding the steel replica down to have a relatively straight edge in the
general shape we wanted our replica we began the process of forging it. Using the forge
at Ferromorphics, we would heat up the metal until it was a bright orange and then
proceeding to hammer out one edge of the replica since the seax knife is a single sided
blade. We had to be careful of overheating the metal, which we almost did a few times,
or else the metal replica would essentially fall apart where the metal was white hot. In the
process of making the blade edge thinner we began to notice that the blade was
beginning to curve a considerable amount. We found that the process of stretching out
just one side naturally curves the blade, so since the seax is a straight blade with a thick
back side, we had to straighten the blade back out every 2 or so heats. This conveniently
also made the sections that we made slightly too thin (due to later needing enough
material to grind out the hammer marks) a bit thicker due to us hammering on the edge to
make it straight again.

Figure 23. Connor Hammering the Blade Edge of the Steel Replica.

Another thing we also began to notice was that the blade was getting exceptionally
longer than we originally expected, so much so that the 14’ replica we started with had
become roughly 18’. We also noticed that by heating the tip up so many times and
thinning it out to much that we effectively had “burnt” the metal leaving an undesirable
finish. Since the replica had become too long anyways, we decide to cut the burnt tip off,
which gave us the size we wanted. We did this by using a hot chisel insert in the anvil
and hammering the undesirable section off. This method was used, although possibly not
the most practical, due to time efficiency as well as no bandsaws being available for use

47
at the time. After the replica was shortened, we created the tip of the blade from the
section that we cut off due to needing to repair it from the cut-off anyways. After this was
done we touched up on blade portion itself, extending it further down and trying to create
more of a blade.

Figure 24. Rough Blade Portion Finished, Tang Next to be Worked on.

Figure 25. Final Replica Without Handle.

The next step we took in making the blade was creating the tang. To create the
tang we used a more modern method to show how modern methods have made things
simpler. We used an angle grinder with a cutoff wheel in order to cut down the stock we
had remaining to a more narrow piece and general shape we wanted so we did not have
to do as much hammering. After this was done we heated the tang a few times and
hammered it out to get the shape and length we wanted. Next, we used the angle grinder
once again, this time with a grinding wheel, in order to grind down the blade itself in order
to try and smooth out the surface, give it a better finish, and try and get out a majority of
the hammer marks. After this was done we went around the outside of the blade with a
grinding wheel in order to chamfer and smooth out the edges so that they were not sharp
(it being a replica, we did not want it to be capable of actually hurting someone.

48
 The next process is the making of the handle itself. For this we decided to go with
the method of wrapping the handle in leather due to time constraints. The leather was
chosen in order to make the blade look authentic and of the time. The leather is cut into
thin strips roughly half an inch to an inch thick in order to make the wrapping look good.
One piece of leather is taken and wrapped and glued over the bottom of the tang to
ensure no metal is showing. Once this was done an end of a leather strip is glued to the
top of the tang and double wrapped in order to ensure it does not come loose, then the
leather is wrapped in a spiral manner down the blade. Once at the bottom of the blade,
the leather strip is once again glued in order to ensure it does not come undone. The
final step if desired would be to buff out the blade in order to get a mirror finish.

9.2. Second Replica

Our second replica was started after the first, allowing us to learn from some
earlier mistakes. Although the material we used was the same, we cut off a shorter piece
to start out with because we knew the process of drawing out the blade would give us
significantly more length than the original bar. We also decided on a fundamentally
different approach, opting to use “traditional” blacksmith tools over modern machines like
plasma cutters whenever possible.
Our first step was to hammer out the blade side of the Seax to form a noticeable (if
still very dull) edge. Although this did produce very clear “sharp” and “dull” sides, our
hammering also caused the blade to curve slightly. We corrected this by periodically
hammering on the edges to straighten the replica, although this in turn had the effect of
slightly dulling our “sharp” edge.
It should be noted that over the course of this process, we generally aimed to get
our replica to a “bright orange” or “yellow” heat. Although this makes the material very soft
and easy to work, it also increases the risk of burning the metal if it is allowed to heat for
too long. Although we were able to avoid any catastrophic damage, we did manage to
burn our blade several times. In addition to altering the macrostructure of the material,
this also left us with a rather rough and inconsistent texture across most of our blade.
Once we had a clearly defined blade, we decided to draw out the point of the
blade. This was an important step to create the shape we wanted, as we not only needed

49
to form the sharp tip but also the distinct “corner” on the dull edge of the blade which
identifies the knife as a “broken back” seax. We accomplished this by heating and
hammering the “dull” edge very close to the end of the blade, pushing the excess material
towards the tip and producing a very clear downward slope from the spot where we
wanted the back to “break.” This did result in some minor warping which was easily
corrected by hammering out the flat side. We wanted to make sure we didn’t leave a
small tip to be inadvertently burn off while we were working on a different part of the
replica, so we did not finish the tip all at once, instead leaving it roughly half an inch
across and still squared off.
At this point, we decided it was important to clearly indicate where the tang ended
and the blade began, so we used a hardy to notch both edges and went back to drawing
out and realigning the blade. Once we were mostly satisfied with the length, width, and
alignment, we began to work on the tang and the part of the blade adjacent to it. Due to
an initial error of judgment, we decided to make the blade directly in front of the tang
narrower than we actually wanted, although we were quickly able to correct the problem
with no lasting damage done.
The tang end of our replica was roughly six inches long at this stage, more than
twice as long as we wanted it to be. We decided to cut off about five inches in order to
make the tank a more appropriate size. Although we considered cutting it using a hardy
as a contemporary Viking blacksmith probably would have, we ultimately decided that
using a grinder would be much easier and decided that taking advantage of living in the
modern era to get a cleaner cut and save the time it would have taken to get the rather
obstinate hardy back out of the anvil.
At this point, all we had to do to fix up the tang was to make it shorter and thicker
than the blade side by hammering down the edges. Unfortunately, due to some irrational
nonchalance and a touch of basic negligence, we managed to expedite the process
considerably by burning away a quarter-sized chunk of the metal we had left over for the
tang. Although the absence of this material made the rest of the metal much easier to
hammer into the correct shape and the severely warped and bubbly texture should be
safely concealed by the wood handle of the final product, this was indisputably a
noteworthy and embarrassing mistake.

50
 Very carefully, in order to avoid any risk of burning, we heated the tip to a mild
orange color and hammered the back of the blade downward to form a distinct point,
carefully re-aligning the blade every time it warped to one side or another. Once the point
was finished, we moved on to cleaning up the blade by heating sections to a mild orange
and smoothing them out with the flatter to eliminate as many dents and burn marks as we
could. Once we were satisfied that the blade was straight and relatively smooth, we
quenched it in water and used the grinder to produce a shiny, metallic finish and remove
as many smaller imperfections along the blade as we could.

Figure 26. Second Blade Being Hammered.

Figure 27. Second Replica Before Tang.

51
10. Sample Preparation for Microstructure Analysis
For the making of the sample pieces that were to be studied under a microscope, a
small piece about ½ inch by ½ inch was cut from the steel bar. It was then cut using a
hacksaw on three different planes in order to be able to see the microstructure and grain
from three different sides. Using a mounting press, the three pieces were set into a
PhenoCure premold in order to be able to polish and use in the microscope more easily.
This process was done by first taking the sample and putting it in the machine followed by
the premold, after this was set the machine heats up the premold and sets the piece in it
securely.

Figure 28. Mounting Press.

Figure 29. Example of PhenoCure Premold with Sample.

52
 Once the mounting was finished, the samples were then polished using a
grinding/polishing machine and sandpapers varying from 120 grade all the way to .03 microns.

Figure 30. Grinding Machine Used in Polishing of Samples.

Figure 31. Additional Polishing Machines Used.

This produced a nice mirror finish on the samples which is required when viewing
the pieces under a microscope because any scratches or imperfections would be
noticeable and get in the way of observing the grain structure. One thing that was noticed
due to the samples being steel, if they were allowed to be wet for too long they would
began to show spots of presumably rust on them. This would seem to occur even sooner
the finer the paper you used.

Figure 32. Sample Pieces After Mounting and Polishing.

53
11. Stock vs. Replicas
Throughout the course of this project, we will be smithing the 1018 steel from a bar
stock into a blade, and will ultimately end up altering the microstructure and mechanical
characteristics of our metal in the process. As a result of heating the steel to make it more
malleable, we will be able to hammer down one edge into a keen cutting edge (to be
ground down). When hammering the steel, the bar will begin to stretch horizontally which
will yield the extra ¼ inches in width planned for in our design specifications. The steel has
a BCC crystal structure at room temperature, however once it reaches 1300 deg F (704.44
deg C), this structure changes to FCC. This change makes the steel a lot more malleable,
as BCC crystal structures only have 4 slip planes, while FCC crystal structures have 12.
From the Fe-C phase diagram, we will first predict the expected microstructures based on
the processing conditions that the alloy was subjected to, and then perform a
microstructural analysis of the actual blade material for comparison.

11.1. Predicted Microstructures

The microstructure of a material refers to its structure as seen under the
microscope when polished to a very flat face and etched. Crystal structure refers primarily
to the 3D arrangement of the atoms, while microstructure represents the actual phases
resulting from the processing of the material. The microstructure greatly influences
material properties such as strength, ductility, toughness, corrosion resistance, wear
resistance, and most others.
The microstructure of a given piece of steel will depend primarily on two things,
temperature and carbon content. From the Fe-C phase diagram, and based on the
relationship between the two, we can predict the microstructures of the steel: ferrite,
cementite, pearlite, or other phases that are forming under non-equilibrium conditions
(fast cooling rates) such as martensite or bainite. Higher in ferrite alloys have lower
carbon content, on the left side of the phase diagram. Cementite-rich alloys have higher
carbon content, on the opposite side of the phase diagram (high-carbon steels and cast
irons) up to 6.67wt% carbon.

54
 Martensite and pearlite refer to different microstructures. Martensite exists in two
forms, lath martensite in low carbons steels, and plate martensite in high-carbon steels.
Martensite, Figure 33, is formed by rapid cooling of the steel, known as quenching, which
does not allow enough time for carbon atoms to diffuse and form phases like ferrite or
pearlite.

Figure 33. Light Micrograph of Lath Martensite in 4340 steel. [32].

Pearlite forms during a slow cooling eutectoid reaction, creating alternating parallel
lamellae of ferrite and cementite, producing a two-phase structure. The cementite
lamellae appear light and ferrite ones dark on the SEM photo in Figure 34.

Figure 34. Scanning Electron Micrograph Showing Pearlite in Rail Steel. [33].

When pearlite forms, iron atoms must transfer between austenite and pearlite. At a
critical low temperature, this becomes no longer possible, and the iron atoms change
structure by shearing. This creates bainite. It forms elongated shapes, and the cementite
is no longer continuous or lamellar.

55
 The bainite forms at cooling rates higher than those for pearlite transformation, and
it can be upper or lower bainite. In medium- and high-carbon steels, upper bainite
typically consists of groups of ferrite spikes with coarse cementite particles between the
spikes (and it has a more crystallographic appearance related to the prior austenite
phase), Figure 35. The bainite that forms at lower temperatures is termed lower bainite
and consists of large needlelike plates that contain high densities of very fine carbide
particles, Figure 36.

Figure 35. Light Micrograph Showing Upper Bainite (Dark) Formed in 4150 steel. [33].

Figure 36. Light Micrograph Showing Lower Bainite (Dark Plates) Formed in 4150 steel. [33].

As previously mentioned the stock steel we used to make our piece was hot rolled
to approximate size, allowed to cool naturally, and then cold rolled to the final dimensions,
Figure 37. The grain elongation in the rolling direction can be observed. The slow cooling
rate will make the structure of the steel consist of ferrite and pearlite, Figure 38. Based on
our 0.18wt% carbon, the resulting ferrite will be ~79% and pearlite 11%, Figure 39 (level
rule calculations).

56
 Figure 37. Effects of Cold Rolling on Steel Grain Structure.

Figure 38. Microstructure of 1018 Steel.

Figure 39. Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram. [58].

We estimate that we heated our steel stock material to approximately 925 degrees
Celsius during the actual forging operation, basing our estimation on the color coding for
temperature given in Table 4.

57
 Table 4. Heat Chart for Blacksmithing [57]

After heating the steel to the working temperature, it was removed from the forge
and hammered (and air cooled) until it could no longer be worked (approximately 450
degrees Celsius), and then final quenched. As this temperature is below the eutectoid
temperature, final quench would have no effect on the blade microstructure. Given the air
cool during hammering, the microstructure will not be martensitic, and most likely bainitic
with some ferrite.
In addition to the actual hammering and quenching work, the team also did a
separate experiment when the stock material was quenched directly from the
austenitizing temperature (925 degrees Celsius). Skipping the hammering step will help
understand the microstructural difference caused by a faster cooling than that in the
hammering (air cooling) followed by water quenching. The microstructure in this specimen
is expected to be either martensitic or a finer upper bainite.

Figure 40. Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram.

58
11.2. Actual Replica Microstructures
As previously discussed, before any treatment, our replica was fairly typical rolled
stock 1018 steel.

Figure 41. Rolled 1018 Stock Steel 600x.

Figure 42. Rolled 1018 Stock Steel 1000x.

From these images we can see the microstructure was indeed constituted of ferrite
(the white grains) and pearlite (the darker areas of lamellar ferrite and cementite). The
pearlite is aligned at the boundaries of the ferritic grains, which are parallel to the rolling
direction.
Regarding the two replicas, we have the following two resulting microstructures.
For the first sample, the austenitized, hammered forged (while air cooled), and quenched
steel, the microstructure consists of large and dispersed upper bainite areas with some
remaining ferrite, Figures 43 and 44.

59
 Figure 43. 1018 Hammered Steel 600x.

Figure 44. 1018 Hammered Steel 1000x.

For the second sample, the austenitized and directly quenched steel, the
microstructure consists of finer and closely spaced upper bainite areas, also with some
remaining ferrite, Figures 45 and 46.

Figure 45. Quenched 1018 Steel x600.

60
 Figure 46. Quenched 1018 Steel 1000x.

The optical photos of the microstructures in Figures 43-46 show close

resemblance with our predictions based on the phase diagram calculations and
considerations of the cooling characteristics of the materials during various processing
steps that we followed in preparing our blades.

61
12. Conclusions
In this project we looked at the history of the Vikings for background on our
weapon, and saw the evolution of the Seax from simple farming and utility blade into a
weapon of war. We studied forging and smelting techniques, both modern and antiquated
to understand how blades were produced in the past and how they might be produced
now. Our own experiments with forging allowed us to reproduce the subject of our project
and examine its microstructure. We made our predictions, and while not all of them were
accurate this is to be expected.

62
13. Appendix

Figure 47. Map of Medieval Europe

Figure 48. Info Page Linked From the Map.

63
 Figure 49. Info Page Linked From the Map Cont.

Figure 50. The Central Page with Links to Both Replicas.

Figure 51. The Page Linking to the Final Report.

64
Figure 52. The Page Listing the Members of Each Team.

65
14. References
[1] Digital image. Freeworldmaps.net, n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2014.

[2] Viking Longship. Digital image. Www.3dhistory.co.uk. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2014.

[3] Ucla.edu, n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2014.

[4] Tag Archives: Palaces. Digital image. A Corner of Tenth Century Europe. N.p., n.d.
Web. 19 Oct. 2014.

[5] Lindisfarne. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Oct. 2014. Web. 19
Oct. 2014.

[6] Digital image. Www.hurstwic.org, n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2014.

[7] N.p., n.d. Web.

<http://static.mijnwebwinkel.nl/winkel/celticwebmerchant/full27756273.jpg>.

[8] N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2014.

<http://rautaportti.fi/images/Images%20Other%20Weapons/600592%20VikingHalberd_05
.jpg>.

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