Ramanuja: Social Influence of His Life and Teaching

Author(s): Kandadai Seshadri

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 Ramnanuja: Social Influence of
His Life and Teaching
Kandadai Seshadri

Ramanuja, Sankara who lived two centutries before hinm and Madhvacharya, six decades after, form th
triumizvirate acharvas of the Vedanta school. Wlhile considerable literature is available on the philosophic
their teachings, less attention has beetn paid to their social inmpact. This article exanmines the influetce o
precept and practice in the masses, focuising on the humanist content of his philosophy.

IN Hindu thought, philosophy and theology judged against the background of his social decades before Madhvacharya-the three
are not clearly separated as in western thought. milieu and not with the wisdom of hindsight. forming the medieval triumvirate acharyas
The distinction between what we term as He would naturally be a victim of the beliefs, of the Vedanta school, championing the
'secular' and 'temporal' is very thin. We do customs and ethical norms of the times and three branches of it - advaita. visistadwaita
have in the west the philosophies of the to the extent that he is able to transcend them and dwaita (monism, qualified monism and
Church Fathers, like St Augustine and St to take his flight into higher levels of thought dualism). All the three were ascetics, having
Ambrose, which also have both these aspectsand action, to that extent he becomes a leadler renounced not only the worldly life but also
merging into each other. Religious rituals of his times in the field in which he functions any desire for immortality or worldly fame.
form the integral components of theology- (this is not an alibi for justifying every They rejected royal patronage and were not
oriented philosophical thought of Hindu seers. historic personage!). One who goes ahead influenced by any western philosophy (as
During the very early period of Indian history of his time will face the risk of being treated some attribute to Madhvacharya: that he was
we have the philosophies of Carvakas and as eccentric, or become a martyr, though intluenced by Christianity since he spoke of
Sankhyas, which did show remarkable under the conditions in ancient India, such perdition, dualism and realism). Hindu
indifference to religious discourse and even intolerance was rarely witnessed, as orthodoxy would not contemplate any
showed contempt towards them. But they otherwise a Buddha or a Mahavira who went acceptance of alien thought and whatever
were subjected to suppression by orthodoxy against the established religions and was deemed to be worthy of discussion was
and by the superior logic employed by the all indigenous
practices, were not only not crucified, on the thouglht; whether it be
later thinkers and thus were rendered almost contrary, were deified. In a way, Hegel's Buddhism, Jainism or atheism. That may
extinct. Polemic has characterised Hindu idea about religions "not true in themselves have been a defect, since the cross-
thinking, though the universe of discourse but were ideologies which arose out of fertilisation of ideas could have enriched the
of all these polemicists was the same. The particular historical needs of the people, intellectual content. While they dealt with
same concepts having the same identity of who believed in them", is to be seriously abstract thought for the benefit of the
meaning were employed and none tried to considered. Christianity grew out of slavery,
intellectual discussions, they dealt with more
repudiate the established frame of reference. and its proclamations of universal equality popular ways of worship and rituals for the
Even such revolutionary thinkers, like served the interests of the slaves in their benefit of the masses, for whom they
Buddha or Mahavira, used the same idiom struggle for liberation. In India of the approved of the worship of images of
and thus could not go outside their social medieval days, human misery became highly anthropomorphic forms of gods and
milieu. Civil law, regarding rights to property,
unbearable, inequality of human beings as goddesses. Sankara' s hymn to Hari-Sankara,
marriage and adoption was highly developed, manifested by untouchability and the caste 'Soundaara Lahari', and Ramanuja's 'Sri
in contrast to criminal law which was not systems became an insurmountable social Ranga Gadya'. are examples of the firm
thus clearly laid down. Social and economic barrier, leading religious thought to offer belief of these philosophers in idol worship
factors did not worry them, since their solace, incremental change and promise of and other rituals approved by the Upanishads
concerns were with fundamental and a better life in the other world as a reward and described in the Puranas.
universal truths. Questions of a social nature for being virtuous in the present one. The
MEDIEVAL PERIOD
were too trivial for the philosophers, as they Bhakti movement, I would suggest, satisfied
appeared too transitory in the context of this historical predicament. As in every Century, the medieval days in
cosmic questions, to be dealt with seriously. There are many works by Indian, western India were dark and exploitation by the
The paucity of writing material also was and Japanese scholars on Ramanuja's feudal elements was unchecked. Religious
an inhibiting factor and this may have inducedphilosophy.' The social influence he seems intolerance reigned supreme as handmaiden
these thinkers to put their ideas in very to have exercised through his philosophy on of the tyrannical rulers and the feudal edifice
succinct and terse poetic form, called the the intellectuals on the one hand and the on which their power stood. The great kings
'sutras', which lent themselves to many lifestyle that he practised to serve as examplelike Harsha and Kanishka and theirdynasties
interpretations adding colour and fascination
to the common masses on the other, I think, were extinct, and Buddhism, which they
to the subject. Unlike the Semetic religions, have not been sufficiently brought out. There patronised had also decayed. The country
the ancient Hindus did not prescribe only are adulations by devotees and scholastic was ravaged by barbarians like the
criticism by those who belonged to the other
one way but accepted many ways for attaining Ephthalites among whom was the notorious
the truth, which has many facets. Owing to schools ot thought among the Hindus, both and much feared Mihiragula, whose fancy
the lack of social commitment, they did not of which miss the essential element in his was to push elephants down the cliffs. As
think of remedying social disabilities which work, teaching and life. mentioned earlier, Buddhism decayed
stared them in their face, like untouchability As is well known, Ramanuja lived some inheriting many of the superstitions and
or sexual inequality. It would be a truism time between 1017 and 1137, thus coming practices of the Hindu faith. As H G Wells
to say that a historic personage has to be about two centuries after Sankara and six(?) put it "The faith of the Buddha, which in

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the days of Asoka, and even so late as that women were not to be deemed eqIual understood. Since suffering could not be
Kanishka, was still pure enough to be a nobleto men and that the gate to hell was woman, overcome, it had to be endured with as much
inspiration, we now discover absolutely lost and that the untouchables were not to be fortitude as possible, placing immense faith
in a wilderness of preposterous rubbish, a taught the holy scriptures. (In fact, he felt in the intervention of the Almighty. The
philosophy of endless Buddhas, tales of that they were unfit for any knowledge.) famous verse of the Bhagavad Gita, says
manifestations and marvels like a Christian But, there is an apocryphal story one day that "God will descend to the earth whenever
pantomime, miraculous conceptions by six- seeing an untouchable coming his way he evil triumphs, to punish the wicked and save
tusked elephants, charitable princes giving ordered him to step aside maintaining a the humble" (that it also admonishes
themselves up to be eaten by starving distance. The untouchable using Sankara's weakness and exhorts people to resist evil,
tigresses, temples built over nail-paring and logic, asked whether he should step aside is beside the point). Abject obedience to
the like... And in competition with this or his 'atman', which is also the supreme destiny sapped the spirit of resistance.
Buddhism. intellectually undermined as it atman, should step aside. (Sankara's Suffering itself becomes endurable when the
nlow was and smothered in gilded decoration,
monism being-the identity of the atman mind is engaged in the thiought of god and
brahminism was everywhere gainihg ground with 'paramatman'-individual soul is but man lives in the state of divine ecstasy,
again, as Yuan Chwang notes with regret."2 a reflection of the supreme, as interpreted experiencing the beatitude of his communion
The decadence of Buddhism was felt not by the axiom 'aham Brahmasmi'. Sankara, with god. Suffering, to this state of mind,
only among the intellectuals but also among then, realising his mistake, fell at the is illusory and ephemeral in the context of
the upholders of morality in the society. untouchable's feet, acknowledging him to the illimitable vastness of creation.
Apart from this, the Buddhist monks lived be the incarnation of Lord Siva himself,
COMING OF RAMANUJA
in cloistered aloofness in their viharas or who had come down to mortify him ol his
monasteries CUt off trom the day-to-day lifepride. This indicates that the problem of Twelve great savants called 'alwars'
of the people, while the brahmin lived untouchability was troubling the minds of preceded Ramanuja. These were great
ubiquitously with the communities making people. devotees who sang in praise of the Almighty
himself ,Available for religious and social Sankara was catholic in his approach, since in total surrender unto Him. They wrote not
occasions which needed sanctification, or he gave equal importance to Vishnu and in Sanskrit, the language of the elite, but in
for consultation by the common ignorant Siva, who were considered as two Tamil. These writings are considered to be
masses distressed cither due to natural manifestations of the same supreme being. exquisite works of poetic beauty. Not all of
calamities or feudal oppression. This should He is more famous among the philosophers the alwars were brahmins. One was a woman,
not be interpreted as Hinduism being although others of equal eminence were another an untouchable, and yet another
vigorous and triumphant, it only means that
present. Jawaharlal Nehru in his book whose origi ns were n-ot known. Thirumangai
people were rudderless. This was when entitled, Discover lofIndia, praises Sankara,
Alwar robbed the rich and fed the poor, and
Sankara, one of the greatest thinkers of but makes no mention of Ramanuja (this built the famous temple in Srirangam on the
medieval India appeared on the scene (as is may be due to the tact that he did not know banks of the river Kaveri. One of the alwars
the case with everytlhing in India, thle dateof Ramanuja; it being improbable that he was a king-philosopher who composed his
of his birth is shrouded in mystery and could have deliberately excluded mentioning verses in Sanskrit. The most important alwar
superstition. He was born after the Chinese Ramanuja). was called Nam-malwar whose four works
pilgrim. Yuan Chwang's visit, since Yuan Max Weber has shown a great deal of in Tamil were considered equivalent to the
Chwang refers to one Purnavarnian. who knowledgeability about Hinduism and its four Vedas in Sanskr-it. The lyrical quality
was the ruler in 590 AD. who is also referredvarious philosophers and schools of thought enriched the Tamil language, apart from
to by Sankara. On that basis, some sclholarsin his book entitled Thle Religioni of hidia: their devotional content.
have opined that Sankara must have lived The Sociolog)y of Hinduism anid Buddhism.4 In the days when only Sanskrit was the
between the 5th and 6th centuries, this itself(This is in contrast to Marx, who dismissed recognised elitist language, like Latin in
being very vagUe.)' He had to confront theHinduism as a worship of the monkey god Europe of the Middle Ages, Ramanuja
Budcllhist philosophers andl other schools of Hanuman and cow Sabbala and the blood- departed from this established practice and
drinking Kali." His theme was not religion
thoughlt in an atmnosphere not yet so intolerant accorded importance to these works of the
of opposition. and hence it is not relevant here.) alwars. They were called the four thousand
It is gencrally accepted that Sankara was After the passage of the great Hindu kings 'prabandhas', which were made official
a prodigy. with indefatigable energy and like Harsha and Kanishka, the country tell hymns in the Vaishnavite temples along
dynamism coupled with terse logical on evil days, being victim to every vanldal with the Vedic prabandhas. In temples that
acumen. He brought the inonistic thought and aidventurer who plundered its wealth did not belong to the Vaishnavite tradition,
back to the original rigour by condemning leaving a trail of chaos and destruction. TIhe Sanskrit was the only language of prayer.
all sophistry at the higher realms of lslamic incursions which were taking place Therefore this recognition to Tamil was a
philosophy. He is said to have travelled all at the borders of the country spread terror sort of unostentatious protestantism of the
over Inidia, establishing tour monasteries with iconoclastic zeal. The local rulers were Hindu religion. It is comparable to the use
in the four corners of the country, thus either weak or tyrannical or both. since the ot the Bible in the local laniguages instead
becoiming one of the earliest men to country had no tradition of resisting a tyrant. ol the Latin version. Prayershlould be brought
spiritually integrate the country. He The charge of Oriental despotism is true, to the popular level and not be confined to
acconmplished all this witllin a short lite thoug7h soenetimes, somewhat benevolent. the elite, namely, the brahmin literati.
span. havingc died at the age of 30 or so. During the earlier period, intellectual Ramanuja was brouiglht up in the orthodox
While he did bring about some sort of a pursuits tlourished under the characteristic
brahmin traditions. He mastered all the
renaissance to the decaying Hinduism as tolerance shown by the rulers, and Sankara classics in Sanskrit at an early age. When
a religious plhilosophly, much doubt has to was a product of these times. The social he was studying tinder a famous guru called
be cast on hlis contrlbuition at the social conditions later on were not conducive to Yadava Prakasa. who was running a school
level. He revivecd the caste system. which these pursuits. It is against this backgroundin Kanchipuram, he differed with his guru
Buddhism had condemned. He maintained that the Bhakti movement in India has to be over the meaning of a line in one of the

Ecoinomic and Political Weekly February 3, 1996 293

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U'Panishad.s. This angered his guru who in the temple complex - branding of the texts, he sought discipleship under
ignored the correction Ramanuja made of shoulders with Vishnu's symbols of discus Goshtipurna. When Ramanuja approached
tlhe interpretation.' He differ-ed from his guru
and conch. Ramanuja was to learn the Tamil him for the first time, the old man was
again on a line in Taittr-eva Uamnishad, 'prabandhas' of the great alwars from unhelpful and refused to take him as his
which reads - 'satyam, gnanam, anantham Mahapurna. disciple to teach the mantra he wanted.
Bralima' (truth, knowledge, eternity). Yadava Ramanuja was disappointed, but after some
RAMANUJA'S HUMANISM
Prakasa, according to the adwaita line of time, he approached Goshtipurna once again
Sankara, identif'ied these as god himself. A striking quality of Ramanuja's was his only to be rebuffed. But Ramanuja did not
RaimanuLja maintained that these were the intense humanism-compassion, charity and give up and he persisted, visiting him 18
necessary attributes of god, not god himself,utter contempt forcaste superiority. Suffering times. The old sage relented, convinced of
as inseparable qualities of an object do not of any sort moved him. To him, god was Ramanuja's sincerity and taught him the
become the object itself: the rays of the sun the personification of kindness to both saint mantra, warning him very strictly not to
are an inseparable part of the sun, but not and sinner. This is similar to the Christian reveal it to all and sundry as violation of this
the sun itself. The story goes that the guru virtue, but it should not be concluded that oath would entail Ramanuja being thrown
became so jealous and fearing his authority Christianity had influenced him, since no into hell permanently and his head broken
might be questioned, schemed to kill Hindu phi losopher looked to other countries to pieces. Ramanuja accepted the oath, but
Ramanuja. The plot was revealed to for inspiration. The true ornaments of a after leaving the old sage's dwelling, he
Ramanuja, wilo escaped, leaving his guru vaishnava, according to Ramanuja, are the came to a place called Tirugoshtipuram, and
for good. qualities of mercy and kindness. His old announced that he would be giving the most
Ramanuja, without showing any disrespect guru Yadava Prakasa himself sought his sacred mantra to everyone the next day.
to his gLuru, Yadaiva Prakasa, sought anothier kindness which was given in full measure, Ramanuja felt his oath was against the
guru called Kanchipurna, who was a non- though he had suffered a great deal as his principles of Vaishnavism, which did not
brahhmin. For a brahmin to pay respect to disciple. It was the custom in India for the prohibit anyone from enjoying thle bliss of
a non-brahmin and Adopt him as his guru monks to be celibate, like the Roman heaven, whatever the caste or sex or
was again a very revolutionary act in those Catholics. But Ramanuja did not prescribe community. This news reached the people
days. Kanchipurna was hesitant to accept celibacy as mandatory for being a guru. He in the surrounding places and the next day
him, but Ramanuja insisteIt. as even at that believed a person should live as a thousands of people gathered at a temple
early age he felt that tor true knowledge, householder, attaining intellectual maturity since they all wanted to be blessed and attain
caste was no bar. Formal Icaining was like and scholarship before taking to orders as salvation. Ramanuja, from the top of the
the donkey carrying valuable things without this enables him to understand the diftficulties temple tower, addressed the huge gathering,
knowing their worth. While with of f;amily life, making him abettercounsellor. making them repeat the hloly mantra with
Kanlchipurtna. it so happenied that whilleHe did not discriminate on the basis of sex, him. This action of Ramanuja was in open
Riamanuja was away. Kanchipurna was caste or position, to bestow his benediction defiance of all orthodox brahminical
served food by Ramanuja' s wife, who upon any seeker of knowledge. This is where injunctions in general, and an insult to the
discarded the remainina food and cooked he dif fers f'rom Sankara, who instittited old scholarGoshtipurna. Ramanuja was then
separately tor her husband, as a non-brahmin
rigorous behaviour in conformity with summoned by Gosshtipurna and berated for
was permitted to eat only alter the brahmin.
orthodoxy. Sankara did not concede that this act of blasphemy and betrayal of trust
This act infuriated Ramianuja. On another non-brahmnins could attain salvation. Theand was cursed to go to hell. Ramanuja did
occasion. Ramanuja brought a poor starvingJ
non-brahmin was not worthy of learning not flinch. He calmly and gently replied that
about the ultimate Brahman. In his 'bhashya'
sudra to thle house and I.asked his wife to serve if his going to hell meant salvation tor the
himi lood. She lied sayintg tllat there was no (commentary) of the 3ra/inma Sittra. Sankara
thouLsands upoil thousands who had heard
says that the 'sruti' prohibits a sudra from the exposition of the mantra, it waIs hut a
tood lelt hut Ramanujja went into the kitchen
himielf and toudlll food, which he then gave
learning or knowing about the Vedas or even small sacrifice on his part which he was
the poor starving man, showing nio anger performing the rituals (111-38). But, he willing to make gladly. This answer moved
towarcls his wife. In Srirangam, a tamousconcedes that the other castes canl aittainthe old saint so deeply that he emnbraced him
saint called Yamunaicharya, who was on his salvation through easier means of learniing for showing such kindness to fellow humanis
deathi-bed. heard ot Ramanuja and wantedthe 'itihasas' and 'puranas'. Commentingon and called him 'emperumanar' (our god).
very nIuch to see him. One Mahapurnia, who this line, Ramarnuja says that this position No brahmin guru, before Ramnanuja's time,
was also a non-brahmin, was sent to fetch should be rejected. He subtly suggests that had ever done anythinig so unorthodox.
Ranmanuja to Srirangam. But beflore sudras are equally qual i fied for the knowledge From the contemporary point of view, this
RamanuIja could arrive at Srirangam of the Brahman, his initiators Kanchipurna may not be very significant. But given the
Yamunnachar-va passed away leaving his an(d Mahapurna being nonl-brahmins. He times and the strong faith people had in
disciples withouti aleader. It was then decided
mentions, as conduciveto the attainment of salvation or moksha and the fear of
at the mlnilastery at Srirangarm to initiateknowledge, certain practices not exclusively punishment in hell this simple act ot shari
Ramalnuja as the future guru. Mahapurna set connected with 'asrama', such as quiet the joy of chanting a mantra is of great
out to Kanchipuram to tetclh Ramianuja: recitation of prayer ('japa'), f astirng significance. It demonstrates the depth of
meanwhile Ramanluja hiimselt'was travelling,('upavasa'), charity ('daana') and human concern that Ramanuja had. It is an
towards Srirangain and they met accidentallypropitiation ofdivinities ( 'devata aradhana' ).7 act of defiance against the prevailing
in a place called Mathuranthakami. Ramanuja One of the most spectacular actions of orthodoxy. There were tlle other guruis
insisted thait Malhapurna should initiate him
Ramanuja maty be mentioned in detail. Therebelonging to the adwaita school of thought
into the vaishinava fold immediately, in spite
was an old saintly person much respected who must have been outraged. This act also
of protests ronm Mahapurna that he was a by the people for his scholarship and has another significance: like the Buddha or
i1on-braminili and as suchl not tit for the simplicity called Goslhtipurna. Ramanuja Jesus, Ramanuja was involving the masses
honour ol initiating a great scholar and heard about his greatness and wanting in toaction.
be Divine mysteries were no more
the exclusive posses.sion of the elite.
initiatled into further knowledge of the sacred
brahiminl. The initiation waws thlen performed

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 One of the important disciples was a sudra is correct, one cannot explain Ramanuja's sought to justify their actions on the basis
called Urangavalli. Ramanuja observed flight to Mysore and other chain of events.) ofpre-determination. taking no responsibility
tJrangavalli admiring his wife's beauty, and He wanted to imprison Ramanuja and kill for their acts. As Homer said
asked him why he was so madly in love with him if he did not change his belief in Vishnu. Oh cursed mankind, whose wills created
her. Uraangavalli replied that her eyes were The vaishnavites fearing the worst tried to free

so bewitching that he could not turn away escape from the kingdom. They were given Charge all thy woes on divine decree
from her. Ramanuja then said that he wouldrefuge and protection and shown hospitality Only when you realise your 'self' you can
show him more beautiful eyes - the eyes of by some of the untouchables. Ramanuja, claimn identity with the eternal. This requires
Lord Ranganatha, which were eternally moved by their kindness called them the a great deal of penance. Oneness is not an
unqualified oneness, but has to be achieved
'thirukulathar' which loosely translated from
beautiftul unlike hiis wife's eyes which would
wither with age. Divinity is beauty and is Tamil would mean "the men of the holy by a being who has autonomy for his acts
eternal. Some of Ramanuja's disciples were caste". As a further reward for their act of and to that extent has to bear the consequences
jealous ot Urangavalli, who in spite of being kindness, he threw open the doors of the of his acts. Thus he denies illusion and in
a sudra, was shown so much consideration. Melkote temple to the untouchables, centuries the western parlance he may be called a
Getting to know this pettiness of his disciples,before India did this under the inspiration materialistic theist or a spiritualist. Since
Ramanuja one day told them to steal of Gandhi. Gandhi called them harijans everyone is to a great extent responsible for
Urangavalli's wite's jewellery while she (which bears more or less the same meaning his acts, there is an opportunity given to
slept. As they were doing so she moved and as thirukulathar). On the day of the important human beings to better themselves whether
fearing that she would wake up, they ran chariot festival in Melkote, it is still the righthe be a brahmin or an untouchable. Thus
away to report to Ramaniuja. At that moment,of the untouchables to pull the chariot first. an untouchable can become a brahmin and
Urangavalli aind his wile came to give These acts have to be viewed in the context vice versa by his own actions and not merely
Ramanuj a tha remaining ornanents, beggingof the times and not dismissed as of no by birth, though initially this cannot be
consequence from the modern point of view.
hiim to give them to his disciples, who had avoided. Hence Ramanuja's emphasis is on
not been able to take them though she had Ramanuja was said to be fond of one of bhakti and not knowledge or 'gnana', though
moved to enable them to take everything the alwars, who was an untouchable, called gnana is not unimportant. There is thus not
away. Ramanuja then chided his disciples, Tiruppan Alwar. He was also known to visit just a subtle difference between Sankara and
to whom it was mnade clear why he was so a poor untouchable in his hut since he was Ramanuja, as many Indian philosophers go
fond of' Urangavalli. (This incident bears a great devotee of god. For Ramanuja caste out of the way to state.' Ramanuja directly
similaritv to the episocde in Victor Hugo's and other disabilities did not matter if the repudiates Sankara, and these attempts are
L's Miseubles. w where the priest runs withperson was a genuine bhakta. On one merely syrupy. The ancient Hindu
the other candle stick to give to the fleeing occasion, Ramanuja happened to pass by philosophers did not mince matters, since
Jean val Jean. A case of turiniilg the other some children playing in an imaginary polemic formed the essence of attaining the
cheek.) Ramanuja said that Urangavalli was temple, conducting its festivities. The truth. The essenice of the bhakti that Ramanuja
a real vaishnava, not those who were born children stopped him and asked him to pray emphasised enabled even the humblest to
brahmins. calling, themselves vaishnavas. before their toy image. Ramanuja, to therise above his station and this lorms the
Another attempt on his life was made by one astonishment of his followers, prostrated revolutionary character of the Bhakti
of the jealous brahmins. Ramanuja, like all before their image, took the offerings that movement in the medieval days. Vedanta
Hindu saints, ate wlat was offered by his the children gave him with all seriousniess Desika, a later follower of Ramanuja, who
disciples. Tli.s particular brahmin mixed aind devotion. When questioned as to why was a great scholar and logician criticised
poison in thle food and asked his wife to give
he took child-play so seriously, he replied the advaitins and their 'maya vada in his
it to Ramanuja ftr his 'bikshai' (mendicant'sthat childen should be taken seriously since celebrated critique called Sata Du,slhini (tr
lood offering). As Ramranuja was about to god lives in them. Hundrl>etd Criticisms). In the f;ace of these
take it, the woman feelineL reinorse fell at clear enunciations reconiciling the two
D[iFERENCES WITH-{ THlE ADVAITA
his feet begging pardon. Ramanuja did not philosophers is mere eclecticism.'
PHILOSOPHERS
exprcss any anger, but smilinigly blessed Ramaniuja emphasised the stuLdy of ritual
them. There are a number of such incidents Ramanuja maintains that the material world that is part of the 'karma kanda'. Atter that
where in one can tind acts of supreme is real and not illusory, 'maya', as Sankara aind only after that. the study of brahman
kindness similar to tilose of Jesus. argued. Ramanuja does not accept the should follow unlike in the case of Sankara
Raina-inlija' S attitude towards untouch- concepts of 'avidya'. identity of cause and for whom gnana not karma kanda is
ability is the aspect more thlan any other that effect an(l the theory of unqualilied monism,
necessary for salvation. Karma and bhakti
has great siginificanice today. Raimanuja is that atman a and paramatman are identical, are closely interlinked, hence the rituals as
unique anmong the hraihinin saints in this expressed in the maxim 'tat twam asi'. which prescribed have to be perforned as per
respect. Kulothunga Chola. the king ot translated would mean 'that thou art'. This one's caste and position. This led to too
idenitification of the divinity with its attributes
southern India at the time ol Ramnanuja, was many rituals in the c?reed. In fact, Ramanuja
is rejected. Sotme have likened Shel ly's stanza
a fanattic and a tyrant who did not tolerate meticulously prepared the manuals of
any worship of Vishnu. (K A Nilakanta in 'Adonais' as suipporting this unity of the worship in the important temples, detailing
Sastri, an eminent historian of south-India,
soul with the supreme. It reads: the rituals forevery ceremony. As observed
does not think that Kulotlhunga Chola Life like the dome of a many coloured glass
earlier, there were always two planes on
persecuted the vaisshnavites. But ancient stains the white radiance of Eternity which he was devoting his works - one was
vaishnavite tradition maintainis that, Kuresa. In fact this passage seems to support the for the intellectuals or the educated elite
who pI-etcinded to be RamnanUija. had his eyes
philosophy ot Ramanuja, which says that and another purely devotional, for the
gouIged and w1as mneted out a terrible the reflection on the coloured dome is not masses who could also attain salvation
piunishinitit. Thle valishnavites called the white brilliance but only a reflection, anwithout concerning themselves with the
Kulotlihunc Ch(ola, 'Krimikaniltai Chola' (man intricacies of abstriact philosophy. As
attribute ofa ny brilliant light. Alfter Sankara's
Yoshitsugu Sawai says;:
death many began to pervert this maxim aInd
Withl worms in his thlroalt). If Nilalkantal Sastri

Econominc alnd Political Weekly February 3, 1996 295

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 Ramanuja's view of Karman must be more important than even the lord's. Hence symbol, the idol of Vishnu has to be beautiful
understood in the light of the theory of the followers of Ramanuja call themselves with full ornamentation and floral decoration,
qualification of sudras for the knowledge of sri vaishnavas - 'Sri' being Lakshmi, so that the worshipper, without stretching
Brahmaln. Sankara clearly denies the his be
imagination, feels the nearness to the
occupying the first position, (It may of
qualification of sudras for this knowledge
beauty and ecstasy ol the promixity to god,
interest that only the Hindu religion thought
through the Veda, for sudras are forbidden
of goddesses. Einstein said that god does not 'snnidhyam'. The lord's kindness is
to study knowledge of the Veda. As Sankara
play dice. But Vishnu did, literally, with unlimited and to him total devotion has to
polnts out in his Br ihmasuatrb hhsh va (Liii-
38) siuti prohibits a sLidra fiom learning or Lakshmi, since he had a companion in her be bestowed. That is the bhakti aspect, and
studying the Veda and even knowing from to play while the Semetic god was single. this was true of Sankara's teaching as well.
its contents or performing vedic rituals. Only Though the semetic religions viewed idol
RAMANUJA IN EXILE
the three upper castes can attain mnoksha worship as heretic, it is interesting to note
through a knowledge of the Veda. Sankara Ramanuja was made to flee to Karnataka. how Christianity later viewed icons. After
however. accepts that all four varnas are Bittideva, a Jaim was ruler of Belur in the initial fanaticism of the iconoclacist zeal
qualified ftor attaining the minoksha through
Karnataka. Ramanuj! converted Bittideva began to fade and in the 6th century,
the knowledge of the ithihasa and purana
into vaishnavism and christened him Vishnu miraculous powers were attributed to the
liter-atures."'
Vardhana. He built a very ornate and iimiages of Christ. Since god made men in
With regard to worship Ramanuja sculpturally magnificent temple dedicated his own image, people saw divine quality
acknowledges only Vishnu as the to Lord Vishnu, Adi Kesava, in Belur, whichin an image and it was argued that in
purushottama and he and only he has to be today is a great tourist attraction. In the same
worshipping the images of the saints they
always meditated upon for moksha. In the state, it was reported to him that a Muslim were glorifying the Holuse of the Holy Ghost.
temple ritual,he followed the 'pancharatra' ruler plundered all the temples and took After the birth of Jesus Christ on earth, in
system which was not considered authentic away the idol of Lord Krishna in Melkote. the form of man, the old Mosaic law did not
by some vedic scholars. Ramanuja, when in The story goes that Ramanuja approached hold good since it was outdated. "If the god-
Puri, known as the 'purush6ttama kshetra' him and was allowed to take away any of made image of man is divine, then may not
(The abode of the Lord), wanted to introduce the many idols lying in his palace. But the a man-made image of god also have an odour
the pancharatra system and in pursuance of young daughter of the king was in love with of divinity?' Also images of Christ were
it challenged the local scholars for a debate. the one idol of Kishna which was from paraded around the city as protection against
But they avoided it ancd he seems to have Melkote and she would not part with it. fire
Lateror an attack by the enemy.'2 Saint John
been pllysically removed from the place, she was canonised as Bibi Nanchar and her of Damascus argued that god's incarnation
which act hie attributed to the displeasure of idol is also worshipped in vaisnavite temples as Jesus is itsel fa recognition of the weakness
the lord for disturbing the cuistom in Puri. of the south since she was a great devotee of flesh, of man's need for images. The
Yamunacharya. the preceptor of Ramanuja of the lord. The story may be apocryphal Christian use of idols was not pagan but
apprtved of the pancharatra system and but it denotes that even Muslims wcre simply human."
argued that it was the approved vedic ritual. welcome to the fold of vaishnavas.i Ramanuja wanted the idols to look brilliant,
It deals with the construction 'of temples. Ramanuja wrote the commentary on so that meni can ima-ine the indescribable
rituals in temples, idols, initiation of Brahmasuitra and the Bliagavad Gita just as of divine brilliance. To him, gTod was
beauty
vaishniavites. their religious marks, etc. It Sankara did and completed his 'digvijaya', niot a 'nirguna brahma', an attributeless
also approves of admission of sudras and that is holding successful debates with power. He was not to be like Siva, with
women into the scct, which was why the scholars all over India as Sankara did. In necklaces of human skulls, snakes curling
purblind orthodoxy of the Puri brahminism fAct, it was the custom ofal I southem scholars
round the neck, tiger skin covering the body,
COuld not tolerate Ramanuja. Ramnanuja to go to Kasi to challenge the scholars there with a terrible visage as thle destroyer of the
travelled all the way to Kaishmir to obtain for a discussion, since most scholars in those universe. Vishnu looks mischievously with
an old text called Bodhavfanta Vi-ili, which days were centred there. He wrote the a smiiling face l'manda haasa'), never roused
was not available elsewhere. This text was commenitary on the Bodayani Vritli, after
to anger, always forgiving those who repent
mentioned witlh great veneration by Sankara
having studied it. On Kulothunga Chola and seek his lotus feet. Einstein's saying that
also. death, the new ruler not being intolerant, "god is subtle but mlalicious he is not",
It is fromi this document that Ramanuja Ramanuja once again returned to Srirangam would be an appropriate description of the
derives his argument f'or the iimportance of' where hie lived as the officiatinig high priest Hindu god, whether it is Siva or Vishnu (or
ritual. As mentioned earlier. Ramianuja's of the temple. as the popular belief goes Siva in the shape
insistence on tie worsilip of only one supreme RamanuLja. as we mentionied, attached a of Vishnu and vice versa. A sloka says, Siva
being, that is. Vishnu. whlo is inicarniate with great- deal of importance to varimus rituals is Vishnu's manifestation and vice versa,
all the great qualities of divinity ailnd beauty as the steppinig stones to later spiritual which is not accepted by the vaishnavas,
and non-approval of any other god including development. Karma mimamsa antd Brahmna who do not believe in dual gods.)
Siva whom the followers ol Sankara deemn mimamsa are an integrated whole. In his Thus we find in the south Indian temples
to be Vishnu in a different aspect, is Vedlarha San graha, he mentions that the
whether dedicated to Siva or Vishnu,
considered to be uncatholic and even attainment of the lotus teet of the supremiie
festivities when the images are taken out in
sectarianl. He disapproved of the worship of by means of total surrender,
being, processions with a variety of decorations
the grotesque forms of gods and the sakti' 'I)aralnalnltrusll clar an-1aravindalt ' saranagati
and mounts. There are images which are
worship. While Sankara com-nposed many and perfoninance of the daily rituals constitute
permanently fixed in the sanctum sanctorum
devotionals in praise of both Shiva and his the most inmportant aspects of goal attainment.
and there are the smaller bronze idols, which
Hence rituals in vaishnava temples are qulite
consort Parvati or Sakti and also Vishnu, are for decoration and processions. This is
Ramanuja's compositi)lns wereonly in praise
complex. The idol also occupies an important
not found in the north Indian Hindu
ofVishnu andA his consort Lakshmi. In fact, position, since unlike the Siva linga offestivities,
the which makes us think that this
h1e considlered the grace of Lakshmi to be saivites, which is considered as a phallic could be Ramanuja's contribution. Also,

296 Economic and Political Weekly February 3, 1996

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there are famnous temples wlwich possess Ramanuja claimed that human suffering was they endured in the days when the movement
manuals that have clear descriptions of these not an illusion, as he did not accept the took its roots. The lndian philosophic
rituals written by Ramanuja, in full detail. concept of maya. His appeal is to the heart tradition also was rooted in the final search
Divinity, beauty and trutlh are one inseparable as well. As S Radhakrishnan said, "Ramanluja towards treedom from the cycle of birth and
whole to the Hindu, as expressed in satyam, tried his best to reconcile the demands of death and the attainment of a merger with
sivam, sundaram. Even Hanuman, the religious feelings with the claims of logical the ultimate; hence doing one's duty was
monkey god is described as a beautiful thinking". 17 considered as one's avocation, whatever that
personaility ( kamaniya vigraham'). Community participation in the food may be, irrespective of the fruit of labour.
The temple forms the central point of the offerings to god, irrespective of caste, is Fighting against tyranny was not the
south Indian village, where village disputes another aspect of vaishnavism. Whiile among exhortation of the vaishnavite saints. Hence
to panchayat elections used to be decided. the semetic religious, as Max Weber said, they did not abdicate the teaching of ethical
It must be remembered, unlike Sankara these congregational prayers gave them the behaviour and various rituals that have to
strength due to a sense of unity as against
Ramanuja spent most of his life in the south be performed during ceremonies like
and hence he is relatively unknown to the pagan religions; in vaishnavism, it did not weddings or funerals. In fact, the vaishnavite
masses in the north. give that strength, though it did help in ritual is more elaborate and cumbersome
Ramanuj'a is credited with the initiation creating a sense of togetherness. Congre- than of the other sects. The emphasis on
of a systematised movement, called by gations by themselves do not give strength rituals by Ramanuja resulted in this
historians as the Bhakti movement. and unity. There has to be a cementing force cumbersome procedure, which with time
Ramananda. in the north, was under his of an ideology that preaches unity among overtook the substantial teaching.
influence and he followed his mentor in people. Social equality was lacking in the It would be a truism to say that thought
Hindu society. The various festivities that
preaching to all castes, high and low, without does not spring from a social vacuum and
distinction. Ramananda's disciple, the more Ramanujaorganisedin thetemplesdidindeed it represents the mores, values, social and
well known Muslim suti saint Kabir, spread serve a social purpose, in the sense that they physical limitations of the time and place.
the message of universal brotherhood of all gave the people an opportunity to vent their Hence any comparison with the religious
creations of god, whatever their religion, teelings and forget their miseries for some and secular philosophies of the west may be
caste or sex. Kabir was not highly educated, time. They were also occasions for out of place. Moreover, there was never any
but he could influence society because of matrimonial and other social transactions, confrontation of religious institutions, like
his devotion andc message ot love. The Bhakti
since people from far and wide came to these the Church, with the secular power like the
movement spread from Tamil country to pilgrim places. As in Christianity, the poor state, in India, which was responsible for a
Karnataka. Telugu country, Maharashtra and are considered to be the rightful inheritors comparatively greater liberty of action
Gujarat, then to Rajasthan and the Gangetic of heavenly bliss, but what about the life on enjoyed by an individual in some of the
plains. Maharashtra produced many earth? Feudal exploitation, social oppression western countries. Inquisitions may not have
devotees, who wrote their 'abhangas'; Narsi and political anarchiy caused any amount of been there in India, but revolt against political
Bhagat, in Gujarat, wrote the famous misery to which there was no remedy in the authority was also not known for reasons
Vaishnava Janato', which was the morning hands of the people. It was attempted to already given when discussing the role of
prayer song of Gandhi. Mira Bhai of mitigate tllis misery by sublimating it into religion. Hence, to expect Ramanuja or any
Rajasthan sang many bhajans in praise of some sort of chiliasm, which can be seen in of the religious thinkers in India to fight
Lord Krislhna. Chaitanya, the tounder ot the
the later version of the Chaitanya cult of social injustice would be out of place. But
cult of vaishnavites in Bengal and Manipur, Bengali vaishnavism in the extreme form. social injustice was staring them in the face.
was not influenced so much by Ramanuja Sankara tried to bring about a renaissance Ramanuja, to a limited extent, in individual
(Mladhvacharya's influence is seen in in Hindu thinking and reinforce the capacity tried to make amends for it as when
Chaitanya). intellectual content of the vedantic thought.
he opened the Melkote temple for the
In the modem age,justice MahadevGovind Politically, there does not seem to have been
untouchables, etc. He also did not approve
Ranade, who was one of the great social a great deal of degeneration, as in the later of the ugly practice of tonsuring brahmin
refornmers from Maharashtra was profoundly
days, which became an invitation to the widows, as evidenced by the absence of this
influenced by Ramanuja's teaching.'4 Bal foreign hordes to ravish the country. It is only among the tengalai sect of vaishnavas.
GangadharTilak. the first leaderofthe Indian just at this time that Ramanuja came on the According to Marxist historians, the Bhakti
mass movement for independence, whom scene and preached his bhakti. The stress movement was a progressive movement, as
Sir Valentine Chirol called the 'father of was on 'prapatti' or complete surrender unto it propagated revolutionary thought in those
Indian unrest', though not a follower of god in total abandonment of ego, as preached days - that everyone was entitled to the
Ramanuja's visistadwaita but an advaitin, in the Blhagavad Gita. "Sarva dharmnan beniefits of knowledge and benediction of
parityajva inamekam sarntaan vraja"
was influenced by Ramanuja in his involving the Supreme - in defiance of prevailing
the masses in action and giving importance (abandon all dharmas and take refuge in me orthodoxy. In this respect, Ramanuja was
to the mother tongue, even as Ramanuja alone), as is thought by many, there may be many steps in advance of Sankara. Our
gave to his native Tamil. '5 It need hardlycontradictions,
be as evidenced in this and the purpose is not to compare the relative merits
said that Gandhi was indirectly influenced,previous inijunction, in the same book askingof the theological positions taken by these
as he himself was a vaishnava by birth. In the devotee to do his duty and "take up arms philosophers but thleir preaching which
opening the temples to untouchables and against outrageous fortune". Incidentally, it influenced the n-iases. As Damodaran says,
calling them by a more honourable name, is this invocation that inspired leaders like Ramanuja too formulated his doctrines within
he emulated Ramanuja. "Sankara was only Bal GangadharTilak, to tight against British the bounds of feudalism, yet, his attitude
one of the many teachers nearly as great as imperialism. But the Bhakti movement took towards the caste system was not so rigid
he, such as Ramanuja (died 1137) and the total surrender or prapatti as the main and dogmatic as that of Sankara. He
Madhva (? 1197-1276), who founded sub- principle and people derived the consolation proclaimed that bhakti transcended all caste

sects oft the Vedanta philosophical school". '6

Economic and Political Weekly February 3. 1996 297

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 worship iof god. Accordling to him all hordes came to India, wave after wave, 6 The line kapvlasaum pndarika inevanu-akshini
worshippers of Vishnu were equal because
destroying their temples, laying their land was interpreted by Yadava Prakasa as follows:
all people - highi or low were manifestations to waste, converting thousands by lorce into The eyes (of the brahmiian) were as red as the
of l3rahman.'s posterior of a monkey (Y P must have had
Islam, ther e was no resistance, but flight and
a terrific and coarse sense of humouir).
abject surrenderto the tierceattack. (Sikhism,
Another mnarxist writer from the tormer Ramlanuja did not approve of a crude
whichl is considered an off shoot of the
Soviet Union goes a step lurther. He says interpretation. Rainanuja showed by his
Bhakti movement, alone took to resistance exegesis that it means that the brahinan had
tlhat under conditions prevailing in India at
after Guru Govind Singh initiated a militant eyes that resembled a lotus blossoming as the
the time. this idea had a profound democratic
movement and coined the concept of 'saiut- sun rose.
meanling. as it sanctified the struggle against
sipahi' (saint-soldier).) But this attitude also 7 Sawai, Yoshitsugu, 'Ramanuja's Theory of
teudal and caste divisions"."' This perhaps
was responsible for the Islamic kings to be Karman', Journal f Indian Philosoj)hy 1 993,
is reading too far into marxism. since there
tolerant later on, after their initial zeal was 21: p 62.
was 11o revolt against feuclalism.
satistied, and they found people submitting 8 S Radhakrishnan in a laboured fashion,
One must not stretclh Ramanuja's general
justifies Sankara's view on caste and also tries
to any ruler who establislhed himselt on the
attitudetowards suffering and caste iinequality to reconcile Sankara with Ramnanuja. Vedanta
throne. Even in contemporary India,
too tar. He was not completly for abolition Desika in his Stta Dushini criticises advaitin's
struggling against social oppression, the
of the caste system or untouchability. That views on the disquialification of sudras to
invocation to the Bhakti movement is learn Vedas. He also makes fun of the maya
would have been too much to expect given
conspicuously absent. theory of San!'ara satying that these advaitins
the times in whichi he lived. In fact, even
As a recent writer says, "Througlhout while proclaimning everything as maya rush
today these evils peersist and have taken firm
history the strength of the movement has li n to the first rank when 'laddoos' and 'modakain'
political roots for greater bargaining power
in the exceptional calibre of its leaders; its are being distributed. There is an instance of
by the socially oppressed. Even Christianity
weakness has been the total trust which its Johnson kicking a stone when he was told
in India has not been able to fight the blight
about Bishop Berkeley's proposition about
followers placed in these men, elevating
of untouclhability. since the converted Hindus illusion saying "I repuidiate it thus".
observe it in their social life. A small Jewish them to the status of quasi-divine prophets
9 A B Keith expressed the view that of all
who would answer their every need. Bhakti
communnity in Kerala is also subject to caste comimillentaries on Brtrluia sutra, including
distinction.
is an accurate retlection of the chronic
that of Sankara Rainanuja's Sri Bhaslhya is
helplessness of the Indian masses and their the mosSt ouItstandling. See also R Puligandla,
As a new falith. vaishnavism, irn the south,
burning zeal to recognise in supreme FuInl(damJenta.ls of Inidiain Philosophy, New
tried to maintiain superiority by observing
rigidity in orthodoxy and restriction of food, authority a force transcending the strictures
York, 1975, for a distinction in interpretations
of the social system." by both Rainanuja and Sankara in which he
since in Hinduism, food hierarchy goes with
takes the position of Sankara as more valid,
caste hierarchy. The higher the caste the
Notes pp 229-36.
areater the restriction and taboos on food.
1) Yoshitsugu Sawai, op cit, pp 225-26.
As the strUggle for superiority asserted itself. I Dasgupta, Surendranath, A History of Intlian 11 We do not know who this Muslim ruler was.
saniskritisation beran to assert itself and the Philosophy'v (Indian Edn), Banarasidas, 1975. According to history, the first Muslim
vaishnavites split into two branches - the Delhi, 2 and 3; Bhandarkar, R G. conqLueror who established his rule in India
vadagalais, tlhe northern culture favouring Vaishlnav;isin, Saixsmn anid Minior- Religioust
was Mohamimiiad Ghori in 1 192 and Ramanuja
m)ore sanskrit, and the tengalais f:avouring SYstems, 1913, Strasbourg; Buddhananda.
passed S.
away in 1137.
Swamnni Ralmakriishlmtanandal, translated froim
12 Daniel Boor-stin, The C-eators, Random
more Tamil. The fight tor capture of temple
Bengali, 1977, Sri Rainakrishna Mutt, Madras;
House, 1992. New York, pp 183-92.
administrationi became fierce. The litigation
Parthasarathy, K, Rantantujachar rva, 1979, 13 Ibid.
over the management of'a temple in Madras,
National Book Trust of India, New Delhi; 14 M B Kaleskar (ed), Religioni (ind Social
dedicated to Parthsarathi Swami, became so
Varada Chari, K C, Rainanuja's Theory of Refw rm: A CollectionJ of Essa vs anid .Speeches
tangled in legal quLestions that the British Knowledge, Tiruinaia Tirupati Devasthanaim, by! Mahaidea Gov inda Ratnade, Gopal
administration could not settle it and handed 1980, Tirupati; Yainuna Charya, NI, Narayan and Co 1902, Bombay, pp 6-12.
it over to an Indian judge.2 Many of these Rananuja 's Teachings in His Owtnl Wlordls,
15 Tilak, though philosophically an Advaitin, in
disputes went tothe PrivyCouncil in England Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1988, Bombay; his inethods of political mobilisation there
for decisioin. The discussions instead of being Swaimi Adidevananda, Tr Srinivasa Dasa's seems to be similarity with Ramanuja's
intellectually stimulating became as in the Ytitindrainata deepmika (Sanskrit), Sri methods. Compare his Ganapathi festivals
Ramakrishna Mutt, 1978, Madras; and mass meetings with Ramanuja's
case of medieval scholastics, questions as
Sudarshan Surn and Vedanta Desika in the Goshtipuiraim; address to all the gathering.
to hlow many angels can dance on the head
medieval times were brilliantcoinmentatries 16 Bashaim, A L 1983, Medieval Hin(du India in
ol a needle.
of his system. There are a number of other A L Bashain (ed), A CIultural Histor- otlndia,
Just as in the case of the church, there was
books in various Indian languages. Oxford University Press, Delhi, p 58.
a schism reoarding the interpretation of 2 H G Wells, The Outlinie of History, Cassell,17 Radhakrishnan, S 1931, History of Indian
Ramanluja's philosophy. Conversions, which 1961, London, p 591. Philosop1hy, George Allen and Unwin, London.
were very liberal during Ramanuja's time, 3 Swa;mi Prabhavananda, Spiritual Heritage 18 L)amodaran. K. 1!967. indiani Thlouight, Asia
became rigid and the vaishnava community ofindiwa Ramnakrishna Mutt, 1977, Madras, Publishing House, Bombay. p 166.
beciame as it were a reactionary community p 279. 19 Brodov, V, 1984, Iiiditnia Philosoplhy in
in the south. Ramanu ja did not even initiate 4 Max Weber, The Religionis of India. Moder-ni Times, Progress Publishers, Moscow,
any struggle against caste oppression nor Sociology o!f Hinduism atnd Buddhism, Freep 134.
Press of Glenkoe, 1958, Illinois, p 291-328.
20 Appadorai, Arjun, 1981, Worship and Coni lict
did he preach about defence of the dharma
5 Marx, Karl, 'British Rule in India', Newt York-if(ler Colonial Rule: A Souith India Co.se,
against oppressors. Not only he, but every
Daily, June 10, 1853. M and E, year unknown, Cambridge University Press, Canibridge.
other thinker in India, did not teach delence Time Fir.st Itidiani Watr( o Independence -
21 Lennoy, Richard, 197 1, rThe Speaking Tree:
of religion, the gods and the community 1857-59, Foreign Languages Publishing A Stu-dy of clidian Cultu re antd Socie it, Ox ford
against vandals, hence when the Islamic House, Moscow, pp 14-21. University Press, London. p 20)9.

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