Boeing B-17 Flying

Fortress

The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is a four-

engined heavy bomber developed in the
1930s for the United States Army Air
Corps (USAAC). Competing against
Douglas and Martin for a contract to build
200 bombers, the Boeing entry (prototype
Model 299/XB-17) outperformed both
competitors and exceeded the air corps'
performance specifications. Although
Boeing lost the contract (to the Douglas B-
18 Bolo) because the prototype crashed,
the air corps ordered 13 more B-17s for
further evaluation. From its introduction in
1938, the B-17 Flying Fortress evolved
through numerous design advances,[6][7]
becoming the third-most produced
bomber of all time, behind the four-
engined B-24 and the multirole, twin-
engined Ju 88.
 B-17 Flying Fortress

A B-17G performing at the 2014 Chino Airshow

Role Heavy bomber

National origin United States

Manufacturer Boeing

First flight 28 July 1935[1]

Introduction April 1938

Retired 1968 (Brazilian Air

Force)

Primary users United States Army Air

Forces
Royal Air Force
Produced 1936–1945
Number built 12,731[2][3]

Unit cost US$238,329 (1945)[4]

US$2.7 million (in 2018
dollars)[5]

Variants XB-38 Flying Fortress

YB-40 Flying Fortress
C-108 Flying Fortress

Developed into Boeing 307 Stratoliner

The B-17 was primarily employed by the

USAAF in the daylight strategic bombing
campaign of World War II against German
industrial and military targets. The United
States Eighth Air Force, based at many
airfields in central, eastern and southern
England, and the Fifteenth Air Force, based
in Italy, complemented the RAF Bomber
Command's nighttime area bombing in the
Combined Bomber Offensive to help
secure air superiority over the cities,
factories and battlefields of Western
Europe in preparation for the invasion of
France in 1944.[8] The B-17 also
participated to a lesser extent in the War in
the Pacific, early in World War II, where it
conducted raids against Japanese
shipping and airfields.[9]

From its prewar inception, the USAAC (by

June 1941, the USAAF) promoted the
aircraft as a strategic weapon; it was a
relatively fast, high-flying, long-range
bomber with heavy defensive armament at
the expense of bombload. It developed a
reputation for toughness based upon
stories and photos of badly damaged B-
17s safely returning to base. The B-17
dropped more bombs than any other U.S.
aircraft in World War II. Of the
1,500,000 tonnes (1,700,000 short tons) of
bombs dropped on Nazi Germany and its
occupied territories by U.S. aircraft,
640,000 tonnes (710,000 short tons) were
dropped from B-17s.[10] In addition to its
role as a bomber, the B-17 was also
employed as a transport, antisubmarine
aircraft, drone controller, and search-and-
rescue aircraft.

As of October 2019, 9 aircraft remain

airworthy, though none of them were ever
flown in combat. Dozens more are in
storage or on static display. The oldest of
these is a D-series flown in combat in the
Pacific and the Caribbean.

Development
Origins
 Model 299
NX13372

Gun turret atop

the Model 299's
nose glazing

Crashed Model
299
On 8 August 1934, the
Boeing USAAC
Y1B-17 in tendered a
flight
proposal for a multiengine bomber to
replace the Martin B-10. The Air Corps was
looking for a bomber capable of
reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii,
Panama, and Alaska.[11] Requirements
were for it to carry a "useful bombload" at
an altitude of 10,000 ft (3,000 m) for 10
hours with a top speed of at least 200 mph
(320 km/h).[12]
They also desired, but did not require, a
range of 2,000 mi (3,200 km) and a speed
of 250 mph (400 km/h). The competition
for the air corps contract was to be
decided by a "fly-off" between Boeing's
design, the Douglas DB-1, and the Martin
Model 146 at Wilbur Wright Field in
Dayton, Ohio.

The prototype B-17, with the Boeing

factory designation of Model 299, was
designed by a team of engineers led by E.
Gifford Emery and Edward Curtis Wells,
and was built at Boeing's own expense.[13]
It combined features of the company's
experimental XB-15 bomber and 247
transport.[12] The B-17's armament
consisted of five .30 caliber (7.62 mm)
machine guns, with a payload up to
4,800 lb (2,200 kg) of bombs on two racks
in the bomb bay behind the cockpit. The
aircraft was powered by four Pratt &
Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines,
each producing 750 hp (600 kW) at
7,000 ft (2,100 m).[14]

The first flight of the Model 299 was on

28 July 1935 with Boeing chief test pilot
Leslie Tower at the controls.[1][15] The day
before, Richard Williams, a reporter for The
Seattle Times, coined the name "Flying
Fortress" when – observing the large
number of machine guns sticking out from
the new airplane – he described it as a
"15-ton flying fortress" in a picture
caption.[16] The most distinct mount was
in the nose, which allowed the single
machine gun to be fired toward nearly all
frontal angles.[17]

Boeing was quick to see the value of the

name and had it trademarked for
use.[note 1] Boeing also claimed in some of
the early press releases that Model 299
was the first combat aircraft that could
continue its mission if one of its four
engines failed.[18] On 20 August 1935, the
prototype flew from Seattle to Wright Field
in nine hours and three minutes with an
average cruising speed of 252 miles per
hour (406 km/h), much faster than the
competition.[19]

At the fly-off, the four-engined Boeing's

performance was superior to those of the
twin-engined DB-1 and Model 146. Major
General Frank Maxwell Andrews of the
GHQ Air Force believed that the
capabilities of large four-engined aircraft
exceeded those of shorter-ranged, twin-
engined aircraft, and that the B-17 was
better suited to new, emerging USAAC
doctrine.[20] His opinions were shared by
the air corps procurement officers, and
even before the competition had finished,
they suggested buying 65 B-17s.[21][22]

Development continued on the Boeing

Model 299, and on 30 October 1935, Army
Air Corps test pilot Major Ployer Peter Hill
and Boeing employee Les Tower took the
Model 299 on a second evaluation flight.
The crew forgot to disengage the "gust
locks", which locked control surfaces in
place while the aircraft was parked on the
ground, and after takeoff, the aircraft
entered a steep climb, stalled, nosed over,
and crashed, killing Hill and Tower (other
observers survived with
injuries).[23][24][note 2]
The crashed Model 299 could not finish
the evaluation, disqualifying it from the
competition.[22] While the air corps was
still enthusiastic about the aircraft's
potential, army officials were daunted by
its cost;[25] Douglas quoted a unit price of
$58,200 (equivalent to $1.06 million today)
based on a production order of 220
aircraft, compared with $99,620 ($1.82
million today) from Boeing.[26] Army Chief
of Staff Malin Craig cancelled the order for
65 YB-17s, and ordered 133 of the twin-
engined Douglas B-18 Bolo, instead.[21][22]
 The loss was not total... but
Boeing's hopes for a substantial
bomber contract were dashed.

— Peter Bowers, 1976[27]

Initial orders

B-17Bs at March Field, California, prior to attack on

Pearl Harbor, with framed nose glazing of the style
retained through the B-17E model
Nose of a B-17G being restored at the Mighty Eighth
Air Force Museum

Regardless, the USAAC had been

impressed by the prototype's performance,
and on 17 January 1936, through a legal
loophole,[28][29] the Air Corps ordered 13
YB-17s (designated Y1B-17 after
November 1936 to denote its special F-1
funding) for service testing.[22] The YB-17
incorporated a number of significant
changes from the Model 299, including
more powerful Wright R-1820-39 Cyclone
engines. Although the prototype was
company-owned and never received a
military serial (the B-17 designation itself
did not appear officially until January
1936, nearly three months after the
prototype crashed),[30] the term "XB-17"
was retroactively applied to the NX13372's
airframe and has entered the lexicon to
describe the first Flying Fortress.

Between 1 March and 4 August 1937, 12

of the 13 Y1B-17s were delivered to the
2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field
in Virginia for operational development
and flight tests.[31] One suggestion
adopted was the use of a preflight
checklist to avoid accidents such as that
which befell the Model 299.[29][32][note 3] In
one of their first missions, three B-17s,
directed by lead navigator Lieutenant
Curtis LeMay, were sent by General
Andrews to "intercept" and photograph the
Italian ocean liner Rex 610 miles (980 km)
off the Atlantic coast.[34] The mission was
successful and widely publicized.[35][36]
The 13th Y1B-17 was delivered to the
Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio, to
be used for flight testing.[37]

A 14th Y1B-17 (37-369), originally

constructed for ground testing of the
airframe's strength, was upgraded and
fitted with exhaust-driven General Electric
turbochargers.[38] Scheduled to fly in 1937,
it encountered problems with the
turbochargers, and its first flight was
delayed until 29 April 1938.[39] The aircraft
was delivered to the army on 31 January
1939.[40] Once service testing was
complete, the Y1B-17s and Y1B-17A were
redesignated B-17 and B-17A, respectively,
to signify the change to operational
status.[41]

Opposition to the air corps' ambitions for

the acquisition of more B-17s faded, and in
late 1937, 10 more aircraft designated B-
17B were ordered to equip two
bombardment groups, one on each U.S.
coast.[42] Improved with larger flaps and
rudder and a well-framed, 10-panel
plexiglas nose, the B-17Bs were delivered
in five small batches between July 1939
and March 1940. In July 1940, an order for
512 B-17s was issued,[43] but at the time of
the attack on Pearl Harbor, fewer than 200
were in service with the army.[29]

A total of 155 B-17s of all variants was

delivered between 11 January 1937 and
30 November 1941, but production quickly
accelerated, with the B-17 once holding
the record for the highest production rate
for any large aircraft.[44][note 4] The aircraft
went on to serve in every World War II
combat zone, and by the time production
ended in May 1945, 12,731 aircraft had
been built by Boeing, Douglas, and Vega (a
subsidiary of Lockheed).[45][46][47][48]

Though the crash of the

prototype 299 in 1935 had
almost wiped out Boeing, now it
was seen as a boon. Instead of
building models based on
experimental engineering,
Boeing had been hard at work
developing their bomber and
now had versions ready for
 production far better than
would have been possible
otherwise. One of the most
significant weapons of World
War II would be ready, but only
by a hair.

— Jeff Ethell, 1985[43]

Design and variants

Waist position gun blister of Model 299, not adopted

for production
Production numbers
Variant Produced First flight

Model 299 1 28 July 1935[1]

YB-17 13 2 December 1936[49]

YB-17A 1 29 April 1938.[39]

B-17B 39 27 June 1939[50]

B-17C 38 21 July 1940[51]

B-17D 42 3 February 1941[52]

B-17E 512 5 September 1941[53]

B-17F (total) 3,405 30 May 1942[54][55]

B-17F-BO 2,300 [54]

[54]
B-17F-DL 605
[54]
B-17F-VE 500

B-17G (total) 8,680 16 August 1943

B-17G-BO 4,035

B-17G-DL 2,395

B-17G-VE 2,250

Total 12,731

Notes:
B-17s were built at Boeing Plant 2
Seattle, Washington (BO)
and starting with the B-17F also at
Lockheed Vega, Burbank California (VE) and
Douglas Aircraft, Long Beach California (DL)[56]

The aircraft went through several

alterations in each of its design stages
and variants. Of the 13 YB-17s ordered for
service testing, 12 were used by the 2nd
Bomb Group of Langley Field, Virginia, to
develop heavy bombing techniques, and
the 13th was used for flight testing at the
Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio.[37]
Experiments on this aircraft led to the use
of a quartet of General Electric turbo-
superchargers which would become
standard on the B-17 line. A 14th aircraft,
the YB-17A, originally destined for ground
testing only and upgraded with the
turbochargers,[57] was redesignated B-17A
after testing had finished.[40][41]
As the production line developed, Boeing
engineers continued to improve upon the
basic design. To enhance performance at
slower speeds, the B-17B was altered to
include larger rudders and flaps.[50] The B-
17C changed from three bulged, oval-
shaped gun blisters to two flush, oval-
shaped gun window openings, and on the
lower fuselage, a single "bathtub" gun
gondola housing,[51] which resembled the
similarly configured and located
Bodenlafette/"Bola" ventral defensive
emplacement on the German Heinkel He
111P-series medium bomber.
While models A through D of the B-17 were
designed defensively, the large-tailed B-
17E was the first model primarily focused
on offensive warfare.[57] The B-17E was an
extensive revision of the Model 299
design: The fuselage was extended by
10 ft (3.0 m); a much larger rear fuselage,
vertical tailfin, rudder, and horizontal
stabilizer were added; a gunner's position
was added in the new tail; the nose
(especially the bombardier's well-framed,
10-panel nose glazing) remained relatively
the same as the earlier B through D
versions had; a Sperry electrically powered
manned dorsal gun turret just behind the
cockpit was added; a similarly powered
(also built by Sperry) manned ventral ball
turret just aft of the bomb bay – replaced
the relatively hard-to-use, Sperry model
645705-D[58] remotely operated ventral
turret on the earliest examples of the E
variant. These modifications resulted in a
20% increase in aircraft weight.[57] The B-
17's turbocharged Wright R-1820 Cyclone
9 engines were upgraded to increasingly
more powerful versions of the same
powerplants multiple times throughout its
production, and similarly, the number of
machine gun emplacement locations was
increased.[59]
Boeing-built B-17Fs, with the clear-view two-piece
Plexiglas bombardier's nose.

The B-17F variants were the primary

versions flying for the Eighth Air Force to
face the Germans in 1943, and had
standardized the manned Sperry ball turret
for ventral defense, replacing the earlier,
10-panel well-framed bombardier's nose
glazing from the B subtype with an
enlarged, nearly frameless plexiglas
bombardier's nose enclosure for improved
forward vision.

Two experimental versions of the B-17

were flown under different designations,
the XB-38 Flying Fortress and the YB-40
Flying Fortress. The XB-38 was an engine
test bed for Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled
engines, should the Wright engines
normally used on the B-17 become
unavailable. The only prototype XB-38 to
fly crashed on its ninth flight, and the type
was abandoned. The Allison V-1710 was
allocated to fighter aircraft.[60][61]
The YB-40 was a heavily armed
modification of the standard B-17 used
before the North American P-51 Mustang,
an effective long-range fighter, became
available to act as escort. Additional
armament included an additional dorsal
turret in the radio room, a remotely
operated and fired Bendix-built "chin turret"
directly below the bombardier's
accommodation, and twin .50 in
(12.7 mm) guns in each of the waist
positions. The ammunition load was over
11,000 rounds. All of these modifications
made the YB-40 well over 10,000 lb
(4,500 kg) heavier than a fully loaded B-
17F. The YB-40s with their numerous
heavy modifications had trouble keeping
up with the lighter bombers once they had
dropped their bombs, so the project was
abandoned and finally phased out in July
1943.[62][63][64] The final production blocks
of the B-17F from Douglas' plants did,
however, adopt the YB-40's "chin turret",
giving them a much-improved forward
defense capability.[65]

B-17G nose detail

By the time the definitive B-17G appeared,
the number of guns had been increased
from seven to 13, the designs of the gun
stations were finalized, and other
adjustments were completed. The B-17G
was the final version of the Flying Fortress,
incorporating all changes made to its
predecessor, the B-17F,[57] and in total,
8,680 were built,[66] the last (by Lockheed)
on 28 July 1945.[67] Many B-17Gs were
converted for other missions such as
cargo hauling, engine testing, and
reconnaissance.[68] Initially designated SB-
17G, a number of B-17Gs were also
converted for search-and-rescue duties,
later to be redesignated B-17H.[69]

Postwar SB-17G-95DL
AF ser. no. 44-83722 assigned to the 2nd ERS as a
search-and-rescue aircraft, beside a Stinson L-5

Late in World War II, at least 25 B-17s were

fitted with radio controls and television
cameras, loaded with 20,000 lb (9,100 kg)
of high explosives and dubbed BQ-7
"Aphrodite missiles" for Operation
Aphrodite. The operation, which involved
remotely flying Aphrodite drones onto their
targets by accompanying CQ-17
"mothership" control aircraft, was
approved on 26 June 1944, and assigned
to the 388th Bombardment Group
stationed at RAF Fersfield, a satellite of
RAF Knettishall.[70]

The first four drones were sent to

Mimoyecques, the Siracourt V-1 bunker,
Watten, and Wizernes on 4 August,
causing little damage. The project came to
a sudden end with the unexplained midair
explosion over the Blyth estuary of a B-24,
part of the United States Navy's
contribution as "Project Anvil", en route for
Heligoland piloted by Lieutenant Joseph P.
Kennedy Jr., future U.S. president John F.
Kennedy's elder brother. Blast damage
was caused over a radius of 5 miles
(8.0 km). British authorities were anxious
that no similar accidents should again
occur, and the Aphrodite project was
scrapped in early 1945.[70]

Operational history

Boeing B-17E Flying Fortress of the 19th Bombardment

Group USAAF, summer 1942
B-17 Flying Fortresses from the 398th Bombardment
Group flying a bombing mission to Neumünster,
Germany, on 13 April 1945.

The B-17 began operations in World War II

with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1941, and
in the Southwest Pacific with the U.S.
Army. The 19th Bombardment Group had
deployed to Clark Field in the Philippines a
few weeks before the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor as the first of a planned
heavy bomber buildup in the Pacific. Half
of the group's B-17s were wiped out on 8
December 1941 when they were caught on
the ground during refueling and rearming
for a planned attack on Japanese airfields
on Formosa. The small force of B-17s
operated against the Japanese invasion
force until they were withdrawn to Darwin,
in Australia's Northern Territory. In early
1942, the 7th Bombardment Group began
arriving in Java with a mixed force of B-
17s and LB-30/B-24s.[71] A squadron of B-
17s from this force detached to the Middle
East to join the First Provisional
Bombardment Group, thus becoming the
first American B-17 squadron to go to war
against the Germans. After the defeat in
Java, the 19th withdrew to Australia, where
it continued in combat until it was sent
home by General George C. Kenney when
he arrived in Australia in mid-1942.[72] In
July 1942, the first USAAF B-17s were sent
to England to join the Eighth Air Force.
Later that year, two groups moved to
Algeria to join Twelfth Air Force for
operations in North Africa. The B-17s were
primarily involved in the daylight precision
strategic bombing campaign against
German targets ranging from U-boat pens,
docks, warehouses, and airfields to
industrial targets such as aircraft
factories.[73] In the campaign against
German aircraft forces in preparation for
the invasion of France, B-17 and B-24 raids
were directed against German aircraft
production while their presence drew the
Luftwaffe fighters into battle with Allied
fighters.[8]

During World War II, the B-17 equipped 32

overseas combat groups, inventory
peaking in August 1944 at 4,574 USAAF
aircraft worldwide.[74] The British heavy
bombers, the Avro Lancaster and Handley
Page Halifax, dropped 608,612 long tons
(681,645 short tons) and 224,207 long
tons (251,112 short tons)[75] respectively.

RAF use
RAF Fortress B.I serial AN529, with He 111H-style
"bathtub" ventral gondola

The RAF entered World War II with no

heavy bomber of its own in service; the
biggest available were long-range medium
bombers such as the Vickers Wellington,
which could carry up to 4,500 pounds
(2,000 kg) of bombs.[76] While the Short
Stirling and Handley Page Halifax became
its primary bombers by 1941, in early
1940, the RAF entered into an agreement
with the U.S. Army Air Corps to acquire 20
B-17Cs, which were given the service
name Fortress I. Their first operation,
against Wilhelmshaven on 8 July 1941
was unsuccessful.[77][78] On 24 July three
B-17s of 90 Squadron took part in a raid on
the German capital ship Gneisenau and
Prinz Eugen anchored in Brest from
30,000 ft (9,100 m), with the objective of
drawing German fighters away from 18
Handley Page Hampdens attacking at
lower altitudes, and in time for 79 Vickers
Wellingtons to attack later with the
German fighters refuelling. The operation
did not work as expected, with 90
Squadron's Fortresses being
unopposed.[79][80][81]

By September, the RAF had lost eight B-

17Cs in combat and had experienced
numerous mechanical problems, and
Bomber Command abandoned daylight
bombing raids using the Fortress I
because of the aircraft's poor
performance. The experience showed both
the RAF and USAAF that the B-17C was
not ready for combat, and that improved
defenses, larger bomb loads and more
accurate bombing methods were required.
However the USAAF continued using the
B-17 as a day bomber, despite misgivings
by the RAF that attempts at daylight
bombing would be ineffective.[82]

As use by Bomber Command had been

curtailed, the RAF transferred its remaining
Fortress I aircraft to Coastal Command for
use as a long-range maritime patrol
aircraft, instead.[83] These were later
augmented in August 1942 by 19 Fortress
Mk II (B-17F) and 45 Fortress Mk IIA (B-
17E). A Fortress from No. 206 Squadron
RAF sank U-627 on 27 October 1942, the
first of 11 U-boat kills credited to RAF
Fortress bombers during the war.[84]
The RAF's No. 223 Squadron, as part of
100 Group, operated a number of
Fortresses equipped with an electronic
warfare system known as "Airborne Cigar"
(ABC). This was operated by German-
speaking radio operators who were to
identify and jam German ground
controllers' broadcasts to their
nightfighters. They could also pose as
ground controllers themselves with the
intention of steering nightfighters away
from the bomber streams.[85]

Initial USAAF operations over

Europe
"Combat boxes" of 12 B-17 during bombing missions

Marks and letters on the tails of B-17 during WWII in

Europe

The air corps – renamed United States

Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 20 June 1941
– used the B-17 and other bombers to
bomb from high altitudes with the aid of
the then-secret Norden bombsight, known
as the "Blue Ox",[86][87] which was an
optical electromechanical gyrostabilized
analog computer.[88] The device was able
to determine, from variables put in by the
bombardier, the point at which the
aircraft's bombs should be released to hit
the target. The bombardier essentially
took over flight control of the aircraft
during the bomb run, maintaining a level
altitude during the final moments before
release.[89]

The USAAF began building up its air forces

in Europe using B-17Es soon after entering
the war. The first Eighth Air Force units
arrived in High Wycombe, England, on
12 May 1942, to form the 97th Bomb
Group.[90] On 17 August 1942, 12 B-17Es
of the 97th, with the lead aircraft piloted by
Major Paul Tibbets and carrying Brigadier
General Ira Eaker as an observer, were
close escorted by four squadrons of RAF
Spitfire IXs (and a further five squadrons
of Spitfire Vs to cover the withdrawal) on
the first USAAF heavy bomber raid over
Europe, against the large railroad
marshalling yards at Rouen-Sotteville in
France, while a further six aircraft flew a
diversionary raid along the French
coast.[91][92] The operation, carried out in
good visibility, was a success, with only
minor damage to one aircraft, unrelated to
enemy action, and half the bombs landing
in the target area.[93] The raid helped allay
British doubts about the capabilities of
American heavy bombers in operations
over Europe.

Two additional groups arrived in Britain at

the same time, bringing with them the first
B-17Fs, which served as the primary AAF
heavy bomber fighting the Germans until
September 1943. As the raids of the
American bombing campaign grew in
numbers and frequency, German
interception efforts grew in strength (such
as during the attempted bombing of Kiel
on 13 June 1943[94]), such that unescorted
bombing missions came to be
discouraged.[95]

Combined offensive

The two different strategies of the

American and British bomber commands
were organized at the Casablanca
Conference in January 1943. The resulting
"Combined Bomber Offensive" weakened
the Wehrmacht, destroyed German morale,
and established air superiority through
Operation Pointblank's destruction of
German fighter strength in preparation for
a ground offensive.[8] The USAAF bombers
attacked by day, with British operations –
chiefly against industrial cities – by night.

B-17F formation over Schweinfurt, Germany, 17 August

1943

Boeing B-17F radar bombing through clouds: Bremen,

Germany, on 13 November 1943
Operation Pointblank opened with attacks
on targets in Western Europe. General Ira
C. Eaker and the Eighth Air Force placed
highest priority on attacks on the German
aircraft industry, especially fighter
assembly plants, engine factories, and
ball-bearing manufacturers.[8] Attacks
began in April 1943 on heavily fortified key
industrial plants in Bremen and
Recklinghausen.[96]

Since the airfield bombings were not

appreciably reducing German fighter
strength, additional B-17 groups were
formed, and Eaker ordered major missions
deeper into Germany against important
industrial targets. The 8th Air Force then
targeted the ball-bearing factories in
Schweinfurt, hoping to cripple the war
effort there. The first raid on 17 August
1943 did not result in critical damage to
the factories, with the 230 attacking B-17s
being intercepted by an estimated 300
Luftwaffe fighters. The Germans shot
down 36 aircraft with the loss of 200 men,
and coupled with a raid earlier in the day
against Regensburg, a total of 60 B-17s
was lost that day.[97]

A second attempt on Schweinfurt on 14

October 1943 later came to be known as
"Black Thursday".[98] While the attack was
successful at disrupting the entire works,
severely curtailing work there for the
remainder of the war, it was at an extreme
cost.[99] Of the 291 attacking Fortresses,
60 were shot down over Germany, five
crashed on approach to Britain, and 12
more were scrapped due to damage – a
loss of 77 B-17s.[100] Additionally, 122
bombers were damaged and needed
repairs before their next flights. Of 2,900
men in the crews, about 650 did not return,
although some survived as prisoners of
war. Only 33 bombers landed without
damage. These losses were a result of
concentrated attacks by over 300 German
fighters.[101]
B-17G of the 384th Bomb Group on the bomb run

Such high losses of aircrews could not be

sustained, and the USAAF, recognizing the
vulnerability of heavy bombers to
interceptors when operating alone,
suspended daylight bomber raids deep
into Germany until the development of an
escort fighter that could protect the
bombers all the way from the United
Kingdom to Germany and back. At the
same time, the German nightfighting
ability noticeably improved to counter the
nighttime strikes, challenging the
conventional faith in the cover of
darkness.[102] The 8th Air Force alone lost
176 bombers in October 1943,[103] and
was to suffer similar casualties on
11 January 1944 on missions to
Oschersleben, Halberstadt, and Brunswick.
Lieutenant General James Doolittle,
commander of the 8th, had ordered the
second Schweinfurt mission to be
cancelled as the weather deteriorated, but
the lead units had already entered hostile
air space and continued with the mission.
Most of the escorts turned back or missed
the rendezvous, and as a result, 60 B-17s
were destroyed.[104][105]

A third raid on Schweinfurt on 24 February

1944 highlighted what came to be known
as "Big Week",[106] during which the
bombing missions were directed against
German aircraft production.[102] German
fighters needed to respond, and the North
American P-51 Mustang and Republic P-47
Thunderbolt fighters (equipped with
improved drop tanks to extend their range)
accompanying the American heavies all
the way to and from the targets engaged
them.[107] The escort fighters reduced the
loss rate to below 7%, with only 247 B-17s
lost in 3,500 sorties while taking part in
the Big Week raids.[108]

By September 1944, 27 of the 42 bomb

groups of the 8th Air Force and six of the
21 groups of the 15th Air Force used B-
17s. Losses to flak continued to take a
high toll of heavy bombers through 1944,
but the war in Europe was being won by
the Allies. And by 27 April 1945, 2 days
after the last heavy bombing mission in
Europe, the rate of aircraft loss was so low
that replacement aircraft were no longer
arriving and the number of bombers per
bomb group was reduced. The Combined
Bomber Offensive was effectively
complete.[109]

Pacific Theater

B-17C AAF S/N 40-2074 at Hickam Field: An onboard

fire burnt the aircraft in two shortly after landing on
7 December 1941. One crewman was killed by Zero
attack.[110]

On 7 December 1941, a group of 12 B-17s

of the 38th (four B-17C) and 88th (eight B-
17E) Reconnaissance Squadrons, en route
to reinforce the Philippines, was flown into
Pearl Harbor from Hamilton Field,
California, arriving while surprise attack on
Pearl Harbor was going on. Leonard
"Smitty" Smith Humiston, co-pilot on First
Lieutenant Robert H. Richards' B-17C, AAF
S/N 40-2049, reported that he thought the
U.S. Navy was giving the flight a 21-gun
salute to celebrate the arrival of the
bombers, after which he realized that Pearl
Harbor was under attack. The Fortress
came under fire from Japanese fighter
aircraft, though the crew was unharmed
with the exception of one member who
suffered an abrasion on his hand.
Japanese activity forced them to divert
from Hickam Field to Bellows Field. On
landing, the aircraft overran the runway
and ran into a ditch, where it was then
strafed. Although initially deemed
repairable, 40-2049 (11th BG / 38th RS)
received more than 200 bullet holes and
never flew again. Ten of the 12 Fortresses
survived the attack.[111]

B-17E BO AAF S/N 41-9211

Typhoon McGoon II of the 11th BG / 98th BS, taken in
January 1943 in New Caledonia: The antennae
mounted upon the nose were used for radar tracking
surface vessels
surface vessels.

By 1941, the Far East Air Force (FEAF)

based at Clark Field in the Philippines had
35 B-17s, with the War Department
eventually planning to raise that to
165.[112] When the FEAF received word of
the attack on Pearl Harbor, General Lewis
H. Brereton sent his bombers and fighters
on various patrol missions to prevent them
from being caught on the ground. Brereton
planned B-17 raids on Japanese air fields
in Formosa, in accordance with Rainbow 5
war plan directives, but this was overruled
by General Douglas MacArthur.[113] A
series of disputed discussions and
decisions, followed by several confusing
and false reports of air attacks, delayed
the authorization of the sortie. By the time
the B-17s and escorting Curtiss P-40
Warhawk fighters were about to get
airborne, they were destroyed by Japanese
bombers of the 11th Air Fleet. The FEAF
lost half its aircraft during the first
strike,[114] and was all but destroyed over
the next few days.

Another early World War II Pacific

engagement, on 10 December 1941,
involved Colin Kelly, who reportedly
crashed his B-17 into the Japanese
battleship Haruna, which was later
acknowledged as a near bomb miss on the
heavy cruiser Ashigara. Nonetheless, this
deed made him a celebrated war hero.
Kelly's B-17C AAF S/N 40-2045 (19th BG /
30th BS) crashed about 6 mi (10 km) from
Clark Field after he held the burning
Fortress steady long enough for the
surviving crew to bail out. Kelly was
posthumously awarded the Distinguished
Service Cross.[115] Noted Japanese ace
Saburō Sakai is credited with this kill, and
in the process, came to respect the ability
of the Fortress to absorb punishment.[116]

B-17s were used in early battles of the

Pacific with little success, notably the
Battle of Coral Sea[117] and Battle of
Midway.[118] While there, the Fifth Air Force
B-17s were tasked with disrupting the
Japanese sea lanes. Air Corps doctrine
dictated bombing runs from high altitude,
but they soon found only 1% of their
bombs hit targets. However, B-17s were
operating at heights too great for most
A6M Zero fighters to reach.

The B-17's greatest success in the Pacific

was in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, in
which aircraft of this type were
responsible for damaging and sinking
several Japanese transport ships. On 2
March 1943, six B-17s of the 64th
Squadron flying at 10,000 ft (3,000 m)
attacked a major Japanese troop convoy
off New Guinea, using skip bombing to
sink Kyokusei Maru, which carried 1,200
army troops, and damage two other
transports, Teiyo Maru and Nojima. On 3
March 1943, 13 B-17s flying at 7,000 ft
(2,000 m) bombed the convoy, forcing the
convoy to disperse and reducing the
concentration of their anti-aircraft
defenses. The B-17s attracted a number of
Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, which were
in turn attacked by the P-38 Lightning
escorts. One B-17 broke up in the air, and
its crew was forced to take to their
parachutes. Japanese fighter pilots
machine-gunned some of the B-17 crew
members as they descended and attacked
others in the water after they landed.[119]
Five of the Japanese fighters strafing the
B-17 aircrew were promptly engaged and
shot down by three Lightnings, though
these were also then lost.[120] The allied
fighter pilots claimed 15 Zeros destroyed,
while the B-17 crews claimed five
more.[119][121] Actual Japanese fighter
losses for the day were seven destroyed
and three damaged.[122][123] The remaining
seven transports and three of the eight
destroyers were then sunk by a
combination of low level strafing runs by
Royal Australian Air Force Beaufighters,
and skip bombing by USAAF North
American B-25 Mitchells at 100 ft (30 m),
while B-17s claimed five hits from higher
altitudes.[124] On the morning of 4 March
1943, a B-17 sank the destroyer Asashio
with a 500 lb (230 kg) bomb while she was
picking up survivors from Arashio.[125]

At their peak, 168 B-17 bombers were in

the Pacific theater in September 1942, but
already in mid-1942 Gen. Arnold had
decided that the B-17 was unsuitable for
the kind of operations required in the
Pacific and made plans to replace all of
the B-17s in the theater with B-24s (and
later, B-29s) as soon as they became
available. Although the conversion was not
complete until mid-1943, B-17 combat
operations in the Pacific theater came to
an end after a little over a year.[126]
Surviving aircraft were reassigned to the
54th Troop Carrier Wing's special airdrop
section, and were used to drop supplies to
ground forces operating in close contact
with the enemy. Special airdrop B-17s
supported Australian commandos
operating near the Japanese stronghold at
Rabaul, which had been the primary B-17
target in 1942 and early 1943.[127]

B-17s were still used in the Pacific later in

the war, however, mainly in the combat
search and rescue role. A number of B-
17Gs, redesignated B-17Hs and later SB-
17Gs, were used in the Pacific during the
final year of the war to carry and drop
lifeboats to stranded bomber crews who
had been shot down or crashed at sea.[128]
These aircraft were nicknamed Dumbos,
and remained in service for many years
after the end of World War II.[129]

Bomber defense

 
Part of a USAAF stream of over 1,000 B-17s

Before the advent of long-range fighter

escorts, B-17s had only their .50 caliber
M2 Browning machine guns to rely on for
defense during the bombing runs over
Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing
used feedback from aircrews to improve
each new variant with increased
armament and armor.[130] Defensive
armament increased from four 0.50 in
(12.7 mm) machine guns and one 0.30 in
(7.62 mm) nose machine gun in the B-17C,
to thirteen 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine
guns in the B-17G. But because the
bombers could not maneuver when
attacked by fighters, and needed to be
flown straight and level during their final
bomb run, individual aircraft struggled to
fend off a direct attack.

German training model on how to attack a "flying

porcupine" (fliegendes Stachelschwein)

A 1943 survey by the USAAF found that

over half the bombers shot down by the
Germans had left the protection of the
main formation.[131] To address this
problem, the United States developed the
bomb-group formation, which evolved into
the staggered combat box formation in
which all the B-17s could safely cover any
others in their formation with their
machine guns. This made a formation of
bombers a dangerous target to engage by
enemy fighters.[132] In order to more
quickly form these formations, assembly
ships, planes with distinctive paint
schemes, were utilized to guide bombers
into formation, saving assembly
time.[133][134] Luftwaffe fighter pilots
likened attacking a B-17 combat box
formation to encountering a fliegendes
Stachelschwein, "flying porcupine", with
dozens of machine guns in a combat box
aimed at them from almost every
direction. However, the use of this rigid
formation meant that individual aircraft
could not engage in evasive maneuvers:
they had to fly constantly in a straight line,
which made them vulnerable to German
flak. Moreover, German fighter aircraft
later developed the tactic of high-speed
strafing passes rather than engaging with
individual aircraft to inflict damage with
minimum risk. As a result, the B-17s' loss
rate was up to 25% on some early
missions. It was not until the advent of
long-range fighter escorts (particularly the
North American P-51 Mustang) and the
resulting degradation of the Luftwaffe as
an effective interceptor force between
February and June 1944, that the B-17
became strategically potent.

Formation flying through dense flak over Merseburg,

Germany

The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb

battle damage, still reach its target and
bring its crew home safely.[135][136][137]
Wally Hoffman, a B-17 pilot with the Eighth
Air Force during World War II, said, "The
plane can be cut and slashed almost to
pieces by enemy fire and bring its crew
home."[138] Martin Caidin reported one
instance in which a B-17 suffered a midair
collision with a Focke-Wulf Fw 190, losing
an engine and suffering serious damage to
both the starboard horizontal stabilizer
and the vertical stabilizer, and being
knocked out of formation by the impact.
The B-17 was reported as shot down by
observers, but it survived and brought its
crew home without injury.[139] Its
toughness was compensation for its
shorter range and lighter bomb load
compared to the B-24 and British Avro
Lancaster heavy bombers. Stories
circulated of B-17s returning to base with
tails shredded, engines destroyed and
large portions of their wings destroyed by
flak.[140] This durability, together with the
large operational numbers in the Eighth Air
Force and the fame achieved by the
Memphis Belle, made the B-17 a key
bomber aircraft of the war. Other factors
such as combat effectiveness and political
issues also contributed to the B-17's
success.[141]
Luftwaffe attacks

B-17G 43-38172 of the 8th AF 398th BG 601st BS

which was damaged on a bombing mission over
Cologne, Germany, on 15 October 1944; the
bombardier was killed.[142]

After examining wrecked B-17s and B-24s,

Luftwaffe officers discovered that on
average it took about 20 hits with 20 mm
shells fired from the rear to bring them
down.[100] Pilots of average ability hit the
bombers with only about two percent of
the rounds they fired, so to obtain 20 hits,
the average pilot had to fire one thousand
20 mm (0.79 in) rounds at a bomber.[100]
Early versions of the Fw 190, one of the
best German interceptor fighters, were
equipped with two 20 mm (0.79 in) MG FF
cannons, which carried only 500 rounds
when belt-fed (normally using 60-round
drum magazines in earlier installations),
and later with the better Mauser MG
151/20 cannons, which had a longer
effective range than the MG FF weapon.
Later versions carried four or even six MG
151/20 cannon and twin 13 mm machine
guns. The German fighters found that
when attacking from the front, where
fewer defensive guns were mounted (and
where the pilot was exposed and not
protected by armor as he was from the
rear), it took only four or five hits to bring a
bomber down.[100]

To rectify the Fw 190's shortcomings, the

number of cannons fitted was doubled to
four, with a corresponding increase in the
amount of ammunition carried, creating
the Sturmbock bomber destroyer version.
This type replaced the vulnerable twin-
engine Zerstörer heavy fighters which
could not survive interception by P-51
Mustangs flying well ahead of the combat
boxes in an air supremacy role starting
very early in 1944 to clear any Luftwaffe
defensive fighters from the skies. By 1944,
a further upgrade to Rheinmetall-Borsig's
30 mm (1.2 in) MK 108 cannons mounted
either in the wing, or in underwing,
conformal mount gun pods, was made for
the Sturmbock Focke-Wulfs as either the
/R2 or /R8 field modification kits, enabling
aircraft to bring a bomber down with just a
few hits.[100]

B-17G-15-BO Wee Willie, 322d BS, 91st BG, after direct

flak hit on her 128th mission.[143]
The adoption of the 21 cm Nebelwerfer-
derived Werfer-Granate 21 (Wfr. Gr. 21)
rocket mortar by the Luftwaffe in mid-
August 1943 promised the introduction of
a major "stand-off" style of offensive
weapon – one strut-mounted tubular
launcher was fixed under each wing panel
on the Luftwaffe's single-engine fighters,
and two under each wing panel of a few
twin-engine Bf 110 daylight Zerstörer
aircraft.[100] However, due to the slow
715 mph velocity and characteristic
ballistic drop of the fired rocket (despite
the usual mounting of the launcher at
about 15° upward orientation), and the
small number of fighters fitted with the
weapons, the Wfr. Gr. 21 never had a major
effect on the combat box formations of
Fortresses.[100] The Luftwaffe also fitted
heavy-calibre Bordkanone-series 37, 50
and even 75 mm (2.95 in) cannon as anti-
bomber weapons on twin-engine aircraft
such as the special Ju 88P fighters, as
well as one model of the Me 410 Hornisse
but these measures did not have much
effect on the American strategic bomber
offensive. The Me 262, however, had
moderate success against the B-17 late in
the war. With its usual nose-mounted
armament of four MK 108 cannons, and
with some examples later equipped with
the R4M rocket, launched from underwing
racks, it could fire from outside the range
of the bombers' .50 in (12.7 mm)
defensive guns and bring an aircraft down
with one hit,[144] as both the MK 108's
shells and the R4M's warheads were filled
with the "shattering" force of the strongly
brisant Hexogen military explosive.

Luftwaffe-captured B-17s

Captured B-17F-27-BO in Luftwaffe markings, the

USAAF-named "Wulfe-Hound", 41-24585, of the 360th
BS/303rd BG downed on 12 December 1942 near
BS/303rd BG, downed on 12 December 1942 near
Leeuwarden, Netherlands, while on a raid on Rouen,
France, the first Flying Fortress to fall intact into

German hands. Operated by Kampfgeschwader 200

from March 1944.[145]

During World War II, after crash-landing or

being forced down, approximately 40 B-
17s were captured and refurbished, with
about a dozen put back into the air. Given
German Balkenkreuz national markings on
their wings and fuselage sides, and
"Hakenkreuz" swastika tail fin-flashes, the
captured B-17s were used to determine
the B-17's vulnerabilities and to train
German interceptor pilots in attack
tactics.[146] Others, with the cover
designations Dornier Do 200 and Do 288,
were used as long-range transports by the
Kampfgeschwader 200 special duties unit,
carrying out agent drops and supplying
secret airstrips in the Middle East and
North Africa. They were chosen
specifically for these missions as being
more suitable for this role than other
available German aircraft; they never
attempted to deceive the Allies and always
wore full Luftwaffe markings.[147][148] One
B-17 of KG200, bearing the Luftwaffe's KG
200 Geschwaderkennung (combat wing
code) markings A3+FB, was interned by
Spain when it landed at Valencia airfield,
27 June 1944, remaining there for the rest
of the war.[90] It has been alleged that
some B-17s kept their Allied markings and
were used by the Luftwaffe in attempts to
infiltrate B-17 bombing formations and
report on their positions and altitudes.[149]
According to these allegations, the
practice was initially successful, but Army
Air Force combat aircrews quickly
developed and established standard
procedures to first warn off, and then fire
upon any "stranger" trying to join a group's
formation.[90]

Soviet-interned B-17s
The U.S. did not offer B-17s to the Soviet
Union as part of its war materiel
assistance program, but at least 73
aircraft were acquired by the Soviet Air
Force. These aircraft had landed with
mechanical trouble during the shuttle
bombing raids over Germany or had been
damaged by a Luftwaffe raid in Poltava.
The Soviets restored 23 to flying condition
and concentrated them in the 890th
bomber regiment of the 45th bomber
division, but they never saw combat. In
1946 the regiment was assigned to the
Kazan factory to aid in the Soviet effort to
reproduce the more advanced Boeing B-29
as the Tupolev Tu-4.[150]
Swiss-interned B-17s

During the Allied bomber offensive, U.S.

and British bombers sometimes flew into
Swiss airspace, either because they were
damaged or, on rare occasions,
accidentally bombing Swiss cities. Swiss
aircraft attempted to intercept and force
individual aircraft to land, interning their
crews; one Swiss pilot was killed, shot
down by a U.S. bomber crew in September
1944. From then on, red and white
neutrality bands were added to the wings
of Swiss aircraft to stop accidental attacks
by Allied aircraft.[151]
Official Swiss records identify 6,501
airspace violations during the course of
the war, with 198 foreign aircraft landing
on Swiss territory and 56 aircraft crashing
there. In October 1943 the Swiss interned
Boeing B-17F-25-VE, tail number 25841,
and its U.S. flight crew after the Flying
Fortress developed engine trouble after a
raid over Germany and was forced to land.
The aircraft was turned over to the Swiss
Air Force, who then flew the bomber until
the end of the war, using other interned but
non-airworthy B-17s for spare parts. The
bomber was repainted a dark olive drab,
but retained its light gray-painted under
surfaces. It carried Swiss national white
cross insignia in red squares on both sides
of its rudder, fuselage sides, and the
underside wings, with white crosses in red
roundels atop both upper wings. On its
gray under surfaces, the B-17F also carried
light gray flash letters "RD" and "I" on either
side of the Swiss national insignia.[73]

Japanese-captured B-17s

This Philippines-captured USAAF Boeing B-17D, in

Japanese livery, was flown to Japan for technical
evaluation.
Three damaged B-17s, one "D" model and
two "E" models, were rebuilt to flying
status by Japanese technicians and
mechanics with parts stripped from B-17
wrecks in both the Philippines and the
Netherlands East Indies. The three
bombers, containing captured top secret
Norden bombsights, were then flown to
Japan where they underwent extensive
technical evaluation by the Imperial
Japanese Army Air Force's Air Technical
Research Laboratory (Koku Gijutsu
Kenkyujo) at Tachikawa. The "D" model
was later deemed an obsolescent design.
The two "E" models were used to develop
B-17 air combat counter-tactics and also
as enemy aircraft in several Japanese
propaganda films. One of the captured "E"
Flying Fortresses was photographed by U.
S. aerial recon and code named
"Tachikawa 105" after its wing span was
measured; photo recon analysts never
identified it as a captured B-17 until after
the war. No traces of these captured Flying
Fortresses were found in Japan by Allied
occupation forces, and they were assumed
scrapped late in the war for their vital war
materials.[152]

Postwar history
U.S. Air Force

BQ-17 Flying Fortress Drones over New Mexico, April

1946.

Following the end of World War II, the B-17

was quickly phased out of use as a
bomber and the Army Air Forces retired
most of its fleet. Flight crews ferried the
bombers back across the Atlantic to the
United States where the majority were sold
for scrap and melted down, although
significant numbers remained in use in
second-line roles such as VIP transports,
air-sea rescue and photo-
reconnaissance.[153][154] Strategic Air
Command (SAC), established in 1946,
used reconnaissance B-17s (at first called
F-9 [F for Fotorecon], later RB-17) until
1949.[155][156] With the disestablishment of
the U.S. Army Air Forces and the
establishment of an independent U.S. Air
Force in 1947, most extant B-17s were
transferred to USAF.

SB-17G of the 5th Rescue Squadron, USAF, ≈1950

The USAF Air Rescue Service of the
Military Air Transport Service (MATS)
operated B-17s as so-called "Dumbo" air-
sea rescue aircraft. Work on using B-17s
to carry airborne lifeboats had begun in
1943, but they entered service in the
European theater only in February 1945.
They were also used to provide search and
rescue support for B-29 raids against
Japan. About 130 B-17s were converted to
the air-sea rescue role, at first designated
B-17H and later SB-17G. Some SB-17s had
their defensive guns removed, while others
retained their guns to allow use close to
combat areas. The SB-17 served through
the Korean War, remaining in service with
USAF until the mid-1950s.[69][157][158]

See also: 3205th Drone Group

In 1946, surplus B-17s were chosen as

drone aircraft for atmospheric sampling
during the Operation Crossroads atomic
bomb tests, being able to fly close to or
even through the mushroom clouds
without endangering a crew. This led to
more widespread conversion of B-17s as
drones and drone control aircraft, both for
further use in atomic testing and as
targets for testing surface-to-air and air-to-
air missiles.[159]
One hundred and seven B-17s were
converted to drones.[160] The last
operational mission flown by a USAF
Fortress was conducted on 6 August 1959,
when a DB-17P, serial 44-83684 , directed a
QB-17G, out of Holloman Air Force Base,
New Mexico, as a target for an AIM-4
Falcon air-to-air missile fired from a
McDonnell F-101 Voodoo. A retirement
ceremony was held several days later at
Holloman AFB, after which 44-83684 was
retired. It was subsequently used in
various films and in the 1960s television
show 12 O'Clock High before being retired
to the Planes of Fame aviation museum in
Chino, California.[161] Perhaps the most
famous B-17, the Memphis Belle, has been
restored – with the B-17D The Swoose
underway – to its World War II wartime
appearance by the National Museum of
the United States Air Force at Wright-
Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.[162]

U.S. Navy and Coast Guard

Under project
Cadillac II, an
AN/APS-20 radar
was fitted onto
the B-17G,
making the PB-
 1W one of the
first AWACS.
 

The U.S. Coast

Guard PB-1G
carried a
droppable
lifeboat.

During the last year of World War II and

shortly thereafter, the United States Navy
(USN) acquired 48 ex-USAAF B-17s for
patrol and air-sea rescue work. The first
two ex-USAAF B-17s, a B-17F (later
modified to B-17G standard) and a B-17G
were obtained by the Navy for various
development programs.[155] At first, these
aircraft operated under their original
USAAF designations, but on 31 July 1945
they were assigned the naval aircraft
designation PB-1, a designation which had
originally been used in 1925 for the Boeing
Model 50 experimental flying boat.[163]

Thirty-two B-17Gs[164] were used by the

Navy under the designation PB-1W, the
suffix -W indicating an airborne early
warning role. A large radome for an S-band
AN/APS-20 search radar was fitted
underneath the fuselage and additional
internal fuel tanks were added for longer
range, with the provision for additional
underwing fuel tanks. Originally, the B-17
was also chosen because of its heavy
defensive armament, but this was later
removed. These aircraft were painted dark
blue, the standard Navy paint scheme
which had been adopted in late
1944.[155][163] PB-1Ws continued in USN
service until 1955, gradually being phased
out in favor of the Lockheed WV-2 (known
in the USAF as the EC-121, a designation
adopted by the USN in 1962), a military
version of the Lockheed 1049
Constellation commercial airliner.
In July 1945, 16 B-17s were transferred to
the Coast Guard via the Navy; these
aircraft were initially assigned U.S. Navy
Bureau Numbers (BuNo), but were
delivered to the Coast Guard designated
as PB-1Gs beginning in July 1946.[155][158]
Coast Guard PB-1Gs were stationed at a
number of bases in the U.S. and
Newfoundland, with five at Coast Guard Air
Station Elizabeth City, North Carolina, two
at CGAS San Francisco, two at NAS
Argentia, Newfoundland, one at CGAS
Kodiak, Alaska, and one in Washington
state.[158] They were used primarily in the
"Dumbo" air-sea rescue role, but were also
used for iceberg patrol duties and for
photo mapping. The Coast Guard PB-1Gs
served throughout the 1950s, the last
example not being withdrawn from service
until 14 October 1959.[155][165]

Special operations

B-17s were used by the CIA front

companies Civil Air Transport, Air America
and Intermountain Aviation for special
missions. These included B-17G 44-85531,
registered as N809Z. These aircraft were
primarily used for agent drop missions
over the People's Republic of China, flying
from Taiwan, with Taiwanese crews. Four
B-17s were shot down in these
operations.[166]

In 1957 the surviving B-17s had been

stripped of all weapons and painted black.
One of these Taiwan-based B-17s was
flown to Clark Air Base in the Philippines in
mid-September, assigned for covert
missions into Tibet.

On 28 May 1962, N809Z, piloted by Connie

Seigrist and Douglas Price, flew Major
James Smith, USAF and Lieutenant
Leonard A. LeSchack, USNR to the
abandoned Soviet arctic ice station NP 8,
as Operation Coldfeet. Smith and
LeSchack parachuted from the B-17 and
searched the station for several days. On 1
June, Seigrist and Price returned and
picked up Smith and LeSchack using a
Fulton Skyhook system installed on the B-
17.[167] N809Z was used to perform a
Skyhook pick up in the James Bond movie
Thunderball in 1965. This aircraft, now
restored to its original B-17G configuration,
is on display in the Evergreen Aviation &
Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon.

Operators
 

Military operators of the B-17

Civil operators of the B-17

The B-17, a versatile aircraft, served in

dozens of USAAF units in theaters of
combat throughout World War II, and in
other roles for the RAF. Its main use was in
Europe, where its shorter range and
smaller bombload relative to other aircraft
did not hamper it as much as in the Pacific
Theater. Peak USAAF inventory (in August
1944) was 4,574 worldwide.[74]

   Argentina
   Bolivia
   Brazil
   Canada
   Colombia
   Denmark
   Dominican Republic
   France
   Germany as Beuteflugzeug (captured
aircraft)
   Iran
   Saudi Arabia
   Israel
   Japan
   Mexico
   Nicaragua
   Peru
   Portugal
   South Africa
   Republic of China
   Soviet Union
    Switzerland
    Sweden
   United Kingdom
   United States

Surviving aircraft
46 planes survive in complete form, 10 of
which are airworthy, and 39 of which
reside in the United States.

Fortresses as a symbol

The B-17's capacity to repel enemy attacks and still

inflict heavy damage upon German military capability
and production centers is rendered in this caricature.
The B-17 Flying Fortress became symbolic
in the United States of that country's air
power. In a 1943 Consolidated Aircraft poll
of 2,500 men in cities where Consolidated
adverts had been run in newspapers, 73%
had heard of the B-24 and 90% knew of the
B-17.[137]

After the first B-17s were delivered to the

Air Corps 2nd Bombardment Group, they
were used on flights to promote their long
range and navigational capabilities. In
January 1938, group commander Colonel
Robert Olds flew a YB-17 from the United
States's east coast to its west coast,
setting a transcontinental record of 13
hours 27 minutes. He also broke the west-
to-east coast record on the return trip,
averaging 245 mph (394 km/h) in 11 hours
1 minute.[168] Six bombers of the 2nd
Bombardment Group took off from
Langley Field on 15 February 1938 as part
of a goodwill flight to Buenos Aires,
Argentina. Covering 12,000 miles
(19,000 km) they returned on 27 February,
with seven aircraft setting off on a flight to
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, three days later.[169]
In a well-publicized mission on 12 May of
the same year, three B-17s "intercepted"
and took photographs of the Italian ocean
liner SS Rex 610 miles (980 km) off the
Atlantic coast.[170][note 5]

Many pilots who flew both the B-17 and

the B-24 preferred the B-17 for its greater
stability and ease in formation flying. Its
electrical systems were less vulnerable to
damage than the B-24's hydraulics, and the
B-17 flew better than the B-24 when
missing an engine.[171] During the war, the
largest offensive bombing force, the
Eighth Air Force, had an open preference
for the B-17. Lieutenant General Jimmy
Doolittle wrote about his preference for
equipping the Eighth with B-17s, citing the
logistical advantage in keeping field forces
down to a minimum number of aircraft
types with their individual servicing and
spares. For this reason, he wanted B-17
bombers and P-51 fighters for the Eighth.
His views were supported by Eighth Air
Force statisticians, whose studies showed
that Fortresses had utility and survivability
much greater than that of the B-24.[137]
Making it back to base on numerous
occasions despite extensive battle
damage, its durability became
legendary;[135][136] stories and photos of B-
17s surviving battle damage were widely
circulated during the war.[137] Despite an
inferior performance and smaller
bombload than the more numerous B-
24,[172] a survey of Eighth Air Force crews
showed a much higher rate of satisfaction
in the B-17.[173]

Notable B-17s

The severely damaged All American continues to fly

after collision with an attacking Bf 109 fighter,
eventually landing without crew injuries.

All American – This B-17F survived

having her tail almost cut off in a mid-air
collision over Tunisia but returned safely
to base in Algeria.[174]
Chief Seattle – sponsored by the city of
Seattle, it disappeared (MIA) on 14
August 1942[175] flying a recon mission
for the 19th BG, 435th BS[176] and the
crew declared dead on 7 December
1945.
Hell's Kitchen – B-17F 41-24392 was one
of only three early B-17F's in 414th BS to
complete more than 100 combat
missions.[177]
Mary Ann – a B-17D that was part of an
unarmed flight which left Hamilton Air
Field, Novato, California on 6 December
1941 en route to Hickam Field in Hawaii,
arriving during the attack on Pearl
Harbor. The plane and its crew were
immediately forced into action on Wake
Island and in the Philippines during the
outbreak of World War II. It became
famous when its exploits were featured
in Air Force, one of the first of the
patriotic war films released in 1943.[178]
Memphis Belle – one of the first B-17s to
complete a tour of duty of 25 missions
in the 8th Air Force and the subject of a
feature film, now completely restored
and on display since 17 May 2018[179] at
the National Museum of the U.S. Air
Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in
Dayton, Ohio.
Miss Every Morning Fix'n – B-17C.
Previously named 'Pamela'. Stationed in
Mackay, Queensland, Australia during
World War II. On 14 June 1943, crashed
shortly after takeoff from Mackay while
ferrying U.S. forces personnel back to
Port Moresby, with 40 of the 41 people
on board killed. It remains the worst air
disaster in Australian history. The sole
survivor, Foye Roberts, married an
Australian and returned to the States.
He died in Wichita Falls, Texas, on 4
February 2004.[180]
Murder Inc. – A B-17 bombardier
wearing the name of the B-17 "Murder
Inc." on his jacket was used for
propaganda in German newspapers.[181]
Old 666 – B-17E flown by the most
highly decorated crew in the Pacific
Theater[182]
Royal Flush – B-17F 42-6087 from the
100th Bomb Group and commanded on
one mission by highly decorated USAAF
officer Robert Rosenthal, it was the lone
surviving 100th BG B-17 of 10 October
1943 raid against Münster to return to
the unit's base at RAF Thorpe
Abbotts.[183]
Sir Baboon McGoon – B-17F featured in
the June 1944 issue of Popular Science
magazine[184] and the 1945 issue of
Flying magazine.[185] Articles discuss
mobile recovery crews following
October 1943 belly landing at
Tannington, England.
The Swoose – Initially nicknamed Ole
Betsy while in service, The Swoose is the
only remaining intact B-17D, built in
1940, the oldest surviving Flying
Fortress, and the only surviving B-17 to
have seen action in the Philippines
Campaign (1941–42); it is in the
collection of the National Air and Space
Museum and is being restored for final
display at the National Museum of the
U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in
Dayton, Ohio. [186] The Swoose was
flown by Frank Kurtz, father of actress
Swoosie Kurtz, who named his daughter
after the bomber.
Ye Olde Pub – the B-17 that Franz Stigler
did not shoot down, as memorialized in
the painting A Higher Call by John D.
Shaw.[187]
5 Grand – 5,000th B-17 made,
emblazoned with Boeing employee
signatures, served with the 333rd Bomb
Squadron, 96th Bomb Group in Europe.
Damaged and repaired after gear-up
landing, transferred to 388th Bomb
Group. Returned from duty following V-E
 Day, flown for war bonds tour, then
stored at Kingman, Arizona. Following
an unsuccessful bid for museum
preservation, the aircraft was
scrapped.[188]

Accidents and incidents

Noted B-17 pilots and crew

members

Maynard H. Smith receiving Medal of Honor from

Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson.
 

Forrest L. Vosler receiving Medal of Honor from

President Roosevelt.

L–R, Nancy Love, pilot and Betty (Huyler) Gillies, co-

pilot, the first women to fly the Boeing B-17 Flying
Fortress heavy bomber for the WASP.[189]
Medal of Honor recipients

Many B-17 crew members received

military honors and 17 received the Medal
of Honor, the highest military decoration
awarded by the United States:[190]

Brigadier General Frederick Castle

(flying as co-pilot) – awarded
posthumously for remaining at controls
so others could escape damaged
aircraft.[191]
2nd Lt Robert Femoyer (navigator) –
awarded posthumously[192]
1st Lt Donald J. Gott (pilot) – awarded
posthumously[193]
2nd Lt David R. Kingsley (bombardier) –
awarded posthumously for tending to
injured crew and giving up his parachute
to another[194]
1st Lt William R. Lawley Jr. – "heroism
and exceptional flying skill"[195]
Sgt Archibald Mathies (engineer-gunner)
– awarded posthumously[196]
1st Lt Jack W. Mathis (bombardier) –
posthumously, the first airman in the
European theater to be awarded the
Medal of Honor[197]
2nd Lt William E. Metzger Jr. (Co-pilot) –
awarded posthumously[193]
1st Lt Edward Michael[198]
1st Lt John C. Morgan[199]
Capt Harl Pease (awarded
posthumously)[200]
2nd Lt Joseph Sarnoski (awarded
posthumously)[201]
S/Sgt Maynard H. Smith (gunner)[202]
1st Lt Walter E. Truemper (awarded
posthumously)[196]
T/Sgt Forrest L. Vosler (radio
operator)[203][204]
Brigadier General Kenneth Walker
Commanding officer of V Bomber
Command, killed while leading small
force in raid on Rabaul – awarded
posthumously[205]
 Maj Jay Zeamer, Jr. (pilot) – earned on
unescorted reconnaissance mission in
Pacific, same mission as Sarnoski[206]

Other military achievements or

events

Lincoln Broyhill, tail-gunner on a B-17 in

the 483rd Bombardment Group. He
received a Distinguished Unit Citation,
and set two individual records in a single
day: (1) most German jets destroyed by
a single gunner in one mission (two),
and (2) most German jets destroyed by
a single gunner during the entirety of
World War II.[207]
Allison C. Brooks (1917–2006), a B-17
pilot who was awarded numerous
military decorations, and was ultimately
promoted to the rank of major general
and served in active duty until 1971.[208]
1st Lt Eugene Emond (1921–1998):
Lead pilot for Man O War II Horsepower
Limited. Received the Distinguished
Flying Cross, Air Medal with three oak
leaf clusters, American Theater Ribbon
and Victory Ribbon. Was part of D-Day
and witnessed one of the first German
jets when a Me 262A-1a flew through
his formation over Germany. One of the
youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army
Air Forces.
Immanuel J. Klette (1918–1988):
Second-generation German-American
whose 91 combat missions were the
most flown by any Eighth Air Force pilot
in World War II.[209]
Capt Colin Kelly (1915–1941): Pilot of
the first U.S. B-17 lost in action.[210]
Col Frank Kurtz (1911–1996): The
USAAF's most decorated pilot of World
War II. Commander of the 463rd
Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air
Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy. Clark
Field Philippines attack survivor.
Olympic bronze medalist in diving
(1932), 1944–1945. Father of actress
Swoosie Kurtz, herself named for the
still-surviving B-17D mentioned above.
Gen Curtis LeMay (1906–1990):
Became head of the Strategic Air
Command and Chief of Staff of the
USAF.
Lt Col Nancy Love (1914–1976) and
Betty (Huyler) Gillies (1908–1998): The
first women pilots to be certified to fly
the B-17, in 1943 and to qualify for the
Women's Auxiliary Ferrying
Squadron.[189]
SSgt Alan Magee (1919–2003): B-17
gunner who on 3 January 1943 survived
a 22,000-foot (6,700-meter) freefall after
his aircraft was shot down by the
Luftwaffe over St. Nazaire.
Col Robert K. Morgan (1918–2004):
Pilot of Memphis Belle.
Lt Col Robert Rosenthal (1917–2007):
Commanded the only surviving B-17,
Royal Flush, of a US 8th Air Force raid by
the 100th Bomb Group on Münster on
10 October 1943. Completed 53
missions. Earned sixteen medals for
gallantry (including one each from
Britain and France), and led the raid on
Berlin[211] on 3 February 1945, that is
likely to have ended the life of Roland
Freisler, the infamous "hanging judge" of
the People's Court.
1st Lt Bruce Sundlun (1920–2011): Pilot
of Damn Yankee of the 384th Bomb
Group was shot down over Belgium on 1
December 1943 and evaded capture
until reaching Switzerland 5 May
1944.[212]
Brig Gen Paul Tibbets (1915–2007):
Flew with the 97th Bombardment Group
(Heavy) with both the 8th Air Force in
England and the 12th Air Force in North
Africa. Later pilot of the B-29 Enola Gay,
dropping the atomic bomb on
Hiroshima, Japan.
 The final crew of the bomber Ye Olde
Pub (20 December 1943): Flew home
from Bremen, Germany in a bomber that
was a miracle in the fact that it was
flying. The crew earned a total of 9 Silver
Stars and 1 Air Force Cross.

B-17 in popular culture

Hollywood featured the B-17 in its period

films, such as director Howard Hawks' Air
Force starring John Garfield and Twelve
O'Clock High starring Gregory Peck.[213]
Both films were made with the full
cooperation of the United States Army Air
Forces and used USAAF aircraft and (for
Twelve O'Clock High) combat footage. In
1964, the latter film was made into a
television show of the same name and ran
for three years on ABC TV. Footage from
Twelve O' Clock High was also used, along
with three restored B-17s, in the 1962 film
The War Lover. The B-17 also appeared in
the 1938 movie Test Pilot with Clark Gable
and Spencer Tracy, with Clark Gable in
Command Decision in 1948, in Tora! Tora!
Tora! in 1970, and in Memphis Belle with
Matthew Modine, Eric Stoltz, Billy Zane,
and Harry Connick Jr. in 1990. The most
famous B-17, the Memphis Belle, toured
the U. S. with its crew to reinforce national
morale (and to sell war bonds). It starred
in a USAAF documentary, Memphis Belle: A
Story of a Flying Fortress.[214]

B-17's are seen flying (and crashing in

flames) in the British film The Way to the
Stars.

The song, "Icarus II (Borne On Wings Of

Steel)" by Kansas, from their album
Somewhere to Elsewhere, has lyrics sung
by Steve Walsh that describe the heroic
sacrifice a B-17 pilot makes to save his
crew after they are hit and going down,
ordering them to jump, leaving him to steer
the dying plane to its end.
The B-17 has also been featured in artistic
works expressing the physical and
psychological stress of the combat
conditions and the high casualty rates that
crews suffered.[215][216] Works such as The
Death of the Ball Turret Gunner by Randall
Jarrell and Heavy Metal 's section "B-17"
depict the nature of these missions. The
Ball turret itself has inspired works like
Steven Spielberg's The Mission. Artists
who served on the bomber units also
created paintings and drawings depicting
the combat conditions in World War
II.[217][218]

Specifications (B-17G)
 

3-view projection of a B-17G, with inset detail showing

the "Cheyenne tail" and some major differences with
other B-17 variants

B-17G nose guns

Data from The Encyclopedia of World
Aircraft[39]

General characteristics

Crew: 10: Pilot, co-pilot, navigator,

bombardier/nose gunner, flight
engineer/top turret gunner, radio
operator, waist gunners (2), ball turret
gunner, tail gunner[219]
Length: 74 ft 4 in (22.66 m)
Wingspan: 103 ft 9 in (31.62 m)
Height: 19 ft 1 in (5.82 m)
Wing area: 1,420 sq ft (131.92 m2)
Airfoil: NACA 0018 / NACA 0010
Empty weight: 36,135 lb (16,391 kg)
 Gross weight: 54,000 lb (24,500 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 65,500 lb
(29,700 kg)
Aspect ratio: 7.57
Powerplant: 4 × Wright R-1820-97
"Cyclone" turbosupercharged radial
engines, 1,200 hp (895 kW) each

Performance

Maximum speed: 287 mph (462 km/h,

249 kn)
Cruise speed: 182 mph (293 km/h,
158 kn)
Range: 2,000 mi (3,219 km, 1,738 nmi)
with 6,000 lb (2,700 kg) bombload
 Service ceiling: 35,600 ft (10,850 m)
Rate of climb: 900 ft/min (4.6 m/s)
Wing loading: 38.0 lb/sq ft
(185.7 kg/m2)
Power/mass: 0.089 hp/lb (150 W/kg)

Armament

Guns: 13 × .50 in (12.7 mm) M2

Browning machine guns in 9 positions
(2 in the Bendix chin turret, 2 on nose
cheeks, 2 staggered waist guns, 2 in
upper Sperry turret, 2 in Sperry ball turret
in belly, 2 in the tail and one firing
upwards from radio compartment
behind bomb bay)
 Bombs:
Short range missions (<400 mi):
8,000 lb (3,600 kg)
Long range missions (≈800 mi):
4,500 lb (2,000 kg)
Overload: 17,600 lb (7,800 kg)

Notable appearances in
media

See also

B-17 modified for testing of the XT-34 turboprop. When

testing concluded, the aircraft was restored to stock
configuration as the "Liberty Belle", but was lost in a
 g y ,
post-forced-landing fire near Oswego, Illinois, on 13
June 2011.

Air warfare of World War II

Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants
B-17 Flying Fortress units of the United
States Army Air Forces
Accidents and incidents involving the B-
17 Flying Fortress

Related development

Boeing XB-15
Boeing XB-38 Flying Fortress
Boeing YB-40 Flying Fortress
Boeing C-108 Flying Fortress
Related lists

List of bomber aircraft

List of aircraft of World War II
List of military aircraft of the United
States

Notes
1. The Air Corps News Letter, however,
notes in its edition of 1 January 1938
(ACNL Vol. XXI, No. 1, p. 7 Archived 3
September 2015 at the Wayback
Machine) an attempt by the Langley
Field correspondent to apply the
appellation "Jeep" to the B-17, which it
objected to as "not befitting" the
 aircraft and adding, "Why not let the
term 'Flying Fortress' suffice?"
2. On board the aircraft were pilots Major
Ployer P. Hill (his first time flying the
299) and Lieutenant Donald Putt (the
primary army pilot for the previous
evaluation flights), Leslie Tower,
Boeing mechanic C.W. Benton, and
Pratt and Whitney representative
Henry Igo. Putt, Benton, and Igo
escaped with burns, and Hill and
Tower were pulled from the wreckage
alive, but later died from their injuries.
3. The idea of a pilot's checklist spread
to other crew members, other air corps
 aircraft types, and eventually
throughout the aviation world. Life
published the lengthy B-17 checklist in
its 24 August 1942 issue.[33]
4. Quote: "At the peak of production,
Boeing was rolling out as many as 363
B-17s a month, averaging between 14
and 16 Forts a day, the most incredible
production rate for large aircraft in
aviation history." This production rate
was, however, surpassed by that of the
Consolidated B-24 Liberator.
5. This is a common error. The Rex was
725 miles offshore on her last position
report as the B-17s were taxiing for
 takeoff from Mitchel Field, four hours
before interception.

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Further reading
Birdsall, Steve. The B-17 Flying Fortress.
Dallas, Texas: Morgan Aviation Books, 1965.
OCLC 752618401 .
Davis, Larry. B-17 in Action. Carrollton, Texas:
Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984. ISBN 0-
89747-152-0.
Jablonski, Edward. Flying Fortress. New York:
Doubleday, 1965. ISBN 0-385-03855-0.
Johnsen, Frederick A. Boeing B-17 Flying
Fortress. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur
Press, 2001. ISBN 1-58007-052-3.
Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail
and Scale, Vol. 11: Derivatives, Part 2.
Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1983.
ISBN 0-8168-5021-6.
Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail
and Scale, Vol. 20: More derivatives, Part 3.
Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books,
1986. ISBN 0-8168-5029-1.
Lloyd, Alwyn T. and Terry D. Moore. B-17
Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 1:
Production Versions, Part 1. Fallbrook,
California: Aero Publishers, 1981. ISBN 0-
8168-5012-7.
O'Leary, Michael. Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress
(Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2). Botley,
 Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. ISBN 1-
85532-814-3.
Thompson, Scott A. Final Cut: The Post War
B-17 Flying Fortress, The Survivors: Revised
and Updated Edition. Highland County, Ohio:
Pictorial Histories Publishing Company,
2000. ISBN 1-57510-077-0.
Willmott, H.P. B-17 Flying Fortress. London:
Bison Books, 1980. ISBN 0-85368-444-8.
Wagner, Ray, "American Combat Planes of
the 20th Century", Reno, Nevada, 2004, Jack
Bacon & Company, ISBN 0-930083-17-2.

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