Reference Guide to Fiber Optic Testing

SECOND EDITION Volume 1

Reference Guide to Fiber Optic Testing
SECOND EDITION

Volume 1

By
J. Laferrière
G. Lietaert
R. Taws
S. Wolszczak

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Principles of Light Transmission on a Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Optical Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Fiber Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Transmission Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Light Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Types of Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1 Multimode Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.2 Single-mode Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.3 Review of Single-mode and Multimode Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5 Light Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5.1 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5.2 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.3 Optical Return Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.5.4 Nonlinear Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.5.5 Summary of Transmission Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.6 Standards and Recommendations for Fiber Optic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.6.1 International Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.6.2 National Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.6.3 Fiber Optic Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.6.4 Test and Measurement Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

iii
Chapter 2: Insertion Loss, Return Loss, Fiber Characterization, and
Ancillary Test Kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

2.1 Optical Fiber Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.2 Transmission Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.1 Measurement Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.2 Measurement Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2.3 Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3 Optical Tester Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3.1 Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3.2 Power Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.3 Loss Test Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.4 Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3.5 Optical Loss Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3.6 Optical Return Loss Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.7 Mini-OTDR and Fault Locators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.8 Fiber Characterization Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.3.9 Video Inspection Scopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.10 Other Test Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3.11 Monitoring and Remote Test Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Chapter 3: Optical Time Domain Reflectometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

3.1 Introduction to OTDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2 Fiber Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.1 Rayleigh Scattering and Backscattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.2 Fresnel Reflection and Backreflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

iv
3.3 OTDR Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.1 Emitting Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.2 Using a Pulse Generator with a Laser Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.3 Photodiodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3.4 Time Base and Control Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4 OTDR Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.1 Dynamic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.2 Dead Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4.3 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.4.4 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.4.5 Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Chapter 4: Using an Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4.1 Introductio to OTDR Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2 Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.1 Injection Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.2 OTDR Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.2.3 Pulse Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2.4 Range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.5 Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.6 Fiber Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3 Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.1 Event Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.2 OTDR Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.3.3 Measurement Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

v
4.3.4 Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.3.5 Event Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3.6 Reflectance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.3.7 Optical Return Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.4 Measurement Artifacts and Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.4.1 Ghosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.4.2 Splice Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5 Bidirectional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.5.1 Bidirectional Analysis of a Hypothetical Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.6 Getting the Most Out of Your OTDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.6.1 Using Launch Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.6.2 Verifying Continuity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.6.3 Fault Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.6.4 Effective Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.6.5 Automating Bidirectional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.6.6 Loopback Measurement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.7 OTDR Acceptance Reporting Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.7.1 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.7.2 Results Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.7.3 Report Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.7.4 Document Printout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Chapter 5: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Chapter 6: Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

vi
Principles of Light Transmission on a Fiber
Chapter 1
2
 3

1.1 Optical Communications

The principle of an optical communications system is to transmit
a signal through an optical fiber to a distant receiver. The electrical
signal is converted into the optical domain at the transmitter and is
converted back into the original electrical signal at the receiver. Fiber
optic communication has several advantages over other transmission
methods, such as copper and radio communication systems.
s A signal can be sent over long distances (200 km) without the
need for regeneration.
s The transmission is not sensitive to electromagnetic
perturbations. In addition, the fiber does not conduct
electricity and is practically insensitive to RF interferences.
s Fiber optic systems provide greater capacity than copper or
coaxial cable systems.
s The fiber optic cable is much lighter and smaller than copper
cable. Therefore, fiber optic cables can contain a large number
of fibers in a much smaller area. For example, a single fiber cable
can consist of 144 fibers.
s Optical fiber is reliable and very flexible.
s Optical fiber has a lifetime greater than 25 years (compared with
10 years for satellite communications systems).
s Operating temperatures for optical fiber vary, but they typically
range from –40° to +80°C.
4

Three main factors can affect light transmission in an optical

communication system:
1. Attenuation: As the light signal travels through the fiber, it loses
optical power due to absorption, scattering, and other radiation
losses. At some point, the power level may become too weak for
the receiver to distinguish between the optical signal and the
background noise.
2. Bandwidth: Since the light signal is composed of different
frequencies, the fiber limits the highest and lowest frequencies and
reduces the information carrying capacity.
3. Dispersion: As the light signal travels through the fiber, the light
pulses spread or broaden and limit the information carrying capacity
at very high bit rates or for transmission over very long distances.
 5

1.2 Fiber Design

An optical fiber is composed of a very thin glass rod, which is
surrounded by a plastic protective coating. The glass rod contains
two parts: the inner portion of the rod (or core) and the surrounding
layer (or cladding). Light injected into the core of the glass fiber
follows the physical path of the fiber due to the total internal
reflection of the light between the core and the cladding.

Core
Cladding
Plastic Coating

The composition of optical fiber

6

1.3 Transmission Principles

A ray of light enters a fiber at a small angle α. The capability
(maximum acceptable value) of the fiber cable to receive light
through its core is determined by its numerical aperture (NA).
NA = sin α0 = √n21 – n22
Where α0 is the maximum angle of acceptance (that is, the limit
between reflection and refraction), n1 is the core refractive index,
and n2 is the cladding refractive index.

Core Cladding

Full Acceptance
Cone

n1
n2
α0

The injection of light into a fiber

The full acceptance cone is defined as 2α0.

1.3.1 Light Propagation

The propagation of a ray of light in optical fiber follows Snell-
Descartes’ law. A portion of the light is guided through the optical
fiber when injected into the fiber’s full acceptance cone.
 7

1.3.1.1 Refraction
Refraction is the bending of a ray of light at an interface between
two dissimilar transmission media. If α > α0, then the ray is fully
refracted and is not captured by the core.
n1 sin αi = n2 sin αr

α
α0 n2
αi
n1

αr

Refraction of light

1.3.1.2 Reflection
Reflection is the abrupt change in direction of a light ray at an
interface between two dissimilar transmission media. In this case,
the light ray returns to the media from which it originated.
If α < α0, then the ray is reflected and remains in the core.
αi = αr

α
α0 n2
αi αr
n1

Reflection of light
8

1.3.1.3 Propagation Principle

Light rays enter the fiber at different angles and do not follow the
same paths. Light rays entering the center of the fiber core at a very
low angle will take a relatively direct path through the center of the
fiber. Light rays entering the fiber core at a high angle of incidence
or near the outer edge of the fiber core will take a less direct, longer
path through the fiber and will traverse the fiber more slowly. Each
path, resulting from a given angle of incidence and a given entry
point, will give rise to a mode. As the modes travel along the fiber,
each of them is attenuated to some degree.

1.3.2 Velocity
The speed at which light travels through a transmission medium
is determined by the refractive index of the transmission medium.
The refractive index (n) is a unitless number, which represents the
ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in the
transmission medium.
n = c/v
Where n is the refractive index of the transmission medium, c is the
speed of light in a vacuum (2.99792458 × 108 m/s), and v is the speed
of light in the transmission medium.
Typical values of n for glass, such as optical fiber, are between 1.45
and 1.55. As a rule, the higher the refractive index, the slower the
speed in the transmission medium.

Glass
Vacuum

km/s
100,000 200,000 300,000

Comparing the speed of light through different transmission mediums

 9

Typical manufacturer’s values for Index of Refraction are:

s Corning® LEAF®
n = 1.468 at 1550 nm
n = 1.469 at 1625 nm
s OFS TrueWave® REACH
n = 1.471 at 1310 nm
n = 1.470 at 1550 nm

1.3.3 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is defined as the width of the frequency range that can
be transmitted by an optical fiber. The bandwidth determines the
maximum transmitted information capacity of a channel, which
can be carried along the fiber over a given distance. Bandwidth is
expressed in MHztkm. In multimode fiber, bandwidth is mainly
limited by modal dispersion; whereas almost no limitation exists for
bandwidth in single-mode fiber.

dB/km
Step-index Graded-index Single-mode fiber
multimode fiber multimode fiber

100

10

0.1 MHz
6
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1x10

Typical bandwidths for different types of fiber

10

1.4 Types of Fiber

Fiber is classified as either multimode or single-mode based on the way
in which the light travels through it. The fiber type is closely related to
the diameter of the core and cladding and how light travels through it.

Optical Fiber

Multimode Single-mode

Step-Index Graded-Index

Types of glass fiber

1.4.1 Multimode Fiber

Multimode fiber, due to its large core, allows for the transmission of
light using different paths (multiple modes) along the link, making
multimode fiber quite sensitive to modal dispersion.
The primary advantages of multimode fiber are its ease of
coupling to light sources and to other fiber, lower cost light
sources (transmitters), and simplified connectorization and
splicing processes. However, its relatively high attenuation and low
bandwidth limit the transmission of light over multimode fiber to
short distances.

Core Diameter
50 to 100 µm

Cladding Diameter
125 to 140 µm

Coating Diameter
250 µm
The composition of multimode fiber
 11

1.4.1.1 Step-Index Multimode Fiber

Step-index (SI) multimode fiber guides light rays through total
reflection on the boundary between the core and cladding. The
refractive index is uniform in the core. SI multimode fiber has a
minimum core diameter of 50 or 62.5 µm, a cladding diameter between
100 and 140 µm, and a numerical aperture between 0.2 and 0.5.
Due to modal dispersion, the drawback of SI multimode fiber is its
very low bandwidth, which is expressed as the bandwidth-length
product in MHztkm. A fiber bandwidth of 20 MHztkm indicates
that the fiber is suitable for carrying a 20 MHz signal for a distance
of 1 km, a 10 MHz signal for a distance of 2 km, a 40 MHz signal for
a distance of 0.5 km, and so on.
A plastic coating surrounds SI multimode fiber, which is used mostly
for short distance links that can accommodate high attenuations.

Modes of Refractive Input Output

Propagation Index Profile Signal Signal

Light propagation through SI multimode fiber

1.4.1.2 Graded-Index Multimode Fiber

The core of graded-index (GI) multimode fiber possesses a non-
uniform refractive index, decreasing gradually from the central axis
to the cladding. This index variation of the core forces the rays of
light to progress through the fiber in a sinusoidal manner.
12

The highest-order modes will have a longer path to travel, but

outside of the central axis in areas of low index, their speeds will
increase. In addition, the difference in speed between the highest-
order modes and the lowest-order modes will be smaller for GI
multimode fiber than for SI multimode fiber.

Modes of Refractive Input Output

Propagation Index Profile Signal Signal

Light propagation through GI multimode fiber

Typical attenuations for GI multimode fiber:

s 3 dB/km at 850 nm
s 1 dB/km at 1300 nm
Typical numerical aperture for GI multimode fiber: 0.2
Typical bandwidth-length product for graded-index multimode fiber:
s 160 MHztkm at 850 nm
s 500 MHztkm at 1300 nm
Typical values for the refractive index:
s 1.49 for 62.5 µm at 850 nm
s 1.475 for 50 µm at 850 nm and 1.465 for 50 µm at 1300 nm
 13

1.4.1.3 Launch Conditions and Encircle Flux

Launch Conditions
Launch conditions correspond to how optical power is launched into
the fiber core when measuring fiber attenuation.
Ideal launch conditions should occur if the light is distributed
through the whole fiber core. Actually, multimode optical fiber
launch conditions may typically be characterized as being
underfilled or overfilled.

Transmission of Light in Multimode Fiber in Underfilled Conditions

They are characterized as underfilled when most of the optical

power is concentrated in the center of the fiber, which occurs when
the launch spot size and angular distribution are smaller than the
fiber core (for example when the source is a laser or vertical cavity
surface-emitting laser [VCSEL]).

Transmission of Light in Multimode Fiber in Overfilled Conditions

14

An overfilled launch condition occurs when the launch spot size and
angular distribution are larger than the fiber core (for example when
the source is a light-emitting diode [LED]). Incident light that falls
outside the fiber core is lost as well as light that is at angles greater
than the angle of acceptance for the fiber core.
Light sources affect attenuation measurements such that one that
underfills the fiber exhibits a lower attenuation value than the actual,
whereas one that overfills the fiber exhibits a higher attenuation
value than the actual.

Underfilled/Overfilled—What is the best?

Neither underfilled or overfilled is optimal, because both result in
measurement variations.
Measurement variations are not critical when the allowed loss
budget is over-dimensioned versus the expected bandwidth. But
it becomes important to know the variation range in case of loss
budget closed to its allowed limitations. In that case, a 50-percent
variation may be too important to certify the network, thus requiring
fine measurements.
The purpose of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
61280-4-1 is to provide guidance to guarantee that the variation in
attenuation remains within ±10 percent.
Using IEC 61280-4-1-compliant test equipment in the field ensures
that attenuation measurements will vary less than ±10 percent for
>1 dB loss and ±0.07 dB for <1 dB loss among various pieces of test
equipment.

Encircled Flux
The new parameter covered in the IEC 61280-4-1 Ed2 standard
from June 2009 is known as Encircled Flux (EF), which is related to
distribution of power in the fiber core and also the launch spot size
(radius) and angular distribution.
 15

EF corresponds to the ratio between the transmitted power at a given

radius of the fiber core and the total injected power. For example, the
picture below illustrates the transmitted power at a radius of 15 mm
(light blue). The EF value at 15 mm equals the ratio between the
amount of light transmitted in that middle part and the total amount
of light emitted into the whole core (yellow circle):

Illustration of EF value at 15 µm radius of a 50 µm-core Fiber

IEC 61280-4-1 Standard

The IEC 61280-4-1 standard recommendations are based on the
defined lower and upper boundaries of EF values at four predefined
radii of the fiber core (10, 15, 20, and 22 µm), and for each
wavelength (850 and 1300 nm).

Illuminated core of a 50 µm-core

16

1.4.1.4 Types of Multimode Fiber

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T) G.651
and Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802.3
standards define the characteristics of a GI multimode optical
fiber cable. The increased demand for bandwidth in multimode
applications, including Gigabit Ethernet (GigE) and 10 GigE, has
resulted in the definition of four different International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) categories.

Comparing the ISO categories of the ITU-T G.651 standard

Standards Characteristics Wavelengths Applications
G.651.1 Legacy GI multimode fiber 850 and 1300 nm Data communications in access
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (OM1) amd 2008 networks
G.651.1 Legacy GI multimode fiber 850 and 1300 nm Video and data communications in
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (OM2) amd 2008 access networks
G.651.1 Laser optimized; Optimized for 850 nm GigE and 10 GigE transmissions in local
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (OM3) amd 2008 GI multimode fiber; area networks (up to 300 m)
50/125 µm maximum
G.651.1 VCSELs optimized Optimized for 850 nm 40 and 100 Gbps transmissions in
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (OM4) amd 2008 data centers

1.4.1.5 50 μm versus 62.5 μm Multimode Fibers

When optical transmission appeared in the field in the 1970s, optical
links were based on 50 µm multimode fiber waveguides and LED light
sources for both short and long ranges. In the 1980s, laser-powered
single-mode fibers appeared and became the preferred choice for long
distance, while multimode waveguides were positioned as the most
cost-effective solution for local networks and for interconnecting
building and campus backbones over distances of 300 to 2000 m.
A few years later, emerging applications in local networks required
higher data rates including 10 Mbps, which pushed the introduction
of 62.5 µm multimode fiber that could drive 10 Mbps over 2000 m
because of its ability to capture more light power from the LED. At the
same time, its higher numerical aperture eased the cabling operation
and limited signal attenuation caused by cable stresses. These
improvements made 62.5 µm multimode fiber the primary choice for
short-range LANs, data centers, and campuses operating at 10 Mbps.
 17

Today, Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps) is the standard and 10 Gbps is

becoming more common in local networks. The 62.5 µm multimode
fiber has reached its performance limits, supporting 10 Gbps over
26 m (maximum). These limitations hastened the recent deployment
of a new design of economical lasers called VCSELs and of a small
core of 50 µm fiber that is 850 nm laser-optimized.
Demand for increased data rates and greater bandwidth has further
led to widespread use of 50 µm laser-optimized fibers capable of
offering 2000-MHztkm bandwidth and a high-speed data rate over
long distance. Trends in local network design are to cable backbone
segments with such fibers in order to build a more future-proof
infrastructure.

1.4.1.6 Data Communication Rate and Transmission Lengths

When installing fiber cables, it is important to understand their
capabilities in terms of bandwidth along the distance to ensure that
installations are well-dimensioned and will support future needs.
As a first step, it is possible to estimate the transmission length
according to the ISO/IEC 11801 standard table of recommended
distances for networking Ethernet. This table assumes a continuous
cable length without any devices, splices, connectors, or other loss
factors that affect signal transmission.

Network Application Nominal Transmission Maximum Channel Length (ISO/IEC 11801)

(IEEE 802.3) Wavelength 50 µm fiber 62.5 µm fiber
10BASE-SR/SW 850 nm 300 m 33 m
10BASE-LX4 1300 nm 300 m 300 m

As a second step, the cabling infrastructure should respect maximum

channel attenuation to ensure a reliable signal transmission over
distance. This attenuation value should consider end-to-end channel
losses, including:
18

s The fiber attenuation profile, as it corresponds to 3.5 dB/km for

multimode fibers at 850 nm and to 1.5 dB/km for multimode
fibers at 1300 nm (according to ANSI/TIA-568-B.3 and ISO/IEC
11801 standards).
s Splices (typically up to 0.1 dB loss), connectors (typically up to
0.5 dB loss), and other commonly occurring losses.
Maximum channel attenuation is specified in the ANSI/TIA-568-B.1
standard as follows:

10 Gigabit Wavelength Maximum Channel Attenuation (dB) According to ANSI/TIA-568-B.1

Ethernet (nm) 62.5 µm(1) MM 50 µm(3) MM 850 nm 9 µm SM
Laser-optimized
50 µm MM
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10GBASE-LX4 1300 2.5 2.0(5) 2.0 6.6



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1.4.2 Single-mode Fiber

The advantage of single-mode fiber is its higher performance with
respect to bandwidth and attenuation. The reduced core diameter of
single-mode fiber limits the light to only one mode of propagation,
eliminating modal dispersion completely.
With proper dispersion compensating components, a single-mode
fiber can carry signals of 10 and 40 Gbps or above over long distances.
The system carrying capacity may be further increased by injecting
multiple signals of slightly differing wavelengths (wavelength
division multiplexing) into one fiber.
The small core size of single-mode fiber generally requires more
expensive light sources and alignment systems to achieve efficient
coupling. In addition, splicing and connectorization are also
somewhat complicated. Nonetheless, for high performance systems
or for systems that are more than a few kilometers in length, single-
mode fiber remains the best solution.
 19

The typical dimensions of single-mode fiber range from a core of 8

to 12 µm and a cladding of 125 µm. The refractive index of single-
mode fiber is typically 1.465.

Core Diameter
8 to 12 µm

Cladding Diameter
125 µm

Coating Diameter
250 µm

The composition of single-mode fiber

The small core diameter of single-mode fiber decreases the number

of propagation modes, therefore, only one ray of light propagates
down the core at a time.

1.4.2.1 Mode Field Diameter

The mode field diameter (MFD) of single-mode fiber can be
expressed as the section of the fiber where the majority of the light
energy passes.
The MFD is larger than the physical core diameter. That is, a
fiber with a physical core of 8 µm can yield a 9.5 µm MFD. This
phenomenon occurs because some of the light energy also travels
through the cladding.
Light Energy

A portion of light travels

through the cladding

MFD

Cladding Core Cladding

The MFD of single-mode fiber

20

Larger mode field diameters are less sensitive to lateral offset during
splicing, but they are more sensitive to losses incurred by bending
during either the installation or cabling processes.

Effective Area
Effective area is another term that is used to define the mode field
diameter. The effective area is the area of the fiber corresponding to
the mode field diameter.

Effective Area

Core

Cladding

The effective area of single-mode fiber

The effective area (or mode field diameter) directly influences

nonlinear effects, which depend directly on the power density of the
light injected into the fiber. The higher the power density the higher
the incidence of nonlinear effects.
The effective area of a fiber determines the power density of the light.
For a given power level, a small effective area will provide a high
power density. Subsequently, for a larger effective area, the power is
better distributed, and the power density is less important. In other
words, the smaller the effective area, the higher the incidence of
nonlinear effects.
The effective area of a standard single-mode fiber is approximately
80 µm and can be as low as 30 µm for compensating fiber. The
effective area of a fiber is often included in the description of the
fiber’s name, such as Corning’s LEAF (for large effective area fiber).
 21

1.4.2.2 Types of Single-mode Fiber

There are different types of single-mode fiber, which are classified
according to their attenuation range, chromatic dispersion (CD) values,
and polarization mode dispersion (PMD) coefficients. The ITU-T
has provided a set of standards in order to classify single-mode fiber.

G.652: Characteristics of single-mode optical fiber and cable

Characteristics Wavelength Coverage Applications
G.652.A Max PMD = 0.5 ps/√km 1310 and 1550 nm regions Supports applications such as those recommended in G.957
(O and C bands) and G.691 up to STM-16, 10 Gbps up to 40 km (Ethernet), and
STM-256 for G.693.
G.652.B Maximum attenuation specified at 1625 nm. 1310, 1550, and 1625 nm regions Supports some higher bit rate applications up to STM-64 in
Max PMD = 0.2 ps/√km (O and C+L bands) G.691 and G.692 and some STM-256 applications in G.693 and
G.959.1. Depending on the application, chromatic dispersion
accommodation may be necessary.
G.652.C Maximum attenuation specified at 1383 nm (equal or From O to C bands Similar to G.652.A, but this standard allows for transmission in
lower than 1310 nm). portions of an extended wavelength range from 1360 to 1530 nm.
Max PMD = 0.5 ps/√km Suitable for CWDM systems.
G.652.D Maximum attenuation specified from 1310 to 1625 nm. Wideband coverage (from O to Similar to G.652.B, but this standard allows for transmission in
Maximum attenuation specified at 1383 nm (equal or L bands) portions of an extended wavelength range from 1360 to 1530 nm.
lower than 1310 nm). Suitable for CWDM systems.
Max PMD = 0.2 ps/√km

G.653: Characteristics of dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fiber and cable

Characteristics Wavelength Coverage Applications
G.653.A Zero chromatic dispersion value at 1550 nm. Maximum 1550 nm Supports high bit rate applications at 1550 nm over long distances.
attenuation of 0.35 dB/km at 1550 nm.
Max PMD = 0.5 ps/√km
G.653.B Same as G655.A, except: 1550 nm Introduced in 2003 with a low PMD coefficient, this standard
Max PMD = 0.2 ps/√km supports higher bit rate transmission applications than G.653.

G.655: Characteristics of non-zero dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fiber and cable

Characteristics Wavelength Coverage Applications
G.655.A Maximum attenuation specified at 1550 nm only. Lower C bands Supports DWDM transmission (G.692) applications in the C bands
CD value than G.655.B and G.655.C. with down to 200 GHz channel spacing.
Max PMD = 0.5 ps/√km
G.655.B Maximum attenuation specified at 1550 and 1625 nm. 1550 and 1625 nm regions Supports DWDM transmission (G.692) applications in the C+L
Higher CD value than G.655.A. (C+L bands) bands with down to 100 GHz channel spacing.
Max PMD = 0.5 ps/√km
G.655.C Maximum attenuation specified at 1550 and 1625 nm. From O to C bands Similar to G.655.B, but this standard allows for transmission
Higher CD value than G.655.A. applications at high bit rates for STM-64/OC-192 (10 Gbps) over
Max PMD = 0.2 ps/√km longer distances. Also suitable for STM-256/OC-568 (40 Gbps).
22

The recent G.656 standard (06/2004) is an extension of G.655, but it

specifically addresses the wider wavelength range for transmission
over the S, C, and L bands.

G.656: Characteristics of non-zero dispersion shifted fiber for wideband transport

Characteristics Wavelength Coverage Applications
G.656 Maximum attenuation specified at 1460, S, C, and L bands Supports both CWDM and DWDM systems throughout
1550, and 1625 nm. the wavelength range of 1460 and 1625 nm.
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G.657: Characteristics of a bending loss insensitive single-mode fiber for access network
Characteristics Wavelength Coverage Applications
G.657.A At 15 mm radius, 10 turns, 0.25 dB max Wideband coverage (from 0 to Optimized access installation with respect to macro
at 1550 nm, 1 dB max at 1625 nm L bands) bending, loss, others parameters being like G.652D
G.657. B At 15 mm radius, 10 turns, 0.03 dB max Wideband coverage (from 0 to Optimized access installation with very short
at 1550 nm, 0.1 dB max at 1625 nm L bands) bending radii

Other types of fiber exist, such as polarization maintaining single-mode

fiber and plastic fiber, which are outside the scope of this document.

1.4.3 Review of Single-mode and Multimode Fiber

The following table provides a quick comparison between
multimode and single-mode fiber.

Review of single-mode and multimode fiber

Multimode Single-mode
Cost of fiber Expensive Less expensive
Transmission equipment Basic and low cost (LED) More expensive (laser diode)
Attenuation High Low
Transmission wavelengths 850 to 1300 nm 1260 to 1650 nm
Use Larger core, easier to handle Connections more complex
Distances Local networks (< 2 km) Access/medium/long haul networks (> 200 km)
Bandwidth Limited bandwidth (100G over very short distances) Nearly infinite bandwidth (> 1 Tbps for DWDM)
Conclusion The fiber is more costly, but network deployment is Provides higher performance, but building the network
relatively inexpensive. is expensive.
 23

1.5 Light Transmission

Light transmission in optical fiber uses three basic elements: a
transmitter, a receiver, and a transmission medium that passes the
signal from one to the other. The use of optical fiber introduces
attenuation and dispersion into the system. Attenuation tends to
increase the power requirements of the transmitter in order to meet
the power requirements of the receiver. Dispersion, on the other
hand, limits the bandwidth of the data that can be transmitted over
the fiber.

1.5.1 Attenuation
As the light signal traverses the fiber, it decreases in power level. The
decrease in power level is expressed in decibels (dB) or as a rate of
loss per unit distance (dB/km).

1.5.1.1 Fiber Spectral Attenuation

The two main loss mechanisms of light transmission in optical fiber
are light absorption and scattering.

Light Absorption
Light is absorbed in the fiber material as its energy is converted to
heat due to molecular resonance and wavelength impurities. For
example, hydrogen and hydroxide resonance occurs at approximately
1244 and 1383 nm.

Rayleigh Scattering
Scattering, primarily Rayleigh scattering, also contributes to attenuation.
Scattering causes dispersion of the light energy in all directions, with
some of the light escaping the fiber core. A small portion of this light
energy is returned down the core and is termed backscattering.
Forward light scattering (Raman scattering) and backward light scattering
(Brillouin scattering) are two additional scattering phenomena that
can occur in optical materials under high power conditions.
24

Transmitted Light

Scattered Light

Backscattered Light

Backscattering effects of light transmission

Attenuation depends on the fiber type and the wavelength. For

example, Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the wavelength. If the absorption spectrum of a fiber is
plotted against the wavelength of the laser, certain characteristics
of the fiber can be identified. The following graph illustrates the
relationship between the wavelength of the injected light and the
total fiber attenuation.

Attenuation
(dB/km)
5
Rayleigh Scattering
4
OH- Absorption Peaks
3

2
Infrared Absorption Loss

1
Low Water Peak Fiber
0 Wavelength (µm)

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

Fiber attenuation as a function of wavelength

 25

The main telecommunication transmission wavelengths correspond

to the points on the graph where attenuation is at a minimum. These
wavelengths are known as the telecom windows. The ITU-T G.692
standard has defined additional windows, called bands, which are
dedicated to dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)
transmission systems.

820 – 880 nm (1st window) S Band 1460 – 1530 nm

O Band 1260 – 1360 nm (2nd window) C Band 1530 – 1565 nm (3rd window)

E Band 1360 – 1460 nm L Band 1565 – 1625 nm

U Band 1625 – 1675 nm

The OH- symbol identified in the graph indicates that at the

wavelengths of 950, 1244, and 1383 nm, the presence of hydrogen
and hydroxide ions in the fiber optic cable material causes an increase
in attenuation. These ions result from the presence of water that
enters the cable material through either a chemical reaction in the
manufacturing process or as humidity in the environment. The
variation of attenuation with wavelength due to the water peak for
standard single-mode fiber optic cable occurs mainly around 1383 nm.
Recent advances in the manufacturing processes of fiber optic cable
have overcome the 1383 nm water peak and have resulted in low
water peak fiber. Examples of this type of fiber include SMF-28e
from Corning and OFS AllWave from Lucent.

1.5.1.2 Link Loss Mechanisms

For a fiber optic span, the effects of passive components and
connection losses must be added to the inherent attenuation of the
fiber in order to obtain the total signal attenuation. This attenuation
(or loss), for a given wavelength, is defined as the ratio between the
input power and the output power of the fiber being measured. It is
generally expressed in decibels (dB).
26

Coupling Junction
Loss Loss
Impurities

Input Output

Absorption
Injection Loss
Loss Macro
Scattering or
Loss Heterogeneous Micro
Structures Bending
Scattering Loss
Loss

Link loss mechanisms

1.5.1.3 Micro Bends and Macro Bends

Micro bends and macro bends are common problems in installed
cable systems because they can induce signal power loss.
Micro bending occurs when the fiber core deviates from the axis
and can be caused by manufacturing defects, mechanical constraints
during the fiber laying process, and environmental variations
(temperature, humidity, or pressure) during the fiber’s lifetime. The
trace “µc” refers to a fiber having micro bending.
Macro bending refers to a large bend in the fiber (with more than
a 2 mm radius). The graph below shows the influence of the bend
radius (R) on signal loss as a function of the wavelength.
 27

Loss
(dB)

2.0 R = 20 mm
1.8
1.6 R = 25 mm
1.4
µc
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0 Wavelength (µm)

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

The effects of micro and macro bending on a fiber

For example, the signal loss for a fiber that has a 25 mm macro bend
radius will be 2 dB at 1625 nm, but only 0.4 dB at 1550 nm.
Another way of calculating the signal loss is to add the typical fiber
attenuation coefficient (according to the specific wavelength as
indicated below) to the bending loss.

dB/km

Micro Bending
3

Macro Bending Unbent Fiber

2

0 Wavelength (nm)

1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700

Typical attenuation coefficients for bent and unbent fiber

28

As shown in the above graph, if the L band (1565 – 1625 nm)

or the U band (1625 – 1675 nm) is utilized, then loss testing is
necessary at transmission wavelengths up to the upper limit of the
band. For this reason, new test equipment has been developed with
1625 nm testing capabilities. The most important fiber parameters
for network installation are splice loss, link loss, and optical
return loss (ORL), therefore, it is necessary to acquire and use the
appropriate test equipment.

1.5.2 Dispersion
Another factor that affects the signal during transmission is
dispersion, which reduces the effective bandwidth available
for transmission. Three main types of dispersion exist: modal
dispersion, chromatic dispersion, and polarization mode dispersion.

Total Fiber Dispersion

Modal Chromatic Polarization Mode

Dispersion Dispersion Dispersion

Types of fiber dispersion

1.5.2.1 Modal Dispersion

Modal dispersion typically occurs with multimode fiber. When a
very short light pulse is injected into the fiber within the numerical
aperture, all of the energy does not reach the end of the fiber
simultaneously. Different modes of oscillation carry the energy down
the fiber using paths of differing lengths. For example, multimode
fiber with a 50 µm core may have several hundred modes. This pulse
spreading by virtue of different light path lengths is called modal
dispersion, or more simply, multimode dispersion.
 29

Pulse Spreading

Modal dispersion in SI multimode fiber

1.5.2.2 Chromatic Dispersion

Chromatic dispersion (CD) occurs because a light pulse is made
up of different wavelengths, each traveling at different speeds down
the fiber. These different propagation speeds broaden the light pulse
when it arrives at the receiver, reducing the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) and increasing bit errors.

Pulse Spreading

Spectrum

CD caused by different wavelengths in a light source

30

The CD of a given fiber represents the relative arrival delay (in ps) of
two wavelength components separated by one nanometer (nm). Four
parameters to consider:
s CD value of a given wavelength, expressed in ps/nm (CD may
change as a function of wavelength)
s CD coefficient (referred as D)—the value is normalized to the
distance of typically one kilometer, expressed in ps/(nm x km)
s CD slope (S)—Represents the amount of CD change as a
function of wavelength, expressed in ps/nm²
s CD slope coefficient—the value is normalized to the distance of
typically one kilometer, expressed in ps/(nm² x km)
The zero dispersion wavelength λ0, expressed in nm, is defined as a
wavelength with a CD equal to zero. Operating at this wavelength
does not exhibit CD but typically presents issues arising from the
optical nonlinearity and the four-wave mixing effect in DWDM
systems. The slope at this wavelength is defined as the zero
dispersion slope (S0).
Both the dispersion coefficient (standardized to one kilometer) and
the slope are dependent on the length of the fiber.
CD primarily depends on the manufacturing process. Cable
manufacturers consider the effects of CD when designing different types
of fiber for different applications and different needs, such as standard
fiber, dispersion shifted fiber, or non-zero dispersion shifted fiber.

1.5.2.3 Polarization Mode Dispersion

Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is a basic property of single-
mode fiber that affects the magnitude of the transmission rate.
PMD results from the difference in propagation speeds of the
energy of a given wavelength, which is split into two polarization
axes perpendicular to each other (as shown in the diagram below).
The main causes of PMD are non-circularities of the fiber design
and externally applied stresses on the fiber (macro bending, micro
bending, twisting, and temperature variations).
 31

V1

DGD

V2

PMD (or differential group delay) effects on a fiber

The PMD is also referred to as the mean value of all differential

group delays (DGD) and is expressed in picoseconds (ps). It can also
be stated as the PMD coefficient, which is related to the square root
of the distance and is expressed in ps/√ km.
The PMD (mean DGD) causes the transmission pulse to broaden
when it is transmitted along the fiber. This phenomenon generates
distortion, increasing the bit error rate (BER) of the optical system.
The consequence of PMD is that it limits the transmission bit rate on
a link. Therefore, it is important to know the PMD value of the fiber
in order to calculate the bit rate limits of the fiber optic link.

1.5.3 Optical Return Loss

1.5.3.1 Definition
ORL represents the total accumulated light power reflected back
to the source from the complete optical span, which includes the
backscattering light from the fiber itself as well as the reflected light
from all of the joints and terminations. ORL, expressed in decibels
(dB), is defined as the logarithmic ratio of the incident power to the
reflected power at the fiber origin.
P
ORL = 10Log —e (≥ 0)
Pr

Where P0 is the emitted power and Pr the reflected power, expressed in

Watt (W)
32

A high level of ORL will decrease the performance of some

transmission systems. For example, high backreflection can
dramatically affect the quality of an analog video signal, resulting in
the degradation of the video image quality.
The higher the ORL value the lower the reflected power and,
subsequently, the smaller the effect of the reflection. Therefore, an
ORL value of 40 dB is more desirable than an ORL value of 30 dB. It
is important to note that ORL is expressed as a positive decibel value
whereas the reflectance of a connector is expressed as negative value.

1.5.3.2 The Distance or Attenuation Effect

The reflectance value of the event as well as its distance from the
transmitter terminal both affect the total ORL value.
As the length of the fiber increases, the amount of total backscattered
light by the fiber also increases, and the fiber end reflection
decreases. Therefore, for a short fiber link without intermediate
reflective events, fiber end reflection is the predominate contribution
to the total ORL as the amount of reflected light is not highly
attenuated by the fiber.
On the other hand, end reflection of a long fiber length or a highly
attenuated link is attenuated by absorption and scatter effects. In this
case, the backscattered light becomes the major contribution to the
total ORL, limiting the effect of end reflection.
The following graph shows the total ORL (reflectance and
backscatter) for both terminated fiber (with no end reflection) and
non-terminated fiber (with a glass-to-air backreflection of 4 percent
or –14 dB). For distances shorter than 40 km, the difference in ORL
between the terminated and non-terminated fiber is significant.
But for longer distances (higher losses), the total ORL is nearly equal.
 33

km
0 20 40 60 80
dB
5
10 ORL at 1550 nm for
a terminated fiber
15
20 ORL at 1550 nm for
25 a non-terminated fiber
30
35
40
45
50

ORL as a function of distance at 1550 nm for terminated and non-terminated fiber

The importance of reflective events on total ORL depends, not

only on their location along the fiber link, but also on the distance
between the reflection and the active transmission equipment.

1.5.3.3 Effects of High ORL Values

If the ORL value is too high (low dB value), then light can resonate
in the cavity of the laser diode, causing instability. Several different
effects can result from high ORL values:
s Increased transmitter noise reducing optical signal-to-noise
ratio (OSNR) in analog video transmission (CATV) systems and
increasing BER in digital transmission systems
s Increase light source interference changing the laser’s central
wavelength and varying the output power
s Higher incidence of transmitter damage
Solutions are available that allow for a reduction in ORL value or that
limit the undesirable effects associated with a high ORL value include:
s Use of low-reflection connectors, such as 8° angled polished
contacts (APC); high return loss (HRL) connectors; or ultra
polished contacts (UPC)
s Use of optical isolators near the laser in order to reduce back-
reflection levels
34

1.5.4 Nonlinear Effects

High power level and small effective area of the fiber mainly
cause nonlinear effects. With an increase in the power level and
the number of optical channels, nonlinear effects can become
problematic factors in transmission systems. These analog effects can
be divided into two categories:
1. Refractive index phenomena causes phase modulation through
variations in the refractive indexes:
s Self-phase modulation (SPM)
s Cross-phase modulation (XPM)
s Four-wave mixing (FWM)
2. Stimulated scattering phenomena leads to power loss:
s Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)
s Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)

1.5.4.1 Refractive Index Phenomena

Nonlinear effects are dependent upon the nonlinear portion of the
refractive index n and cause the refractive index to increase for
high signal power levels. Behind an erbium doped fiber amplifier
(EDFA), the high output can create nonlinear effects, such as
FWM, SPM, and XPM.

Four-Wave Mixing
FWM is an interference phenomenon that produces unwanted
signals from three signal frequencies (λ123 = λ1 + λ2 – λ3) known as
ghost channels that occur when three different channels induce a
fourth channel.
A number of ways exist in which channels can combine to form a
new channel according to the above formula. In addition, note that
just two channels alone can also induce a third channel.
 35

λ1 λ2 λ3

λ123,213 λ312,132 λ321,231

λ113 λ112 λ223 λ221 λ223 λ331

FWM of a signal on a fiber

Due to high power levels, FWM effects produce a number of ghost

channels (some of which overlap actual signal channels), depending
on the number of actual signal channels. For example, a 4-channel
system will produce 24 unwanted ghost channels and a 16-channel
system will produce 1920 unwanted ghost channels. Therefore, FWM
is one of the most adverse nonlinear effects in DWDM systems.
In systems using dispersion-shifted fiber, FWM becomes a
tremendous problem when transmitting around 1550 nm or the
zero dispersion wavelength. Different wavelengths traveling at the
same speed, or group velocity, and at a constant phase over a long
period of time will increase the effects of FWM. In standard fiber
(non-dispersion-shifted fiber), a certain amount of CD occurs
around 1550 nm, leading to different wavelengths having different
group velocities, reducing the FWM effects. Using irregular channel
spacing can also achieve a reduction in FWM effects.

Self-Phase Modulation
SPM is the effect that a signal has on its own phase, resulting in
signal spreading. With high signal intensities, the light itself induces
local variable changes in the refractive index of the fiber known as
the Kerr effect. This phenomenon produces a time-varying phase in
the same channel. The time-varying refractive index modulates the
phase of the transmitted wavelength(s), broadening the wavelength
spectrum of the transmitted optical pulse.