1.

The stadium
as a building type
1.1 A venue for watching sport 1.3 Current requirements
1.2 History

1.1 A venue for watching sport that are out of scale with their surroundings and in
conflict with each other, and often harshly detailed
1.1.1 Architectural quality and finished.
A sports stadium is essentially a huge theatre for
the presentation of heroic feats (Figure 1.1). From This book cannot show the reader how to create
such a combination of dramatic function plus monu- great architecture. By clarifying the technical require-
mental scale ought to flow powerful civic architec- ments to the greatest possible degree, and showing
ture. The first great prototype, the Colosseum of how these problems have been solved in particular
Rome, did indeed achieve this ideal, but very few cases, it hopes at least to ease the designer’s strug-
stadia since then have succeeded as well. The gles with his brief and leave him better equipped
worst are sordid, uncomfortable places, casting for the really difficult task of thinking his solutions
a spell of depression on their surroundings for through to the point where they become a fine
the long periods when they stand empty and building.
unused, in sharp contrast with the short periods of
extreme congestion on match days. The best are
1.1.2 Financial viability
comfortable and safe, and offer their patrons an
In the 1950s sports grounds around the world were
enjoyable afternoon’s or evening’s entertainment –
filled to bursting point at every match and watch-
but even these often fall short of architectural
ing live sport was a major pastime for millions. Now,
excellence.
only a few decades later, those same grounds are
fighting for financial survival, and owners and man-
Subduing the tiers of seating, the ramps or stairs, agers search for solutions.
and the immense roof structures into a single harmo-
nious and delightful architectural ideal is a challenge The truth is that it is now very difficult for a sports
that seems almost beyond solution, so that sports stadium to be financially viable without some degree
stadia tend to be lumpy agglomerations of elements of subsidy, whether open or covert. The most that
1
The stadium as a building type

Figure 1.1 ‘Sport is theatre where the

primal things are in play – courage, passion,
perfidy, endeavour, fear; where grace and
sometimes incredible gifts pass in front of
us’ (David Robson, former sports editor of
The Sunday Times).

Photograph: Getty

can usually be done is to produce a facility that will to limit its annual loss, we are told, to under two
satisfy a viable combination of the following three million dollars (US).
factors: • The management of the 1988 Joe Robbie Stadium
in Miami (unroofed; seating capacity 73 000) have
• The required subsidy is not impossibly large. optimistically suggested that they are among the
• The project is sufficiently attractive to public first stadia in the USA to be ‘turning the corner’
sources of finance to justify investment from the thanks to new and aggressive financing arrange-
public purse ... ments, but observers in the industry are sceptical
• and sufficiently attractive to private spon- of this claim, particularly in view of rising interest
sors to persuade them to bridge any remaining rates.
financial gap. • Construction of the famous 1989 Toronto Skydome
in Canada (retractable roof; seating capacity
Anyone who considers the above statements too 56 000) was funded by a unique system of private
pessimistic should ponder the American experi- sponsorship and public funding, but after three
ence. The USA and Canada have highly affluent years of use and huge publicity it was said to be
populations totalling 276 million, are keen on sport struggling with heavy debt problems. As in many
and have energetic leisure entrepreneurs and man- cases these were brought on partly by unforeseen
agers very skilled at extracting the customer’s dol- interest rate rises – which merely demonstrates
lar. Of all countries the USA and Canada should how vulnerable such huge projects are to uncon-
be able to make their stadia pay, and they have trollable factors.
seemingly explored every avenue – huge seating
capacities, multi-use functions, adaptability of seat- Just as we cannot prescribe rules which will pro-
ing configurations, total enclosure to ensure comfort, duce great architecture we cannot give formulae
retractable roofing to allow for different weather con- which will guarantee a profitable stadium. Teams
ditions and yet profitability remains elusive, particu- of experts must analyse the costs and potential rev-
larly when the huge initial costs of development are enues for each individual case and evolve a solution
taken into account. To take three leading examples: that will be viable – or, at worst, leave a gap that can
be bridged by private sponsors or public support.
• The beautifully situated 1968 Three Rivers Stadium
at Pittsburgh (unroofed; seating capacity 47 971 This book identifies the factors that must be con-
for baseball; 59 000 for football) has been regu- sidered. But before getting into such technical details
larly sold out for every football match but is happy we must make the most important point of all: that
2
 The stadium as a building type

Figure 1.2 The U-shaped sunken stadium at Athens, first built in 331 BC for the staging of foot races, was restored and
used for the first modern Olympics in 1896.

sports and leisure facilities are one of the great his- long side – very much as in a modern facility. The sta-
toric building types, representing some of the very dium at Athens was first built in 331 BC, reconstructed
earliest works of architecture (Greek stadia), some in AD 160 and reconstructed again in 1896 for the
of the most pivotal (Roman amphitheatres and ther- first modern Olympic games. In this form it can still
mae), and some of the most beautiful (from the be seen, accommodating up to 50 000 people in
Colosseum in Rome to the Olympic Park in Munich 46 rows (Figure 1.2).
twenty centuries later). Therefore we will start with a
brief historic survey. Hillside stadia existed at Olympia, Thebes and
Epidauros, and their kinship with the Greek theatre
1.2 History is unmistakable: these are essentially elongated the-
atres for the staging of spectacular physical feats,
1.2.1 Greek and from them runs a direct line of development
The ancestral prototypes for modern sports facil- firstly to the multi-tiered Roman amphitheatre and
ities of all kinds are the stadia and hippodromes of ultimately to the modern stadium.
ancient Greece. Here Olympic and other sporting
contests were staged, starting (as far as we can tell) The civic importance of such sporting facil-
in the eighth century BC. ities in Greek life is demonstrated particularly well
at the ancient city of Olympia on the island of
Stadia Peloponnesus. The site housed a great complex
Greek stadia (foot racecourses) were laid out in a of temples and altars to various deities and, at the
U-shape, with the straight end forming the start- height of its development, was a rendezvous for the
line. These stadia varied somewhat in length, the whole Greek world. There was a sports field situated
one at Delphi being just under 183 m long and that adjacent to an enclosed training gymnasium, and
at Olympia about 192m. Such stadia were built in along the edge of the field a colonnade with stone
all cities where games were played. Some, follow- steppings to accommodate the spectators. As the
ing the pattern of Greek theatres, were cut out of a track became more popular two stands were con-
hillside so that banks of seats with good sightlines structed, facing each other on opposite sides of the
could be formed naturally, while others were con- activity area. The fully developed stadium consisted
structed on flat ground. In the latter case the per- of a track 192 m long and 32m wide with rising tiers
formance area was sometimes slightly excavated to of seats on massive sloping earth banks along the
allow for the formation of shallow seating tiers along sides, the latter ultimately accommodating up to
the sides. 45 000 spectators. The stadium had two entrances,
the Pompic and the Secret, the latter used only by
Stadia built on the flat existed at Ephesus, Delphi the judges.
and Athens. The one at Delphi was almost 183 m
long by 28m wide, had a shallow bank of seats Adjacent to the stadium at Olympia was a much
along one side and around the curved end, and longer hippodrome for horse and chariot races,
the judges’ seats were at the midpoint of the and in these twin facilities we may clearly discern
3
The stadium as a building type

the embryonic forms of modern athletic stadia and 46 BC, accommodated 21 000 spectators in three
racing circuits. The stadium has been excavated and storeys and despite considerable damage, lack-
restored and can be studied, but the hippodrome ing for instance its third storey which held the posts
has not survived. supporting a tented roof, it is still used every year for
bullfighting. The Nimes amphitheatre, dating from
While modern large capacity, roofed stadia can sel- the second century AD, is smaller but in excellent
dom have the simple forms used in ancient Greece, condition and also in regular use as a bullring. The
there are occasions when the quiet repose of these great amphitheatre in Verona, built in about 100 AD,
beautiful antecedents could be emulated. The is world famous as a venue for opera performances.
essential points are unobtrusive form and use of nat- Originally it measured 152 m by 123m overall, but
ural materials which blend so closely with the sur- very little remains of the outer aisle and it currently
roundings that it is difficult to say where ‘landscape’ seats about 22 000 people. The arena measures
ends and ‘building’ begins. 73m by 44 m.

Hippodromes The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome (Figure 1.3), bet-

These courses for horse and chariot races were ter known as the Colosseum from the eighth century
roughly 198 m to 228m long and 37 m wide and were onwards, is the greatest exemplar of this building
laid out, once again, in a U-shape. Like Greek the- type and has seldom been surpassed to this day
atres, hippodromes were usually made on the slope as a rational fusion of engineering, theatre and art.
of a hill to give rising tiers of seating, and from them Construction began in AD 70 and finished 12 years
developed the later Roman circuses, although these later. The structure formed a giant ellipse of 189 m
were more elongated and much narrower. by 155 m and rose to a height of four storeys,
accommodating 48 000 people – a stadium capac-
1.2.2 Roman ity that would not be exceeded until the twentieth
century. Spectators had good sightlines to the arena
Amphitheatres below, the latter being an ellipse of roughly 88 m by
The militaristic Romans were more interested in 55m bounded by a 4.6 m high wall. There were 80
public displays of mortal combat than in races and arched openings to each of the lower three storeys
athletic events, and to accommodate this spec- (with engaged columns and encircling entablatures
tacle they developed a new amphitheatrical form: applied to the outer wall surface as ornamentation),
an elliptical arena surrounded on all sides by high- the openings at ground level giving entrance to the
rising tiers of seats enabling the maximum number of tiers of seats. The structural cross-section (Figure
spectators to have a clear view of the terrible events 1.3), broadening from the top down to the base,
staged before them. The term ‘arena’ is derived from solved three problems at one stroke:
the Latin word for ‘sand’ or ‘sandy land’, referring to
the layer of sand that was spread on the activity area
to absorb spilled blood. • First, it formed the artificial hillside required from
the theatrical point of view.
The overall form was, in effect, two Greek theatres • Second, it formed a stable structure. The tiers
joined together to form a complete ellipse. But the of seats were supported on a complex series of
size of the later Roman amphitheatres ruled out barrel-vaults and arches which distributed the
any reliance on natural ground slopes to provide immense loads via an ever-widening structure
the necessary seating profile, therefore the Romans down to foundation level;
began to construct artificial slopes around the cen- • Third it matched the volume of internal space to
tral arena – first in timber (these have not survived) the numbers of people circulating at each level –
and, starting in the first century AD, in stone and fewest at the top, most at the base. The internal
concrete. Magnificent examples of the latter may ambulatories and access passages formed by the
still be seen in Arles and Nimes (stone) and in Rome, structural arcades were so well-planned that the
Verona and Pula (stone and a form of concrete). entire amphitheatre could, it is thought, have been
The amphitheatre at Arles, constructed in around evacuated in a matter of minutes.
4
 The stadium as a building type

‘A History of Architecture’, by Sir Banister Fletcher, published by Elsevier Press

Figure 1.3 The Colosseum of Rome (AD 82) was built for gladiatorial combat and not for races. It therefore took the
form of a theatre in which rising tiers of seats, forming an artificial hillside, completely surrounded an arena. The
great stone and concrete drum fused engineering, theatre and art more successfully than most modern stadia.

5
The stadium as a building type

The arena was used for gladiatorial contests and 1.2.3 Mediaeval and after
other entertainments and could be flooded with As Christianity swept through Europe the emphasis
water for naval and aquatic displays, thus anticipat- of society shifted to religious salvation, and archi-
ing modern mass entertainments. Beneath the arena tectural effort was turned to the building of churches
was a warren of chambers and passageways to rather than places of recreation and entertainment.
accommodate performers, gladiators and animals. No major new sports stadia or amphitheatres would
The amphitheatre could be roofed by stretching can- be built for the next fifteen centuries.
vas awnings across the open top.
Sports buildings inherited from the Roman era
All these diverse functions have been smoothly
became neglected. Some were converted to new
assimilated into a great drum that stands magni-
uses as markets or tenement dwellings, the amphi-
ficently in the townscape – functional in layout,
theatre at Arles, for instance, being transformed into
rational in appearance, yet rich and expressive in its
a citadel with about 200 houses and a church inside
surface modelling. Present-day designers could do
it (built partly with stone from the amphitheatre
worse than to spend some time contemplating the
structure); many others were simply demolished.
achievements of the Colosseum before tackling their
own complex briefs.
During the Rennaisance and after, competitions on
Circuses foot or horseback were held in open fields or town
As the Greek theatre led to the Roman amphitheatre, squares, sometimes with temporary stages and
so the Greek hippodrome led to the Roman circus. covered areas for important spectators rather along
These circuses were U-shaped equestrian race- the lines of the first Greek hippodromes – but no
courses with the straight end forming the entrance permanent edifices were erected even though deep
and accommodating the stalls for horses and char- interest was taken in classicism and in the architec-
iots. The starting and return courses were separated ture of stadia and amphitheatres. The Colosseum
by a spina – a low wall decorated with carvings and was particularly closely studied, but only for its les-
statues. Seats rose in tiers along the straight sides sons in façade composition and modelling, which
of the U and round the curved end, the lower seats were then transferred to other building types.
being in stone and reserved for members of the
upper classes, the upper seats made of wood. 1.2.4 The nineteenth century
The stadium as a building type saw a revival after the
A notable early example was the Circus Maximus
industrial revolution. There was a growing demand
in Rome (fourth century BC), followed in 46 BC by a
for mass spectator events from the public, there were
successor of the same name. This was possibly the
entrepreneurs who wished to cater for this demand
largest stadium ever built. It was about 660 m long
and there were new structural technologies to facili-
and 210 m wide and offered all-seating accommoda-
tate the construction of stadia or enclosed halls.
tion for spectators in three tiers parallel to the track.

Other Roman examples include the Circus Flaminius A particularly important impetus came from the
(third century BC) and the Circus Maxentius (fourth revival of the Olympic tradition at the end of the
century AD), the latter being the only Roman circus nineteenth century. At the instigation of Baron Pierre
still extant today. Outside Rome were the Byzantium de Coubertin a congress met in 1894, leading to the
Hippodrome of the second century AD (based on the first modern Olympic games being staged at Athens
Circus Maximus) and the Pessimus Hippodrome in 1896. For this purpose the ancient stadium of
which was unique at the time in consisting of a 331 BC, which had been excavated and studied by
Greek theatre and a Roman hippodrome linked at a German architect/archeologist called Ziller, was
the centre of the hippodrome via the theatre stage. rebuilt to the traditional Greek elongated U-pattern,
Two events could be staged separately in theatre its marble terraces accommodating about 50 000
and hippodrome, or the latter could be used in com- spectators (Figure 1.2). Thereafter, Olympic games
bination for a single grand event. This building was were held every four years, except when interrupted
an obvious ancestor of the modern multi-purpose by war, and those which produced notable changes
stadium complex. or advances in stadium design are noted below.
6
 The stadium as a building type

1.2.5 Twentieth-century Olympic stadia into the surrounding landscape and making no mon-
In 1908 the games were held in London, where the umental gestures. The architect was Otto March,
White City stadium was built for the purpose, the and this stadium formed a prototype for the numer-
architect being James Fulton. It was a functional ous Sport-parks built in Germany in the 1920s.
building accommodating over 80 000 spectators,
had a steel frame, and was the first purpose- In 1936 the city of Berlin did finally host the Olympic
designed modern Olympic stadium. The arena was games. The Nazis had recently assumed power and
gigantic by the standards of today (Figure 1.4), used the occasion to extend the stadium of 1913
accommodating a multitude of individual sports and to a great oval structure accommodating 110 000
surrounded by a cycle track. It was subsequently spectators including 35 000 standees in 71 rows
decided to reduce the number of Olympic sports, (Figure 1.5). The monumental stone-clad stadium
partly to give a smaller arena. In later years White was, unfortunately, used not only for sporting func-
City stadium became increasingly neglected and tions but also for mass political demonstrations. In
was finally demolished in the 1980s. spite of these unpleasant associations the Berlin
stadium with its rational planning and powerful
Owing to the First World War the 1916 games did columniated façade is a highly impressive design.
not take place, but a stadium with a capacity of The architect was Werner March.
60 000 had been built in 1913 in Berlin in anticipa-
tion of these games. Its interest lies in its pleasantly The 1948 Olympics returned to London, where the
natural form: like the theatres and stadia of ancient 24-year-old Wembley Stadium was renovated by its
Greece it is shaped out of the earth, blending quietly original designer Sir Owen Williams.

Figure 1.4 White City stadium in London (1908) was the first modern Olympic stadium and accommodated over 80000
spectators. Its athletics field was encircled by a cycle racing track which made the arena larger than later examples.

Figure 1.5 The Berlin Olympic stadium of 1936 accommodated over 100000 people in a rationally planned elliptical
layout.

7
The stadium as a building type

The 1960 Olympiad in Rome marked a new depart- single tall mast on the perimeter of the circular plan,
ure. Instead of staging all events on a single site as and concrete panels hung from the cables to form a
before, a decentralized plan was decided upon, with semi-rigid roof structure. As built the roof forms of
the athletics stadium in one part of the city and other the two gymnasia may look natural and inevitable,
facilities some distance away on the urban outskirts, but both were the result of very extensive testing and
and this was to remain the preferred approach for tuning on large-scale models, not merely for struc-
decades to come. The main stadium, by architect tural efficiency but also for visual composition.
Annibale Vitellozzi, was an uncovered three-storey
structure (Figure 1.6) and bore some similarities to In 1968 Mexico City was the Olympic host and rose
the Berlin stadium. It has an orderly and handsome to the occasion with several notable stadia. The
limestone-clad façade wrapped round its oval shape, University Stadium, built in 1953 for a capacity of
to which a roof was added in 1990 when Rome 70 000 spectators, was enlarged in 1968 to become
hosted the Soccer World Cup competition. Two of the main Olympic stadium with 87 000 seats (Figure
the fully enclosed smaller halls dating from 1960 1.9). Its low graceful form is notable: like the 1913
are architecturally significant: the 16 000 capacity stadium in Berlin this is basically an ‘earth stadium’
Palazzo dello Sport (Figure 1.7) and the 5000 capac- which barely rises above the natural landscape
ity Palazzetto dello Sport. Both are circular, column- and uses hardly any reinforced concrete, blending
free halls which combine great visual elegance with smoothly into its surroundings. It also uses splen-
functional efficiency. The architects were Marcello did sculptural decoration to enhance its exterior
Piacentini for the Palazzo and Annibale Vitellozzi for form. More impressive in scale is the Aztec Stadium
the Palazzetto, and Pier Luigi Nervi was the struc- (architect Pedro Ramirez Vasquez) accommodating
tural engineer for both. 107 000 seated spectators. Most viewers are under
cover, and while some are a very long way from the
In 1964 the Olympics were held in Tokyo. The Jingu pitch it is a wonderful experience to see this num-
National Stadium, first built in 1958, was extended ber of cheering fans gathered under one roof. This is
for the occasion (Figure 1.8) but, as in Rome, two said to be the largest covered stadium in the world.
smaller fully-enclosed halls caught international Finally, as at Rome in 1960 and Tokyo in 1964, there
attention. These were Kenzo Tange’s Swimming was a fully enclosed indoor arena also worthy of
Arena and Sports Arena seating 4000 and 15 000 note.
spectators respectively. The Swimming Arena build-
ing was justifiably called ‘a cathedral for swim- In 1972 the Olympics returned to Germany. The
ming’ by Avery Brundage, the International Olympic site, formerly an expanse of nondescript land near
Committee (IOC) President. Here, 4000 spectators Munich, was converted with exemplary skill to a
could sit under one of the most dramatic roof struc- delightful landscape of green hills, hollows, meadows
tures ever devised: steel cables were draped from a and watercourses, and an existing heap of rubble

Figure 1.6 The Rome Olympic stadium of 1960, also a colonnaded oval bowl, bears a family resemblance to that of
Berlin.

8
 The stadium as a building type

Figure 1.7 A smaller enclosed stadium with column-free interior and of exceptional architectural merit: the Palazzetto
dello Sport for the Rome Olympics of 1960. It has a concrete shell roof resting on 36 pre-cast perimeter supports.

became a small green hill. Perhaps in a conscious

attempt to erase memories of the heavy monumen-
tality of the 1936 Berlin stadium, a very expensive
but delightfully elegant lightweight roof was thrown
over one side of the stadium (Figure 1.10) and
extended to several other facilities, creating an airy
structure that still holds its age well 30 years later.
The arena is embedded in an artificially created hol-
low so that the roof, which consists of transparent
acrylic panels on a steel net hung from a series of
tapered masts, seems to float above the parkland, its
gentle undulations mirroring those of the landscape
below. It must be said that environmental problems
Figure 1.8 The Tokyo Olympic Stadium of 1964. have been experienced under the pool section of this
9
The stadium as a building type

Figure 1.9 The Mexico City Olympic Stadium of 1968 seated spectators in a low, graceful shape sunk into the landscape.

Figure 1.10 The Munich Olympic Stadium of 1972 brought the series of architecturally outstanding stadia of the preced-
ing decades to a climax.

plexiglass canopy and that a PVC-coated polyester In 1992 Barcelona hosted the Olympics, and the
parasol was suspended under the arena section to 1929 Montjuic World’s Fair stadium was extensively
shade the area below from the sun. Nevertheless remodelled by architect Vittorio Gregotti, leaving
the roof, which is further described in Section 4.8, virtually only the Romanesque façades intact, to
remains an outstanding achievement: in addition to cater for the majority of track, field and pitch sports.
being beautiful it is the largest to date, covering 21 Everything inside the perimeter walls of the stadium
acres or 8.5 hectares. The stadium designers were was removed, the playing area was lowered to allow
architects Günter Behnisch and Partners, and engi- twice the previous seating capacity, and a new tun-
neers Frei Otto and Fritz Leonardt. nel system was installed around the 9-lane running

10
 The stadium as a building type

track so that members of the press could circulate combined with very limited income, has helped cre-
freely without interfering with the events above. ate a tradition of spectator ‘closeness’ which takes
Outside the old gate to the stadium is a new piazza, two forms:
from which access is gained to four other facilities:
the 17 000-seat Palau Sant Jordi gymnasium (archi- • First, there is a tradition of standing terraces
tect Arata Isozaki), the Picornell swimming complex, in which fans stand closely together. This is no
the University for Sport, and the International Media longer acceptable at top division clubs on safety
centre. The site is very compact compared to those grounds and all standing terraces in the Premier
of most other recent Olympic games. and First Divisions in the UK have been converted
to seats – see Chapters 7 and 13.
Following concerns about the long-term viability of • Second, British football stadia have long been
huge stadia built just for Olympic athletics events, designed to accommodate spectators very close
most notably in the case of the Montreal stadium to the pitch. This allows intimate contact with the
built for the games in 1976, later host cities have game but makes it difficult to incorporate an ath-
constructed stadia with their post-Olympic life in letics track round the perimeter of the pitch. While
mind. The stadium at Atlanta for the 1996 Games this intimate social atmosphere is a much admired
was designed to be converted after the games into a aspect of the British football stadium, and one
baseball stadium, and that for the Sydney Olympics which most clubs would wish to retain, it seems
in 2000 by HOK Sport was designed with 30 000 possible that major stadia will increasingly be
temporary seats that were removed after the games designed for multi-purpose uses (including athlet-
so the building could be reduced in size to host an ics in specialist cases).
annual programme of games of rugby and Australian
rules football. In European football there is a very different pat-
tern, with each stadium typically owned by the local
The best of the above structures rise to the level of municipality and used by a large number of sports
great architecture, most notably perhaps the Rome, clubs. The football clubs run their own lotteries,
Munich, and Tokyo buildings. Interesting stadia ploughing the profits back into the game; many sta-
were built for the games of 1976 (Montreal), 1980 dia are also used for other sports, particularly ath-
(Moscow), 1988 (Seoul), and 2000 (Sydney), but we letics. For all these reasons European stadia have
do not have the space to show them here. Some in the past tended to be better funded than British
information on the technically interesting but the ones and somewhat better designed and built –
problematic Montreal stadium is given in Section 4.4. examples are Düsseldorf, Cologne or the World Cup
venue at Turin. Dual-use facilities have the drawback
1.2.6 Twentieth-century single-sport stadia that the placement of an athletics track around the
As the above Olympic stadia were being created, pitch pushes spectators away from the playing area,
increasingly ambitious facilities were also evolving thus reducing spectator/player contact, but such
for specific sports such as football (also called soc- loss of intimacy must be weighed against the advan-
cer in the UK and USA), rugby, American football, tage of better community use.
baseball, tennis and cricket.
The most notable British football stadia are those of
Football the Premier League clubs. Elsewhere there is, sad to
Football stadia predominate in Europe and much of say, a depressing tendency for clubs to settle for the
South America, owing to the popularity of the game cheapest and quickest solution, with little or none of
in these countries. But different traditions in these the vision occasionally encountered on the continent
different regions have led to a variety of architectural of Europe. Exceptions in the UK are Huddersfield,
types. Bolton, and the new Arsenal stadium in London.

In the UK the typical pattern is for each stadium to Football is very popular in South America, where
be owned by a particular football club and to be used there is a liking for very large stadia. The largest
only by that club. This dedication to a single sport, in the world is the Maracana Municipal stadium in

11
The stadium as a building type

Photograph: Action Images

Figure 1.11 When it opened in 1950 the Maracana Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, accommodated around 200 000
people. In 1998 it was renovated and converted to an all-seater, and the capacity reduced to 70 000. Architects: Rafael
Galvão, Pedro Paulo Bernardes Bastos, Orlando Azevedo and Antônio Dias Carneiro.

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Figure 1.11), which has a Other British rugby stadia worth studying are the Mille-
normal ground capacity of 103 000 spectators, of nnium Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park, Cardiff (which is
whom 77 000 may take a seat. It contains one of the successfully used for international rugby and soccer)
first of the ‘modern’ versions of the dry moat to sep- and the Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh. The latter
arate spectators from the field of play, the moat is an example, like Twickenham, of an entire stadium
being 2.1m wide and about 1.5 m deep. This is being rebuilt.
rather small by current standards (see Section
6.3) but it did establish a trend in player/spectator Other leading rugby stadia include the Sydney
separation which has been used round the world Football Stadium in Australia (Figure 1.12), the Stade
including, for instance, the 100 000-capacity Seoul de France in Paris, Lansdowne Road in Dublin, and
Olympic stadium of 1988. Ellis Park in Johannesburg.

The stadia built for the 1990 World Cup in Italy, and Rugby has moved increasingly towards stadia
the 2002 World Cup in Japan and Korea, set very shared with football. Examples in the UK include
high design standards. Watford, Huddersfield, and Queens Park Rangers.
Greater attention has to be paid to the grass pitch to
Rugby permit joint use.
One of the most important British examples is
Twickenham Rugby Football Ground near London, American football and baseball
dating back to 1907. The 10-acre site has under- After the First World War the USA broke new ground
gone considerable development since then. The with a series of pioneering stadia built particularly for
East, North, West and South stands are linked by a two burgeoning national sports – American football
single 39m-deep cantilevered roof sweeping round and baseball.
all four sides of the field and total ground capacity
is 75 000, soon to be expanded to 82 000, all seated To cater for the growing popularity of American
and all under cover. Because the stands shade the football there evolved a new type of single-tier ellip-
natural grass turf for part of the day they have trans- tical bowl of vast capacity surrounding a rectangu-
lucent roofs to allow some transmission of sunlight, lar football pitch. The first was the Yale Bowl at New
including ultraviolet radiation, to the pitch. Haven (1914, capacity 64 000). It was followed by
12
 The stadium as a building type

Figure 1.12 Sydney Football Stadium

for AFL football and rugby is a design of
fluidity and grace. Architects: Philip Cox
Richardson Taylor & Partners.

Photograph: Cox Architects & Planners

the Rose Bowl at Pasadena, California (capacity on five levels, and the Minute Maid stadium in
92 000), the Orange Bowl in Miami (1937, capacity Houston seating 41 000 spectators, and with a
72 000), Ann Arbor stadium in Michigan (capacity closing roof.
107 000) and others. Stands in the largest of these
were up to 90 rows deep, the more distant specta- The Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, opened
tors being so far from the pitch that they could not in 1975, is the largest of this generation of stadia.
see the ball clearly. It has an area of 13 acres, is covered by one of
the world’s longest roof-spans with a diameter of
207m, is 83 m tall and has a maximum capacity
Baseball became the second great popular sport.
of 72000 for football. One of its most interesting fea-
Because it requires a very differently shaped pitch
tures is a gondola suspended from the centre of the
and seating configuration than football a series of
roof, comprising six television screens of 8 m each,
specialized baseball stadia were built, including the
showing a range of information including instant
famous Yankee Stadium in New York (1924, cap-
action-replays.
acity 57 000).

Many of these great stadia catered for both

Typically the stadia for these two sports were urban American football and baseball (and usually other
stadia, built in the midst of the populations they types of activity) in an attempt to maximize revenue.
served, and typically they were open or only partly However, as already mentioned, the shapes of foot-
roofed. After the Second World War there was a ball and baseball pitches are so different that it is
new wave of stadium building, but the typology difficult to provide ideal seating configurations for
shifted gradually towards multi-purpose facilities, both, even with movable seating systems as in the
often fully roofed, and often situated out of town, John Shea dual-purpose stadium of 1964. The Harry
surrounded by acres of car parking. Between 1960 S Truman Sports Complex in Kansas of 1972 there-
and 1977 over 30 such major stadia were built, the fore separated the two sports: the Royals Stadium
most impressive being the Oakland Coliseum, John overlooks a baseball pitch (Figure 1.13), and its sis-
Shea Stadium in New York (1964, baseball and foot- ter Arrowhead Stadium a football field (Figure 1.14),
ball), and the Busch Stadium in St Louis (baseball). each of them being shaped to suit its particular
Recent examples are the Comiskey Park Baseball sport. Each stadium has its own entertainment facili-
Stadium in Chicago (1991), seating 43 000 spectators ties, etc. for its particular group of patrons.

13
The stadium as a building type

attracts about 40 000 people each year. The tour-

nament facilities comprise eighteen grass courts, five
red shale courts, three clay courts, one artificial grass
court and five indoor courts. In addition to these
tournament facilities there are also 14 grass practice
courts in the adjacent Aorangi Park.

To many people ‘Wimbledon’ means the Centre

Court. The stadium surrounding this famous patch
of grass was built in 1922 and has been gradually
upgraded and renewed ever since. While it suffers
from compromised sightlines from some seats, the
stadium does in many ways give the most satisfy-
ing ‘tennis experience’ in the world: the tight cluster-
ing of spectators round the grass court, under a low
roof which reflects the buzz of sound and applause
from the fans beneath, creates an intimate theatrical
Figure 1.13 In the Harry S Truman complex in Kansas, the
Kauffman (originally called the Royals) Stadium is designed atmosphere and an intensity of concentration which
specifically for baseball. Architects: Howard Needles are missing from most other venues. To prepare the
Tammen & Bergendoff (HNTB). Club for the next century a comprehensive 20-year
master plan for the entire site has been prepared and
implemented. It includes a new No 1 court designed
to replicate the intimate Centre Court atmosphere.

There are three other international Grand Slam tennis

venues which are comparable in scale and complex-
ity to Wimbledon: Flushing Meadows in the USA1,
Flinders Park in Australia, and Roland Garros in
France. They all vary greatly in terms of atmosphere
and tradition.

In North America the US Open Championship is

played at Flushing Meadows in New York, where the
spectators’ attitude to viewing is much more casual
than at Wimbledon. This is reflected in the design
of the Principal Court where the spectators sit out
in the open under a busy airport flightpath, with the
outermost seats too distant to offer good viewing.
Figure 1.14 The Arrowhead Stadium for American football The sense of detachment seen here is quite charac-
is a separate entity, in recognition of the very different teristic of US stadia which tend to be very large and
seating geometries required for good viewing of the two to be patronized by spectators who are not averse
games. Architects: Charles Deaton, Golden in association to wandering around getting snacks and drinks while
with Kivett & Myers.
a game is in progress.

Tennis
The world’s most famous tennis venue is the 1
Notable non-Grand Slam stadia in the US include the
All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club at recently-built ATP Championship Stadia in Cincinnati and
Wimbledon in London, home since 1922 of The the Fitzgerald Tennis Centre in Washington, both designed
Championships. The Championship fortnight now by Browning Day Mullins Dierdorf Inc.

14
 The stadium as a building type

Figure 1.15a and b The Rod

Laver Arena at the Melbourne and
Olympic Parks, Australia (origi-
nally known as the Centre Court,
Flinders Park), was a pioneering
structure when built
in the 1980s. Architects: Peddle
Thorp & Learmonth in association
with Philip Cox & Partners.

(a)

Photographs: Cox Architects & Planners

(b)

Australia’s National Tennis Centre at Melbourne and The front rows of the Rod Laver Arena, also known
Olympic Parks (originally known as Flinders Park, as the Centre Court (Figure 1.16), are at a greater
Melbourne) was constructed on derelict land in distance from the court than at Wimbledon or even
1986–87. It can seat a total of around 29 000 Flushing Meadows on the theory that a ball travel-
spectators at 15 courts, which include the Rod Laver ling at 180km/h cannot be seen properly by viewers
Arena (Figure 1.15). In addition to these there are five who are too close to it. The validity of this approach
indoor practice courts, which are now thought to be is contested by those who hold that spectators
too few. want to be close to the action, even if that means
15
The stadium as a building type

Cricket
Lord’s Cricket Ground in London has been the home
of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) since 1814
and is the symbolic centre of world cricket. The
12-acre site accommodates spectators in a variety
of open and roofed stands which have gradually
grown up round the playing field. The site develop-
ment policy is to deliberately build on this pattern
of individual buildings surrounding a green, instead
of moving towards a unified stadium built to a sin-
gle architectural style. The policy is clearly reflected
Cox Architects & Planners

in the 1987 Mound Stand (Figure 1.17), which cost

approximately £4 million and replaced an earlier
stand on the same spot, and the 1991 Compton
and Edrich Stands which cost approximately £5
million. The Mound Stand seats 5400 spectators in
two main tiers, 4500 at terrace (lower) level and 900
at promenade (upper) level, the upper seating level
being sheltered by a translucent tented roof.
Figure 1.16 Plan of the Rod Laver Arena (see Figure 1.15),
which seats 15 000 spectators. A new stand by Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners has
been completed on the North side.
that the ball is only a blur at times. The 15 000 seats The Oval ground in South London, home of the
are fed by 20 entrances/vomitories, and the stadium Surrey County Cricket Club, is as well known as
has a sliding roof which takes 20 minutes to close. Lord’s and the site has been master-planned for the
Unlike Wimbledon the court has a ‘rebound ace’ future by HOK Sport Architecture. Also in Britain,
hard acrylic surface which has the advantage of a new cricket ground has been built for County
allowing intensive multi-purpose year-round use for Durham by architect Bill Ainsworth. In Australia the
other sports and for pop concerts, etc. (around 120 leading venue is Melbourne Cricket Stadium, which
events are staged per annum). However, it is thought has recently been rebuilt.
by some to be visually ‘dead’ compared with the
Wimbledon grass court.
1.3 Current requirements
Since completion of the Flinders Park venue there
has been an increased demand, not foreseen at the 1.3.1 The spectator
time, on the hospitality, catering and press facilities For all of these sports, stand design begins and
in particular. An expansion plan is therefore being ends with the spectator, and it is at this much-
undertaken which would double the site area and maligned figure that the planning team must look
include hotel facilities, a merchandising centre, a before anything else. At the outset of a project the
sports medical centre and more car parking. first questions to be asked, and answered, must be:
who are the spectators, what are they looking for
In France the French Open venue is the Roland
in the facility, and how can their numbers be maxi-
Garros stadium in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris,
mized? Only when these questions are answered
which was established in 1928 and has been grad-
will it be possible to examine the technical solutions
ually upgraded ever since. The 15-acre site con-
which will satisfy those users and to do the neces-
tains 16 championship courts, all clay-surfaced. In
sary calculations. This simple methodology should
atmosphere the Centre Court is closer to Flushing
be used for all sports projects.
Meadows than Wimbledon, being open to the sky
and with greater viewing distances than the tight It must be understood that different people have
clustering found at Wimbledon. As at Wimbledon different motives, and that any crowd will contain
and Flinders Park an expansion plan is underway. a variety of subgroups with different reasons for

16
 The stadium as a building type

Photograph: Antony Devlin

Figure 1.17 Lord’s Cricket Ground in London is the symbolic centre of world cricket. A variety of stands have been built
round the field over many decades with no attempt at a unified style. The Mound Stand with a tent-style roof was added
in 1987. Architects: Michael Hopkins & Partners.

attending. Some will have a primarily sporting inter- group sometimes attract negative comment, but this
est, some a social reason for attending, and in some may happen in respect of any group of people shar-
people the two interests are mixed. ing some passionate interest – for instance evangel-
ical churchgoers.
The ‘sports priority’ spectator group is found in the
stands and on the terraces for every game. For them The ‘social priority’ group is found in the clubhouse,
‘live’ sport at its highest level has an almost spiritual dining rooms and private boxes, entertaining or
quality, an attitude aptly expressed in a statement being entertained. The game is ‘interesting’ but
once made by the great Liverpool football manager interrupts the personal or business conversations
Bill Shankly: ‘Football is not a matter of life and and only briefly becomes the topic of interest. At the
death; it is more important than that’. These fans are end of a game a short post-mortem takes place so
knowledgeable, respond instantly to every nuance that all parties can hint at the depth of their sporting
of the action, offer advice to the players, and rec- knowledge before resuming the business conver-
ognize the form, fitness and style of individual sation. This group is usually well dressed because
players and the effectiveness of strategies and tac- its members will be interacting with other people to
tics. Such issues form the basic topics of conversa- whom they must present themselves appropriately,
tion before, during and after the game in the car, pub whereas the ‘sports priority’ group dress casually
or train. The motivation and the behaviour of this because their interaction is with the event.

17
The stadium as a building type

A third group contains elements of the previous For some sports a natural grass surface is obligatory –
two and tends to be fickle: these are the casual for instance rugby and cricket. For others it may
supporters who can be persuaded to attend if the not be obligatory but is still very much the preferred
conditions are right, but equally easily deterred, as option for players. In all these cases it is not merely
everything depends on their perception of the event. the provision of the grass pitch that is important, but
When England was host to the World Cup football, also its condition at time of play. The playing surface
attendances in the UK reached about 29 million per is a small ecosystem which actively responds to
annum, but the figure has declined to around 20 mil- changes in the environment: it fluctuates in rebound
lion today. Clubs lose supporters when the team resilience, stiffness and rolling resistance and can
plays poorly, as this group of spectator only attends alter the trajectory of a bounce or roll so that players
the game when standards of play are perceived to talk of the ball ‘skidding through’ or ‘standing up’. All
be high or when ‘star’ names are playing. These of these minute but critical variations can occur in a
fans are also deterred by discomfort, a perceived relatively short space of time, even during a game.
risk of violence or lack of safety. Studies carried out Such uncertainties tend to widen the players’ range
well before the disaster at the Hillsborough Stadium of skills, both technically and tactically, because
in Sheffield (see below) found that football fans in they must be sufficiently inventive and responsive to
the UK perceived violence from other fans as the cope with changing conditions. In this way a natural
most powerful threat to their safety, the risk of being surface may well raise the standard of play, giving
crushed by crowds second and being crushed by a ‘bigger stage’ for the display of individual talent.
mounted police third. All these perceptions will have But it may be almost impossible to provide a nat-
their effect on attendances. ural grass surface if the brief requires a fully roofed
stadium or if the facility requires a multi-use pitch;
It should be noted that under the UK’s Disability and in these cases there will be tough decisions to
Discrimination Act around a fifth of the persons be made.
in each of the above groups may come within the
legal definition of ‘disabled people’. This definition Such problems are more pressing in Europe and
is surprisingly wide, and goes far beyond the Britain than in North America, partly because the
traditional concept of people in wheelchairs. By law traditional European games of football, rugby and
all such people must be fully catered for in both the cricket are based on a vigorous interaction between
design and management of the venue, as outlined in the ball and the playing surface, so that the latter
Chapter 10. becomes critical, whereas in American football and
baseball the ball is kept off the ground at the critical
1.3.2 The player or athlete stages of play thus allowing a more tolerant choice
After the spectator the next most important person of playing surface. American players tend also to be
in the stadium is the player or athlete: without these well padded and less likely to suffer injury when fall-
people there is no game or event. Players’ and ath- ing on a relatively hard surface, whereas lightly clad
letes’ needs are covered in Chapters 6 and 19, and European players are more vulnerable and have a
as above the UK’s Disability Discrimination Act (and preference for natural grass. But it is interesting that
similar Acts in Australia and the USA, etc) require full a preference for natural grass pitches seems to be
provision to be made for disabled players. This latter returning in American football.
phrase is not a contradiction in terms, as the growth
For athletics, a synthetic rubber track has become
of events such as the Paralympics attests.
the normal surface with the centre field in grass.
One matter must be mentioned at this stage because
it will influence the proposed stadium in a fundamen- 1.3.3 The owner
tal way. If players require a natural grass pitch, but Assuming players and spectators can be brought
other design requirements (such as the need for a together, it falls to the stadium owner to ensure
multi-use surface, or for a roofed stadium) make a that the physical venue is a going concern – in
grass surface unviable, then very difficult choices other words, he must ensure the venue’s continued
must be made about design priorities. financial viability. As stated in Section 1.1.2 very

18
 The stadium as a building type

few stadia produce profits for their owners simply grass is likely to be incompatible with multi-use,
on their sporting functions. In most cases it will be so is it also likely to be incompatible with a fully-
necessary for the planning team to devise a devel- roofed stadium. Experiments with natural grass
opment that will enable the owners to: under translucent roofs are proceeding, but at
present this arrangement is expensive and tech-
• Come as close as possible to profitability simply nically difficult. Where incompatibilities arise and
on sporting functions (i.e. ‘gate income’). an ‘either/or’ decision must be taken, priorities will
• Narrow the shortfall by exploiting non-sporting have to be very clear.
forms of market income (‘non-gate income’).
• Close any remaining gap by means of public fund- Non-gate income
ing or other forms of direct subsidy or grant. Options for augmenting gate income include sale
or rental of hospitality boxes, catering concessions,
Gate income merchandising concessions, advertising and event
It will seldom be possible to recoup all costs from sponsorship, media studio rentals, parking rentals
‘gate revenue’, but this traditionally has been the and the like. While these can make a vital financial
most important single source of revenue and must contribution, the planners must not lose their sense
be maximized. Investors will require a guaranteed of priorities: such forms of income must always be
target market of known size and characteristics, a ‘supportive’, never ‘primary’. Increasingly such ‘sup-
guaranteed number of event days, and a guaranteed portive’ factors will have a direct influence on sta-
cashflow from these sources. To this end: dium design because, for instance, a game watched
by 15 000 people from the stands may be watched
• An analysis of the market must be made as out- by 15 million on television – with great cost impli-
lined in Section 1.3.1. It must be established who cations for a sponsor – and these millions must be
the stadium is catering for, how many of them there satisfied. But this influence should not be exerted to
are, how much they will pay, how often they will the point where the stadium loses its attraction to its
attend, what are the factors that will attract them, primary patrons – those entering by the gate.
and what are the factors that will deter them.
• Gate revenue can be enhanced by various forms
Subsidy
of premium pricing – for instance sale or rental
After all the above methods of revenue maximiza-
of private boxes at high prices. The availability of
tion have been built into the project there may still
such opportunities should be part of the investiga-
be a funding shortfall. A final element of support will
tion of the previous item.
probably be required from the local municipality,
• It must be decided which sports types the sta-
a national grant scheme or elsewhere to make the
dium will cater for. This requires a careful balan-
development viable.
cing of factors. A facility catering for (say) both
football and athletics events will offer the possi-
bility of more ‘event days’ than one catering for a Getting it all together
single sport; but, by trying to accommodate other The key to a successful outcome is clarity of under-
functions, the facility may be less suitable for its standing between all concerned. If the stadium
major use, as discussed in Section 1.2.6 above developers have a clear understanding of the spec-
and in Chapter 8. This is partly because differ- tators and players they are aiming for and how to
ent sports require different pitch sizes and lay- attract them; if the various users have complete
outs; partly because they require different seating clarity about the uses to which the stadium might be
configurations for good sight lines; and partly it is put and their compatibility with the stadium design;
a matter of pitch surface: some sports (like football if the potential providers of a public subsidy and the
or rugby) demand a grass surface, but this may be private developers share the same view of the pur-
too fragile to stand up to intense use for a variety pose of the stadium and how it will benefit the local
of sports week after week. community – then the project may well become a
• This question of pitch type also has a bearing on long-term success. But if any of these matters are
a stadium’s overall construction. Just as natural fudged or left unresolved, or if priorities are put in

19
The stadium as a building type

the wrong order, the stadium is likely to have a very (The Lord Justice Taylor Report followed, with a
clouded future. Chapters 8 and 23 deal with some of subsequent new edition of the Safety at Sports
the above aspects in more detail. Grounds Act 1990 and additional tightening of the
certification system under the Football Supporters
1.3.4 Stadium safety Act 1989 which established the Football Licensing
Safety is such a crucial aspect of the successful Authority. The football administrators also reacted
stadium that a few paragraphs must be devoted by setting up the Football Stadia Advisory Design
to this subject. Wherever crowds gather, particu- Council in 1991.)
larly in a context of intense emotion as is the case
with sport, mishaps are possible. The wooden 1985 – 38 people died and 100 were injured in a
stands of the Constantinople Stadium where Roman crowd riot at the Heysel Stadium, Belgium.
chariot races were staged were burned down by
1985 – 10 people died and 70 were injured in a crush
spectators in 491 AD, 498 AD, 507 AD and finally in
when crowds tried to enter after kick-off through
532 AD, when Justinian lost his patience and called
a tunnel which was locked at Mexico University
in the army to restore order, leading to an estimated
Stadium, Mexico.
30 000 deaths.
1985 – 56 people died and many were badly burnt
A partial list of recent disasters includes the in a fire at Valley Parade Stadium, Bradford,
following: England. (The Popperwell Inquiry followed, with a
subsequent increase in powers under the existing
1996 – 83 people were killed and between 127 Safety at Sports Grounds Act.)
and 180 people were injured in a Stadium in
Guatemala City when soccer fans stampeded 1982 – 340 people were reported to have died in a
before a World Cup qualifying match. Angry fans crush at Lenin Stadium, Russia.
kicked down an entrance door, causing specta-
1979 – 11 people died and many were injured from a
tors inside to cascade down onto the lower levels.
‘surge’ into a tunnel at a pop concert at Riverfront
1992 – 17 people were killed in Corsica when a Stadium, Cincinnati, USA.
temporary grandstand collapsed in a French Cup
semi-final match between Bastia and Marseille. 1971 – 66 people died after a soccer match at Ibrox
Park Stadium, Glasgow, Scotland. (The Wheatley
1991 – 1 person died and 20 were taken to hospital Report followed, with the subsequent Safety
after a stampede when 15 000 fans were allowed at Sports Grounds Act 1975 based upon its
into the grounds without tickets just after kick off findings.)
at Nairobi National Stadium, Kenya.
1964 – 340 people died and 500 were injured after
1991 – 40 people died and 50 were injured after a a referee disallowed a goal by the home team in a
referee allowed an own goal at a friendly soccer soccer match in Lima, Peru.
match in Johannesburg, South Africa.

1989 – 95 people died and many were injured during

a crowd surge into a restraining fence after kick-
off at the Sheffield Hillsborough Stadium, England.

20