Dinаstički Egipаt: mаterijаlnа kulturа i promene u društvu

-kolokvijum-

An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt

Introduction
With the successful consolidation of state control in the first two dynasties (and most likely an increasingly
effective bureaucracy), the stage was set for the impressive royal projects of the 3rd and 4th Dynasties. Egypt’s
first pyramids represent state control over resources, both material and human, on a new and much larger scale
than previously. The state was ruled by a king, whose earthly power and ideological role were symbolized by the
stone pyramid, first as a stepped structure and later as a smooth-sided form.
While most of the highest officials of the state were related to the king in the 4th Dynasty, the number of non-
royal bureaucrats increased in the following dynasty. Officials built elaborate tombs near the capital and a new
type of royal center also appeared in the Memphis region: the sun temple. At the same time royal pyramids were
becoming
increasingly smaller and less well constructed.
In the late Old Kingdom, during the 6th Dynasty, power of provincial leaders increased and the crown income
declined. The Old Kingdom ended with the death of Pepy II, who possibly had a very long reign, followed by what
is called the First Intermediate Period. Little is known about the short period of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, after
which centralized control of the country broke down. During the 9th and 10th Dynasties a (local) dynasty which
controlled parts of northern Egypt arose at Herakleopolis.

The Old Kingdom: Overview

Sometimes called the “Age of the Pyramids,” the Old Kingdom consists of the 3rd through 6th Dynasties. The two
large pyramids at Giza (belonging to Khufu and his son Khafra) are enormously impressive monuments,
representing the highly effective organization of the state.
Central to the political organization of the Old Kingdom was the institution of kingship. Palaces have not been
recovered by archaeology, and the pyramid complex is the most striking form of royal monumental architecture
in
the Old Kingdom. From the 4th Dynasty onward, the royal mortuary complex consisted not only of the walled
pyramid-tomb, but also subsidiary pyramids and a complex of temples connected by a causeway.
The king was believed to be the son of the sun-god Ra, the most important state deity in the Old Kingdom.
Beginning with Radjedef (who succeeded Khufu), “son of Ra” appears in royal titles, and in the 5th Dynasty kings
built sun temple complexes in addition to their pyramid complexes. In the later Pyramid Texts the dead king
becomes Osiris, the father of Horus the living king, and in his rebirth he is Ra in a cosmic afterlife.
Often translated as “truth” or “justice,” ma’at is known from the 2nd/3rd Dynasties onward. Beginning in the
4th Dynasty it is found in royal names and epithets, and became associated with the role of the king and royal
ideology.
Most of the population were peasant farmers living in rural communities. With the materials that sustained life
available locally, farmers were basically self-sufficient, but they also probably bartered handicrafts and foodstuffs
in local markets.
Except for the capital of Memphis, Old Kingdom Egypt was not a state with large urban centers. Memphis was the
seat of the royal court and central government, headed by a vizier with executive, fiscal, and judicial duties. In the
low desert beyond the floodplain and city were the cemeteries, for government officials and the king, who may
have had a residence near the construction site of his pyramid.
Workers were not slaves, but were conscripted for state projects, as one kind of payment of taxes to the state
(corvée labor). A large work force to construct the Giza pyramids would have required a large town to house
them.
They were fed bread produced in nearby bakeries and probably worked in short rotations, while their foremen
lived in proper house structures.
A major segment of the Old Kingdom economy was state controlled, through land ownership (which could also be
revoked), taxation, redistribution, and organization of long-distance trade and mining/quarrying. Three types of
land ownership are known: land owned directly by the crown, land owned by cults (mortuary cults of kings and
individuals, and the cults of deities), and land owned by private individuals (the produce of which was taxed).
In the Early Dynastic Period and early Old Kingdom the crown established its control of much of the land in Egypt
by founding agricultural and cattle estates, such as those listed for one year of Sneferu’s reign (4th Dynasty) in
the Palermo Stone.
In the Old Kingdom the largest mortuary cults were for the royal pyramid temples, where the king’s statues were
daily purified, dressed, and given various offerings and libations by living persons. The daily temple ritual had to
be performed and much incense was burned. Special feast days were also celebrated. There is evidence of
communities
whose sole purpose was the perpetual service and operation of the cult.
Food (bread, beer, cereal, and sometimes meat) and cloth were redistributed to officials and workers of the
state, but beyond this was a system of royal reward, an important part of the economy that also sustained loyalty
to the crown. The king not only gave land to private individuals (which was frequently used to support their
mortuary cults), but officials were also rewarded with beautiful craft goods, such as jewelry and furniture,
produced by highly skilled artisans working for the court. Such luxury goods depended on long-distance trade
with southwest Asia and Punt, and mining and quarrying expeditions in the Sinai and Eastern Desert, which were
controlled by the state. Exotic raw materials (gold, turquoise, elephant ivory, ebony, cedar for coffins etc.) were
obtained on these expeditions, the scale of which depended on state (and not private) organization and logistics.
Thus officials not only depended on the state for their subsistence, but also for much of their material wealth in
highly desired luxury craft goods.

The Early Old Kingdom

The 3rd Dynasty: Djoser’s Step Pyramid at Saqqara
From Djoser’s reign onward, kings of the Old Kingdom were buried in the north, and with his pyramid complex
royal mortuary architecture takes a more monumental form, representing a new level of royal control of the
state. This was the earliest large monument built in stone, an architectural feat much more labor intensive than
the mud-brick construction of the earlier royal funerary enclosures and tombs. So impressive was this great
monument that Djoser’s architect Imhotep (also the royal seal bearer and high priest of the cult of the sun god
Ra) was later deified as the son of the god Ptah.
Exploration of the Step Pyramid complex began in the early 19th century, and in the 20th century its main
excavator was Jean-Philippe Lauer, a French architect who also reconstructed key portions of the complex.
According to Lauer, it was built in six stages. It began as a rectangular, low flat structure termed a mastaba
(meaning “bench” in Arabic), which was expanded twice. Only in its fourth stage was a four-stepped pyramid
constructed. During the last two building stages the pyramid was enlarged to six steps. Although the three
mastabas had been built with rough stone cores covered by finer limestone casing stones, the later stepped
structures were built with stone blocks in accretion
layers that leaned inward. The final pyramid was 121 meters × 109 meters in area and 60 meters high.
To the east of the pyramid are two “dummy” buildings, filled with solid rubble, the so-called Houses of the North
and South (possibly symbolic of Upper and Lower Egypt).
Many of the design elements carved in stone throughout the Step Pyramid complex mimic architecture in organic
materials.
More royal monuments are known for the 3rd Dynasty, but they were never completed. To the southwest of
Djoser’s complex is the unfinished step pyramid complex of King Sekhemkhet, excavated by an Egyptian
archaeologist, Zakaria Goneim, in the 1950s. The history of the later 3rd Dynasty is not well known, it has been
suggested that the unfinished royal monuments represent a weakening in the kingship following Djoser’s reign.
The form of the step pyramid, as a royal tomb or monument, did not survive the 3rd Dynasty. With the increased
theological importance of the sun-god Ra in the subsequent dynasties of the Old Kingdom, the royal pyramid
became a smooth-sided form, possibly symbolic of the rays of the sun. High officials of the 3rd Dynasty also built
tombs at Saqqara, but these were mud-brick mastabas which had evolved from 2nd-Dynasty types.

The 4th Dynasty’s First King, Sneferu, and his Three Pyramids
With the 4th Dynasty comes an unprecedented scale of royal construction. Sneferu, the first king of this dynasty,
built not one but three large pyramids, and probably the small step pyramid at Seila in the Faiyum region. These
pyramids demonstrate the architectural evolution of the true pyramid design, culminating in the construction of
the Great Pyramid at Giza by Sneferu’s son Khufu.

Sneferu’s first pyramid, which some scholars have

dated to the late 3rd Dynasty, was built at Maidum
(to the east of the small Seila pyramid), possibly
where the court was located at the time. The
pyramid began as a stepped structure with seven
steps, butwas enlarged to make eight steps.
The outer layer of each accretion was faced with
high-quality limestone from the quarry at Tura, on
the east bank of the Nile.
Today only an inner stepped structure is visible with
a huge amount of collapsed stone and rubble around the base of the Maidum pyramid. Many of the outer stones
were used as a source of quarried stone in post-pharaonic times, which eventually caused much of the remaining
outer structure to collapse.
About the middle of his reign Sneferu abandoned his Maidum pyramid for unknown reasons and began
constructing two pyramids farther north at Dahshur. They are known as the North (Red) Pyramid and the so-
called Bent Pyramid to the south.

Khufu’s Great Pyramid at Giza

Khufu, who was a son of Sneferu, built the first pyramid at Giza. Although there are Early Dynastic tombs at Giza,
it was a new location for the royal cemetery – considerably north of Saqqara. Perhaps the Giza plateau was
chosen because its limestone bedrock provided a solid base for the construction of such a huge monument.
Khufu’s pyramid complex contained the by then standard elements: a valley temple (unexcavated and probably
mostly destroyed because it lies under a modern village), covered causeway, and mortuary temple on the
pyramid’s east side.
Zahi Hawass estimates that the Great Pyramid originally contained about 1,300,000 blocks of stone. In weight
these blocks averaged about 2.5 tons, although some blocks, such as the base stones, weighed much more.
When completed, the pyramid was covered with casing stones of fine Tura limestone, now mostly gone, with an
outer angle of incline slightly less than 52°.
The interior of Khufu’s pyramid is more complex than any other Egyptian pyramid. Khufu’s burial chamber is lined
with huge blocks of red granite from Aswan. A granite sarcophagus is all that remains of what must have been an
elaborate burial.
The Great Sphinx and Khafra’s Pyramid Complex
Radjedef, who followed his father Khufu on the throne, built his pyramid to the north of Giza at Abu Roash. This
pyramid may never have been finished, as Radjedef reigned for only eight years. Little remains of the structure,
which seems to have been destroyed in post-Dynastic times.
Also a son of Khufu, Khafra succeeded his brother on the throne. Although his pyramid at Giza appears to be
taller than Khufu’s, this is an illusion as it was built on a higher area of the Giza plateau. Toward its top the
pyramid form has a slight twist, evidence of a problem in aligning the four corners to meet at the apex. Inside, the
pyramid has a much simpler design than that of Khufu’s.
To the north of the valley temple is an unusual second temple which was never finished. Called the Sphinx
Temple, it has a court similar in plan to that in Khafra’s mortuary temple, and unusually, two sanctuaries on the
east and west. To the west of this temple is the Great Sphinx. The Sphinx was carved out of a huge natural
formation in the limestone bedrock, and blocks in the valley temple have been identified as limestone quarried
from around the Sphinx’s body. Small stone blocks on the Sphinx’s body and paws were added later and the
monument has been restored many times: in the 18th and 26th Dynasties, in Greco-Roman times, and in the 20th
century. With Khafra’s head in the nemes headdress, the Sphinx’s body is that of a crouching lion, a symbol of the
king.

Menkaura’s Giza Pyramid and its Remarkable Valley

Temple Finds
From Khufu’s pyramid in the northeast to the smaller unfinished
pyramid of Menkaura in the southeast, the southeastern corners of
all three Giza pyramids are aligned diagonally.
Both the mortuary and valley temples of Menkaura’s pyramid
complex were unfinished in stone, and were hurriedly completed in
mud-brick.
These temples were excavated in the early 20th century by George
Reisner, who meticulously recorded all finds in drawings,
photographs, and field notes. In the mortuary temple Reisner found
fragments of a colossal travertine statue of Menkaura, and in the
valley temple were triad statues of the king with the goddess Hathor
and a provincial deity.
The exquisitely carved pair statue of Menkaura embraced by his
chief wife Khamerernebty II is one of the great masterpieces of Old
Kingdom art. Its ancient appearance would have been quite different, however, as traces of paint still visible on
the surface suggest. Reisner also found 15 statuettes of the king in various stages of carving, which demonstrate
the step-by-step methods used by the royal sculptors.
The 4th Dynasty ends with the short reign of Shepseskaf, Menkaura’s successor, who built a very large mastaba
tomb (99.6 m × 74.4 m), not a pyramid, at South Saqqara now called the Mastabat el-Fara’un. Surrounded by a
double wall, the monument has most of the elements of a pyramid complex: mortuary temple on the east,
causeway, and (an unexcavated) valley temple.
It is probably significant that Shepseskaf ’s funerary monument and Menkaura’s pyramid were much smaller than
the other two Giza pyramids. Menkaura probably reigned for 29 years, and even though part of his pyramid was
built with costly granite casing blocks brought by barge from Aswan, it was planned on a much smaller scale than
those of his predecessors. Lehner has suggested that perhaps there was much less space on the Giza plateau to
build a third large pyramid. Others have suggested that as the pyramid became smaller in scale, the temple
complexes expanded – which is definitely seen in the later Old Kingdom, when the pyramids were not only much
smaller but were also less solidly constructed. This may reflect an ideological change connected to the increasing
importance of the cult of the sun god, with less importance placed on the actual tomb of the king.
There also may have been economic reasons that all other royal tombs after those of Khufu and Khafra were
much smaller. Possibly later kings did not have the economic means to build such enormous monuments, nor the
ideological means to justify such constructions.

Giza Pyramid Towns

In his excavations at Menkaura’s valley temple, George Reisner found the remains of small mud-brick houses next
to the temple wall. Occupation expanded eventually into the valley temple, where more small houses and
storage facilities were found. The cult of the dead king continued to be serviced in the valley temple, but the
growing number of people living in this town may represent more and more people taking advantage of the tax-
free status of Menkaura’s pious foundation.

Giza Mastabas, Queen Hetepheres’s Hidden Tomb, and the Workmen’s Cemetery
Although few of the lowest status persons were buried at Giza – the unskilled laborers who quarried stone and
hauled blocks up to the pyramids – Giza tombs demonstrate a stratified society, from the king and royal family, to
high officials, to various overseers and elite workers at the pyramids.
To the east and west of Khufu’s pyramid are a number of high status mastaba tombs of the 4th Dynasty. Many of
the mastabas associated with Khufu’s pyramid were excavated by George Reisner. Essentially these mastabas
were solid structures with stone casing over a core filling. Inside was an offering chamber with a carved “false”
door, the symbolic entrance through which the deceased traveled to receive offerings. The mastabas were
initially laid out in planned rows, with larger double tombs for members of the royal family to the east of the
Great Pyramid. Complicating this plan are intrusive tombs of the 5th and 6th Dynasties, built in between the
earlier ones.
Human remains from this cemetery have been studied by scientists at the Egyptian National Research Center.
Age at death for many of the men was 30–35, while a number of women were younger, probably dying in
childbirth. The burials were not mummified, indicating their relatively lower status. Most burials were in a
contracted position, with head to the north facing east – not fully extended in coffins as in higher status burials.
Work-related problems, such as degenerative arthritis and limb fractures – and even amputations – are evident in
a number of skeletons.

The Later Old Kingdom

Sun Temples of the 5th Dynasty
With the 5th Dynasty a new type of cult temple developed to honor Ra – in addition to the symbolism inherent in
royal pyramids – demonstrating the increasing importance of this god’s cult and theology. From inscriptions it is
known that six kings of the 5th Dynasty built sun temples. Userkaf, the first king of the 5th Dynasty, built the first
sun temple, and Menkauhor’s was the last one. Why the construction of sun temples began in the early 5th
Dynasty, and ended abruptly with Menkauhor’s temple, is not known.
In some respects the sun temples were similar to pyramid complexes. Nyuserra’s sun temple complex has a small
valley temple at the edge of cultivation, connected by a causeway to the main temple, which was walled (100 m ×
76 m). The main monument, however, was not a tomb, but has been reconstructed as a ben-ben, a hieroglyphic
sign (which looks like a kind of squat obelisk).
Later Old Kingdom Pyramids and the Pyramid Texts
After Menkaura’s pyramid, Giza was no longer the site of pyramid construction. Probably the most important
factor in choosing a pyramid site was a substantial bedrock base, and later pyramids were located to the south of
Giza. Userkaf, the first king of the 5th Dynasty, built his pyramid near Djoser’s Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara.
Stripped of its casing stones, Userkaf ’s pyramid now looks like a huge heap of stone and rubble. With a base line
of 73.3 meters and ca. 49 meters high, Userkaf ’s pyramid is even smaller than Menkaura’s – the smallest pyramid
at Giza. Later Old Kingdom pyramids were not only less solidly constructed than those at Giza, but were also of a
smaller size, which became standardized.
From Abusir come some remarkable records, the Abusir Papyri. In fragments, one set of papyri associated with
Neferirkara’s Abusir pyramid was found by villagers in 1893. Other Abusir papyri, excavated much later by Czech
archaeologists, come from the temples of King Raneferef and Queen Khentkawes. The hieratic papyri from
Neferirkara’s temple, which were recorded in a later reign, contain inventories of temple contents, and records of
ceremony schedules, from daily offerings to festivals. They provide information about temple priests and
personnel and their rotating schedules, as well as elaborate daily accounts of provisions, from the pyramid’s
agricultural estates and other royal institutions. These papyri thus provide a rare glimpse into the complex
economic relationships and administration of an Old Kingdom royal mortuary cult – and the sophistication of
ancient Egyptian bureaucracy.
The kings of the 6th Dynasty also built their pyramids
at Saqqara, in the north (Tety), and south (Pepy I,
Merenra, and Pepy II). Pepy II’s pyramid, near the
late 4th-Dynasty tomb of King Shepseskaf, was
excavated after World War I by Swiss archaeologist
Gustave Jéquier. Like all of the Old Kingdom pyramids,
this one had been robbed, with only a basalt
sarcophagus and sunken canopic chest (for the
separately mummified viscera) still in place in the
burial chamber.
An Expanding Bureaucracy: Private Tombs in the 5th and 6th Dynasties
After the 4th Dynasty the state was run by an increasing number of bureaucrats, who built an increasing number
of tombs, which were decorated and furnished by a proliferating group of highly skilled artisans centered around
the Memphis court.
Later Old Kingdom private tombs are found throughout Egypt, but the highest status Memphite tombs, for
members of the royal family and high officials, were usually located near each king’s pyramid. Tombs of high
officials had multi-roomed mastabas covered with reliefs. Some tombs had many statues, including painted ones
of the tomb owner or a husband and wife pair, sometimes with their much smaller children. Many of the tomb
reliefs are scenes of “daily life,” including farming and craft activities. In reliefs the tomb owner is usually shown
in a larger scale than anyone else, symbolic of his relative importance.
By the mid-5th Dynasty provincial administrators/governors (nomarchs) began to be buried in their provinces,
not in Memphis, and later in the dynasty a new office appeared, that of governor/overseer of Upper Egypt. The
provincial administrators were paid by the crown in the form of local land where farmers/workers lived, and food
and goods were produced. In the 6th Dynasty, these offices became inherited positions, along with the associated
land, and governors also began to hold important priestly titles. Thus administrative and economic control of the
central government waned in the provinces (mainly in Upper Egypt) – and the increasing power of these
provincial governors is reflected in their tombs.

Egypt Abroad
Outside the Nile Valley, expeditions were sent by kings of the Old Kingdom to obtain goods and materials, for
which there is much inscriptional evidence. Beginning with Djoser’s reign, there are Old Kingdom rock inscriptions
in southern Sinai, in the mining area of the Wadi Maghara, and evidence of an Old Kingdom settlement and
industrial area for smelting copper. This settlement was not continuously occupied, but expeditions were sent
there by kings of the different dynasties for turquoise and copper. Sea-faring expeditions were probably more
complicated than overland ones, requiring, in addition to organizational skills, the know-how and materials to
build large ships, and navigating and sailing skills. Sneferu sent a large fleet of ships to obtain cedar (probably to
the Lebanon), as recorded on the Palermo Stone.

The First Intermediate Period

The End of the Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate Period: Causes of State Collapse
Collapse of the Old Kingdom polity occurred following the reign of Pepy II. Essentially what followed in the so-
called First Intermediate Period was political fragmentation, with the formation of much smaller polities whose
power bases were in provincial Egypt, and much competition and aggression between these polities. The First
Intermediate Period, however, was not a time of collapse of ancient Egyptian civilization, which continued in
renewed forms for more than two thousand years. A number of reasons for the collapse of the Old Kingdom state
have been offered by scholars. These basically fall into two categories: (1) environmental stress, and (2) socio-
political pathologies.
The major environmental stress cited for the First Intermediate Period is lower Nile floods. Low Nile floods would
have meant less land under cultivation – and lower crop yields.
An environmentally deterministic explanation for the collapse of the Old Kingdom is not sufficient by itself,
however. The period of the lowest Nile floods was relatively brief, but socio-political problems were clearly
developing in the later Old Kingdom. As more land went out of state ownership, to support pious foundations
(pyramid cults, temples, and mortuary cults of individuals), direct income of the crown and state ownership of
land decreased. The political decentralization that developed in Upper Egyptian provinces in the 6th Dynasty,
with increasing control of local resources, was followed by the political fragmentation of the First Intermediate
Period. Lastly, the long(?) reign of Pepy II may have led to a certain amount of political corruption and uncertainty
about who would succeed him, which would have contributed to undermining the central authority of the state.
After Pepy II’s death, the 6th Dynasty ended with the rule of a queen, Nitiqret. Manetho lists “70 kings in 70 days”
for the 7th Dynasty, and this unreal number probably symbolizes the political confusion of the times. For a period
of about 20 years an uncertain number of “kings” (of the 7th and 8th Dynasties) may have tried to hang on to the
vestiges of kingship at Memphis, but there seems to have been a breakdown of centralized control.
Rulers of the 9th and 10th Dynasties eventually emerged at Herakleopolis (to the south of the Faiyum region).
They controlled parts of northern and Middle Egypt, but in the Theban area and farther south there was the
growing power base of local rulers (the 11th Dynasty), whose descendant Mentuhotep II eventually reunified
Egypt.
 Staro carstvo
Osnovne odlike starog carstva
HRONOLOSKI OKVIR:
Arhitektura grobnica kao izvor podataka A. III-VI dinastija (npr. K. Bard)
III dinastija: Džoserov kompleks kao primer apsolutna hronologija: ca 2686-2181. p.n.e.
– privatne grobnice III dinastije
ili:
Osnovne odlike Starog carstva:
B. III-VIII dinastija (npr. Oksfordska istorija)
 Konsolidacija državne administracije i sistema kontrole
apsolutna hronologija: ca 2686-2160. p.n.e.
tokom ranodinastičkog perioda
 Staro carstvo - efikasnost organizovanja se ogleda u:
- sposobnosti da se projektuju i izvedu veliki i složeni poduhvati, organizuju radovi velikog obima i
složenosti, obezbede materijal i oprema, te hrana, odeća i smeštaj velikog broja radnika
Primer: veliki građevinski projekti (piramide Džosera, Hufua i Hafrea)
 Društveno-politička uloga kralja – centralna, zasnovana na ideologiji
 Veliki građevinski projekti Starog carstva – svedočanstvo o ideološkom značaju kralja i njegovog
posmrtnog kulta
 Nema arheoloških podataka o kraljevskim palatama

Naselja i privreda:
• Tokom skoro 500 godina trajanja Starog carstva, nije bilo ozbiljnijih spoljnih pretnji Egiptu
• Većina stanovnika je živela u seoskim naseljima
– Najveći deo hrane, sirovina i robe su pribavljali u svojoj okolini i zadovoljavali svoje osnovne
potrebe
– Višak hrane i zanataske proizvode su razmenjivali na lokalnom tržištu (pijacama)

MEMFIS – prestonica tokom Starog carstva

• Položaj: 1. noma Donjeg Egipta, egipatskog imena Inbu-Hedž (Beli zidovi)
– Isto ime nosio i grad, ali su za njega korišćena i druga imena
(npr. Vaga dve zemlje)
• Sedište kulta Ptaha (sa Sehmet i Nefertemom); Sokar, zaštitnik nekropola,
kasnije sinkretizovan sa Ptahom i Ozirisom
• Sedište kralja i državne administracije, kraljevskih zanatskih radionica i sl.
bio je gusto naseljen grad, ali nije poznata njegova prostorna organizacija
• Očuvano malo tragova samog naselja i hramova; grad verovatno nije imao zidine
• Prestoničke nekropole – ekstramurijalne, oko grada
• Memfis je u Starom carstvu jedina velika urbana celina u Egiptu
• Naselja koja su bila sedišta noma, postala su u ranodinastičkom periodu centri lokalane administracije i
tokom carstva oslonac centralne vlasti sa sedištem u Memfisu (porez, prikupljanje hrane, vojske i sl.)
• verovatno su bila nastanjena državnim činovnicima, službenicima nižeg ranga i donekle zanatlijama
• u poznom Starom carstvu, moć nomarha sve veća
• Većina naselja - seoska
• Lokalni kultni centri su građeni od ćerpića, sa nekim elementima od kamena. Skromni su u odnosu na
prestoničke kraljevske posmrtne hramove.
Kraljevske grobnice: III dinastija - Kompleks Džoserove piramide u Sakari
→Promene u arhitekturi u odnosu na prethodni ranodinasticki period (tj. I i II dinastiju)
RANODINASTICKI PERIOD
• Koncept grobnice – nadzemni deo cini mastaba;
• Koncept pogrebnog kompleksa
• Građevinski materijal – cerpic

STARO CARSTVO – III DINASTIJA

• Koncept grobnice – nadzemni deo cini stepenasta piramida;
• Koncept pogrebnog kompleksa
• Građevinski materijal – kamen (krecnjak)

→Dzoserova piramida je prva monumentalna gradjevina izradjena u potpunosti od kamena.

Osa joj je sever-jug.
• Jezgro građevina u kompleksu - grubo tesani i lomljeni kamen
• Oplata - fino tesani kvalitetni krečnjak
• U prvoj fazi gradnje, grobnica bila u obliku mastabe, proširene u sledećoj fazi
• Potom četvorostepena piramida, na kraju šestostepena
• Umetanje fajansnih pločica u kamen – imitiranje asure
A – stepenasta piramida

B – posmrtni hram uz
severnu stranicu
piramide i uz njega
serdab sa statuom kralja

C – severno dvorište sa
velikim oltarom pod
otvorenim uz severne
zidine
E – dvorište za sed-svečanost sa kapelama za božanstva duž istočne i zapadne stranice i sa
postoljem za presto na jugu D – „kuće Severa i Juga“ –
F – dvorište za sed-trku masivne, džinovski
G – Južna grobnica modeli
H – ulazna kolonada
• Zid kompleksa ima 14 kapija, od kojih je samo jedna, na jugu
istočnog zida, prava.
• Stubovi kolonade i trema – u obliku snopova stabljika papirusa

JUZNA GROBNICA
Različita tumačenja funkcije
• Starije tumačenje (od kog i naziv): da predstavlja grobnicu
kralja kao vladara Gornjeg Egipta, dok bi piramida bila
grobnica Džosera vladara Donjeg Egipta
• Da su tu sahranjeni unutrašnji organi kralja

POSMRTNI HRAM
• Sa severne strane piramide
• Ulaz u hram sa istoka
• Serdab uz severni zid piramide kod ulaza u hram

• Serdab – arapski „podrum“

• Zazidana prostorija, sa otvorima u visini očiju statue koja je
u njega smeštana
• Korišćen i u funerarnoj aritekturi elite,
• nestaje posle Starog carstva

→Koncept i plan stepenaste piramide pripisani su Imhotepu, čije su ime i

titule ispisane i na postamentu kraljeve statue. Kasnije deifikovan i
poštovan kao bog medicine.

• U Sakari postoje i drugi, nedovršeni kompleksi vladara III dinastije,

sličnog koncepta Džoserovom
• Pretpostavke zašto je jedino Džoser završio kompleks –
(malo poznato o istoriji III dinastije)
• verovatno vladao duže od drugih vladara III dinastije
• Imao bolji i veći pristup resursima i kontrolu nad njima

→ Koncept koji je prisutan kod kompleksa stepenastih piramida

(arhitektonski i po značenju) napušten je sa krajem III dinastije

→ Gradjene su i male stepenaste piramide u provinciji

Više hipoteza o funkciji malih provincijskih piramida:
• da je po jedna mala stepenasta piramida bila planirana za
Reljef sa prikazom Džosera pri
svaku nomu (ali da ili nisu sve izrađene ili su razrušene)
ritualnoj trci u okviru heb-seda
– kao simboli kraljevske moći (jedan od ukupno šest, koji prikazuju
– i posmrtnog kulta (ali nisu nađene pogrebne prostorije različite trenutke u ritualu)
ili posmrtni hramovi)
• Da su neka vrsta hramova suncu
• Da predstavljaju prvobitnu humku
 Medum
STARO CARSTVO - IV DINASTIJA • Ima skoro sve bitne elemente kasnijeg
• Porast važnosti boga Rea kompleksa piramide:
• Arhitektonski razvoj koncepta piramide – prava piramida – ulaz u grobnu prostoriju preko
• Građevinski radovi izuzetnog obima rampe koja se spušta sa
severne stranice,
→Snofru (Snefru) prvi vladar IV dinastije: – okružena zidom,
– mala dodatna piramida na
• izgradio ili dovršavao piramidu u Medumu,
južnoj strani,
– možda je podigao Huni, poslednji vladar III dinastije,
– mala kapelu na istočnoj strani,
kao stepenastu, a Snofru dodao samo oplatu
do koje vodi uzlazni put,
kojom je dobila ravne stranice
popločan i ograđen (od
• tzv. savijenu piramidu u Dahšuru
ćerpiča).
• Crvenu piramidu u Dahšuru (prva prava)
• Hram u dolini nije nađen.
• možda i malu stepenastu u Seili

DZOSEROVA PIRAMIDA PIRAMIDA U MEDUMU

• Orijentacija kompleksa S-J • Orijentacija kompleksa I-Z
• Šaht i podzemne galerije • /
• rampa do grobne odaje sa • rampa do grobne odaje sa severa
severa • Kapela sa istočne strane
• Posmrtni hram sa severa • /
• Više građevina u • Mala piramida s juga
kompleksu • Ograda oko piramide
• „južna grobnica“ • Ulaz u kompleks s istoka
• Ograda oko kompleksa • Ograđeni i popločani uzlazni put s
Ulaz u kompleks s istoka istoka (deo kompleksa)

Savijena piramida
• Dve odaje za shranjivanje, mala kapela na istoku
• Pronađen hram u dolini (prvi poznati)
• Reljefi na zidovima dvorišta
Ova piramida je kenotaf – možda zbog strukturalnih problema
nastalih tokom gradnje (koji su verovatno doveli do toga da se
promeni nagib stranica i umesto prave, izgradi „savijena“ piramida)

Crvena piramida (prva prava piramida)

• Nema očuvanih tragova prilaznog puta i hrama u dolini

Giza – piramide (IV dinastija)

• Hufu (Keops)
• Hafre (Kefren)
• Menkaure (Mikerin)
 Delovi kompleksa:
→Hufu (sin Snofrua) – Velika piramida – Hram u dolini
• Nova lokacija za kraljevske grobnice: Giza – Prilazni put
• Posmrtni kompleks Hufua sadrži sve standardne elemente kompleksa piramide: – Posmrtni hram
– hram u dolini (nije istražen) – Piramida
– popločani i natkriveni prilazni put, – Pomoćne
– posmrtni hram na istočnoj strani piramide
– tri male piramide za kraljice i jedna za kraljevsko ka – Jame za barke
– pet jama za sunčeve barke (i dve male između piramida kraljica) Oko Hufuove piramide:
– Oplata piramide – fini krečnjak iz Ture planski građena
– Piramidion nije očuvan nekropola za članove
– Unutrašnjost piramide: složenija od drugih piramida porodice i elitu

→ Najznačajnija istraživanja privatnih grobnica Gize u prvoj polovini XX veka: Džordž Rajzner i Herman Junker.

→ Hafre (Kefren) - Piramida, Velika sfinga i hram u dolini

• Hram u dolini
– monolitni stubovi od crvenog granita

→ Menkaure – najmanja piramida od tri

• Istraživanja – Džordž Rajzner
• Menkaure: u vajarskoj radionici uz hram u
dolini – nalazi statua; Različit stepen
dovršenosti – važan nalaz za proučavanje
vajarskog postupka

→ Šepseskaf - poslednji vladar IV dinastije

Kraljevska funerarna arhitektura V-VI dinastije

• Grobnice su i dalje u obliku piramida, ali su manje i losije su izrade.

→ Unas – poslednji vladar V dinastije

Unasova piramida:
Najstariji poznati ’Tekstovi piramida’
- Ispisivani na zidovima predvorja i prostorije sa sarkofagom
- Tekstovi piramida se odnose na kraljev pogreb, zaštitu kralja na putu na drugi svet i njegov preobražaj na
drugom svetu.

• V dinastija – dalji porast značaja kulta Sunca - Vladari V dinastije

(izuzev dvojice poslednjih) podizali hramove suncu; otkrivena i
istraživana samo dva: Userhafa i Niuserrea (lokalitet Abu Gurob)

• Abusir i Abu Gurob (lokaliteti sa hramovima Sunca):

• Arhitektonski koncept hramova sunca sličan konceptu
kompleksa piramida (hram u dolini, prilazni put,
ograđeni prostor hrama)
• Razlika: svetilište sa oltarom je pod otvorenim nebom
• Umesto piramide – zidani obelisk.

→ Gradnja piramida IV dinastije u kontekstu:

- Apsolutna moć vladara
- Kontrola nad resursima (materijalnim i ljudskim),
ubiranje poreza
- Sredstva prisile
- Konsolidovan birokratski upravljački sloj
- Ideologija
- Razvitak i kanonizacija pisma
- Razvitak i kanonizacija likovnih umetnosti
- Eksploatacija sopstvenih resusrsa
- Komunikacija sa susednim oblastima kao izvor prihoda
- Komunikacija sa susednim oblastima kao izvor prihoda,
nekih sirovina i luksuznih dobara (Sirija, Nubija)
• Ukupno 20-25 hiljada kvalifikovanih i nekvalifikovanih radnika je potrebno za izgradnju piramide (koji nisu svi
angažovani istovremeno, ni na istoj lokaciji) .
• Giza: Gebel Qibli=“Izgubljeni grad”=Area A - Planski izgrađeno naselje sa spavaonicama, pekarama,
administrativnim zgaradama locirano je oko 400m južno od Sfinge i datirano u IV dinastiju.

→Vrste kamena korišćenog za Hufuovu piramidu:

• lokalni krečnjak, za jezgro piramide- grubi blokovi iz lokalnog kamenoloma (južno od piramide,
identifikovao M. Lehner)
• fini krečnjak iz Ture , za oplatu piramide (kamenolom s druge strane Nila, nasuprot Gizi)
• granit iz Asuana: sarkofag; zidovi pogrebne prostorije, tavanica i ploče iznad nje; blokovi za
zaprečavanje hodnika do grobne prostorije; stubovi posmrtnog hrama
• crni bazalt – za popločavanje posmrtnog hrama
GROBNICE ELITE
Likovna umetnost
• Likovna umetnost je bitno sredstvo komunikacije religijskih ideja i, posebno, o ulozi kralja.
• Principi likovnog predstavljanja su tokom Starog carstva potpuno uobličeni
• Zasnivaju se na prikazivanju ideje o onome što je prikazano, a ne na opažaju njegovog trenutnog izgleda
(koncept nasuprot percepciji)
• Kod dvodimenzionlnih predstava, prikazuju se svi karakteristični detalji; ono što je prikazano može se
sastojati od delova koji se ne mogu (ili ne na takav način) videti istovremeno
• Proporcije ljudske figure su usko povezane sa merama za dužinu (zasnovne na dužini delova ljudskog tela
i njhovim međusobnim odnosima)
• Veza između hijeroglifskog pisma i likovnih predstava je bliska ne samo u pogledu oblika (isti principi
predstavljanja), već su deo istih likovnih kompozicija, smeštaju se na istu površinu.

Pismo u Starom carstvu

Značaj pisma i njegova upotreba rastu u Starom carstvu i posvedočeni su u religijskoj, kraljevskoj, administrativnoj
i privatnoj sferi :
– Natpisi iz prve tri dinastije su kratki, najčešće se sastoje iz imena i titula
– Najstariji sačuvani duži tekstovi su sa početka IV dinastije.
Osim kraljevskih Tekstova piramida (pojava krajem V dinastije), očuvani su brojni biografski, pravni i religijski
natpisi činovničke elite, kraljevski dekreti i pisma.
– Očuvani tekstovi su pretežno pisani hijeroglifskim pismom (delom njegovom kurzivnom
varijantom), a srazmerno je malo pronađenih primera hijeratskog pisma iz ovog perioda.

→ Tokom Starog carstva se povećava broj činovnika, čiji viši slojevi formiraju elitu, koja ima rastući društveni
uticaj i ekonomsku moć.
III-V dinastija
• Vladarska grobnica u blizini prestonice
• Sahranjivanje pripadnika elite, uključujući nomarhe, u blizini vladara, na prestoničkim nekropolama
VI dinastija Grobnice elite:
• Opadanje moći vladara
• Mastabe
• Jačanje kulta Ozirisa
• Nomarsi prave grobnice u svojim nomama, i formiraju se provincijske • Grobnice u steni
nekropole elite
Mastaba u Medum-u: Rahotep i Nofret
→ Od sredine V dinastije tendencija da se nomarsi i provincijska elita
sahranjuju u svojoj nomi, a to postaje uobičajeno od VI dinastije,
kada položaj nomarha postaje nasledan, njihova ekonomska moć i
samostalnost rastu.

HRAMOVI
→ Kraljevske grobnice i njihove prateće građevine, kao i kraljevski
hramovi suncu:
• građeni su od kamena ili od ćerpića sa kamenom oplatom;
delovi građevina (prilazni put, hram i sl.)
• ukrašavani su reljefima klesanim u kamenu. Cilj – trajnost
→ Hramovi bogova:
• osnovni građevinski materijal – ćerpič.
• slabo očuvani (zbog materijala i zbog kasnije gradnje)
VAN DOLINE NILA
• Kraljevi Starog carstva slali ekspedicije radi nabavke roba i sirovina
• Zabeležene u pisanim izvorima (delom natpisi na stenama)
• Ekspedicije slali do pozne VI dinastije

→ Luke:
• Vadi el Jarf, datirana u doba Hufua (Keopsa) - najstarija poznata luka u Egiptu
• Ain Sukna, korišćena u Starom carstvu, posle Hufua

Vadi Jarf i Ain Sukna – potvrđeno da su korišćene za dopremanje materijala (bakar i tirkiz) sa Sinaja
 PRVI MEDJUPERIOD

→Kraj Starog carstva:

• Fragmentacija države/političkog sistema
• Baza moći postaju nome
• Uzroci:
– Promene u prirodnom okruženju
• Suvlja klima već od kraja predinastičkog perioda
• Udvostručeni broj stanovnika u Starom carstvu + niz slabih poplava = problem ishrane
• Nisu sve nome podjednako pogođene
– Društveno-politički problemi
• Smanjeni prihodi države (posedi poklanjani hramovima, posmrtnim zadužbinama i delom su
izuzeti iz poreza)
• Smanjenje centralne kontrole (ekonomske i političke) nad provincijom > osamostaljivanje
nomarha (posledica: izostanak centralno administriranih i koordiniranih radova na irigaciji)

VII i VIII dinastija

• Malo podataka o VII i VIII dinastiji
– Maneto o VII i VIII dinastiji: „70 vladara u 70 dana“
• VII i VIII dinastija – 20-ak godina, sa sedištem u Memfisu
• Nema kontrole nad celom državom

→POLITICKA SITUCIJA:
• Savezi i sukobi lokalnih vladara u Gornjem Egiptu
• Izdvajaju se dve nome, uz koje nastaju dva jaka saveza
– Herakleopolis (južno od Fajuma) kontrolisao Donji i Srednji Egipat (IX i X dinastija)
– Teba - jača lokalno plemstvo (XI dinastija)
• Autobiografski natpisi nekoliko nomarha svedoče o tom periodu

→Materijalni ostaci (funerarni):

•
Poznate brojne pogrebne stele osoba srednjeg, pa i nižeg statusa – grubo klesane; izdužene figure
(principi predstavljanja očuvani, ali proporcije odstupaju od onih iz Starog carstva)
• Pronađen znatni broj grobova u Gornjem Egiptu, a čiji su vlasnici srednjeg i nižeg statusa.
• Prilozi (kamene posude za kozmetiku, nakit od poludragog kamena) pokazuju da je rasprostranjenost
ovakvih nalaza veća nego u Starom carstvu, tj. dostupni su širem krugu pojedinaca
U grobovima – novi tipovi grobne opreme:
• modeli (nosači darova; radionice)
• Pojava maski za mumije od kartonaže (obojene, pokrivaju celu glavu i
spuštaju se do sredine grudi (ne obuhvataju ramena)
• Ovakvi nalazi pokazuju porast potražnje za zanatskim proizvodima ove
vrste u provinciji i postojanje zanatlija koji tu potražnju zadovoljavaju

→Osobenosti likovne umetnosti Prvog međuperioda:

Prikazivanje vojne pratnje nomarha je novina, koja, uz prikaze ratnih sukoba,
odražava konkretnu situaciju i ulogu nomarha (nalik na kraljevsku) u to doba.
Prikazi ljudskih figura su često loših proporcija u odnosu na norme uspostavljene
u Starom carstvu (npr: izdužena, tanka tela, male glave, i/ili neproporcionalno velike oči i nos).
Ovo se tumači:
- prestankom rada prestoničkih kraljevskih radionica koje su bile uzor i odakle su dolazile
visokokvalifikovane zanatlije
- Ispoljavanjem lokalne tradicije

→Prvi međuperiod: saff- grobnice:

• Teba: nomarsi XI dinastije – saff- grobnice, severni deo
tebanske nekropole (lokalitet el Tarif). Imaju veliko dvorište,
trem sa stubovima na zapadu,u stenu uklesanu kultnu
prostoriju i pogrebnu odaju. Uklesane u teren koji se
blago uzdiže ka zapadu .

→Medamud, hram Montua:

– „preformalni“ tip hrama
– Imao kapiju – pilon koji je zatvarao ulaz u
svetilišta (ranije se smatralo da je pilon inovacija
Novog carstva)
 SREDNJE CARSTVO
→Osnovne odlike:
Sukobi saveza okupljenih oko Herakleopolisa i Tebe završeni pobedom Tebe.

XI dinastija: Prvi vladar ponovo ujedinjenog Egipta je Mentuhotep II (iz XI, tebanske dinastije); gradi grobnicu
oslonjenu na tradiciju saff-grobnica
• Montu, ratničko božanstvo – državni bog i zaštitnik dinastije
• Teba od prestonice nome postaje centar države

XII dinastija premešta prestonicu na sever, gradi je u oblasti Fajuma

• Kraljevske grobnice u obliku piramida
• administrativne reforme – jačanje centralne vlasti
• Amon, lokalno božanstvo dobija na značaju, Teba i Karnak postaju važni centar kulta Amona
• Uspostavljena kontrola nad Donjom Nubijom - izgrađen lanac utvrđenja (od derpiča) u oblasti druge katarakte
• U Gornjoj Nubiji u to vreme kraljevina Kerma, potencijalno ugrožavala egipatske interese u Donjoj Nubiji
• Stanovništvo azijskog porekla se u vedem broju useljava u Deltu
• Povratak likovnih umetnosti na uzore iz Starog carstva (kvalitet, principi proporcije, teme), uz inovacije
• Književnost Srednjeg carstva bila uzor u kasnijim periodima
• Kult Ozirisa, vladara sveta mrtvih – odražava „demokratizaciju“ funerarnih shvatanja (etički princip kao
preduslov za zagrobni život – „merenje srca“)
– centar kulta Ozirisa – Abidos, koji postaje i mesto hodočašda u Srednjm carstvu
• Tekstovi kovčega – funerarni tekstovi čije su prve verzije iz I međuperioda
– Dostupni svima koji su mogli sebi da priušte oslikane i ovim tekstovima ispisane drvene kovčege
(„demokratizacija zagrobnog života“ – ipak je reč samo o upravljačkom sloju egipatskog društva)

XI dinastija
→Sukobi Herakleopolisa i Tebe
• Pobeda Mentuhotepa II (tebanska,XI dinastija)
– Ujedinjenje države, obnavljanje centralne uprave
– Postavio vezira na čelo administracije
– Vojne aktivnosti u Donjoj Nubiji, ima indicija i za Kanaan
– Gradio hramove i svetilišta u Gornjem Egiptu (Dendera, Gebelein, Abidos, svoj posmrtni hram u Deir el Bahariju,
tj. Tebi)
– Lokalitet Mersa/ Wadi
XII dinastija Gawasis = egipatska luka Saw
•Vlast nomarha postaje nasledna
• Premeštanje prestonice u oblast Fajuma – novi grad Iti-taui (nije arheološki • Povremeno nastanjena
• U stenu ukopavane pedine
identifikovan) – i nove kraljevske nekropole
• Više stela sa natpisima iz XII
dinastije, kutije, ostaci vesala,
XIII dinastija užadi
• postepeni gubitak kontrole nad Deltom i pristupa rudnicima na Sinaju
• po Manetu – 60 vladara za 153 godine
• Iti-Taui ostaje prestonica
• Manje piramide
• Kasnije – istočnu Deltu kontrolišu naseljenici iz Azije – Hiksi
Srednje carstvo – ideološke promene
• Kult Ozirisa – primat u zagrobnom životu – svaki pokojnik (ne samo kralj) postaje Oziris u zagrobnom životu
(=demokratizacija zagrobnog života)
• Abidos – kultni centar Ozirisa
– Hodočašde
– Vladari grade svoje hramove i kapele;
– Privatna lica postavljaju svoje stele i kenotafe
• ‟Tekstovi kovčega‟
– oslonjeni na Tekstove piramida; znatni deo je
nov i ne-kraljevskog porekla
– zaštita i pomod pokojniku na drugom svetu;
– proširen krug korisnika;
– ispisivani na unutrašnjoj strani kovčega
• Karnak – novi najvažniji kultni centar – bog Amon

→ Novina u funerarnoj opremi - šabti

• Prve su grube, od drveta
• mumiformne
• Funkcija: da na poziv kuluče umesto pokojnika

HRAM MENTUHOTEPA II
XII dinastija - Hramovi
→ Hram Montua u Medamudu 5 km s-i od Karnaka;
Istraživao IFAO Cairo

→ Tod (Džerti) – 20 km južno od Luksora; takodje hram Montua

(božanstvo koje oličava osvajački aspekt kraljevske modi);
• Gradnju hrama počeli Mentuhotep II i III
• Iskopavao IFAO (Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale)
‟Blago iz Toda‟
• Bisson de la Roque 1936.
• 4 bronzane kutije sa kartušom
Amenemheta II
• Predmeti od zlata, srebra; lapis lazuli
• Egejske posude, cilindrični pečat iz Ura
(III dinastija iz Ura)
 → Bela kapela Senusreta I, XII dinastija, Karnak
→ Hram Amona u Karnaku

Abidos u Srednjem carstvu

• Lokalitet Kom el Sultan. U XII dinastiji izgrađen veliki hram Ozirisu (derpič), održavane svečanosti sa procesijama
• U severnom Abidosu Pitri otkrio i kraljevske ka-kapele (neke iz Srednjeg carstva)
• Privatna lica takođe sahranjivana na nekropoli u severnom Abidosu (novija istraživanja – J. Ričards: plitke jame i
šaht grobovi, drugi ponekad sa nadzemnom strukturom – mastabom)

→ Južni Abidos – posmrtni kompleks Senusreta III

• Grobnica sa podzemnim prostorijama uklesana u stenu, veliki posmrtni hram, hram u dolini (derpič) i prilazni
put koji ih povezuje (dug 750m)
• Ulaz u hram – pilon; centralno dvorište od krečnjaka
• Skladišta za hranu i ritualne predmeta, stanovi sveštenika i administrativne postorije, zona za proizvodnju hleba
i piva.

Piramide XII i XIII dinastije

• Sa XII dinastijom, vladari ponovo grade piramide sa pratedim građevinama kao svoje posmrtne komplekse –
vradanje na tradiciju Starog carstva, pimenjen isti koncept;

• Amenemhat I – prvi od vladara Srednjeg carstva izgradio piramidu, u Lištu

– Uzor – Staro carstvo
– Lokalni kamen, šut (koristio i spolije iz Gize, npr. Hufove)
– Odaja za sahranjivanje i hram u dolini danas ispod nivoa vode

• Senusret I, Lišt - Nova tehnika gradnje – 4 unutrašnja zida,

postavljena po dijagonalama, sa dodatnim potpornim zidovima,
nastali međuprostor se ispunjava šutom

• Piramida Senusreta II. Hawara. XII dinastija.

Prva kraljevska piramida od derpiča.
‟Blago iz Lahuna‟
• F. Pitri i G. Branton otkrili šaht-grobnicu Sit-
Hathor-Junet, derke Senusreta II, južno od njegove piramide.
• Grobnica bila ved opljačkana, kutije sa nakitom
i kozmetičkim priborom ostale skrivene u zazidanom udubljenju.
Pozna XII dinastija – inovacije u kraljevskoj skulpturi
STARACKI PORTRETI FARAON GRIVASTE SFINGE AMENEMHAT III

El-Lahun (stari naziv lokaliteta: Kahun)

• Plansko naselje, osnovao Senusret II
• Svedočanstvo o stambenoj arhitekturi
• Ograđen zidom
• Unutar zida tri velike celine.
– Na severu „akropolj“ sa 5 vila elite (sa prijemnim, privatnim i pomodnim
prostorijama, uključujudi spremišta za žito
– Na zapadu radničko naselje
– Najvedi deo – administrativne zgrade, hram, još tri vile
• Nalazi omogudili rekonstruisanje sastava stanovništva i
njihovog profesionalnog i privatnog života
• Slično plansko naselje otkriveno u južnom
delu Abidosa

→ „Papirusi iz Kahuna“ Omiljene teme u grobovima – prikazi rata i rvanja

Po sadržaju:
– Administrativni u vezi sa kultom Senusreta II
– Himna Senusretu III
– Matematički papirus
– Veterinarski papirus
– Ginekološki papirus

U scenama lova Srednjeg carstva, uz pustinjske

životinje se pojavljuju i fantastična bida
 Magijski noževi (apotropaia) - ukrašavani prikazima božanstava i fantastičnih životinja; od zuba nilskog konja,
pribor babica za ritual; nalaženi i u funerarnom kontekstu

• U pogrebnoj opremi koriste se maske za mumije

→ Novi tip kovčega
– Antropoidni
– Pojavljuje se od XII dinastije

Nova forma statue privatnih lica: ’blok statue‟

- od 12. dinastije
- postavljane u hramovsko dvorište ili eventualno u kultni prostor grobnice
- Od Srednjeg carstva, privatne statue se postavljaju i u dvorišta hramova, čime se
obezbeđuje njihovo prisustvovanje hramovskim ceremonijama i dobijanje
ponuda u hrani

Sahranjivanje siromašnijih slojeva društva

→Malo podataka, nedovoljno istraženo:
• Plitke jame
• Na dnu jednostavnog šahta
• Primetno širenje upotrebe kovčega i kod siromašnijih

„Kude za dušu‟
- Keramički poslužavnici za ponude pokojniku, u obliku modela kude sa dvorištem
- U „dvorištu“ grubo oblikovani prilozi u hrani; žljebovi za tečni žrtveni prilog
- Kuda – stan za ka pokojnika
- Nalaženi kod siromašnijih grobova
- Imaju istu funkciju kao kameni žrtveni sto ili ploča, korišdeni u Starom carstvu
- Mogude je da zamenjuju celi nadzemni, kultni prostor kakav su imale grobnice
bogatih, a koje su uklesivane u stenu

Keramika Srednjeg carstva

• Oblici ranog Srednjeg carstva odgovaraju onima iz Prvog međuperioda

Serabit el Kadim (Sinaj), svetilište boginje Hathor

• Stele – svedočanstvo o ekspedicijama koje su dolazile na Sinaj radi
eksploatacije sirovina
Nubija
Značajno vojno prisustvo Egipta u Nubiji Srednjeg carstva
• u Vavatu i Kušu kod Druge katarakte
– 17 utvrđenja i brojne izviđačke postaje
– Kraljevina Kerma u Kušu - pretnja
– najbrojnija podignuta u oblasti u kojoj je živela C-grupa
– Medžai po nekim tekstovima pretnja u
Istočnoj pustinji – ali istovremeno su najamnici
• Utvrđenja su i mesta trgovine i razmene
• Nubijska elita izložena egipatskom uticaju (osobito
likovne umetnosti – statusni simbol)
• Pretpostaavke da od kraja 12. dinastije posada
garnozona u Nibiji nije menjana, da su vojnici ostali i
njihovi potomci kasnije postali podanici kralja Kuša
 DRUGI MEDJUPERIOD
(15-17. dinastija, 1650-1550 ili 13-17. dinastija, 1773-1550)

• 13. dinastija
– Lišt napušten, verovatno u vreme Mer-nefer-ra Aj-a, poslednjeg vladara dinastije, potvrdjenog nalazima i u
Donjem i Gornjem Egiptu
– kraljevska rezidencija i državna uprava ponovo u ’Južnom gradu’ (=Teba)

• 14. dinastija
– minorni vladari u Delti, savremeni delom sa 13-om, delom sa 15-om dinastijom

• 15. dinastija – Hiksi

- Tel el Jahudija, istoena Delta (20km s-i od Kaira) – Flinders Pitri 1906
– Posude crne, sa belim urezima = ’Tel-el-Jahudije keramika’

Tel el Daba - istocna delta

→ Iskopavanja:
• Egipatska: 1941-1942 i 1951-1954
• Austrijski arheološki institut
→ Višeslojno nalazište
– Naselje iz I medjuperioda
– Srednje carstvo - grad sa državnim upravnim zgradama,
hramom i planski gradjenim radnickim naseljem iz 12. dinastije
– II medjuperiod
– Novo carstvo
• Od kraja 12. dinastije – stalni porast udela ne-egipatske materijalne
kulture:
– Intramurijalno sahranjivanje
– Plan kuda odgovara sirijskim
– MB keramika
• Nalazi ukazuju na naseljavanje zajednice „Azijata“, što vodi znatnom proširenju grada
• Idenifikovan kao Avaris, prestonica Hiksa
• M. Bitak: Azijati nastanjeni na kraju Sredjeg carstva i pocetku Drugog medjuperioda u Tel el Dabi su najamni
vojnici egipatske države, bave se možda i trgovinom, brodogradnjom ili su mornari
• U sloju 13. dinastije, palata egipatskog tipa iznad naselja, verovatno za službenike koji su nadzirali spoljnu
trgovinu i ekspedicije; sahrane su se obavljale u dvoristu palate i tu sahranjeni službenici su bili azijskog porekla;
• Krajem 13. dinastije:
– palata napuštena;
– porast broja MB posuda;
– proizvodnja bronzanog orudja u otvorenim kalupima. (* kod Egipdana, bronza postaje uobifajena tek od Novog
carstva)
• Grad se povedava i u drugoj polovini 18. veka primetan jak priliv siropalestinskih elemenata
• U vreme prerastanja lokalne kraljevine Avaris u vladavinu Hiksa nad znatnim delom Egipta, izgradjeno svetilišta
bliskoistocnog tipa (pocetak XV dinastije)
• Kao dinasticki bog uveden Set, u svojstvu boga oluje – verovatno kao egiptska verzija sirijskog Hadada, odnosno
Baal-a
• Oko 1700. p.n.e. – naselje je prestonica 15. dinastije, Hiksa, Avaris
Hiksi
• Sahranjivanje obicno u odaji od derpiea
• Kovcezi retki
• Najcešdi prilog – posude; oružje i skarabeji za muškarce; skarabeji i nakit
• Nalazi životinjskih kostiju – prilog u hrani
• Kod bogatih grobnica – equidi (magarci?) ispred ulaza u grobnicu
• Ima grobova sa nadzemnom kapelom egipatskog tipa, ali i sa sahranom mlade devojke ispred ulaza u grobnicu

Ko su Hiksi?
• Hekau-hasut = poglavari stranih zemalja
• Stranci ne-egipatskog porekla
– Koristili egipatsko pismo
– Kraljevi uzimali faraonsku titulaturu
– Cinovnici koristili egipatske titule,
– Delom preuzeli administrativnu organizaciju
• Imali i Egipdane u službi
– Licna imena – zapadno-semitska
– Intramurijalno, skeletno sahranjivanje
– Materijalna kultura – MB siropalestinska,
– Ima mešanja kulturnih karakteristika: MB i egipatske
• Prva vladavina stranaca nad Egiptom
• Pisani izvori o Hiksima – egipatska perspektiva
• Skarabeji iz doba Hiksa – siro-palestinski tip dekoracijje preovladjuje

Kraljevina Kerma – Gornja Nubija

→’Klasicna Kerma’ (1700-1500. p.n.e.)
• Hronološki, klasicna Kerma približno odgovara 15-17. dinastiji u Egiptu,
tj. II medjuperiodu (ca 1650-1550 p.n.e.)
• Kraljevina Kerma kontroliše Vavat (kao posledica stanja u oslabljenom,
decentralizovanom Egiptu)
• Saradjuju sa Hiksima (a protiv Tebanaca)
• nezavisna država
• rudnici zlata
• kontrola nad trgovaekim putevima (Punt i južne oblasti)
• osvaja Donju Nubiju, možda u savezu sa C-grupom
→Prestonica Kerma:
• Nije planski gradjena
• Odbrambeni zid sa kapijom, kulama i jarkom
• Stambene zgrade: od derpica, sa spoljnim dvorištem za kuvanje, cuvanje žita i za stoku
• Velika palata, hramovi i svetilišta
• Uz reku – lucke gradjevine, velika zgrada sa magacinima (sadržala otiske egipatskih službenika i hiksoških
kraljeva)

C-grupa
Nubijci C-grupe u Egiptu
• Potvrdjena u Donjoj Nubiji od 2200-1500. p.n.e. (6. -18. dinastija u Egiptu)
• Verovatno srodni ili cak identicni sa populacijom „rane Kerme“
• Polusedelacki naein života od Prvog medjuperioda
• Grobni prilozi pokazuju društveno raslojavanje (možda zasnovano na savezu
sa Kermom, i kontroli ekonomije Vavata ukljueujudi trgovinu)
• Utvrdjena naselja
• Polukopane kude u Srednjem carstvu
• Angažovani kao najamnici u egipatskoj vojsci – ved u Starom carstvu i Prvom
medjuperiodu: strelci, veslaei.
• Postepeno nestaju u Drugom medjupriodu, kada je Donju Nubiju kontrolisala
kraljevina Kerma

Pan-grave culture : kultura tiganjastih-grobova

• Nubijci; polunomadi iz nubijske Istocne pustinje
• Naziv – oblik grobova
• Prisutni u samom Egiptu
• Prvi istraživao F. Pitri u Hu-u (Gornji Egipat)
• II medjuperiod i rano Novo carstvo
• Lokaliteti: Donja Nubija, Gornji i Srednji Egipat (ali nalazi i u
Gornjoj Nubiji , npr. lokalitet Kasala)
• Nizak rang kod Egipdana: vojnic i najamnici
• Grobovi:
– Plitke okrugle jame (‘tiganj’)
– Niski tumuli
– Telo u zgrcenom položaju, nije mumifikovano
• Plitke jame za žrtvene darove, rovovi s oslikanim glavama koza (tackanje, crvena boja)
– Prilozi - keramika i oružje
• Karakteristicno za pan-grave – zdele sa urezanom dekoracijom
• Black-topped Red ware, tankih zidova, zadebljanog oboda
• Pravougane perle, lukovi, strele
• Kod ranih grobova iskljueivo nubijski materijal, kod mladjih ima egipatskog
• Identifikovani kao oni koje Egipdani nazivaju ’Medžaj’
• naseljavaju se u Donjoj Nubiji i Gornjem Egiptu od kraja Srednjeg carstva;
• Pominju se kao najamnici u vojsci XVII dinastije (Tebanske)
• u ranom Novom Carstvu Medžaji su policija i naziv Medžaj gubi etnicke konotacije
• U Hierakonpolisu otkriveni grobovi i C-Grupe i Pan-grave
II medjuperiod - Egipdani
• Ima praznina u znanju o sahranjivanju Egipdana u II medjuperiodu
• Grobnice egipatskih vladara nisu pronadjene (izuzetak: Antef VII)
• Ekonomski pad:
– oprema se retko radi specijalno za grobnicu, cak i kod elite;
• izuzetak – kovceg, kanopske kutije (retko kanopske posude),
ušabti (brojni, grube izrade, od drveta)
→Oprema indicira promene shvatanja:
• antropoidni kovcezi postaju uobicajeni
• prilažu se brojni predmeti korišdeni u svakodnevnom životu
(korpe, posude, nameštaj)

Rat sa Hiksima
• Kamoze, poslednji vladar 17. dinastije (sin Sekenenra Taa II),
• Kamoze pocinje zauzimanje Nubije
• Tekstovi Kamozea
– Najmanje dve stele su opisivale kampanju protiv Hiksa na severu
• ’Pobednicka stela Kamozea’, nadjena fragmentovana.
Postavio je Neši,po nalogu Kamozea.

→ Naslednik i brat Kamozea, Ahmose I - prvi kralj XVIII dinastije

• Zauzeo Avaris
• Nastavio pohod do u jugozapadnu Aziju,
• u Nubiji stigao do iznad druge katarakte
• 18. godina vladavine: Hiksi konacno proterani