Review

The greener synthesis of nanoparticles

Oxana V. Kharissova1, H.V. Rasika Dias2, Boris I. Kharisov3, Betsabee Olvera Pérez3,
and Victor M. Jiménez Pérez3
1
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Fı́sico-Matemáticas, CIIDIT, Ciudad Universitaria, Monterrey,
NL 66450, Mexico
2
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
3
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Quı́micas, CIIDIT, Ciudad Universitaria, Monterrey, NL 66450,
Mexico

In this review, we examine ‘greener’ routes to nanopar- environmentally friendly and biocompatible reagents
ticles of zerovalent metals, metal oxides, and salts with could lower the toxicity of the resulting materials and
an emphasis on recent developments. Products from the environmental impact of the byproducts [26,27]. To
nature or those derived from natural products, such as reach this goal, non-toxic solvents (preferably water),
extracts of various plants or parts of plants, tea, coffee, closed reactors, ‘green’ techniques without contacting re-
banana, simple amino acids, as well as wine, table sugar action media and air (ultrasound, microwave, hydrother-
and glucose, have been used as reductants and as cap- mal, magnetic, biological methods, among others), and low
ping agents during synthesis. Polyphenols found in plant temperatures, can be used. In this short review which
material often play a key role in these processes. The focuses on the most recent developments, we describe
techniques involved are simple, environmentally friend- the methods which we consider as relatively greener routes
ly, and generally one-pot processes. Tea extracts with to nanoparticles and nanomaterials involving extracts of
high polyphenol content act as both chelating/reducing plants [28] and other natural products.
and capping agents for nanoparticles. We discuss the
key materials used in the field: silver, gold, iron, metal Green production of nanoparticles
alloys, oxides, and salts. The techniques for obtaining nanoparticles using natu-
rally occurring reagents such as vitamins, sugars, plant
Green chemistry and nanotechnology extracts, biodegradable polymers, and microorganisms
The ‘greener’ environmentally friendly processes in chem- as reductants and capping agents could be considered
istry and chemical technology are becoming increasingly attractive for nanotechnology. These syntheses have led
popular and are much needed as a result of worldwide to the fabrication of limited number of inorganic
problems associated with environmental contamination. nanoparticles (mainly metal nanoparticles, although
Within the last 2 years, several ‘green chemistry’ books several metal oxides and salts are also reported). Among
have been published describing green processes in general the reagents mentioned above, plant based materials
[1–4] and their specialized aspects, including ultrasound, seem to be the best candidates and they are suitable
microwaves, and other methods in synthesis [5,6], green for large-scale ‘biosynthesis’ of nanoparticles [29]. Plant
analytical chemistry [7], green tribology [8], polymers and parts such as leaf, root, latex, seed, and stem are being
green polymerization [9,10], green engineering and used for metal nanoparticle synthesis. The key active
manufacturing [11,12], food [13], textiles [14], hydrogen agent in some of these syntheses are believed to be
and syngas production and uses [15,16], wastewater treat- polyphenols, present for example, in tea, wine and win-
ment [17], particle technology [18], biofuels, biomass and ery waste, red grape pomace. Greener synthesis of nano-
biocomposites [19–21], and other ‘green chemistry’ areas particles provides advancement over other methods as it
[22,23]. The 12 principles of green chemistry [24] have now is simple, cost-effective, and relatively reproducible and
become a classic guide for chemists and chemical technol- often results in more stable materials [30]. Microorgan-
ogists worldwide in developing less hazardous chemical isms can also be utilized to produce nanoparticles but the
syntheses. rate of synthesis is slow and only limited number of sizes
Although UV irradiation, aerosol technologies, lithog- and shapes are amenable compared to routes involving
raphy, laser ablation, ultrasonic fields, and photochemical plant based materials. At present, fungi are gaining
reduction techniques have been used successfully to pro- worldwide popularity as nano-factories for the green
duce nanoparticles, they remain expensive and involve the synthesis of nanoparticles [31]. Overall, biological mate-
use of hazardous chemicals. Therefore, there is a signifi- rials provide an environmentally friendly or greener
cant interest in the development of environmentally chemical method to produce invaluable materials be-
friendly and sustainable methods [25]. At the same time, cause the biomaterial based routes eliminate the need
despite intensive developments of the nanotechnology, the to use harsh or toxic chemicals [32]. Mechanisms of these
adverse effects of nanomaterials are still relatively bioreductive transformations [33–35], as well as catalytic
unknown. The synthesis of such materials using properties of materials obtained via these routes [36–39]
Keywords: ‘green’ synthesis; plant extracts; tea extract; nanoparticles
have been discussed in a series of reports.

240 0167-7799/$ – see front matter ß 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2013.01.003 Trends in Biotechnology, April 2013, Vol. 31, No. 4
Review Trends in Biotechnology April 2013, Vol. 31, No. 4

Table 1. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles by greener methods (precursor AgNO3 in all cases)
Reducing agent Conditions, observations Properties of formed Ag nanoparticles Refs
Aqueous extracts of the manna of 13–20 min at 25–95 8C Average diameter of the prepared [96]
hedysarum plant and the soap-root nanoparticles in solution was about 29–68 nm
(Acanthe phylum bracteatum) plant
Extract of Argemone mexicana leaf 4 h at room temperature Average size of the particles synthesized was [97]
20 nm, size range was 10–50 nm, with cubic
and hexagonal shape
Culture supernatants of Aspergil 24 h at 28 8C; reduced nicotinamide Polydispersed spherical particles ranging in [98]
lusterreus adenine dinucleotide (NADH) was found size from 1 to 20 nm
to be an important reducing agent for the
biosynthesis, and the formation of
AgNPs; this could be an enzyme-
mediated extracellular reaction process
Leaf extract of Euphorbia hirta L. 50–95 8C Relatively spherical shape with diameter range [99]
40–50 nm
Euphorbia milii Irradiation of a silver nitrate and solution Nanoparticles are present after the xenon lamp [100]
by light from a xenon lamp followed by illumination, and after the laser irradiation the
ultra-short laser pulses; the irradiation silver nanoparticles sizes are reduced to the
times were 1, 3, and 5 min range of 10–50 nm
F. vulgare leaves Room temperature 127 nm [101]
Basic amino acids, such as L-lysine The mixture was heated to 150 8C by 26 nm (average size); this synthetic process can [40]
(Figure 1d) or L-arginine, as reducing microwave under magnetic stirring be readily applied to large-scale production, for
agents and soluble starch as a protecting and was maintained at this temperature example, a reaction yielding 0.1 g of nearly
agent for 10 s monodisperse silver nanoparticles can be
performed in a 80 ml microwave sealed vessel

Silver nanoparticles are the classic and the most pre- medium [46]. The process takes only 30–60 min and is
ferred target of the above mentioned ‘green’ methods (Ta- adaptable for the synthesis of palladium, platinum, and
ble 1) [40–43]. This is related to the antibacterial gold nanoparticles. The formation of dendritic nanostruc-
properties of zerovalent silver and easy reduction of sil- tures on the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grid
ver(I) salts to form zerovalent silver. Gold nanoparticles was observed when the reaction mixtures without complete
are also of a considerable interest, although to a much conversion of AgNO3 were loaded on the TEM grid prior to
lesser degree than Ag. Other metal and other inorganic the washing procedure. The copper and carbon present on
nanoparticles are represented by small number of reports. the TEM grid are responsible for catalyzing the reaction.
We discuss various greener routes for the synthesis of Synthesis of silver nanoparticles (1–10 nm) has also been
these nanoparticles below. investigated using geraniol (Figure 1b) [47]. A concentration
In general, as it will be seen below, ‘green’ methods are of 1 mg/ml of these silver nanoparticles could inhibit cancer
not so widespread (although rapidly being developed) in cell line (Fibrosarcoma-Wehi 164) growth by less than 30%.
nanoscience and nanotechnology as classical wet-chemistry Sugars have been used with silver salts as a part of the
routes for nanoparticles fabrication [44,45]. This relatively well-known Tollen’s test to produce silver mirrors. Sugars
hot topic possesses such important advantage as lesser or have also been used in Ag nanoparticle fabrication. Synthe-
almost zero contaminations for the environment. Waste sis of biocompatible Ag nanoparticles (10–20 nm) employing
products are usually compatible with environmental table sugar as a capping and a reducing agent is a relatively
requirements (except microbial synthesis of nanoparticles, economical, easily adaptable, and greener route [48]. A
where the waste material could be dangerous depending on remarkable antitumor potency of the resulting Ag nanopar-
the type of microbe applied) because they are derived from ticles was seen against HT144 (malignant skin melanoma)
natural plant extracts. Precursor costs may vary, but gen- and H157 (squamous cell lung carcinoma) cells as compared
erally they are low. On reviewing a series of reports of to the clinically used reference compounds vincristine and
authors from different countries, we observed that in gen- methotrexate. Ag nanoparticles have also been synthesized
eral commonly available and economical products for those in a natural polymeric matrix, using silver nitrate, gelatin,
regions are used, for example, nut putamen (India) or cactus glucose, and sodium hydroxide as silver precursor, stabiliz-
extracts (Mexico). Obviously, the ‘greener’ methods do not er, reducing agent, and accelerator reagent, respectively
pretend to substitute all conventional techniques; however, [49]. The resultant nanoparticles had faced centered cubic
at least a small decrease in damage to nature can be reached. (fcc) structures smaller than 20 nm in diameter. Gelatin was
used as the stabilizer and matrix during this synthesis. The
Silver (Ag) possible chemical equations (Equations 1 and 2) for prepar-
A large number of reports are dedicated to greener synthe- ing the Ag nanoparticles are as follows:
sis of silver nanoparticles, therefore here we will examine
Agþ ðaqÞ þgel ! ½AgðgelÞþ ðaqÞ [1]
only the most representative examples. Silver nanoparti-
cles ranging from 5 to 10 nm in size have been synthesized
under microwave irradiation conditions using glutathione 2½AgðgelÞþ ðaqÞ þ2OH þC5 H11 O5 -CHO ! 2Ag þ 2gelþ
(Figure 1a), an absolutely benign antioxidant that serves
as the reducing as well as the capping agent in aqueous H2 O þ C5 H11 O5 -COOH [2]

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(a) HO (b) CH3

O

OH
HN

O
HS

HN
H3C CH3

O OH

H2N

O
Glutathione Geraniol

(c) OH (d)
O

HO H2N
O
OH
OH
H NH2

OH

OH

Epicatechin L-lysine
TRENDS in Biotechnology

Figure 1. Chemical structures of some components of plant extracts.

Plant extracts have also been used for Ag nanoparticle agglomeration. Among many other plant extracts applied
synthesis. The reactions have generally been carried out at for reduction of Ag+, we note aqueous extracts of Moringa
room temperature, although in some processes a heating oleifera [54] and Vitex negundo L. [55].
was applied, mainly below 100 8C. For example, silver Extracts from well-known commercial products like
nanoparticles have been synthesized (at room temperature coffee and tea were used in silver chemistry as well. Thus,
and 60 8C) using Polyalthia longifolia leaf extract as a by reducing silver nitrate in solutions of tea extract or
reducing and capping agent along with D-sorbitol used epicatechin (Figure 1c) of varying concentrations, spherical
to increase the stability of the nanoparticles [50]. The silver nanoparticles were formed that had controllable size
synthesized silver nanoparticles were more highly toxic distributions depending on the concentration of tea extract
to Gram-positive bacteria than Gram-negative bacteria. In or epicatechin in the samples [56]. The nanoparticles were
addition, silver nanoparticles have been synthesized using in fact interacting with the keratinocytes. These nanopar-
sulfated polysaccharide isolated from marine red algae ticles are potentially biocompatible and warrant further
(Porphyra vietnamensis) [51]. The resulting silver nano- evaluation in other biological systems. In another example,
particles showed surface plasmon resonance centered at the use of soap nuts [57] resulted in Ag nanoparticles that
404 nm with average particle size measured to be 13  showed more inhibitory activity on pathogenic Gram-posi-
3 nm. The involvement of the sulfate moiety of the poly- tive than Gram-negative bacteria.
saccharide for reduction of silver nitrate was revealed Among the engineering achievements in the production
spectroscopically. of nanoparticles of silver and other metals, we especially
Silver nanoparticles have been synthesized from aque- note the reactor designed for Ag nanoparticles obtained by
ous silver nitrate (1 mM) using leaf broth of Ocimum lixivium of sundried Cinnamomum camphora [58]. Here,
sanctum as reductant and stabilizer [52]. The resulting synthesis was carried out in a continuous-flow tubular
silver nanoparticles ranged in size from 3 to 20 nm. Leaf microreactor (Figure 2). According to the temperature
extract of Morinda citrifolia L. was assessed for the syn- profiles, at the inlet of the microreactors at 90 8C, the high
thesis of silver nanoscale particles at different tempera- fluid temperature induced the burst of silver nuclei by
tures and reaction times [53]. High amounts of phenolic homogeneous nucleation. Subsequently, the nuclei grew
compounds in the plant extract are likely to influence the gradually along the reactors into silver nanoparticles
reduction process and stabilize nanoparticles preventing from 5 to 40 nm. Polydisperse particles were formed by
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Rotang direcon of
electric sha

Glycerin bath

Peristalc
pump

Aqueous
Lixivium of silver nitrate
C. camphora leaf
Heater Silver hydrosol

Key:
Electric sha Silicone tube ‘T’ juncon
Rotang and moving cylinder Tubular reactor

TRENDS in Biotechnology

Figure 2. Schematic of the experimental setup for continuous-flow biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles. Reproduced/adapted, with permission, from [58].

a combination of heterogeneous nucleation and Ostwald Thus, the effect of halide ions on the formation of biogeni-
ripening along the tubes at 60 8C. cally prepared gold nanotriangles using the leaf extract of
lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) plant was studied
Gold (Au) and its alloys [64]. Iodide ions have a greater propensity to transform
Gold nanoparticles can also be obtained by greener meth- flat gold nanotriangles into circular disk-like structures as
ods [59,60], but the number of reports is significantly fewer compared to other halide ions. Also, the presence of Cl
compared to that of silver. The size of gold particles may ions during the synthesis promotes the growth of nano-
vary in a considerable range (from 20 to 300 nm in distinct triangles, whereas the presence of I ions distorts the
reports). For example, a variety of gold nanoparticles nanotriangle morphology and induces the formation of
(average size 300 nm; strictly speaking, some of these aggregated spherical nanoparticles (Figure 3). By varying
are microparticles, according to a 100-nm accepted size the temperature of reaction condition, the shape, size, and
restriction of the nano-area) have been synthesized by optical properties of anisotropic nanoparticles can be fine-
banana peel extract (BPE) as a simple, non-toxic, tuned. The ability to tailor the size/morphology of gold
eco-friendly green material [61]. The boiled, crushed, nanoparticles and thus their optical properties by simple
acetone-precipitated, air-dried banana peel powder was variation in experimental conditions by a fully green chem-
used to reduce chloroauric acid. The aggregation of the istry approach could be important in applications such as
nanoparticles into microcubes and microwire networks hyperthermia and architectural optical coatings.
towards the periphery of the air-dried samples was Some gold alloys were also produced by greener routes.
observed. The involvement of carboxyl, amine, and hydrox- Dextrose and the ethanol extract of black tea (Camellia
yl groups during the synthetic process was indicated. sinensis) were used as natural reducing agents for prepar-
Nanocomposites of Au nanoparticles can also be obtained ing Au–Ag alloy nanoparticles (molar ratio 3:1, although
using tea extracts. Tea leaf extracts in 1-methyl-2-pyrro- the Au3+/Ag+ mixture was selected with a molar ratio of
lidinone (NMP) solution were used for fabrication of 20 nm 1:1) under microwave irradiation [65]. The resulting alloy
Au nanoparticles [62]. These nanoparticles were incorpo- nanoparticles were further purified with the agarose gel
rated in NMP solution of polyaniline emeraldine base
(PANIEB) to cast the nanocomposite films. TEM analysis
confirmed the presence of gold nanoparticles in polyaniline Cl- l-
matrix. In addition, a facile and completely greener route
to Au nanoparticles by mixing the Au(III) ion-dissolved rice
wine and soda at pH 6.5 at a slightly elevated temperature
(25–55 8C) in the absence of extra protective agents was
reported [63]. Rice wine was used as a solvent and a
reducing agent; soda not only functioned as a protective
agent but also played the role of base catalyst. The resul-
tant solution was quite stable: no precipitation occurred 100 nm 100 nm
even after several months. TRENDS in Biotechnology

The effects of synthetic conditions on the morphology of Figure 3. Influence of halide ions on gold nanoparticle morphology. Reproduced/
biologically-formed Au nanoparticles were examined. adapted, with permission, from [64].

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electrophoresis technique. Purified Ag–Au alloy nanopar- of MB following a second order removal rate, whereas those
ticles were spherical in the size range of 200 nm, and of MO were closer to a first order removal rate. Almost
possessed an average size of 92 nm. The final concentra- complete removal of both dyes from water takes place over
tions of glucose and plant extract should be considered as a wide range of concentrations (10–200 mg/l). Superpara-
the main parameters affecting the Ag/Au ratio in the Ag– magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles [blocking temperature (TB)
Au alloy nanoparticles. In addition, a facile and eco-friend- of 150 K and saturation magnetization of 37.1 emu/g] were
ly method for the preparation of Au–Pd bimetallic nano- synthesized via soya bean sprout (SBS) templates at room
particles (7 nm) was developed based on simultaneous temperature and normal atmospheric pressure [72].
bioreduction of Au(III) and Pd(II) precursors with Cacu- Spherical Fe3O4 nanoparticles with an average diameter
men Platycladi leaf extract in aqueous environment [66]. It of 8 nm simultaneously formed on the epidermal surface
was shown that the C=O and C–O groups in the plant and the interior stem wall of SBS, which were responsible
extract play a critical role in capping the nanoparticles. for size and morphologic control during the whole forma-
tion of nanoparticles. In addition, NixCu0.25Zn0.75–xFe2O4
Iron (Fe), its alloys, and oxides (x = 0.25, 0.35, 0.5) polycrystalline nanopowders (15–
Nanoscale iron particles, FexOy and FeOOH (in total 16 40 nm) with spinel structure were prepared by a simple
polymorphic forms) are of significant interest because of solution method using metal nitrates and Aloe vera plant
their rapidly developing applications for disinfection of extract solution [73]. The samples exhibited ferromagnetic
water and remediation of heavy metals from soils behavior. Finally, iron alloys are also available by these
[67,68]. Therefore, methods using mainly tea extracts on methods. Thus, membranes containing reactive nanopar-
the polyphenol basis, as well other plant extracts, have ticles (Fe and Fe/Pd) immobilized in a polymer film [poly-
been utilized for obtaining Fe-containing nanoparticles acrylic acid (PAA)-coated polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
[69] and their further uses for the purposes above. Thus, membrane] were prepared with the use of tea extract [74].
nanoscale zerovalent iron (NZVI) particles (Figure 4), pre- The membrane-supported nanoparticles were used for the
pared using tea polyphenols [70], were assessed with degradation of a common and highly important pollutant,
methyl tetrazolium [MTS, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5- trichloroethylene (TCE).
(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazoli-
um] and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) toxicological assays. Other metals
Some of them were found to be nontoxic compared to the Copper (Cu)
control samples prepared using the conventional borohy- Other metals and their compounds are represented by a
dride reduction protocols. considerably fewer number of reports. Highly stable
In addition to ‘pure’ iron nanoparticles produced using dispersions of nanosized copper particles with an aver-
extracts of green tea leaves, the samples may contain age particle size less than 2 nm have been synthesized
mainly iron oxide and iron oxohydroxide [71]. The nano- using a straightforward and cost-effective method,
particles were then utilized as a Fenton-like catalyst for utilizing nontoxic L-ascorbic acid as both a reducing agent
decolorization of aqueous solutions containing methylene and capping agent precursor in aqueous medium [75].
blue (MB) and methyl orange (MO) dyes. The results Also, greener fabrication of nanoparticles of copper
indicated fast removal of the dyes with the kinetic data and other metals using various fruit extracts and other
products of natural origin (such as red wine) was
patented [76].
3
Key: Palladium (Pd)
A Palladium nanoparticles (PdNps), which are of interest
B because of their catalytic properties and affinity for hydro-
C
2
gen, have been phyto-synthesized under moderate pH and
Absorbance (a.u.)

room temperature using Solanum trilobatum [77] and

conjugated with lipoic acid (S-PdNp-LA) and vitamins
(S-PdNp-Vitamin-LA). S-PdNp are polydisperse and of
different morphologies ranging from 60 to 70 nm (S-PdNp),
1 65 to 80 nm (S-PdNp-LA), and 75 to 100 nm (S-PdNp-
Vitamin-LA) in size. Bulk quantities of nanocrystals
(20–60 nm) of Pd, as well as other noble metals such as
Ag, have been obtained using coffee and tea extracts at
0 room temperature [78]. The reported method is general
300 400 500 600 700 800 and may be extended to other noble metals such as Au and
Wavelength (nm) Pt. One-pot biogenic fabrication of palladium nanoparticles
TRENDS in Biotechnology
(small size from 3.2 to 6.0 nm) was also carried out by a
simple procedure using broth of Cinnamomum camphora
Figure 4. UV spectra of (a) Fe(NO3)3 control, (b) control tea extract, and (c) the leaf without extra surfactant, capping agent, and/or tem-
reaction product (Fe nanoparticles) obtained from Fe(NO3)3 and tea extract. The
inset shows the photographic image of the tea extract, the control Fe(NO3)3 plate [79]. The size of PdNPs could be easily controlled by
solution, and after mixing them (from left to right vials). Reproduced/adapted, with variation of the initial concentration of Pd(II) ions. Like-
permission, from [70].
wise, the reaction between broth of C. camphora leaf and
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the Pd(II) species might occur according to the following Copper oxides (Cu2O and CuO)
equation (Equation 3): Cu2O nanoparticles were prepared by reduction of Barfoed’s
solution, using agriculture wastes of Arachis hypogaea L.
nPdðIIÞ þ 2R-ðOHÞn ! nPdð0Þ þ 2nR ¼ O þ 2nHþ [3]
(Fabaceae) leaf extracts containing reducing sugars, which
Finally, palladium nanoparticles (15 nm) were synthesized act as reducing agent at room temperature [88]. The alde-
using a Glycine max (soybean) leaf extract-mediated bio- hyde group present in reducing sugar plays an excellent role
synthesis process [80]. Protein-rich soybean leaf extract in the formation of cuprous oxide nanoparticles in the solu-
acts as an effective reducing agent for palladium ions. Also, tion. The cuprous oxide nanoparticles had antibacterial
these biosynthesized palladium nanoparticles can be used effects on Gram-negative Escherichia coli. The morphology
in catalysis, specifically for the degradation of azo dyes. of divalent copper oxide in 15–30 nm nanoparticles can be
controlled by tuning the amount of Aloe vera extract [89].
Platinum (Pt) This eco-friendly approach for synthesis is suitable for large-
The leaf extract of Diopyros kaki has been used as a scale commercial production and health-related applica-
reducing agent in the eco-friendly extracellular synthesis tions of CuO nanoparticles.
of platinum nanoparticles (2–12 nm, depending on the
reaction temperature and concentrations of the leaf broth Indium(III) oxide (In2O3)
and PtCl62) from an aqueous H2PtCl6.6H2O solution [81]. In addition, cubic In2O3 nanoparticles (5–50 nm) were
A greater than 90% conversion of platinum ions to nano- synthesized by a simple, cost-effective and environmental-
particles was achieved with a reaction temperature of ly friendly route using indium acetylacetonate and Aloe
95 8C and a leaf broth concentration of >10%. Platinum vera plant extract solution followed by a calcinations step
nanoparticle synthesis using Diopyros kaki may not be an in air at 400–600 8C for 2 h [90]. Alternatively, In2O3
enzyme-mediated process. Other related methods for plat- hollow spheres were ‘one-pot’ synthesized by hydrothermal
inum nanoparticle formation are reviewed in [82]. reaction of glucose and InCl3 mixtures at 180 8C for 12 h,
followed by calcination in air at 600 8C for 1 h [91]. These
Metal oxides and metal salts spheres were sensitive to six flammable organic vapors
Titanium(IV) oxide (TiO2) including alcohol, acetone, 93# gasoline, formaldehyde,
In addition to the above-mentioned iron oxide nanoparti- chloroform, and acetonitrile.
cles, other metal oxide nanoparticles like TiO2 (one of the
most important compounds in nanotechnology) have also Lead(II) sulfide (PbS)
been obtained by greener methods. Titanium(IV) oxide Finally, the intracellular synthesis of stable cubic lead
nanoparticles (100–150 nm) have been prepared from tita- sulfide nanoparticles by a marine yeast, Rhodosporidium
nium isopropoxide solution using nyctanthes leaf extract diobovatum, has been reported [92]. The particles were
[83]. Alternatively, TiO2 nanoparticles (25–100 nm) have found to be composed of lead and sulfur in a 1:2 ratio
been prepared by using 0.3% aqueous extract prepared indicating that PbS nanoparticles were capped by a sul-
from latex of Jatropha curcas L. [84]. Curcain (enzyme) and fur-rich peptide. It was revealed that 55% of lead in the
cyclic peptides [namely curcacycline A (an octapeptide) and medium was accumulated in the exponential phase, where-
curcacycline B (a nonapeptide)] have been identified as as a further 35% was accumulated in the stationary phase,
possible reducing and capping agents present in the latex thus providing 90% overall recovery of PbS nanoparticles.
of J. curcas L. There are two broad categories of nanopar-
ticles – the first have diameters from 25 to 50 nm and are Concluding remarks and future perspectives
mostly spherical in shape; the second have larger and Fabrication of metal, metal oxides, and salt nanoparticles
uneven shapes. using natural substances is a very promising area in nano-
technology, which came to prominence only a few years ago.
Zinc(II) oxide (ZnO) Useful materials can be produced easily even in reasonable
Highly stable and spherical zinc oxide nanoparticles (25– scale because the biomaterial-based routes eliminate the
40 nm) are produced by using zinc nitrate and Aloe barba- need to use harsh or toxic chemicals. Waste products are
densis Miller leaf extract [85]. As a result, greater than 95% relatively innocuous and easier to dispose of because they
conversion to nanoparticles was achieved using aloe leaf are mostly composed of leftover natural plant extracts. The
broth concentration greater than 25%. It was shown that majority of greener synthetic efforts reported thus far are
the zinc oxide nanoparticles were poly dispersed. The dedicated to obtaining silver nanoparticles, perhaps due to
particle size could be controlled by varying the concentra- their ease of preparation, importance in disinfection science,
tions of leaf broth solution. Alternatively, ZnO nanoparti- and utility in several applications. Several other metals (Au,
cles (30–60 nm) were synthesized via the sol–gel method in Fe, Pt, Pd, Cu), their alloys, oxides, and salts have also been
gelatin media [86], where long-chain gelatin compounds obtained by ‘greener’ methods.
were utilized to terminate the growth of ZnO nanoparticles In these greener routes, products from nature or derived
and to stabilize them. It was concluded by authors that from plant materials such as extracts of various plants, tea,
gelatin is an interesting material that can be used as a coffee, banana, simple amino acids, as well as wine, table
stabilizer in the sol–gel technique for preparing small ZnO- sugar, and glucose, have been utilized as reductants and
NPs. In addition, formation of ZnO (and also gold, silver, capping agents. A considerable number of efforts are de-
copper, and gold–silver–copper alloy) in living plants is voted to tea extracts, which, owing to a number of poly-
discussed in an extremely interesting recent review [87]. phenols present, can act as both chelating/reducing and
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