Mathematics - II

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FRESHMAN ENGINEERING
LECTURE NOTES
Course : ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS -II

Name
Course : A30006
Code
Class : II -1 B.Tech
Branch : AERO,CIVIL
Year : 2016- 2017
Prepared :
By
jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
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VECTOR CALCULAS
UNIT STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Vector differentiation
5.3 Vector operator
5.3.1 Gradient
5.3.2 Geometric meaning of gradient
5.3.3 Divergence
5.3.4 Solenoidal function
5.3.5 Curl
5.3.6 Irrational field
5.4 Properties of gradient, divergence and curl
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 Unit End Exercise
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to

Learn vector differentiation.
Operators, del, grad and curl.
Properties of operators
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Vector algebra deals with addition, subtraction and multiplication of

vertex. In vector calculus we shall study differentiation of vectors
functions, gradient, divergence and curl.
Vector:
Vector is a physical quantity which required magnitude and direction both.
Unit Vector:
Unit Vector is a vector which has magnitude 1. Unit vectors along co-
ordinate axis are i and j , k respectively.
i = j = k =1
Scalar Triple Vector:
Scalar triple product of three vectors is defined as a. b c or a b c .

Geometrical meaning of a b c is volume of parallelepiped with cotter
minus edges a, b and c .
We have,
abc = bca = cab
abc =- bac
Vector Triple Product:
Vector triple product of a b and c is cross product of a and b c i.e.
a b c or cross product of a b and c
a b c = a.c b a.b c
a b c= a.c b b.c a
Remark : Vector triple product is not associative in general
i.e. a b c a b c
Coplanar Vectors:
Three vectors a, b and c are coplanar if abc = 0 for
a 0,b 0,c 0
5.2 VECTORS DIFFERENTIATION
Let v be a vector function of a scalar t. Let v be the small increment in

a corresponding to the increment t in t.
Then,
v v t + t - v(t)
v v t + t - v(t)
=
t t
Taking limit t 0 we get,
v v t + t - v(t)
lim = lim
t 0 t t 0 t
dv v v t + t - v(t)
= lim = lim
dt t 0 t t 0 t
dv v t + t - v(t)
= lim
dt t 0 t
Formulas of vector differentiation:
d dv
(i) = k v =k k is a constant
dt dt
d du dv
(ii) u +v =
dt dt dt
d dv du
(iii) u .v =u . v.
dt dt dt
d dv du
(iv) u v =u v
dt dt dt
(v) If v v1i + v2 j + v3k
dv dv1 dv 2 dv
i+ j+ 3 k
Then, dt dt dt dt
Note:
If r xi + yj + zk then r = r = x 2 y2 z2
Example 1:
dr d2 r
If r t + 1 i + t 2 + t - 1 j + t 2 - t + 1 k find and
dt dt
Solution:
r t + 1 i + t2 + t - 1 j + t2 - t + 1 k
dr
i + 2t + 1 j + 2t - 1 k
dt
d2 r
2j + 2 k
dt 2
Example 2:
If r a cos wt + b sin wt where w is constant show that
dr d2 r
r = w a b and 2 = -w r
dt dt
Solution:
r a cos wt + b sin wt------------ (i)
dr
a cos wt + b sin wt------------ (ii)
dt
dr
r a cos wt + b sin wt -aw sin wt + bw cos wt
dt
a a=0
a b w cos 2 wt b a w sin 2 wt
b b=0
b a=0
a b w cos 2 wt a b w sin 2 wt
= -a b
a b w cos 2 wt sin 2 wt
a b w 1
w a b
Again differentiating eqn
d2 r
-a w 2 cos wt - b w 2sin wt
dt 2
= -w 2 a cos wt + b sin wt
-w 2 r from (i)
Example 3. Evaluate the following:
d d da d2a
i) a b c ii) a
dt dt dt dt 2
d
Solution: i) a b c
dt
d
= a. b c
dt
d da
= a. b c + b c .
dt dt
dc db da
= a. b + c + b c .
dt dt dt
dc db da
= a. b +a. c + b c .
dt dt dt
dc db da
= a b + a c + b c
dt dt dt
d da d2 a
Solution: ii) a
dt dt dt 2
da d 3 a d 2 a d 2a da d 2 a da
= a + a c 2 +
dt dt 3 dt dt 2 dt dt 2 dt
(From Result i)
da d 3 a
= a +0+0
dt dt 3
da d 3 a
= a.
dt dt 3
d
Example 4. Evaluate the following: = a b c
dt
d
Solution: = a b c
dt
dc d
= a b + a b c
dt dt
dc db da
= a b + a + b c
dt dt dt
dc db da
= a b + a c+ b c
dt dt dt
dr
r
Example 5. Show that r
dr
= dt , where r = r
2
dt r r
r
Solution : We have r =
r
dr d r
dt dt r
dr dr
r -r
dt dt
r2
1 dr r dr
r dt r 2 dt
r
L.H.S. r =
r
r 1 d r r dr
r r dt r 2 dt
r 1 dr r r dr
r r dt r 2 dt
r dr
0 r r 0
r2 dt
dr
r
dt
r2
R.H.S
1 dr
Example 6. If r = t 3 i + 2t 3 - j . Then show that r =k
5t 2 dt
Solution:
1
r = t 3i + 2t 3 j
5t 2
dr 2
3t 2i + 6t 2 j
dt 5t 3
L.H.S.
i j k
dr 1
r t3 2t 3 0
dt 5t 2
2
3t 2 6t 2 0
5t 3
2 1
i 0 - j 0 + k t 3 6t 2 - 3t 2 2t 3
5t 3 5t 2
2 3
k 6t 5 6t 5
5 5
k
R. H. S.
d2 r
Example 7. If r = a emt + b e mt
. Show that = n2 r
dt 2
Solution:
r = a e mt + b e mt .......................................................(i)
dr
m a emt - m b e mt
dt
d2 r
2
m 2 a emt + m 2 b e mt
dt
m 2 a emt + b e mt
m2 r (from (i))
d2 r
m2 r
dt 2
Check your progress:
du dv
(1) If = w u and =w v
dt dt
d
Show that u v =w u v
dt
dr d 2 r
(2) If r = t 2i 3t 3 - t 2 j + 7t + 1 k Find ,
dt dt 2
dr d 2 r dr d2 r
(3) If: r = t i t j + st - 1 k , Find , , ,
dt dt 2 dt dt 2
d2 r
(4) If r = e t i 2cos 3t j + 7sin 3t j Find at t =
dt 2 2
da da
(5) Show that: a. =a where a = a1i a 2 j a3 k and a is
dt dt
magnitude of a .
5.3 VECTOR OPERATOR
The vector differential operator is defined as =i j k .

x y z
5.3.1 Gradient:
The gradient of a scalar function is denoted by grad or and is
defined as =i +j +k . Note that grad is a vector

x y z
quantity.
5.3.2 Geometric meaning of gradient:
The grad is a vector right angled to the surface, whose equation is

x, y, z = c, where c is constant.
Hence for r = x i + y j + z k any point on surface . dr = 0
i.e. at is right angles to d r and dr lies on the tangent plane to the

surface at P r .
dr
Geometrically represents a vector normal to the surface x, y, z =

constant.
Example 8: Find grad , where = x 2 y3 ez
Solution: grad = i +j +k x 2 y3 ez
x y z
=i x 2 y3 ez + j x 2 y3 e z + k x 2 y3 e z
x y z
= i 2xy3e z + j 3x 2 y 2 e z + k x 2 y3 e z
= x y2 ez 2y i +3xj + xyk
Example 9: If r xi yj zk find grad r
Solution:
r = xi + yj + zk
r = x 2 + y2 + z2
Grad r = i +j +k x 2 + y2 + z 2
x y z
=i x 2 + y2 + z2 + j x 2 + y2 + z 2 + k x 2 + y2 + z2
x y z
1 1 1
=i 2x + j . 2y + k 2z
2 x 2 + y2 + z2 2 x 2 + y2 + z 2 2 x 2 + y2 + z 2
x y z
= i+ j+ k
r r r
xi yj+zk
=
r
r
grad r =
r
1
Example 10: If r xi yj zk find grad
r
Solution:
r = xi + yj + zk
r = x 2 + y2 + z2
r 2 = x 2 + y2 + z 2
r
2r = 2x
x
2r x 2r y 2z z
, ,
2x r 2y r 2r r
1 1
grad = i +j +k
r x y z r
1 1 1
=i + j +k
x r y r z r
1 r 1 r 1 r
=i 2
+ j 2
+k 2
r x r y r z
1 r r r
= 2
i + j +k
r x y y
x1 y z
= 2
+j +k i
r r r r
1 1
= 2. xi + yj + zk
r r
1
= 3 r
r
r
= 3
r
Example 11: If 2x3 y y2z find grad at (1, -1, 2)
Solution:
grad = i +j +k 2x 3 y - y2 z
x y z
=i 2x 3 y - y 2 z + j 2x 3 y - y 2 z + k 2x 3 y - y2 z
x y z
= i 6x 2 y + j 2x3 - 2yz + k - y2
= i 6x 2 y + j 2x 3 - 2yz - k y2
At (1, -1, and 2)
2 3 2
grad =6 1 1 i+j 2 1 2 1 2 k 1
=6i+j 2 4 k
= -6 i + 6j k
2
Example 12: Evaluate grad er , where r 2 x2 y2 z 2
2 2
Solution : Grad er = i +j +k er
x y z
2 2 2
=i er + j er +k er
x y z
2 r 2 r 2 r
= i er . r + j er . r + k er . r
x y z
2 x 2 y 2 z
= i er . r. + j er . r + k er . r
r r r
2
= r er xi + y j + z k
2
= r er r
Example 13: Find grad r n
Solution: grad r n = rn
= i +j +k rn
x y z
=i rn + j rn + k rn
x y z
r r r
= i n rn 1
+ j n rn 1 + k n rn 1
x y z
x y z
= i n rn 1 + j n rn 1 + k n rn 1
r r r
n 2 n 2 n 2
= inr x + jnr y +knr z
= n rn 2
xi + yj + zk
= n rn 2r
Example 14: Find grad log x 2 y2 z2
Solution:
grad log x 2 y2 z2 = grad log r 2 = grad (2log r) = 2 grad ( log r)
=2 i +j +k ( log r)
x y z
= 2 i ( log r)+ j ( log r)+ k ( log r)

x y z
1 r 1 r 1 r
= 2 i +j +k
r x r y r z
1x 1y 1z
=2 i +j +k
r r r r rr
2 1y
= xi +y j +z k
r2 r r
2r
= 2
r
a. r a n a. r
Example 15: Show that grad r where
rn rn rn 2
r r i +yj + zk
Solution: let
a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k
a .r = a1 x + a 2 y + a 3
a. r
grad
rn
a. r
rn
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
i j k
x y z rn
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
now i
x rn
r
r n a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nr n 1
i x
r 2n
x
r n a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nr n 1
i r
r 2n
r n a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nx n 1 r n 2
i
r 2n
similarly
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
j
y rn
r n a 2 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z ny r n 2
j
r 2n
and
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
k
z rn
r n a 3 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nz r n 2
k
r 2n
a.r
grad
rn
r n a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nz r n 2
xi + yj + zk
r 2n
ar n - n r n 2
r a .r
2n
r
ar n
- n a .r r n 2
r
-
r 2n r 2n
ar n n a .r
2n
- r
r rn 2
a n a .r
n
- r
r rn 2
Check your progress:
(1) If r x i +y j + z k and r r
Show that:
r
a) grad log r
r2
b) grad r3 3r r
r
c) grad f r f1 r
r
(2) If = 4x 2 yz + 3xyz2 5xyz
Find grad at (3, 2, -1)
(3) Show that grad r3 -3 r 5

r
(4) If F x, y, z x2 y2 + z2 Find F at (1, 1, 1)
(5) Show that f r r 0 where r xi + yj + zk
(6) Find unit vector normal to the surface x 2 y2 z2 3a 2 at (a, a, a)
[Hint :- Unit vector normal to surface i.e. ]
5.3.1 Divergence:
If v (x, y, z) = v1i + v2 j + v3 k can be defined and differentiated at each

point (x, y, z) in a region of space then divergence of v is defined as
div v = . v
= i j k . v1 i +v 2 j + v3 k
x y z
= v1 v2 v3
x y z
Example 16 If F = x 2 y2 i + 2xyj + y2 2xy k , find F
Solution: div F = .F
= i j k . x2 y 2 i 2xyj + y 2 2xy k
x y z
= x2 y2 2xy y2 2xy
x y z
= 2x 2x 0
= 4x
Example 17 Show that div r = 3 where r = xi + y j +z k
Solution: div r
= .F
= i j k . xi + yj + zk
x y z
= x y z
x y z
=1 1 1
=3
Example 18 For r = xi + y j +z k show that div r n r = (n+3) r n

where r r
Solution: L.H.S. div r n r = . rn r
= i j k . r n xi + yj + zk
x y z
= rn x rn y rn z
x y z
r r r
= r n 1 + x nr n 1
+ r n 1 + y nr n 1
r n 1 + z nr n 1
x y z
r r r
= 3r n + nr n 1
x + y +z
x y z
x y z
= 3r n + nr n 1
x. y. z.
r r r
n n 1
x2 y2 z2
= 3r + nr
r
2
r
= 3r n + nr n 1
r
= 3r n + nr n
= 3 + n rn
= R.H.S.
Example 19 Evaluate div r where r = xi + y j +z k

r
Solution: We have r n =
r
xi + y j +z k
=
r
div r
= .r
xi + yj + zk
= i j k .
x y z r
x y z
=
x r y r z r
r r r
r 1 -x r 1 -y r 1 -z
x + y z
= 2 2 2
r r r
x y z
r -x r -y r-z
r r r
= 2
+ 2 2
r r r
2 2 2 2
r -x r -y r - z2
2
= +
r3 r3 r3
r 2 - x 2 +r 2 - y 2 r 2 - z 2
=
r3
3r 2 - x 2 + y 2 z 2
=
r3
3r 2 - r 2
=
r3
2
=
r
Example 20 If F = x 2 y3 z4 Find div (grad F)
Solution: grad F
= F
= i j k x 2 y3 z 4
x y z
= 2xy 3z 4 i + 3y 2 z 4 j + 4x 2 y 3z 3 k
div (grad F)
= . 2xy3z 4 i + 3y 2 x 2 z 4 j + 4x 2 y 3z 3 k
= 2xy3 z 4 + 3y 2 x 2 z 4 + 4 x 2 y3 z3
x y z
= 2xy3 z 4 + 6x 2 y z 4 + 12 x 2 y3 z 2
Example 21 Find the value of div a r r n where a is a constant

vector and r = xi + y j +z k
Solution: div a r rn
= i . a r rn
x
= i. . a r rn a r rn
x x
r n r
= i. a r a r n rn 1
x x
a
0
x
x
= i. a i rn a r n rn 1
r
= i. a i rn nx r n 2
a r
= nr n 2
xi a r i. a i =0
nr n 2
a r xi
nr n 2
a r r xi r
nr n 2
a r .r
nr n 2
0
0
5.3.4 Solenoidal Function: A vector function F is called Solenoidal if

div F = 0 at all points of the function.
5.3.5 Curl: The curl of a vector point function F is defined as curl

F F if Fi
1 + F2 j +F3 k .
curl F F
F
= i j k F1i + F2 j +F3 k
x y z
i j k
=
x y z
F1 F2 F3
F3 F2 F3 F1 F2 F1
= i -j +k
y z x z x y
The curl of the linear velocity of any particle of rigid body is equal to
twice the angular velocity of body.
i.e. if w = w1i + w 2 j +w3k be the angular velocity of any particle of the

body with position vector defined as r = xi + yj +zk then linear velocity
v=w r .
Hence curl v v
= w r
i j k
= w1 w 2 w3
x y z
= i w 2 z -w 3 y j w1z -w 3 x k w1 y -w 2 x
i j k
=
x y z
w 2 z -w 3 y w 3 x -w1z w1 y -w 2 x
= i w1 + w1 j w 2 -w 2 k w3 + w 3
= 2w1i 2w 2 j 2w 3k
= 2w
curl v = 2w
5.3.6 Irrotational field:
A vector point function F is called irrotational if F 0 at all points of the

function.
Example 22 Find curl (curl F ) If F = x 2 y i -2 x z j 2 y z k at (1, 0, 2)
Solution: Curl F
i j k
=
x y z
2
x y 2xy 2yz
= 2z +2x i 2z -x 2 k
curl curl (F) = 2z + 2x i + 0j + 2z x 2 k
i j k
=
x y z
2z +2x 0 2z x 2
= i 2z x 2 0 j 2z x 2 2z 2x
y z x z
k 0 2z 2x
x y
=i 0 j 2x 2 k 0
= 2x 2 j
At (1, 0, 2)
curl F 2(1) + 2 j
4j
Example 23 Find curl V if V = x 2 + yz i + y2 +2x j z 2 +xy k

Solution: curl V
V
i j k
=
x y z
2 2 2
x yz y zx z xy
i z 2 +xy y 2 +2x - j z 2 +xy y 2 +yz

y z x z
+k y 2 +2x x 2 + yz
x y
i x -x - j y -y +k z -z
0
Example 24 Evaluate curl r where if r = xi + yj zk
Solution: Curl r
i j k
=
x y z
x y z
z y z x y x
i - j +k
y z x z x y
0i - 0j+ 0k
0
r
Example 25 Evaluate curl where if r = xi + yj zk
r
Solution:
r
r=
r2
r x y z
= 2i j k
r r r2 r2
r x y z
curl = i j k
r r2 r2 r2
i j k
x y z
x y z
r2 r2 r2
z y z x
i - j
y r2 z r2 x r2 z r2
y x
+k
x r2 y r2
2z 2r 2y 2r
i 3
+ 3 + -------------+---------------
r 2y r 2z
2z y 2y z
i 3
+ 3 + -------------+---------------
r r r r
2yz 2yz 2zx 2zx 2xy 2xy
i 3
+j +k
r r3 r3
= 0i + 0j + 0k
0
Example 25 If F = x 2 y i + xzj 2yzk find div (curl F )
Solution: curl F
i j k
x y z
2
x y xz 2yz
i 2yz xz - j 2yz x2 z
y z x z
+k xz x2 z
x y
i 2z - x - j 0 - 0 + k z - x 2
2z - x i + z - x 2 k
div (curl F)
i j +k . 2z - x i z x2 k
x y z
2z - x z x2
x z
= 1+1
0
Example 27 If F = grad xy + yz zx , find (curl F ).
Solution: F = grad xy + yz zx
xy + yz +zx
i j +k xy + yz +zx
x y z
i xy + yz +zx + j xy + yz +zx + k xy + yz +zx

x y z
i y +z + j x z +k y+x
(curl F)
i j k
x y z
y z x +z x +y
i x+y - x+z -j x +y y+z

y z x z
+k x +z y+z
x y
i 1- 1 -j 1 -1 + k 1 -1
0i +0j+0k
0
5.4 PROPERTIES OF GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND

CURL
(i) f g = f g
(ii) . A B = .A .B
(iii) A B = A .B
Proof:
(i) f g i +j +k f g
x y z
i f g j f g +k f g
x y z
i f+ j f+k i g+ j g+ g
x y z x y z
f g
(ii) Let A = A1i + A2 j +A3k
B = B1i + B2 j +B3k
. A B
. A1 B1 i A 2 B2 j A 3 B3 k
A1 B1 + A 2 B2 + A3 B3
x y z
A1 + A2 + A3 B1 + B2 + B3
x y z x y z
.A .B
(ii) Let
A B
i j k
x y z
A1 B1 A 2 B2 A 3 B3
i A3 B3 A 2 B2
y z
i A B
x
A B
i
x x
A B
i i
x x
A B
Directional derivative
The derivative of a point function (scalar or vector) in a particular
direction is called its directional derivative along the direction.
The directional derivative of a scalar point function φ in a given
direction is the rate of change of φ in the direction. It is given by the
component of grad φ in that direction.
The directional derivative of a scalar point function
→
→ ∇φ . a
φ (x,y,z) in the direction of a is given by →
.
a
Directional derivative of φ is maximum in the direction of ∇φ .

Hence the maximum directional derivative is ∇φ or gradφ
Unit normal vector to the surface
If φ (x, y, z) be a scalar function, then φ (x, y, z) = c represents
A surface and the unit normal vector to the surface φ is given by
∇φ
∇φ
Equation of the tangent plane and normal to the surface

→
Suppose a is the position vector of the point ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
→ → → →
On the surface φ (x, y, z) = c. If r = x i + y j + z k is the position vector of
→
any point (x,y,z) on the tangent plane to the surface at a , then the
→
equation of the tangent plane to the surface φ at a given point a on it is
→ →
given by  r − a .gradφ = 0
 
→
If r is the position vector of any point on the normal to the surface
→
at the point a on it. The vector equation of the normal at a given point
→
→ →
a on the surface φ is  r − a  × gradφ = 0
 
The Cartesian form of the normal at ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) on the surface
φ (x,y,z) = c is
x − x0 y − yo z − z0
= =
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
Divergence of a vector
→
If F ( x, y, z ) is a continuously differentiable vector point function in
→
a given region of space, then the divergences of F is defined by
→ → →
→ → ∂F →∂F →∂F
→
∇. F = div F = i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
→
∂F
→
=∑ i
∂x
→ → → → → → → →
If F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k ,then div F = ∇.( F1 i + F2 j + F3 k )
→ ∂F ∂F ∂F
i.e., div F = 1 + 2 + 3
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solenoidal Vector
→ → →
A vector F is said to be solenoidal if div F = 0 (ie) ∇. F = 0
Curl of vector function

→
If F ( x, y, z ) is a differentiable vector point function defined at each
→
point (x, y, z), then the curl of F is defined by
→ →
curl F = ∇ × F
→ → →
→ ∂F → ∂F → ∂F
= i× + j× + k×
∂x ∂y ∂z
→
∂F
→
= ∑i×
∂x
→ → → → → → → →
If F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k ,then curl F = ∇ × ( F1 i + F2 j + F3 k )
i j k
∂
→ ∂ ∂
curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
F1 F2 F3
→  ∂F ∂F  →  ∂F ∂F  →  ∂F ∂F 
= i  3 − 2  − j 3 − 1  + k 2 − 1 
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y 
→ →
Curl F is also said to be rotation F
Irrotational Vector
→ →
A vector F is called irrotational if Curl F = 0
→
(ie) if ∇ × F = 0
Scalar Potential
→
If F is an irrotational vector, then there exists a scalar function φ
→ →
Such that F = ∇φ . Such a scalar function is called scalar potential of F
Properties of Gradient
1. If f and g are two scalar point function that ∇( f ± g ) = ∇f ± ∇g (or)

grad ( f ± g ) = gradf ± gradg
→ ∂ → ∂ → ∂ 
Solution: ∇( f ± g ) =  i + j + k ( f ± g )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
→ ∂ → ∂ → ∂ 
=  i ( f ± g ) + j ( f ± g ) + k ( f ± g )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
→
∂f → ∂g → ∂f → ∂g → ∂f → ∂g
= i ±i + j ± j +k ±k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 
 → ∂f → ∂f → ∂f   → ∂g → ∂g → ∂g 
=  i + j + k  ±  i + j +k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
= ∇f ± ∇g
2. If f and g are two scalar point functions then ∇( fg ) = f∇g + g∇f (or)
grad ( fg ) = fgradg + ggradf
→ ∂ → ∂ → ∂ 
Solution: ∇( fg ) =  i + j + k ( fg )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
→ ∂ → ∂ → ∂ 
=  i ( fg ) + j ( fg ) + k ( fg )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
→
 ∂g ∂f  → ∂g ∂f  → ∂g ∂f 
= i f + g  + j  f + g  + k  f +g 
 ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y   ∂z ∂z 
 → ∂g → ∂g → ∂g   → ∂f → ∂f → ∂f 
= f  i + j +k  + g  i + j + k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= f∇g + g∇f
 f  g∇f − f∇g
3. If f and g are two scalar point function then ∇  = where
g g2
g≠0
f  → ∂ → ∂ → ∂  f 
Solution: ∇  =  i + j + k  
g  ∂x ∂y ∂z  g 
→ ∂  f 
= ∑ i  
∂x  g 
 ∂f ∂g 
g
→ −f 
= ∑ i  ∂x 2 ∂x 
 g 
 
 
1  →
∂f →
∂g 
= 2  g∑ i − f∑i 
g  ∂x ∂x 
= 2 [g∇f − f∇g ]
1
g
→ → → → → →
4. If r = x i + y j + z k such that r = r ,prove that ∇r n = nr n − 2 r
→ ∂ → ∂ → ∂  n
Solution: ∇r n =  i + j + k r
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 → ∂r n → ∂r n → ∂r n 
=  i + j +k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
→
∂r → n −1 ∂r → n −1 ∂r
= i nr n −1 + j nr + k nr
∂x ∂y ∂z
→ → →
 x y z
= nr n −1  i + j + k 
 r r r
nr n −1  → → → 
= x i + y j+ z k 
r  
nr n −1 →
= r
r
5. Find a unit normal to the surface x 2 y + 2 xz = 4 at (2,-2, 3)

Solution: Given that φ = x 2 y + 2 xz
→ ∂ → ∂ → ∂  2
∇φ =  i + j + k ( x y + 2 xz )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
( )
→ → →
= i (2 xy + 2 z ) + j x 2 + k (2 x )
At (2,-2, 3)
→ → →
∇φ = i (− 8 + 6) + j (4) + k (4)
→ → →
= − 2 i + 4 j+ 4k
∇φ = 4 + 16 + 16 = 36 = 6
Unit normal to the given surface at (2,-2,3)
→
→ →
∇φ − 2 i + 4 j + 4 k
=
∇φ 6
1  → → →
= − i + 2 j+ 2 k 
3 
6. Find the directional derivative of φ = x 2 yz + 4 xz 2 + xyz at (1,2,3) in the

→ → →
direction of 2 i + j − k
Solution: Given φ = x 2 yz + 4 xz 2 + xyz
→ ∂ → ∂ → ∂  2
∇φ =  i + j + k ( x yz + 4 xz 2 + xyz )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
( ) ( ) ( )
→ → →
= 2 xyz + 4 z 2 + yz i + x 2 z + xz j + x 2 y + 8 xz + xy k
At (1, 2, 3)
→ → →
∇φ = 54 i + 6 j + 28 k
→ → → →
Given: a = 2 i + j − k
→
∴ a = 4 +1+1 = 6
→
a
∴ D.D = ∇φ . →
a
→ → →
→ 2 i + 2 j− k
 → → 
=  54 i + 6 j + 28 k .
  6
=
1
[108 + 6 − 28] = 1 [86]
6 6
7. Find the angle between the surface x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 5 and

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x = 5 at (0,1,2)
Solution: Let φ1 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 and φ2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x
∂φ1 ∂φ ∂φ
= 2 x, 1 = 2 y , 1 = 2 z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ2 ∂φ ∂φ
= 2 x − 2, 2 = 2 y, 2 = 2 z
∂x ∂y ∂z
→ → →
∇φ1 = 2 x i + 2 y j + 2 z k
→ → →
∇φ2 = (2 x − 2) i + 2 y j + 2 z k
At (o,1,2)
→ →
∇φ1 = 2 j + 4 k
→ → →
∇φ2 = −2 i + 2 j + 4 k
 → →  → → →
 2 j + 4 k . − 2 i + 2 j + 4 k 
∇φ1.∇φ2   
Cos θ = =
∇φ1 ∇φ2 16 + 4 4 + 4 + 6
4 + 16 20
cosθ = =
20 24 20 24
 20 
θ = cos −1  
 20 24 
 20 
= cos −1  

 24 
8. Find the angle between the surfaces x log z = y 2 − 1 and x 2 y = 2 − z at the

point (1,1,1)
Solution: let φ1 = y 2 − x log z and φ2 = x 2 y + z
∂φ1 ∂φ ∂φ x
= − log z , 1 = 2 y, 1 = −
∂x ∂y ∂z z
∂φ2 ∂φ ∂φ
= 2 xy, 2 = x 2 , 2 = 1
∂x ∂y ∂z
→ →
k→
∇φ1 = (− log z ) i + 2 y j − k
z
→ →
∇ φ2 = 2 j − k
∇φ1.∇φ2 2 −1 1
Cos θ = = =
∇φ1 ∇φ2 4 +1 4 +1+1 5 6
 1 
θ = cos −1  
 5 6
9. Find ∇ 2 r n ( )
( )
Solution: ∇ 2 r n = ∇.∇ r n ( )
∂ n → ∂ n →∂ n
( ) ( ) ( )
→
= i r + j r +k r
∂x ∂y ∂z
→
∂r → ∂r → ∂r
= i nr n −1 + j nr n −1 + k nr n −1
∂x ∂y ∂z
→ → → →
r = x i + y j+ z k
→
r = r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
∂r ∂r x
2r = 2 x ⇒ =
∂x ∂x r
∂r ∂r y
2r = 2y ⇒ =
∂y ∂y r
∂r ∂r z
2r = 2 z ⇒ =
∂z ∂z r
( ) → x → y → z 
∴ ∇ 2 r n = nr n −1  i + j + k 
 r r r
 → → →
= nr n − 2  x i + y j + z k 
 
n−2  →

= nr  r 
 
→ → →
 
Since ∇ φ u  = ∇φ . u + φdiv u
 
( )
→
 
∇ 2 r n = ∇ nr n − 2 r 
 
( )
→ →
 
= nr n − 2  ∇. r  + ∇ nr n − 2 . r
 
→  → ∂ → ∂ → ∂  → → → 
∇. r =  i + j + k  x i + y j + z k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  
=1+1+1 = 3
( ) ( )
→
∇ 2 r n = 3nr n − 2 + n∇ r n − 2 . r
( )
= 3nr n − 2 + n(n − 2) r n − 4 .r 2
( )
= 3nr n − 2 + n(n − 2) r n − 2
( ) [ ]
∇ 2 r n = r n − 2 n 2 + n = n(n + 1)r n − 2
→ → → → → →
10. If r = x i + y j + z k and r = r .Prove that r n r is solenoidal if n = −3 and
→
r n r is irrotational for all vectors of n.
→ → → →
Solution: r n r = r n x i + r n y j + r n k
 → ∂ n ∂ n ∂ n
div  r n r  = ( )
r x + r y + ( ) ( )
r z …………………(1)
  ∂x ∂y ∂z
Now r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
Differentiating partially w.r.to x,
∂r ∂r x
2r = 2x ⇒ =
∂x ∂x r
∂r ∂r y
Similarly, 2r = 2y ⇒ =
∂y ∂y r
∂r ∂r z
2r = 2 z ⇒ =
∂z ∂z r
∂ n ∂ ∂r
Now
∂x
(r x ) = x (r n ). + r n
∂r ∂x
x
= x.n r n −1 + r n
r
∂ n
∂y
( r y ) = nr n − 2 y 2 + r n
∂ n
∂z
(r z ) = nr n − 2 z 2 + r n
From (1) we have
div r n r  = nr n − 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 3r n
 →
 
= nr n + 3r n
= (n + 3)r n
→
 →
The vector r n r is solenoidal if div r n r  = 0
 
⇒ (n + 3)r n = 0
⇒ n+3=0
⇒ n = −3
→
∴ r n r is solenoidal only if n = -3
→ → →
i j k
 →
 ∂ ∂ ∂
Now curl  r n r  =
  ∂x ∂y ∂z
rnx rn y rnz
 ∂ ∂
∑ i  ∂y (r z ) − ∂z (r y )
→
n 
n
=
 
 → ∂r ∂r 
= ∑ i  nr n −1 z − nr n −1 y 
 ∂y ∂z 
→
 y z
= ∑ i  nr n −1
r
z − nr n −1 y 
r
∑ i (nr )
→
n−2
= yz − nr n − 2 yz
=0
→ → → →
Curl ( r n r ) = 0 i + 0 j + 0 k =0
→
Curl ( r n r ) = 0 for all values of n
→
Hence r n r is irrotational for all values of n.
( )
→ → → →
11. Prove that F = y 2 cos x + z 3 i + (2 y sin x − 4) j + 3xz 2 k is irrotational and
find its scalar potential
Solution:
→ → →
i j k
→
  ∂ ∂ ∂
curl  F  =
  ∂x ∂y ∂z
y cos x + z 3
2
2 y sin x − 4 3xz 2
[ ]
→ → →
= i [0 − 0] − j 3z 2 − 3 z 2 + k [2 y cos x − 2 y cos x ] = 0
→
∴ F is irrotational.
→
To Find φ such that F = gradφ
∂φ → ∂φ → ∂φ
∴ ( y 2 cos x + z 2 ) i + (2 y sin x − 4 ) j + 3xz 2 k = i
→ → → →
+ j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
Integrating the equation partially w.r.to x,y,z respectively
φ = y 2 sin x + xz 3 + f1 ( y, z )
φ = y 2 sin x − 4 y + f 2 ( x, z )
φ = xz 3 + f3 ( x, y )
∴φ = y 2 sin x + xz 3 − 4 y + C , is scalar potential
→ → → → → →
12. Prove that div A× B  = B .(curl A) − A.(curl B)
 
→ → → →
 
Proof : div A× B  = ∇.( A× B)
 
→
∂ → →
= ∑ i  A× B 
∂x  
→ →
→ → ∂ B  → ∂ A →

= ∑ i  A×   
 
∂x 
+ ∑ i 
 ∂x
× B 
   
→ →
→ ∂ B → → ∂ A →
= − ∑ i  × A  + ∑ i  × B 
 ∂x   ∂x 
   
 → → →  → → →
∂B  i × ∂ A . B
= −  ∑ i × . A +  ∑
 ∂x  ∂x 
   
→ → → →
   
= −  curl B . A+  curl A . B
   
→ → →
   
13.Prove that curl  curl F  = ∇ ∇ • F  − ∇ 2 F
   
Solution:
→ →
   
curl  curl F  = ∇ ×  ∇ × F 
   
→
→ → → →→ → →→
By using a×  b× c  =  a . c  b −  a . b  c
     
→ →
 
=  ∇. F ∇ − (∇.∇ ) F
 
 → →
=  ∇. F ∇ − ∇ 2 F
 
VECTOR INTEGRATION
Line, surface and Volume Integrals
Problems based on line Integral

Example 1:
( )
→ → → → →
If F = 3x 2 + 6 y i − 14 yz j + 20 xz 2 k Evaluate ∫ F .dr from (0,0,0) to
C
(1,1,1) along the curve x = t , y = t , z = t 2 3
Solution: The end points are (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1)

These points correspond to t = 0 and t = 1
∴ dx = dt , dy = 2t , dz = 3t 2
( )
→
∫ F .dr = ∫ 3x + 6 y dx − 14 yzdy + 20 xz dz
2 2
C C
∫ (3t ) ( )
1
= 2
+ 6t 2 dt − 14t 5 (2tdt ) + 20t 7 3t 2 dt
0
= ∫ (9t 2 − 28t 6 + 60t 9 )dt

1
(
= 3t 3−4t 7 + 6t10 0 )
1
= [(3 − 4 + 6 ) − 0] = 5
Example 2:
→ → → →
Show that F = x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2 k is a conservative vector field.
→ →
Solution: If F is conservative then ∇ × F = 0
→ → →
i j k
→ ∂ ∂ ∂ → → →
Now ∇ × F = = 0 i + 0 j+ 0 k = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
x2 y2 z2
→
∴ F is a conservative vector field.
Surface Integrals
Definition: Consider a surface S. Let n denote the unit outward normal to the
→
surface S. Let R be the projection of the surface x on the XY plane. Let f be
a vector valued defined in some region containing the surface S. Then the
→ ∧
→ → ∧ f .n
surface integral of f is defined to be ∫∫ f . nds = ∫∫
S R
→
→
dx.dy
n. k
Example 1;
→ ∧ → → → →
Evaluate ∫∫
S
f . nds where F = z i + x j − y 2 z k and S is the surface of
the cylinder x + y 2 = 1 included in the first octant between the planes z = 0

2
and z = 2.
→ → → →
Solution: Given F = z i + x j − y 2 z k
φ = x2 + y2 − 1
→ →
∇φ = 2 x i + 2 y j
∇φ = 4 x 2 + 4 y 2
=2 x 2 + y 2
=2
∧ ∇φ
The unit normal n to the surface =
∇φ
2 xi + 2 yj
= = xi + yj
2
→ ∧
 → → →
  → →
F . n =  z i + x j − y 2 z k . x i + y j  = xz + xy
  
INTEGRAL THEOREMS
(i) Gauss’s divergence theorem
(ii) Stoke’s theorem
(iii) Green’s theorem in the plane
Green’s Theorem
Statement:
If M(x,y) and N(x,y) are continuous functions with continuous
partial derivatives in a region R of the xy plane bounded by a simple closed
curve C, then
 ∂N ∂M 
∫c Mdx + ndy = ∫∫R  ∂x − ∂y dxdy , where C is the curve described in the
positive direction.
Verify Green’s theorem in a plane for the integral ∫ (x − 2 y )dx + xdy
c
taken around the circle x + y = 4

2 2
Solution: Green’s theorem gives

 ∂N ∂M 
∫c Mdx + Ndy = ∫∫R  ∂x − ∂y dxdy

Consider ∫ (x − 2 y )dx + xdy
c
M = x – 2y N = x
∂M ∂N
= −2, =1
∂y ∂x
 ∂N ∂M 
∴ ∫∫  − dxdy
R 
∂x ∂y 
∫∫ (1 + 2)dxdy = 3∫∫ dxdy
R R
= 3[Area of the circle]

= 3 πr 2
=3. π .4
= 12π ……………………(1)
Now ∫ Mdx + Ndy
We know that the parametric equation of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4
x = 2 cos θ y = 2 sin θ
dx = −2 sin θdθ , dy = 2 cos θdθ
∴ Mdx + Ndy = ( x − 2 x )dx + xdy
= (2 cos θ − 4 sin θ )(− 2 sin θdθ ) + 2 cos θ (2 cos θ )dθ
= − 2 cos θ sin θ + 8 sin 2 θ + 4 cos 2 θdθ
Where θ various from 0 to 2π
2π
∴ ∫ Mdx + Ndy = ∫ (− 2 cosθ sin θ + 4 sin θ + 4)dθ
2
C 0
2π
  1 − cos 2θ  
= ∫  − sin 2θ + 4
0
2
 + 4 dθ
 
2π
= ∫ (− sin 2θ + 6 − 2 cos 2θ )dθ
0
2π
 cos 2θ 2 sin 2θ 
= + 6θ −
 2 2  0
1 1
= + 12π − = 12π …………………….(2)
2 2
∴ From (1) and (2)
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ Mdx + Ndy = ∫∫  ∂x
c R
−
∂y
dxdy

Hence Green’s Theorem is verified.
Example 2
Using Green’s theorems find the area of a circle of radius r.
Solution: By Green’s theorem we know that
1
Area enclosed by C = ∫ xdy − ydx
2C
The parametric equation of a circle of radius r is x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ
Where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
2π
1
∴ Area of the circle = ∫ r cos θ (r cos θ ) − r sin θ (− r sin θ )dθ
2 0
2π
∫ (r )
1
= 2
cos 2 θ + r 2 sin 2 θ dθ
2 0
2π
1 2
r dθ
2 ∫0
=
r [θ ]0 = πr 2
1 2 2π
=
2
Example 3:
Evaluate ∫ [(sin x − y )dx − cos xdy] where c is the triangle with
c
π π
vertices (0,0) ,(,0) and ( ,1)
2 2
y−0 x−0
Solution: Equation of OB is =
1− 0 π
−0
2
2x
⇒y=
π
 ∂N ∂M 
By Green’s theorem ∫ Mdx + Ndy = ∫∫  ∂x
c R
−
∂y
dxdy

∂M
Here M = sin x − y, = −1
∂y
∂N
N = − cos x, = sin x
∂x
∴ ∫ [(sin x − y )dx − cos xdy ] = ∫∫ (sin x + 1)dxdy
C R
πy π
In the region R, x varies from x = to and y varies from y = 0 to y = 1
2 2
π
1 2
∴ ∫ (sin x − y )dx − cos xdy = ∫ π∫ (sin x + 1)dxdy
C 0 y
2
1 π
= ∫ [− cos x + x]π
0
2
y dy
2
 πy π πy 
1
= ∫ cos + − dy
0 
2 2 2
1
2 πy π πy 2 
=  sin + y − 
π 2 2 4 0
2 π π 2 π
= + − = +
π 2 4 π 2
Example 4
Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for
( )
∫ 3x − 8 y dx + (4 y − 6 xy )dy where C is the boundary of the region defined
2 2
by
X = 0 , y= 0, x + y =1
Solution: We have to prove that
 ∂N ∂M

∫ Mdx + Ndy = ∫∫  ∂x
c R
− dxdy
∂y

M = 3x − 8 y , N = 4 y − 6 xy
2 2
∂M ∂N
= −16 y, = −6 y
∂y ∂x
By Green’s theorem in the plane

 ∂N ∂M 
∫c Mdx + Ndy = ∫∫R  ∂x − ∂y dxdy

1 1− x
= ∫ ∫ (10 y )dydx
0 0
1− x
 y2 
1
= 10 ∫  
0 
2 0
1
= 5∫ (1 − x ) dx
2
 (1 − x )3 
1
5
= 5  =
 − 3 0 3
Consider ∫ Mdx + Ndy = ∫ + ∫ + ∫
c OA AB BO
Along OA, y=0 , x varies from 0 to 1
[ ]
1
1
∴ ∫ Mdx + Ndy = ∫ 3 x 2 dx = x 3 0 =1
OA 0
Along AB, y = 1 - x ⇒ dy = −dx and x varies from 1 to 0 .
[ ]
0
∴ ∫ Mdx + Ndy = ∫ 3x 2 − 8(1 − x ) − 4(1 − x ) + 6 x(1 − x ) dx
2
AB 1
 3x 2 8(1 − x )3 4(1 − x )2
0

=  − − + 3x 2 − 2 x 3 
 3 −3 −2 1
8 8
= + 2 −1− 3 + 2 =
3 3
STOKE’S THEOREM
If S is an open surface bounded by a simple closed curve C and if a vector
→
function F is continuous and has continuous partial derivatives in S and on
→ → → → →
C, then ∫∫ curl F . n ds = ∫ F .d r where n is the unit vector normal to the
c
→
surface (ie) The surface integral of the normal component of curl F is equal
→
to the integral of the tangential component of F taken around C.
Example 1
→ → → →
Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = (2 x − y ) i − yz 2 j − y 2 z k where S is the upper
half of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 and C is the circular boundary on z = 0
plane.
→ → → →
Solution: By Stoke’s theorem ∫ F .d r = ∫∫ curl F . n ds
c s
→ → → →
F = (2 x − y ) i − yz 2 j − y 2 z k
→ → →
i j k
→ ∂ ∂ ∂
curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 x − y − yz 2 − y2z
→ → → →
= i [− 2 yz + 2 yz ] − j (0 − 0 ) + k (0 + 1) = k
→ →
Here n = k since C is the circular boundary on z = 0 plane
→ →
∴ ∫∫ = area of the circle curl F . n ds = ∫∫ dxdy
S S
= π (1) 2 = π ……….(1)
→ → → →
ON z = 0, ∫ F .d r = ∫∫ curl F . n ds
c s
On C, x = cos θ , y = sin θ
dx = − sin θdθ , dy = cos θdθ
θ varies from 0 to 2π
→ → 2π
∴ ∫ F .d r =
c
∫ (2 cosθ − sin θ )(− sin θ )dθ
0
2π 2π
=− ∫ (2 cosθ sin θ )dθ + ∫ sin θdθ
2
0 0
2π 2π
 1 − cos 2θ 
=− ∫ (sin 2θ )dθ + ∫ 
0 0
2
 dθ

2π 2π
 cos 2θ  1 sin 2θ 
= −  + θ −
 2 0 2 2  0
1 1
= − + + π = π ……………(2)
2 2
∴ From (1) and (2)
→ → → →
∫ F .d r = ∫∫ curl F . n ds
c s
Hence stoke’s theorem is verified
Example 2
→ → → →
Verify stoke’s theorem for F = ( y − z + 2) i + ( yz + 4 ) j − xz k where s is
the surface of the cube x = 0, x = 2, y = 0, y = 2, z = 0 and z = 2 above the xy –
plane.
Solution:
By Stoke’s theorem
→ → → →
c s
→ → →
i j k
→ → → → → ∂ ∂ ∂
Given F = ( y − z + 2) i + ( yz + 4 ) j − xz k curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
y−z+2 yz + 4 − xz
→ → →
= i [0 − y ] − j [− z + 1] + k [0 − 1]
→ → →
= − y i + j [z − 1] − k
Hence Stoke’s theorem is verified.
Example 3:
→ → → →
Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = y i + z j + x k where S is the upper half
surface of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 and C is its boundary.
Solution: By stoke’s theorem
→ → → →
c s
Gauss Divergence theorem

Statement:
The surface integral of the normal component of a vector
function F over a closed surface S enclosing volume V is equal to the volume
integral of the divergence of F taken throughout the volume V ,
→ ∧ →
∫∫ F . n ds = ∫∫∫ ∇. Fdv
S V
∫∫ x dydz + x ydzdx + x 2 zdxdy over the surface bounded by z = 0 ,z

3 2
Evaluate
= h, x 2 + y 2 = a 2
Solution:
π
2
3 1 π 3π
∫ cos
4
θdθ = =
0
4 2 2 16
→ → 3a 4
∫∫S F . n ds = 2
FOURIER SERIES
PERIODIC FUNCTIONS
A function f (x) is said to have a period T if for all x, f ( x  T )  f ( x) , where T is a
positive constant. The least value of T>0 is called the period of f (x) .
EXAMPLES
We know that f (x) = sin x = sin (x + 4  ) = … Therefore the function has period 2  ,
4  , 6  , etc. However, 2 is the least value and therefore is the period of f(x).
Similarly cos x is a periodic function with the period 2  and tan x has period  .
DIRICHLET’S CONDITIONS
A function f (x) defined in c  x  c+2l can be expanded as an infinite trigonometric
a nx nx
series of the form o +  a n cos   bn sin , provided
2 l l
1. f (x) is well defined and single valued , periodic and finite in (c , c+2l)
2. f (x) is continuous or piecewise continuous with finite number of finite
discontinuities in (c, c+2l).
3. f (x) has no or finite number of maxima or minima in (c , c+2l).
SOME BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS:
(i) cosnπ = (-1)n (ii) sinnπ =0 (iii) cos(2n+1)π=0 (iv) sin(2n+1)2π= (-1)n
EULER’S FORMULAS
If a function f (x) defined in (c , c+2l) can be expanded as the infinite trigonometric
ao 
nx  nx
series
2
+  an cos
n 1 l
  bn sin
n 1 l
then
c  2l
1 nx
an 
l 
c
f ( x) cos
l
dx, n  0
c  2l
1 nx
bn 
l 
c
f ( x) sin
l
dx, n  1
[Formulas given above for a n and b n are called Euler’s formulas for Fourier coefficients]
DEFINITION OF FOURIER SERIES

ao 
nx  nx
The infinite trigonometric series
2
+ a
n 1
n cos
l
  bn sin
n 1 l
is called the
Fourier series of f (x) in the interval c  x  c+2l, provided the coefficients are given by the
Euler’s formulas.
EVEN FUNCTION
If f (x) =  (x) in (-l , l) such that  ( x) =  (x) , then f (x) is said to be an even
function of x in (-l , l).
 ( x) in (l ,0)
If f ( x)   1 Such that 1 ( x) =  2 ( x ) or  2 (  x ) = 1 ( x ) , then f (x)
 2 ( x) in (0, l )
is said to be an even function of x in (-l , l).
EXAMPLE: y = cos x , y = x 2 are even functions.
ODD FUNCTION
If f (x) =  (x) in (-l , l) such that  ( x) = -  (x) , then f (x) is said to be an odd
function of x in (-l , l).
1 ( x) in (l ,0)
If f ( x)   Such that 1 ( x) = -  2 ( x ) or  2 (  x ) = - 1 ( x ) , then
 2 ( x) in (0, l )
f (x) is said to be an odd function of x in (-l , l).
EXAMPLE; y = sin x, y = x are odd functions.
FOURIER SERIES OF EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

1. The Fourier series of an even function f (x) in (-l , l) contains only cosine terms
(Constant term included), i.e. the Fourier series of an even function f (x) in (-l, l) is
given by
2
nx nx
l
a 2
f (x) = o +
2
 an cos l , where an  l  f ( x) cos l dx.
0
2. The Fourier series of an odd function f (x) in (-l , l) contains only sine terms, i.e.
the Fourier series of an odd function f (x) in (-l , l) is given by
nx nx
l
2
f (x) =  bn sin l
, where bn   f ( x) sin
l 0 l
dx.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the Fourier series of period 2l for the function f (x) = x(2l – x) in (0 , 2l). Deduce
1 1 1
the sum of f (x) = 2
 2  2 
1 2 3
Solution:
ao 
nx  nx
Let f (x) =
2
+ a
n 1
n cos
l
  bn sin
n 1 l
in (0 , 2l) …………(1)
nx
2l
1
an 
l0 x(2l  x) cos
l
dx
2l
  nx   nx   nx 
  sin    cos    sin 
1 2  l   (2l  2 x) l   l  ,
 (2lx  x )  (2)
l  n   n 2 2   n 3 3  
      
 l   l2   l3  0
using Bernoulli’s formula.
4l 2
=
1
 2l cos 2n  2l   
n 2 2
n 2 2
2l
1 x3 
2l
1 4
ao   x(2l  x)dx  lx 2    l 2 .
l0 l 3 0 3
nx
2l
1
bn 
l0 x(2l  x) sin
l
dx
=0
Using these values in (1), we have
2 2 4l 2 
1 nx
x (2l - x) =
3
l  2

n
n 1
2
cos
l
in (0, 2l) ……………..(2)
1 1 1
The required series 2
 2  2  …  can be obtained by putting x = l in the Fourier
1 2 3
3
series in (2).
x = l lies in (0 , 2l) and is a point of continuity of the function f (x) = x(2l – x).
  Sum the Fourier series in (2) x 1 = f(l)

2 2 4l 2 1
i.e.
3
l  2

n
n 1
2
cos n = l(2l - l)
4l 2  1 1 1  l
2
i.e.. -      ...   
 2  12 2 2 3 2  3
1 1 1 2
    …  =
12 2 2 3 2 12
2. Find the Fourier series of period 2  for the function f (x) = x cos x in 0 < x < 2  .
Solution:
 
ao
Let f (x) =
2
+  an cos nx   bn sin nx
n 1 n 1
.……..…………(1)
2
1
an 
  x cos x cosnxdx
0
2
 xcos(n  1) x  cos(n  1) xdx

1

2 0
1  sin(n  1) x cos(n  1) x  2  sin(n  1) x cos(n  1) x  2 

  x.     x.   ,
2  n 1 (n  1) 2  0  n 1 (n  1) 2  0 

if n  1
=0, if n  1
ao = 0
2 2
1 1
an   x cos xdx   x(1  cos2 x)dx
2
 0
2 0
2
1 x sin 2 x cos 2 x 
2
  x    .
2  2 2 4 0
2
1
bn 
  x cos x sin nxdx
0
4
2
 xsin(n  1) x  sin(n  1) xdx

1

2 0
1   cos(n  1) x sin(n  1) x  2   cos(n  1) x sin(n  1) x  2 

  x.     x.   ,
2  n 1 (n  1) 2  0  n 1 (n  1) 2  0 

if n  1
1 1  1 1  2n
=      2 , if n  1
n 1 n 1  n  1 n  1 n 1
2 2
1 1
b1 
  x cos x sin xdx 
0
2  x sin 2 xdx
0
2
1    cos 2 x  sin 2 x  1
=  x   
2   2  4 0 2
Using these values in (1), we get


1 n
f(x) =  cos x  sin x  2  sin nx
n  2 , 3,... n  1
2
2
3. Find the Fourier series expansion of f (x) = sin ax in (-l, l).

Solution:
Since f (x) is defined in a range of length 2l, we can expand f (x) in Fourier series of
period 2l.
Also f ( x) = sin[a(-x)] = -sin ax = - f (x)
 f (x) is an odd function of x in (-l , l).
Hence Fourier series of f (x) will not contain cosine terms.


nx
Let f (x) = b
n 1
n sin
l
………………….(1)
1   n   n  
l
   cos
l 0  l
 a   cos
  l
 a  x dx
 
l
  n   n  
 sin   a  x sin   a x 
      l  
1 l
l  
a 
n n
a
 
 l l 0
5
1  n  1  n 
 sin   a l  sin   a l
n  la  l  n  la  l 

1
n  al

 (1) n sin al 
1

n  al

(1) n sin al 
 1 1 
 (1) n 1 sin al   
 n  al n  al 
(1) n 1 2n sin al

n 2 2  a 2 l 2

(1) n 1 n nx
sin ax  2 sin al  sin
n 1 n  a l
2 2 2 2
l
4. Find the Fourier series expansion of f (x) = e  x in ( ,  ) . Hence obtain a series for
cosec 
Solution:
Though the range ( ,  ) is symmetric about the origin, e  x is neither an even function
nor an odd function.
 
ao
 Let f (x) =
2
+  an cos nx   bn sin nx
n 1 n 1
..…..…………(1)
in ( ,  )  the length of the range is 2 

1
 e
x
an  cos nxdx
 

1  ex 
  2  cos nx  n sin nx
 n 1  
 
1
 e  (1) n  e  (1) n
 n 1
2

2(1) n
 sinh 
 (n 2  1)
2 sinh 
ao 

6

1
 
x
bn  e sin nxdx

1  e x 
  2   sin nx  n cos nx  
  n 1  
 e 
n 
 (1) n  e  (1) n
 n  1
2
2n(1) n
 sinh 
 (n 2  1)
sinh  2sinh  
(1) n 2sinh  
( 1) n n
e x =


 
n 1 n  1
2
cos nx 
 
n 1 n  1
2
sin nx in ( ,  )
Sum of the Fourier series of f ( x)x 0  f (0),
[Since x=0 is a point of continuity of f(x)]
sinh   
(1) n 
1  2 2   e  1
0
i.e.,
  n 1 n  1
 1 
(1) n
i.e.,  cos ech   1  2   2
 2
 2  n2 n  1
2 
( 1) n
i.e., cos ech   
 n2 n 2  1
HALF-RANGE FOURIER SERIES
The Fourier expansion of non periodic function f(x) defined in the interval (0, l) of length
l is known as half range expansion or half range Fourier series .In particular half range expansion
contains only cosine terms is known as half range Fourier cosine series of f(x) in the interval
(0, l) .In a similar way half range Fourier sine series contains only sine terms.
(i) The half range cosine series in (0, l) is
nx
 l
ao 2
f (x) =
2
+  a n cos
n 1 l
where ao 
l 0
f ( x)dx.
n x
l
2
l 0
an  f ( x )cos dx.
l
7
(ii) The half range sine series in (0, l) is


nx
f (x) = b
n 1
n sin
l
,
nx
l
2
where bn   f ( x) sin dx.
l 0 l
(iii) The half range cosine series in (0 ,  ) is given by
 
a 2
f (x) = o +
2
a
n 1
n cos nx where ao 
 0 f ( x)dx.

2
an 
 0 f ( x)cos nxdx.
(iv) The half range sine series in (0 ,  ) is given by

f (x) = 
n 1
bn sin nx ,

2
where bn 
  f ( x) sin nxdx.
0
EXAMPLES
1. Find the half-range (i) cosine series and (ii) sine series for f (x) = x 2 in (0 ,  )
Solution: (i) To get the half-range cosine series for f (x) in (0 ,  ), we should give an even
extension for f (x) in (   , 0).
i.e. put f (x) =  x  = x 2 in (   , 0)

2
Now f (x) is even in (   ,  ).


ao
 f (x) =
2
+ a
n 1
n cos nx ………………….(1)

2
an 
  f ( x) cosnxdx.
0

2
 x
2
cos nxdx
 0
8

2   sin nx    cos nx    sin nx 
 x 2    2 x   2 
  n   n
2
  n
3
 0
4 4(1) n
 . ( 1) n
 ,n  0
n 2 n2
 
2 2 2

ao  f ( x)dx   x 2
dx   2
0
 0
3
 The Fourier half-range cosine series of x 2 is given by
2 
(1) n
x2   4 2
cos nx in (0 ,  ).
3 n 1 n
(ii) To get the half-range sine series of f (x) in (0 ,  ), we should give an odd extension
for f (x) in (-  , 0).
Put f (x) = -  x  in (-  , 0)
2
i.e.
= - x 2 in (-  , 0)
Now f (x) is odd in (-  ,  ).

 f (x) = b
n 1
n sin nx ……………….(2)
 
2 2
bn   f ( x) sin nxdx    x
2
sin nxdx
 0 0

2  2  cos nx   sin nx   cos nx 
  x    2 x  2   2 3 
  n   n   n  0
2  2 
 n 1 2
 (1)  3 (1)  1 
n
n
 
n 
 2  2 4 
   , if n is odd
   n n 3 
 2  ,
 n if n is even
Using this value in(2), we get the half-range sine series of x 2 in (0 ,  ).
2. Find the half-range sine series of f (x) = sin ax in (0 , l).

Solution:
We give an odd extension for f (x) in (-l , 0).
i.e. we put f (x) = -sin[a(-x)] = sin ax in (-l , 0)
 f (x) is odd in (-l , l)
9

nx
Let f (x) = b
n 1
n sin
l
nx
l
2
bn   sin ax. sin dx
l 0 l
1   n   n  
l
   cos
l 0  l
 a  x  cos
  l
 a  x  dx
 
l
  n   n  
 sin   a  x sin   a x 
      l  
1 l
l  n   n  
  l  a  
 l
 a 
 0

(1) n1 sin n  al   sin n  al 
1 1

n  al n  al
1 1
 (1) n 1 sin al  (1) n 1 sin al
n  al n  al
2n
 (1) n 1 sin al. 2 2
n   a 2l 2
Using this values in (1), we get the half-range sine series as

(1) n 1 .n nx
sin ax  2 sin al  2 2 sin
n 1 n   a l
2 2
l
3. Find the half-range cosine series of f (x) = a in (0, l). Deduce the sum of
1 1 1
2
 2  2   .
1 3 5
Solution:
Giving an odd extension for f (x) in (-l , 0), f (x) is made an odd function in (-l , l).
nx
 Let f(x) = b n sin
l
..……………(1)
nx
l
2
bn   a sin dx
l 0 l
nx 
l

  cos

2a  l   2a 1   1n  
 n 
l   n
 l 
0
 4a
 , if n is odd
  n

0, if n is even
10
Using this value in (1), we get

4a 
1 nx
a=


n 1, 3, 5 n
sin
l
in (0 , l )
Since the series whose sum is required contains constant multiples of squares of b n , we apply
Parseval’s theorem.
l
bn    f ( x) dx
1 1

2 2
2 l0

1 16a 2 1
i.e. .
2 2
 2n  1
n 1, 3, 5
2
 a2

8a 2 1
i.e.
 2  2n  1
n 1
2
 a2

1 2
  2n  1
n 1
2

8
.
4. Expand f (x) = x - x 2 as a Fourier series in -1 < x < 1 and using this series find the
r.m.s. value of f (x) in the interval.
Solution:
The Fourier series of f (x) in (-1 , -1) is given by
 
ao
f (x) =
2
+ a
n 1
n cos nx   bn sin nx
n 1
.………………(1)
 
1 1
1
ao  
1 1
f ( x)dx   x  x 2 dx
1
1
 x2 x3  1 1 1 1
           
 2 3  1  2 3   2 3 
2
ao  ..........................(2)
3
 
1 1
1
a n   f ( x) cos nx dx   x  x 2 cos nx dx
1 1 1
1
  sin nx    cos nx    sin nx 

  x  x2     1  2 x    (2) 
 n     n  1
2 3
 n
 cos n 3 cos n
 
n2 n2
4 cos n
an   ……………….(3)
n2
11
 
1 1
1
bn  
1 1
f ( x) sin nx dx   x  x 2 sin nx dx
1
1
   cos nx    sin nx   cos nx 

  x  x2    1  2 x    (2) 3 3 
 n   n   n   1
2 2

 2 cos n 2 cos n 2 cos n
   3 3
n 3 3 n n
n 1
2(1)
bn  ..........................(4)
n
Substituting (2), (3), (4) in (1) we get
1  4( 1) n 1 
2( 1) n 1

f (x) =  cos n x   sin nx
3 n 1 n 2 n 1 n
We know that r.m.s. value of f(x) in (-l , l) is
1 2 1  1 
a o   a n   bn
2
y 
2 2
……………….(5)
4 2 n 1 2 n 1
From (2) we get
2 4
ao   ao 
2
.………………..(6)
3 9
From (3) we get
4(1) n 1 16
an   an  4
2
2
………………..(7)
n n
From (4) we get
2(1) n 1 4
bn   bn  2 2
2
..………………(8)
n n
Substituting (6), (7) and (8) in (5) we get
1 1   16 4 
  4  2 2 
2
y 
9 2 n 1  n n  
5. Find the Fourier series for f (x) = x 2 in    x   . Hence show that
1 1 1 4
    
14 2 4 3 4 90
Solution:
The Fourier series of f (x) in (-1 , 1) is given by
2 
4( 1) n
f (x) =
3
+ 
n 1 n2
cos nx
The co-efficients a o , a n , bn are
12
2 2 4(1) n
ao  , an  , bn  0
3 n2
Parseval’s theorem is
a 
 
  f ( x) dx  ao  
1 1 2 1
 bn
2 2 2
2
n

4 2 n 1
a
 

  1 
2
 
2 2
    a n  bn
2 2

o
x dx 2

4  2 n 1 

 x5    4 1  16 
i.e.,    2    4
 5    9 2 n 1 n 
2 5 2 5 
16
i.e.,   4
5 9 n 1 n
8 4 
16
 4
45 n 1 n

1 4
i.e., 
n 1 n
4

90
1 1 1 4
i.e.,      =
12 32 5 2 90
FOURIER INTEGRAL THEOREM
If f (x) is a given function defined in (-l , l) and satisfies Dirichlet’s conditions, then
 
1
f ( x) 
   f (t ) cos (t  x) dt d
0 
At a point of discontinuity the value of the integral on the left of above equation is
1
 f ( x  0)  f ( x  0).
2
EXAMPLES
1 for x  1
1. Express the function f ( x)   as a Fourier Integral. Hence evaluate
0 for x  1
 
sin  cosx sin 

0

d and find the value of 0

d.
Solution:
We know that the Fourier Integral formula for f (x) is
 
1
f ( x) 
   f (t ) cos (t  x) dt d
0 
……………….(1)
Here f (t ) = 1 for t  1 i.e., f(t) = 1 in -1 < t < 1
13
f (t ) = 0 for t  1
f (t ) = 0 in    t  1 and 1  t  
 1
1
 Equation (1)  f ( x) 
   cos (t  x) dt d
0 1

1  sin  (t  x) 
1
   d
 0   1

1 sin  (1  x)  sin  (1  x)

 
0

d

1 sin  (1  x)  sin  (1  x)

 
0

d

2 sin  cos x
 f ( x) 
 
0

d .………………(2)
[Using sin (A+B) + sin (A-B) = 2 sin A cos B]
This is Fourier Integral of the given function. From (2) we get

sin  cosx 

0

d =
2
f ( x) ……………….(3
1 for x  1
But f ( x)   ………………..(4)
0 for x  1
Substituting (4) in (3) we get


sin  cosx  for x  1
 
d =  2
0 0 for x  1


sin  
Putting x = 0 we get 0

d 
2
2. Find the Fourier Integral of the function

0 x0
1

f ( x)   x0
 2
e
x
x0
Verify the representation directly at the point x = 0.
Solution:
The Fourier integral of f (x) is
14
 
1
f ( x) 
   f (t ) cos (t  x) dt d
0 
……………….(1)
1  
 0 
  
 0  
f (t ) cos  (t  x ) dt  
0
f (t ) cos (t  x)dt d

1  
 0 
    0. cos (t  x)dt   e t cos (t  x)dt d
 0   0 
 
1  e t
  2  cost  x    sin(t  x) d
 0   1 0

1 cosx   sin x
 0
f (x)  d ……….………(2)
2  1
Putting x = 0 in (2), we get


1
f (0)   2
1
 0  1
d  tan 1   0
1


 

 tan 1    tan 1 (0)
1


1   1
  
 2 2
1
The value of the given function at x = 0 is . Hence verified.
2
FOURIER SINE AND COSINE INTEGRALS
The integral of the form

 
2
f ( x)   sin x  f (t ) sin t dt d
 0 0
is known as Fourier sine integral.

 
2
f ( x)   cosx  f (t ) cost dt d
 0 0
is known as Fourier cosine integral.
PROBLEMS
1. Using Fourier integral formula, prove that

2(b 2  a 2 ) u sin xu
 (u
 ax bx
e e  du (a, b  0)
 0
2
 a 2 )(u 2  b 2 )
15
Solution:
The presence of sin xu in the integral suggests that the Fourier sine integral formula has
been used.
Fourier sine integral representation is given by
 
2
f ( x) 
  sin ux f (t ) sin ut dt du
0 0

 at 
e  ax  e bx 
2
 0
sin ux du   e  e bt

sin ut dt  
0 
 
 e  at e  bt 
2
  sin ux du  2  a sin ut  u cos ut    b sin ut  u cosut
 0 a  u
2
b u
2 2
0

2  u u 

 sin ux du   2
0 a
2
u 2
b  u 2 

2(b 2  a 2 ) u sin ux

  (u
0
2
 a 2 )(u 2  b 2 )
du
2. Using Fourier integral formula, prove that
2

 2
 2cos x

e x
cos x  d
0 2  4
Solution:
The presence of cos x in the integral suggests that the Fourier cosine integral formula
x
for e cos x has been used.
Fourier cosine integral representation is given by
 
2
f ( x) 
  cos x  f (t ) cos t dt d
0 0
2   t


e x
cos x   cos x d   e cos t cos t dt 
 0 0 

 1  t 
  e cos(  1)t  cos(  1)t dt 
2
 
 0
cos x d
2 0 
16



2

cos x d 
1
e t
 cos(  1)t  (  1) sin(  1)t0
 (  1) 1
2
0

1
(  1)  1
2

e t  cos(  1)t  (  1) sin(  1)t 0

 

1  1 1 
    cos x d
 0  (  1)  1 (  1)  1
2 2

2 (2  2) cos x
 0
 d.
2  4
HARMONIC ANALYSIS
The process of finding the Fourier series for a function given by numerical value is
known as harmonic analysis. In harmonic analysis the Fourier coefficients ao , a n , and bn of the
function y = f (x) in (0 , 2  ) are given by
a o = 2[mean value of y in (0 , 2  )]
a n = 2[mean value of y cos nx in (0 , 2  )]
b n = 2[mean value of y sin nx in (0 , 2  )]
(i) Suppose the function f (x) is defined in the interval (0 , 2l), then its Fourier series is,
ao 
nx  nx
f (x) =
2
+ a
n 1
n cos
l
  bn sin
n 1 l
and now, a o = 2[mean value of y in (0 , 2l)]
 nx 
a n = 2 mean value of y cos in (0 , 2l )
 l 
 nx 
b n = 2mean value of y sin in (0 , 2l )
 l 
(ii) If the half range Fourier sine series of f (x) in (0 , l) is,

nx
f (x) = b
n 1
n sin
l
, then
 nx 
b n = 2 mean value of y sin in (0 , l )
 l 
(iii) If the half range Fourier sine series of f (x) in (0 ,  ) is,

nx
f (x) = b
n 1
n sin
l
, then
17
b n = 2mean value of y sin nx in (0 ,  )
(iv) If the half range Fourier cosine series of f (x) in (0 , l) is,
ao 
nx
f (x) = +  a n cos , then
2 n 1 l
a o = 2[mean value of y in (0 , l)]
 nx 
a n = 2 mean value of y cos in (0 , l )
 l 
(v) If the half range Fourier cosine series of f (x) in (0 ,  ) is,
ao 
nx
f (x) =
2
+ a
n 1
n cos
l
, then
a o = 2[mean value of y in (0 ,  )]
a n = 2mean value of y cos nx in (0 ,  ).
EXAMPLES
1. The following table gives the variations of a periodic function over a period T.
x 0 T T T 2T 5T T
6 3 2 3 6
f (x) 1.98 1.3 1.05 1.3 -0.88 -0.25 1.98
2x
Show that f (x) = 0.75 + 0.37 cos +1.004 sin  , where  
T
Solution:
Here the last value is a mere repetition of the first therefore we omit that value and
consider the remaining 6 values.  n = 6.
2x
Given  ..………………..(1)
T
T T T 2T 5T  2
 when x takes the values of 0, , , , ,  takes the values 0, , ,
6 3 2 3 6 3 3
4 5
, , . (By using (1))
3 3
Let the Fourier series be of the form
ao
f ( x)   a1 cos  b1 sin  , ………………(2)
2
y
where ao  2 ,
 n 
 
18
  y cos 
a1  2 ,
 n 
 
  y sin  
b1  2 , n=6
 n 
 
 y cos  sin  y cos  y sin 
0 1.98 1.0 0 1.98 0
 3
1.30 0.500 0.866 0.65 1.1258
2 3 1.05 -0,500 0.866 -0.525 0.9093
 1.30 -1 0 -1.3 0
4 3 -0.88 -0.500 -0.866 0.44 0.762
5 3 -0.25 0.500 -0.866 -0.125 0.2165
4.6 1.12 3.013

y
a o  2   1.5, a1  2  y cos  0.37
 6  6
 
2
b1   y sin   1.00456
6
Substituting these values of a o , a1 , and b1 in (2), we get
 f (x) = 0.75 + 0.37 cos  + 1.004 sin 
2. Find the Fourier series upto the third harmonic for the function y = f (x) defined in
(0 ,  ) from the table
x 0  2 3 4 5 
6 6 6 6 6
f (x) 2.34 2.2 1.6 0.83 0.51 0.88 1.19
Solution:
We can express the given data in a half range Fourier sine series.
f ( x)  b1 sin x  b2 sin 2 x  b3 sin 3x ..………………...(1)
x y = f(0) sin x sin 2x sin 3x y sin x y sin 2x y sin 3x

0 2.34 0 0 0 0 0 0
30 2.2 0.5 0.87 1 1.1 1.91 2.2
60 1.6 0.87 0.87 0 1.392 1.392 0
90 0.83 1 0 -1 0.83 0 -0.83
19
120 0.51 0.87 -0.87 0 0.44 -0.44 0

150 0.88 0.5 -0.87 1 0.44 0.76 0.88
180 1.19 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.202 3.622 2.25
  y sin x  1
Now b1  2   4.202  1.40
 6  3
  y sin 2 x  1
b2  2   3.622  1.207
 6  3
  y sin 3x  1
b3  2   2.25  0.75
 6  3
Substituting these values in (1), we get
f (x) = 1.4 sin x + 1.21 sin 2x + 0.75 sin 3x

3. Compute the first two harmonics of the Fourier series for f(x) from the following data
x 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

f (x) 0 5224 8097 7850 5499 2626 0
Solution:
Here the length of the interval is  .  we can express the given data in a half range
Fourier sine series
i.e., f ( x)  b1 sin x  b2 sin 2 x ………………………(1)
x y sin x sin 2x
0 0 0 0
30 5224 .5 0.87
60 8097 0.87 0.87
90 7850 1 0
120 5499 0.87 -0.87
150 2626 0.5 -0.87
  y sin x 
Now b1  2   7867.84
 6 
20
  y sin 2 x 
b2  2   1506.84
 6 
 f (x) = 7867.84 sin x + 1506.84 sin 2x
4. Find the Fourier series as far as the second harmonic to represent the function given in
the following data.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) 9 18 24 28 26 20
Solution:
Here the length of the interval is 6 (not 2  )
i.e., 2l = 6 or l = 3
 The Fourier series is
ao x 2x x 2x
f ( x)   a1 cos  a 2 cos  b1 sin  b2 sin …………………..(1)
2 3 3 3 3
x 2x x x 2x 2x

y cos y sin y cos y sin
x 3 3 y 3 3 3 3
0 0 0 9 9 0 9 0
1  3 2 3 18 9 15.7 -9 15.6
2 2 3 4 3 24 -12 20.9 -24 0
3  2 28 -28 0 28 0
4 4 3 8 3 26 -13 -22.6 -13 22.6
5 5 3 10  3 20 10 -17.4 -10 -17.4
125 -25 -3.4 -19 20.8
  y  2125
Now ao  2   41.66,
 6  6
 
2 x
a1   y cos  8.33
6 3
2 x
b1   y sin  1.13
6 3
2 2x
a2 
6
 y cos
3
 6.33
2 2x
b2 
6
 y sin
3
 6.9
21
Substituting these values of a o , a1 , b1 , a 2 and b2 in (1), we get
41 .66 x 2x x 2x

f ( x)   8.33 cos  6.33 cos  1.13 sin  6.9 sin
2 3 3 3 3
COMPLEX FORM OF FOURIER SERIES

The equation of the form f ( x)  c e
n  
n
in x l
is called the complex form or exponential form of the Fourier series of f (x) in (c , c+2l). The
coefficient c n is given by
c  2l
1
 f ( x )e
inx l
cn  dx
2l c
When l =  , the complex form of Fourier series of f (x) in (c , c+2  ) takes the form

f ( x)  c e
n  
n
inx
, where
c  2
1
 f ( x )e
inx
cn  dx.
2 c
PROBLEMS
1. Find the complex form of the Fourier series of f (x) = e x in (0 , 2).
Solution:
Since 2l = 2 or l = 1, the complex form of the Fourier series is

f ( x)  c e
n  
n
inx
2
1
cn   f ( x)e inx dx
20
2
1
  e x e inx dx
20
1  e 1in  x 
2
  
2  1  in  0

1
21  in 

e 21in   1 
22
1  in 
 e cos 2n  i sin 2n  1
  2


2 1 n  2 2

e 2

 1 1  in 

2 1  n 2 2 
 e 2  1   1  in  inx
e x    
 2 n 1  n  
2 2
e
2. Find the complex form of the Fourier series of f (x) = sin x in (0 ,  ).

Solution:
Here 2l =  or l =  2 .
 The complex form of Fourier series is

f ( x)  c e
n  
n
i 2 nx
…………………..(1)

1

i 2 nx
cn  sin xe dx
0

1  e i 2 nx 
   i 2n sin x  cos x
 1  4n 2
0

1

 4n  1
2
 e i 2 nx  1  

2

 4n 2  1
  

2 1
sin x  

 4n
n  
2
1
.e i 2 nx in (0 ,  )
3. Find the complex form of the Fourier series of f (x) = e  ax in (-l , l).
Solution:
Let the complex form of the Fourier series be

f ( x)  c e
n  
n
in x l
l
1
2l l
cn  f ( x)e inx l dx
l
1
2l l
 e  ax e inx l dx
23
l
1
  e al in  x / l dx
2l l
1  e al in  x l
l

  
2l   al  in  l  l

1
2al  in 

e al in   e al in  

1
2al  in 

e al (1) n  e  al (1) n 
 e  in
 cos n  i sin n  (1) n 
sinh al (1) n

al  in
sinh al.al  in (1) n

a 2 l 2  n 2 2
Using this value in (1), we have

(1) n al  in  inx l
e  ax  sinh al  22 2 2 e
n   a l  n 
in (-l , l)
4. Find the complex form of the Fourier series of f (x) = cos ax in (-  ,  ), where a is
neither zero nor an integer.
Solution:
Here 2l = 2  or l =  .
 The complex form of Fourier series is

f ( x)  c e
n  
n
inx
………………….(1)

1
 cosax.e
inx
cn  dx
2 

1  e inx 
  2  in cos ax  a sin ax
2  a  n 2
 

1
2 a  n 2
2
 

e in  in cos a  a sin a   e in  in cos a  a sin a  
1
 (1) n 2a sin a
2 a  n
2

2

a sin a 
(1) n inx
cos ax 


n   a2  n2
e in (-  ,  ).
24
SHORT QUETIONS
1. Determine the value of a n in the Fourier series expansion of f ( x)  x 3 in    x   .
Ans: f ( x)  x 3 is an odd function.

 an  0
2. Find the root mean square value of f ( x)  x 2 in the interval (0 ,  ) .

Ans:
RMS Vale of f ( x)  x 2 in (0 ,  ) is
  
1  x5 
 x 
1 1
dx   x dx  
2
y  2 2 4

 0
 0  5 0
1  5   4
  
5 5
3. Find the coefficient b5 of cos5x in the Fourier cosine series of the function f ( x)  sin 5 x in
the interval (0 , 2 )
Ans: Here f ( x)  sin 5 x
Fourier cosine series is

ao
f (x) =
2
+ a
n 1
n cos nx , where
 
2 2
an 
 
0
f ( x) cos nx dx 
  sin 5x cosnx dx
0

 sin(5  n) x  sin(5  n) x dx
2

2 0

 1  cos(5  n) x cos(5  n) x 
  0
  5  n 5  n  0
cos x, if 0  x  
4. If f ( x)   and f ( x)  f ( x  2 ) for all x, find the sum of the Fourier
50, if   x  2
series of f (x) at x   .
Ans: Here  is a point of discontinuity.
 The sum of the Fourier series is equal to the average of right hand and left hand limit of the
given function at x   .
25
f (  0)  f (  0)
i.e., f ( ) 
2
cos  50 49
 
2 2
5. Find b n in the expansion of x 2 as a Fourier series in ( ,  ) .
Ans: bn = 0
Since f ( x)  x 2 is an even function in ( ,  ) .

6. If f (x) is an odd function defined in (-l , l) what are the values of a 0
Ans: a0 = 0
a n  0 since f (x) is an odd function.
7. Find the Fourier constants b n for xsin x in ( ,  ) .
Ans: bn = 0
Since f ( x)  x sin x is an even function in ( ,  ) .

8. State Parseval’s identity for the half-range cosine expansion of f (x) in (0 , 1).
Ans:
1 2
2  f ( x) dx 
a0
  an
2 2
0
2 n 1
where
1
a0  2 f ( x)dx
0
1
a n  2 f ( x) cos nx dx
0
9. Find the constant term in the Fourier series expansion of f ( x)  x in ( ,  ) .

Ans:
a 0 = 0 since f (x) is an odd function in ( ,  ) .
10. State Dirichlet’s conditions for Fourier series.

Ans:
(i) f (x) is defined and single valued except possibly at a finite number of points in ( ,  ) .
(ii) f (x) is periodic with period 2  .
(iii) f (x) and f (x) are piecewise continuous in ( ,  ) .
Then the Fourier series of f (x) converges to
26
(a) f (x) if x is a point of continuity

f ( x  0)  f ( x  0)
(b) if x is a point of discontinuity.
2
11. What you mean by Harmonic Analysis?
Ans:
The process of finding the Fourier series for a function given by numerical value is
known as harmonic analysis. In harmonic analysis the Fourier coefficients ao , a n , and bn of the
function y = f (x) in (0 , 2  ) are given by
a o = 2[mean value of y in (0 , 2  )]
a n = 2[mean value of y cos nx in (0 , 2  )]
b n = 2[mean value of y sin nx in (0 , 2  )]
 2x
1   ,    x  0
12. In the Fourier expansion of f ( x)   in ( ,  ) . Find the value of b n ,
1  2 x , 0  x  
 
the coefficient of sin nx.
Ans:
Since f (x) is an even function the value of b n = 0.
 2(  x ) 2x 
 In    x  0 i.e., 0   x   , f ( x)  1    1    f ( x)
13. What is the constant term and the coefficient of cos nx, a n in the Fourier expansion of
f ( x)  x  x 3 in (-7 , 7)?
Ans:
Given f ( x)  x  x 3
f (  x )   x  x 3  ( x  x 3 )   f ( x )
The given function is an odd function. Hence a 0 and a n are zero.
14. Find a Fourier sine series for the function f (x) = 1; 0 < x <  .
Ans:

The Fourier sine series of f ( x)   bn sin nx …………………….(1)
n 1
27

2
bn 
  f ( x) sin nx dx
0
 
2   cos nx 
 0
2
  sin nx dx  
  n 0
 
2
n
(1) n  1  
bn  0, when ' n' is even
4
 , when ' n' is odd
n

4
 f ( x)   . sin n
n 1, 3, 5, n
0 0 x 
15. If the Fourier series for the function f ( x)   is
sin x 0  x  2
1 2  cos 2 x cos 4 x  1 1 1 1  2
f ( x)        sin x Deduce that      .
   1.3 3.5  2 1.3 3.5 5.7 4
Ans:

Putting x  we get
2
   1 2  1 1 1  1
f        
 2     1.3 3.5 5.7  2
1 2 1 1 1  1
0        
   1.3 3.5 5.7  2
1 1 1  2
     .
1.3 3.5 5.7 4
16. Define Root mean square value of a function?
c 2 l
1
y
2
Ans: If a function y = f (x) is defined in (c , c+2l), then dx is called the root mean-
2l c
square(R.M.S.) value of y in (c , c+2l) and is denoted by y .

c  2l
1
y
2
Thus y  2
dx.
2l c
17. If f ( x)  x 2  x is expressed as a Fourier series in the interval (-2 , 2), to which value this
series converges at x = 2.
Ans:
Since x = 2 is a point of continuity, the Fourier series converges to the arithmetic mean of
f (x) at x = -2 and x = 2
28
f (2)  f (2) 4  2  4  2
i.e.,  4
2 2
18. If the Fourier series corresponding to f ( x)  x in the interval (0 , 2 ) is

a0
  (a n cos nx  bn sin nx), without finding the values of a 0, a n , bn find the value of
2 n 1
2 
a0
  (an  bn ).
2 2
2 n 1
Ans:
By using Parseval’s identity,
2 2

1  x3 
2
a0 1 8
  (a n  bn )   x dx      2 .
2 2 2
2 n 1  0   3 0 3
19. Find the constant term in the Fourier series corresponding to f ( x)  cos 2 x expressed in the
interval ( ,  ) .
Ans:
Given f ( x)  cos 2 x
  
1 1  1  cos 2 x  1 sin 2 x 
Now a0   cos x dx    dx   x  1
2
 
   2   2  0
LONG QUESTIONS
1. (i) Express f ( x)  x sin x as a Fourier series in 0  x  2 .
2l  x 1 2x 1 3x 
(ii) Show that for 0 < x <l, x   sin  sin  sin  . Using root mean square
p l 2 l 3 l 
1 1 1
value of x, deduce the value of 2
 2  2 
1 2 3
2. (i) Find the Fourier series of periodicity 3 for f ( x)  2 x  x 2 in 0 < x < 3.
(ii) Find the Fourier series expansion of period 2  for the function y  f (x) which is defined
in (0 , 2 ) by means of the table of values given below. Find the series upto the third harmonic.
x 0  2  4 5 2
3 3 3 3
f (x) 1.0 1.4 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.2 1.0
29
3.(i) Find the Fourier series of periodicity 2  for f ( x)  x 2 for 0 < x < 2  .
l 4l  x 1 3x 
(ii) Show that for 0 < x <l, x   2  cos  2 cos   . Deduce that
2   l 3 l 
1 1 1 4
    .
14 3 4 5 4 96
l  x, 0  x  l
4. (i) Find the Fourier series for f ( x)   . Hence deduce the sum to infinity of
0, l  x  2l

1
the series  (2n  1)
n 0
2
.
(ii) Find the complex form of Fourier series of f ( x)  e ax (  x   ) in the form
sinh a 
a  in inx  
(1) n
e ax 

 (1) n
 a2  n2
e and hence prove that  
a sinh a  n 2  a 2
.
5. Obtain the half range cosine series for f ( x)  x in (0 ,  ).
6. Find the Fourier series for f ( x)  cos x in the interval ( ,  ) .
1 1 3
7. (i) Expanding x(  x) as a sine series in (0 ,  ) show that 1      .
33 5 3 32
(ii) Find the Fourier series as far as the second harmonic to represent the function given in the
following data.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) 9 18 24 28 26 20
8. Obtain the Fourier series for f (x) of period 2l and defined as follows
L  x in ( L,0)
f ( x)  
L  x in (0, L)
1 1 1 2
Hence deduce that 2  2  2    .
1 3 5 8
9. Obtain the half range cosine series for f ( x)  x in (0 ,  ).
1 in (0,  )
10. (i) Find the Fourier series of f ( x)  
2 in ( ,2 )
(ii) Obtain the sine series for the function
30
 l
 x in 0  x  2
f ( x)  
l  x in l  x  l
 2
11. (i) Find the Fourier series for the function
0 in (1, 0)
f ( x)   and f ( x  2)  f ( x) for all x.
1 in (0, 1)
(ii) Determine the Fourier series for the function
x, 0  x 1
f ( x)  
 (2  x), 1  x  2
12. Obtain the Fourier series for f ( x)  1  x  x 2 in ( ,  ) . Deduce that
1 1 1 2
     .
12 2 2 3 2 6
13. Obtain the constant term and the first harmonic in the Fourier series expansion for f (x)
where f (x) is given in the following table.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
f (x) 18.0 18.7 17.6 15.0 11.6 8.3 6.0 5.3 6.4 9.0 12.4 15.7
14. (i) Express f ( x)  x sin x as a Fourier series in ( ,  ).
(ii) Obtain the half range cosine series for f ( x)  ( x  2) 2 in the interval 0 < x < 2.
15. Find the half range sine series of f ( x)  x cos x in (0 ,  ).
16. (i) Find the Fourier series expansion of f (x) = e  x in (  ,  )

(ii) Find the half-range sine series of f (x) = sin ax in (0 , l).
17. Expand f (x) = x - x 2 as a Fourier series in -1 < x < 1 and using this series find the r.m.s.
value of f (x) in the interval.
18. The following table gives the variations of a periodic function over a period T.
x 0 T T T 2T 5T T
6 3 2 3 6
f (x) 1.98 1.3 1.05 1.3 -0.88 -0.25 1.98
2x
Show that f (x) = 0.75 + 0.37 cos +1.004 sin  , where  
T
31
19. Find the Fourier series up to the third harmonic for the function y = f (x) defined in (0 ,  )
from the table
x 0  2 3 4 5 
6 6 6 6 6
f (x) 2.34 2.2 1.6 0.83 0.51 0.88 1.19
20. (i) Find the half-range (i) cosine series and (ii) sine series for f (x) = x 2 in (0 ,  )
(ii) Find the complex form of the Fourier series of f (x) = cos ax in (-  ,  ).
32
FOURIER TRANSFORMS
INTEGRAL TRANSFORM
b
The integral transform of a function f (x) is defined by f ( x).k (s , x)dx where
a
k(s , x) is a known function of s and x and it is called the kernel of the transform.
When k(s , x) is a sine or cosine function, we get transforms called Fourier sine or
cosine transforms.
COMPLEX FORM OF FOURIER INTEGRALS
1 i x
f ( x) e f (t ) e i t dt d
2
is known as Complex form of Fourier Integral.
FOURIER TRANSFORMS
COMPLEX FOURIER TRANSFORMS

1
The function F f ( x) f (t ).e ist dt is called the Complex Fourier transform
2
of f (x) .
INVERSION FORMULA FOR THE COMPLEX FOURIER TRANSFORM

1
The function f ( x) F f ( x ) .e isx ds is called the inversion formula for the
2
Complex Fourier transform of F[ f ( x)] and it is denoted by F 1 F ( f ( x )) .
FOURIER SINE TRANSFORMS

2
The function FS f ( x ) f (t ).sin st dt is called the Fourier Sine Transform of
0
the function f (x) .
2
The function f ( x) FS f ( x) . sin sx ds is called the inversion formula for the
0
1
Fourier sine transform and it is denoted by FS FS ( f ( x)) .
1
FOURIER COSINE TRANSFORMS

2
The function FC f ( x) f (t ). cos st dt is called the Fourier Cosine
0
Transform of f (x) .
2
The function f ( x ) FC f ( x) . cos sx ds is called the inversion formula for the
0
1
Fourier Cosine Transform and it is denoted by FC FC ( f ( x)) .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the Fourier Transform of

1 x 2 in x 1
f ( x)
0 in x 1
sin s s cos s s 3
Hence prove that 3
cos ds .
0 s 2 16
Solution:
We know that the Fourier transform of f (x) is given by
1
F f ( x) f ( x).e isx dx
2
1 1
1 isx 1 1
f ( x).e dx f ( x ).e isx dx f ( x ).e isx dx
2 2 1 2 1
1 1
1 1 1
0.e isx dx (1 x 2 ).e isx dx 0.e isx dx
2 2 1 2 1
1
1
(1 x 2 ).e isx dx
2 1
1
1 e isx 2 e isx e isx
(1 x ) ( 2 x) 2 2 2 3 3
2 is i s i s 1
1 2 2 is 2 2 e is
e is e e is
2 s2 is 3 s2 i s3
1 2 2 is
2
(e is e is ) (e e is )
2 s is 3
1 4 4 1 4
2
cos s sin s (sin s s cos s )
2 s s3 2 s3
By using inverse Fourier Transform we get
2
1 1 4 isx
f ( x) . (sin s s cos s ).e ds
2 2 s3
1 4
(sin s s cos s ).(cossx i sin sx ) ds
2 s3
1 4
(sin s s cos s ) cos sx ds
2 s3
1 4
(sin s s cos s ) i sin sx ds
2 s3
The second integral is odd and hence its values is zero.
2 sin s s cos s
f ( x) cos sx ds
s3
4 sin s s cos s
cos sx ds
0 s3
sin s s cos s
i.e., cos sx ds f ( x)
0 s3 4
1
Putting x , we get
2
sin s s cos s s 1 1 3
3
cos ds f 1 .
0 s 2 4 2 4 4 16
sin s s cos s s 3
3
cos ds .
0 s 2 16
x
2. Find the Fourier sine transform of e x , x 0 (or) e , x > 0. Hence evaluate
x sin mx
dx.
0 1 x2
Solution:
The Fourier sine transform of f(x) is given by
2
FS f ( x) f ( x).sin sx dx
0
x x
Here e =e for x > 0
x 2
FS e e x . sin sx dx
0
2 s ax b
2
e sin bx dx 2
s 1 0 a b2
Using inverse Fourier sine transform we get
2 x
f ( x) Fs e . sin sx ds
0
3
2 2 s
. 2
. sin sx ds
0 s 1
2 s
2
sin sx ds
0 s 1
s
i.e., f ( x) 2
. sin sx ds
2 0 s 1
s. sin sx x
i.e., ds e
0 s2 1 2
Replacing x by m we get
s. sin ms m
i.e., ds e
0 s2 1 2
x. sin mx m
i.e., dx e [since s is dummy variable, we can replace it by x]
0 x2 1 2
ax
e
3. Find the Fourier cosine transform of .
x
Solution:
2
We know that FC f ( x ) f ( x). cos sx dx
0
ax
e
Here f ( x) .
x
ax
2 e
FC f ( x) . cos sx dx
0
x
Let FC f ( x ) F ( s)
ax
2 e
Then F (s ) . cos sx dx
0
x
Differentiating on both sides w.r.t. we get,
4
ax
dF ( s ) d 2 e
. cos sx dx
ds ds 0
x
ax
2 e
. cos sx dx
0
s x
ax
2 e 2 ax
( sin sx ).x dx e sin sx dx
0
x 0
dF ( s ) 2 s ax b
. 2 2
e sin bx dx 2
ds a s 0 a b2
2 s
F ( s) . 2
ds
s a2
2 1 1
. . log (s 2 a2 ) . log (s 2 a2)
2 2
ax bx
e e
x
Solution:
We know that the Fourier cosine transform of f(x) is
2
FC f ( x) f ( x ). cos sx dx
0
ax bx
e e
Here f ( x)
x
ax bx ax bx
e e 2 e e
FC . cos sx dx
x 0
x
ax bx
2 e 2 e
. cos sx dx cos sx dx
0
x 0
x
ax bx
e e
Fc Fc
x x
1 1
log ( s 2 a 2 ) log ( s 2 b2 )
2 2
1 s2 b2
log
2 s2 a2
5
as
e
5. Find f (x) , if its sine transform is . Hence deduce that the inverse sine
s
1
transform of .
s
Solution:
We know that the inverse Fourier sine transform of FS f (x) is given by
2
f ( x) FS f ( x ) . sin sx ds
0
as
e
Here FS f ( x)
s
as
2 e
f ( x) . sin sx ds
0
s
as
d f ( x) 2 e
. (sin sx ) ds
dx 0
s x
as
2 e 2 as
. cos sx s ds e . cos sx ds
0
s 0
2 a ax a
2 2
e cos bx dx 2
a x 0 a b2
d f ( x) 2 a
2
dx x a2
2 1 2 1 1 x
f ( x) a 2 2
dx a tan
x a a a
2 1 x
f ( x) tan
a
1
To find the inverse Fourier sine transform of :
s
Put a = 0, in (1), we get
2 2
f ( x) tan 1 ( ) .
2 2
PROPERTIES
1. Linearity Property
If F(s) and G(s) are the Fourier transform of f (x) and g (x) respectively then
F a f ( x) b g ( x) a F ( s) b G( s)
Proof:
6
1
F [ a f ( x) b g ( x )] a f ( x ) b g ( x ) e isx dx
2
1 1
a f ( x).e isx dx b g ( x ).e isx dx
2 2
a b
f ( x).e isx dx g ( x ).e isx dx
2 2
a F ( s) b G( s)
2. Change of Scale Property
1 s
If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then F f ( ax) F ,a 0
a a
Proof:
1
F f (ax) f (ax).e isx dx
2
Put ax = y
dy
a dx = dy i.e., dx =
a
When x , y and x , y
y s
1 is
a
dy 1 1 i
a
y
F f (ax) f ( y ).e . f ( y ).e .dy
2 a a 2
1
F s a
a
3. Shifting Property ( Shifting in x )
If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then F f ( x a) e ias F (s)

Proof:
1
F f ( x a) f ( x a).e isx dx
2
Put x-a = y
dx = dy
1 e ias
F f ( x a) f ( y ).e is ( y a)
. dy f ( y ).e isy .dy
2 2
e ias
f ( x).e isx .dx e isa F ( s )
2
7
4. Shifting in respect of s
If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then F e iax f ( x) F (s a )

Proof:
1
F e iax f ( x) e iax f ( x) e isx dx
2
1
f ( x).e i ( s a) x
dx F (s a)
2
5. Modulation Theorem
1
If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then F f ( x) cos ax F ( s a) F (s a)
2
Proof:
1
F f ( x) cos ax f ( x). cos ax.e isx dx
2
1 e iax e iax
f ( x).e isx dx
2 2
1 1 1 1
. f ( x ).e i ( s a) x
dx . f ( x).e i ( s a)x
dx
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
f (s a ) f ( s a) f (s a) f (s a )
2 2 2
1
F f ( x) cos ax F ( s a) F (s a)
2
COROLLARIES
1
(i ) FC f ( x ) cos ax FC ( s a) FC (s a )
2
1
(ii) FC f ( x) sin ax FS (a s ) FS (a s)
2
1
(iii) FS f ( x) cos ax FS ( s a) FS ( s a)
2
1
(iv) FS f ( x ) sin ax FC ( s a) FC ( s a)
2
6. Conjugate Symmetry Property
If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then F f ( x ) F ( s)

Proof:
1
We know that F ( s ) f ( x ). e isx dx
2
8
Taking complex conjugate on both sides we get

1
F (s) f ( x). e isx dx
2
Put x = -y
dx = -dy
1
F (s) f ( y ) .e isy ( dy)
2
1
f ( y ). e isy dy
2
1
f ( x ). e isx dx F f ( x)
2
7. Transform of Derivatives
If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) and if f (x) is continuous, f (x) is piecewise
continuously differentiable, f (x) and f (x) are absolutely integrable in ( , ) and
lim f ( x) 0 , then
x
F f ( x) is F ( s)
Proof:
By the first three conditions given, F f (x) and F f (x ) exist.
1
F f ( x) f ( x ) e isx dx
2
1 is
e isx f ( x) e isx f ( x)dx, on int egrating by parts.
2 2
0 isF f ( x ) , by the given condition.
is F ( s ).
The theorem can be extended as follows.
If f , f , f , , f ( n 1) are continuous, f (n ) is piecewise continuous, f , f , f , ,f (n)
are absolutely integrable in ( , ) and f , f , f , , f ( n 1) 0 as x , then
F f ( n ) ( x) ( is) n F ( s )
8. Derivatives of the Transform
dF ( s )
If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then F x. f ( x ) ( i)
ds
9
Proof:
1
F ( s) f ( x)e isx dx
2
dF ( s ) 1 d
f ( x)e isx dx
ds 2 ds
i
x. f ( x) e isx dx iF xf ( x)
2
dF ( s )
( i) F x. f ( x)
ds
n d n F (s)
n
Extending, we get, F x . f ( x ) ( i)
ds n
DEFINITION
1
f ( x u ) g (u )du is called the convolution product or simply the convolution
2
of the functions f (x) and g (x) and is denoted by f ( x) * g ( x) .
9. Convolution Theorem
If F(s) and G(s) are the Fourier transform of f (x) and g (x) respectively then the
Fourier transform of the convolution of f(x) and g(x) is the product of their Fourier
transforms.
i.e., F f ( x) * g ( x) F ( s).G( s)
Proof
1
F f ( x) * g ( x) f ( x ) * g ( x)e isx dx
2
1 1
f ( x u ) g (u )du e isx dx
2 2
1 1
g (u ) f ( x u )e isx dx du,
2 2
on changing the order of int egration.
1
g (u ) e ius F ( s ) du, by the shifting property.
2
1
F ( s ). g (u ).e ius du
2
F ( s ).G ( s )
Inverting, we get
10
1
F F ( s ).G ( s ) f ( x) * g ( x)
1 1
F F ( s) * F G( s)
PROBLEMS
dx
1. Evaluate 2
using transforms.
0 (x a )(x 2
2
b2)
Solution:
ax 2 a
We know that the Fourier cosine transform of f ( x) e is . 2
.
s a2
ax 2 b
Similarly the Fourier cosine transform of f ( x) e is . 2
.
s b2
We know that FC f ( x) .FC g ( x ) ds f ( x ).g ( x) dx

0 0
2 a 2 b ax bx
i.e., . 2 2
. . 2
. ds e .e dx
0 s a s b2 0
2 ab (a b) x
i.e., 2
ds e ds
0 (s a )(s 2
2
b2 ) 0
e (a b) x 1 1
0
( a b) 0
( a b) a b
dx
i.e., 2
0 (x a )( x 2
2
b2) 2ab(a b)
ax
2. Find the Fourier transform of e and hence deduce that
cos xt ax
(i) 2 2
dt e
0 a t 2a
ax 2 2as
(ii) F xe i
(s a 2 ) 2
2
Solution:
11
1
F f ( x) f ( x ).e isx dx
2
0
1
f ( x )e isx dx f ( x )e isx dx
2 0
ax
e if 0 x
Here f ( x) ax
e if x 0
0
1
e. ax e isx dx e ax
.e isx dx
2 0
0
1
e.( a is ) x
dx e ( a is ) x
dx
2 0
0
1 e ( a is ) x e ( a is ) x
2 (a is) (a is) 0
1 1 1
2 a is a is
ax 2 a
Fe 2
s a2
Using inversion formula, we get
1 2 a isx
f ( x) . 2 2
e ds
2 s a
a cos sx i sin sx
ds
s2 a2
a cos x
ds
s2 a2
cos sx ax
dx f ( x) .e (or )
0 s2 a2 2a 2a
costx ax
dt .e
0
s2 a2 2a
12
Putting a = 1, we get,
x 2 1
Fe . 2
s 1
cos sx x costx x
and 2
ds e (or ) 2
dt e
0 s 1 2 0 t 1 2
FINITE FOURIER TRANSFORMS
If f (x) is a function defined in the interval (0 , l) then the finite Fourier sine
transform of f (x) in 0 <x < l is defined as
l
n x
FS f ( x) f ( x ).sin dx
0
l
The inverse finite Fourier sine transform of FS f (x ) is f (x) and is given by

2 n x
f ( x) FS f ( x) sin
l n 1 l
The finite Fourier cosine transform of f (x) in 0 < x < l is defined as

l
n x
FC f ( x ) f ( x). cos dx
0
l
The inverse finite Fourier cosine transform of FC f (x) is f (x) and is given by
1 2 n x
f ( x) FC (0) FC f ( x) cos
l l n 1 l
PROBLEMS
1. Find the finite Fourier sine and cosine transforms of f ( x) x 2 in 0 < x < l.
Solution:
The finite Fourier sine transform is
l
n x
FS f ( x ) f ( x). sin dx
0
l
2
Here f ( x) x
13
l
2 n x
FS x x 2 . sin dx
0
l
l
n x n x n x
cos sin cos
x2 l 2x l 2 l
2 2 3 3
n n n
l l2 l3 0
l3 2l 3 2l 3
cos n cos n
n n3 3 n3 3
l3 2l 3
( 1) n 1
3 3
( 1) n 1
n n
The finite Fourier cosine transform is

l
n x
FC f ( x) f ( x ). cos dx
0
l
2
Here f ( x) x
l
n x
FC x 2 x 2 . cos dx
0
l
l
n x n x n x
sin cos sin
x2 l 2x l 2 l
2 2 3 3
n n n
l l2 l3 0
2l 3
cos n
n2 2
2l 3
2 2
( 1) n
n
2. Find the finite Fourier sine and cosine transforms of f ( x) x in (0 , ) .
Solution:
The finite Fourier sine transform of f ( x) x in (0 , ) is
FS f ( x) f ( x ).sin nx dx
0
Here f ( x) x in (0 , )
14
cos nx sin nx
FS x x. sin nx dx x 1
0
n n2 0
cos n ( 1) n 1 .
n n
The finite Fourier cosine transform of f ( x) x in (0 , ) is
FC f ( x ) f ( x). cos nx dx
0
Here f ( x) x in (0 , )
sin nx cos nx
FC x x. cos nx dx x 1
0
n n2 0
1 1 1
cos n ( 1) n 1
n2 n2 n 2
2 ( 1) p 1
3. Find f (x) if its finite sine transform is given by , where p is positive
p3
integer and 0 x .
Solution:
We know that the inverse Fourier sine transform is given by
2
f ( x) FS f ( x ) sin px
p 1
2 ( 1) p 1
Here FS f (x ) =
p3
Substituting (2) in (1), we get

2 2 ( 1) p 1
f ( x) sin px
p 1 p3
( 1) p 1
4 sin px
p 1 p3
2p
cos
3 1
4. If f ( p) find FC f ( p) if 0 < x <1.
(2 p 1) 2
Solution:
1 1 2 n x
We know that FC f ( p) FC ( 0) FC f ( x) cos
l l n 1 l
2p
cos
3
Here f ( p)
(2 p 1) 2
15
Let FC f ( x) f ( p)
1 1 2 n x
FC f ( p) f C ( 0) f ( p) cos l 1
l l n 1 l
2p
cos
3
1 2 . cos n x
n 1 (2 p 1) 2
16
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. State the Fourier integral theorem.

Ans:
If f (x) is a given function defined in (-l , l) and
1
f ( x) f (t ) cos (t x ) dt d
0
2. State the convolution theorem of the Fourier transform.

Ans:
If F(s) and G(s) are the Fourier transform of f (x) and g (x) respectively then the
Fourier transform of the convolution of f(x) and g(x) is the product of their Fourier
transforms.
i.e., F f ( x) * g ( x) F ( s).G( s)
3. Write the Fourier transform pair.

Ans:
F f (x) and F 1 F ( S ) are Fourier transform pairs.
ax
4. Find the Fourier sine transform of f ( x ) e (a > 0).
Ans:
2
FS f ( x) f ( x). sin sx dx
0
2 ax 2 s ax b
e . sin sx dx 2 2
e sin bx dx 2
0
s a 0
a b2
2 s
2
s a2
5. If the Fourier transform of f (x) is F(s) then prove that . F f ( x a) eisa F (s)
Ans:
1
F f ( x a) f ( x a).e isx dx
2
Put x-a = y
dx = dy
1 e ias
F f ( x a) f ( y ).e is ( y a)
. dy f ( y ).e isy .dy
2 2
e ias
f ( x).e isx .dx e isa F ( s )
2
6. State the Fourier transforms of the derivatives of a function.

Ans:
F f ( n ) ( x) ( is) n F ( s )
7. Find the Fourier sine transform of f ( x ) e x .

Ans:
17
2
FS f ( x) f ( x). sin sx dx
0
x x
Here e e for x > 0
2 2 s b
e x . sin sx dx 2
e ax
sin bx dx 2
0
s 1 0
a b2
2 s
2
s 1
1 s
8. Prove that FC f ( ax) FC ,a 0
a a
Proof:
2
FC f (ax) f (ax). cos sx dx
0
Put ax = y
dy
a
When x 0, y 0 and x , y
2 sy dy 1 2 s
FC f (ax) f ( y ). cos . f ( x). cos x.dx
0
a a a 0
a
1
FC s a
a
dF ( s )
9. If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then prove that F x. f ( x) ( i)
ds
Proof:
1
F ( s) f ( x)e isx dx
2
dF ( s ) 1 d
f ( x)e isx dx
ds 2 ds
i
x. f ( x) e isx dx iF xf ( x)
2
dF ( s )
( i) F x. f ( x )
ds
10. Find the Fourier sine transform of f ( x) e ax

Ans:
2
FS f ( x) f ( x ). sin sx dx
0
2 2 s b
e ax . sin sx dx 2 2
e ax
sin bx dx 2
0
s a 0
a b2
18
2 s
2
s a2
1
11. Find Fourier sine transform of
x
Ans:
2
FS f ( x) f ( x ). sin sx dx
0
2 1
.sin sx dx
0
x
2 sin ax
dx ,a 0
2 2 0
x 2
x
12. Find Fourier cosine transform of f ( x) e
Ans:
2
FC f ( x) f ( x ). sin sx dx
0
2 2 1
e x . cos sx dx 2
0
s 1
2 1 ax a
e cosbx dx 2
s 2
1 0
a b2
1
13. If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then FS f ( x) cos ax FS ( s a) FS ( s a)
2
Proof:
2
FS f ( x ) cos ax f ( x ). cos ax. sin sx.dx
2 1
. f ( x) sin(a s ) x sin(a s ) x dx
2
1 2 1 2
. f ( x) sin(a s) x.dx . f ( x).sin(a s) x.dx
2 2
1
FS f ( x) cosax FS ( s a) FS ( s a)
2
1
14. If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then F f ( x) cos ax F ( s a) F ( s a)
2
Proof:
1
F f ( x) cos ax f ( x). cos ax.e isx dx
2
19
1 e iax e iax
f ( x).e isx dx
2 2
1 1 1 1
. f ( x ).e i ( s a) x
dx . f ( x).e i ( s a)x
dx
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
f (s a ) f ( s a) f (s a) f (s a )
2 2 2
1
F f ( x) cos ax F ( s a) F (s a)
2
1 s
15. If F(s) is the Fourier transform of f (x) then F f ( ax) F ,a 0
a a
Proof:
1
F f (ax) f (ax).e isx dx
2
Put ax = y
dy
a
y s
1 is
a
dy 1 1 i
a
y
F f (ax) f ( y ).e . f ( y ).e .dy
2 a a 2
1
F s a
a
PROBLEMS
1. Find the Fourier Transform of
1 x 2 in x 1
f ( x)
0 in x 1
sin s s cos s s 3
Hence prove that 3
cos ds .
0
s 2 16
20
ax
e
x
3. Find the Fourier Transform of f (x) if

1 x, x 1
f ( x)
0, x 1
4
sin t
Hence deduce that dt
0
t 3
dx
4. Evaluate 2
using transforms
0 (x a )(x 2
2
b2 )
ax
cos xt ax
(i) 2 2
dt e
0 a t 2a
ax 2 2as
(ii) F xe i
(s a 2 ) 2
2
a2 x2 x a
6. Show that the Fourier transform of f ( x) is
0 x a 0
1, x 1
7. . Find the Fourier transform of f (x) if f ( x)
0, otherwise
sin x sin 2 x
Hence deduce that dx dx
0
x 0
x2 2
8. Find the Fourier sine transform of

sin x, 0 x a
f ( x)
0, a x
4x
cos2 x x sin 2 x
(i) dx e8 (ii) dx e 8
0
x 2
16 8 0
x 2 16 2
11. State and prove convolution theorem for Fourier transforms.
a2 x 2
12. Find the Fourier cosine transform of e
x2
13. (i) Find the Fourier cosine transform of e
(ii) Find the Fourier sine transform of
x, 0 x 1
f ( x) 2 x, 1 x 2
0 x 2
21
14. Find Fourier sine and cosine transform of e x and hence find the Fourier sine transform
x 1
of 2 and Fourier cosine transform of 2 .
x 1 x 1
22

Interpolation is the process of finding a function whose graph passes thr      
                  
                
experimentation, and tries to construct a function which closely fits those da    
curve fitting or regression analysis. Interpolation is a specific case of curve fitting, in which the
       
   
                          
                       
                 
. In following subsection, we discuss three types of finite differences:
  
  
  
                             
           first differences      
     respectively. In general, first forward differences are given by
   
       . Further second forward differences are defined
as the differences of the first differences. i.e.,
        
 
    
 
           
     
       
 
    
 
   
      
          
      
   
 
                      
called the first backward differences. Here,         
 
    
     
   
       
                      
              


     
 
 
    
 
   
      
           

      
   
 
 
   
 
   
     

       
  
     

   
 
    
                  
      
  

               is defined as
       


      
                 
    
                  
       
        
   


The differential coefficient of                

                  
        
   

      and is defined as

       
   
   
                
           
 
      

  
     

  
      

        

   
 

   
  
 
          


  
       

  
 
  
       
   
 
        
 
              


 
         

   
              
 

  
               

 
    

  
        

 
   
 
                   8. find the value od  

  
     
            
   
             
        
           
 
 
        


            

 
       
 
 
        
  
 
        
  
 
             
  
  
                
    
 
           
  
  
        
 
    
  
            
 
               
             
 
      
     
Then first forward difference is
         
        
           
     
     
                  
      
          
         

From above result, it is obvious that the first difference of polynomial o     
               
                 
  
    
                 
      
 

      

 By definition of forward difference we have
         
         
   
  
     
    
      
                
        
 
   
       

       
      
      
           

           
     
     
and find values of       

          
 
  

  
  
    
  
        
    

  
                
  
        
        
  
         

  
     
 

   
                  

    
         
   
           
         
       
 
     

        

 
     
     
   
           


 
                
 Obtain the first term of the series whose second and subsequent terms a     
             and assuming the fifth order differences to be constant, prove

     
  

 
                  
 Find the function whose first difference is 
       
  
            
  
          

       for which fifth differences are constant and         
        
  
 
    
           

     

       
    
          
     
 
 

      
   

   
 
   
            
 
                 
       
       
          
                
    

    
   
   
  
  
 
 


        

       
  
      
 
     

    
    
 
Obatain the function whose first difference is 9    
         
        
        
                    
 
          
   
        

        
            
                
     
 
         
 
          
       
      

                    
                  
        
 Obtain the function whose first difference is 9    
            

                  
    
    
      
      
      
    
 
          
       

       
 Since five figures are known, assume all the fifth order differences a   
figures are unknown, we need two equations to determine them -

        
           
   
                 
     
         

         
 
    
   
     
      
                

                 
                 

            
       

       
         
     
      
         
        
         
   
                              
                            
    
      , we have defined   
        
 
           
     
          
 
  
 
     
             
 
                   
       

               
 
   
 
Using Newton’s forward interpolation formula,find the area of a circle of   
         
     
       
       
        
 

  
 
   
 
  

 
    
    
  
      
      

          
 
    
  

    
        
 
   
 

      
 
 
        
    
     
      
      
 

  
 
  

 
                  
 
 

     
      

          
 
    
        
 
      
             
 
              

       

       
Use Newton’s forward difference interpolation formula to find.
          
             
       
   
   
   
   
   
   
     
         

  
 

  
 
   
 
  

 
                 
   
First, we find the number of students who got less than 55 marks.
    
     

          
 
    
  


      

 
 

  
 

   
                   
  
                
    
   
    
 

 
  

    
     

          
 
    
  

      
         
 
    
    

  
        

        
     
 
        
           
  
  
               
      

          
    

    
 From the following table, find the value of 
     

     
             
         
     
       
               
     

       
          
    
     
                
        
     

    
                 

               

                        
         
                
      
       

       
Use Newton’s forward formula to find      

            in a life table, find as accurately as the
                        
  
      
      
     
             
    
    
     
                   
term. Find the first and tenth terms of the series.
       
       
   
                              
                            
    
      , we have defined   
        
 


            
 
         
          
 
  
 
        
            
 
                   
         

              
 
       
 
                 
   
      

      
       

    
     
 

  
 
   
 
  

 
                
         

             
 
    
    
    
 
  
   
        

             
     
 

      

 
    
 
             

    
      
       
     

 
             

      

      
     
              
 
     

       
          

 Using Newton’s backward difference formula, find the value of     
      
     

      
           
      
       
              
          
     
       
    
              
         
   
     
  

                             
           
       
          

          
        
           

   
           
  
 
      
   
           
  
 
      

  
 
      
       
      
     
      
      
     
      
       
   
       

             
                
  

       
 

   
                   
   


  
       

 
    


            
                
  


   
               



       

              

           
           
         

           
           
          
            


   
         

 
      is tabulated below: Using the Lagrange’s interpolation formula, find the
   
   
   

  
       
    
        
 
              
interpolation coefficients are required to be recalculated. This labour of r   
          
            , ... be given points, then the first divided difference for the argume
          defined as
 
    
 
                

          is defined as
       
      
 
            is defined as
           
        
 
  
            
 
          
   
             
       
 
              
                  
  
     
  
            
          
     
  

 
      

                  
    
    

                        
from the definition of divided differences,we have
 
   
 
 
         

      
     
 
 
               
         
                   

          
       
 
 
                     
          
                                  
    
                       

                
             
         
 
Using the following table find       
     
      
     
          
 

  
 
   
 
  

 
     
                       
  
    
 
  
     
     
         


   

              

              
              
         

     
         
         
   
         
         
       
         
     
       

 

  
 
  
 
  

 
          
                  

        

                     
         
 Using divided difference, find the value of               

 Find a polynomial satisfied by                
      
 Using the following table, find    
      
       
Also find         

          
    
    
                  find the value of
      
              
   
                       
         
       
                   
                
             
                   
         
     
          
 
      
 Apply Lagrange’s formula to find                  
                  
 
              

                  

 Applying Lagrange’s formula, find a cubic polynomial which approxima  
 
    
    
                  
  
 
The curve fitting process fits the equation of approximating curves to the raw field data. Nevertheless,
for a given set of data, the fitting curves of a given type are generally N    
         
     
    The curve of best fit is that for which the sum of squares of the residua
 
The method of least squares assumes that the best-fit curve of a give      
               
                           be fitted to
               and the corresponding value on the fitting
                   
      
     


       
                     
the best fitting of the curve to the data.
     

                   be the straight line to be fitted.
   
          
             
  
 
         


       
      

          

        
        
                
              
 For the sake of simplicity leave suffix notation to obtain the following form of no

    
    
 
      
    
    
             
    
    
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
    
    
    
 
     
Hence the fitted straight line is
   
 
        

      
      
                      
                   
                 

 



   
      
    
    
       
         
 
       
     
     
     
     
     
     
            
         
          
      
       
           

 
      

 
     

              
      
      
                fit the given data
     
     
             
   . The maximum deflection           
        
      

      
                 
            
         
         
                  
           
          
          
                        
  
            . By means of a pulley block, find a linear law of the
firm           
    
    
        
   

The applications of the method of least squares curve fitting using polynomials are briefly discussed
           
              
                       . The best fitting curve
       
       

               
  

Equating as straight line case, the first partial derivatives with respect          
simplifying, we get the following normal equations (we ignored suffix 
          

          

           

                       
In particular, for fitting of a parabola            
      
      
       
 
                
     
     
    
       
      
      
      
      
      
       
          
      
      
       
     
      

      
      
 
       
Hence the fitted parabola is
    
 
               
       

       

          
 
    

               
           
             
              
   
 
          
        

        
        
        
        
        
        
                          
                  
      
      
      
    
        

Hence , the curve of best fit is
      

     
    
        
 
    

              
     
     
             
     
     
 The profit of certain company in the        
     
     
                        
                       
                
            
      
      
                 ; find          

    
            
       


    
            
This is equivalent to straight line fitting. Compute       
    
    


         
    
            
        


    
            
This is equivalent to straight line fitting. Compute       
    
     

     
 
Find the curve of fit of the type       
     
     
 The curve to be fitted is                 
         
   
    
    
   
       
    
    
    
    
    
           
       
    
    

 
     

           
        
 
         which is best fit to the following data according to
    
      
      

The curve to be fitted is
  
    
    
                         
         
     
     
     
     
     
     
               
           
    
    

    
     
              
   
 
                
  
      
      
        

     
 
  
       
 
     
    

 
           
    
      
          
          
     
     
     
     
     
                
          
    
    

    
     
 
   



 
   
    
    
    
    
, , …,

      


  
                
   

      
    
 

       

                        

   

 
        


             


            

 

  

 
  
       
  

         

   



       
     





   


             




           







   


   
        

 

        
     
 





 

 

         
  

         

   



       
  
 
  

   
 
 
  
           
 


   

       

    
 

     

         

           

 
   


    

                
  


              
 
         


      

              
 
  
               

       
 
  
     
 
     
  
  
    
   




 


             






 

 

 

             

  

    


 





  


                 
 

 

  
              
   

  
         

  

  
         

  
 
    
 


 

 
 
 

   
 
 
     
 

 
           
 

    
  
  

 
                


        

       

   
  

    
    
 
 
   
      
 

 
  
         


    
  



            
  



               

 

   
      
           
 

     
     
                
     

                


       

   

         


   

         


  

         
 



                        




                        
 


                       
 


                
 

   

  
   
  
           
  
  
   
  
       


  
      

  


 

  
 
  
         
                
 
 
               
     
   
  
 
  
           

       
    
                   

           
                   
    
    
          

    
 
  
  
  
        
     
       
        
         
                
                    

                    
      
                
           
                   
       
           
   
  
 
  
 
 
 

 

     

 
     
           
           
  
               
    

            
          
             
       
          
 
   
   
    
 
     
  
      
 
     
           
           
  
   
    
     
                  
                   
 
  
 
   
        
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
      
 
 
 
 
 
                  
   
       
    
      
    
          

   

 
 
     
     
        
  
 
 
  
    
          

                 
  
        
         
           
          
             
              
             
                
 
          
 
 
    
    
            

                 
    
              
 
                 
                  

    

  


     


        


         


          


        

        
        
         
 
 
       
  

           


          


         

           

     


 
   
 

     


    

   
  
 

          

   

              


                

              
           

                  

  
     
    
               
 
           
  
             

  
          

 
     

  

     

 
     

  
  
       
 
 
     

 
    


  
     
 
     
    
  
     
        
  
 
 
 

    

    
                

       


 
       
 
 
     
 

  
      
  
 
     
 

    

  
     
  

  

 
     
 

      

  
      
  
 
  
 
 
   
 
  
     
 
 
     
 
      
 
  
               
             

        
      


               


    

  

     

   

      

   

       

 
  
 

      

 
    
 
  
       
  
    
 
    
    
 
    
  
  
 
              
 

   
   

  
  
  

  

 
  
 
  

   
 
   
  
    
     

          
 
  
      

            
 
 
  

   

 
 

  
 

 
    


 
  

   
    




    
  
 
            
       
  
      

  
  

 
   


   


   
 

   
 
           

              

            
      

       
 
     
         
   
  

 
   
 

     


    

         
        
     
   

    

         
     
         
      
                      
            

       

              
                   
        
       
          
         
           
           
          
           
        
        
        
 
             
                   
    

       
         
        

          
          

          
          
        
        
  
      
 
                  
   
 
 
                   
      
         
  
  
   
 
           
     

 

 

         

  
       
  
        
 
       
 
           

          


        


           

         
         
        
        

         

        
        
        

       

 
         
 
   

     

  
                  
 

   

       
  
      
         
          
              
 

        


    

              
 

        


   

 
  
                  
 

 
        
     
              
 

     



              
 

     



 
   
  

       

           
           
              
 

     


              
 

     


              
 

     


   
Solve the initial value problems by modified Euler's method


         

  
       
  

   
  
 
      

     
         
  
   
    
      

     
  
   

    

              
       
  
          
            

     
  
        
                
 
        
  
        
                
 
        
 
     
       
 
             
   
 
 
                   
      
          
               

                     
 

          

     
 
         
  
  

         

  
       
  
        

        

           

          


        


           

         
         
     
        
        
        
       


     

   
 
         
  

      

      

      
              
  
   
      
 
         
 
    
  
 
        

        
 

     

  
              
       
  
     
          

    

   

        



    

   

        



            

         
 
     
        

      


    

       
 
    

    
    

       
 

       

     
        

       


     

       


    

    
     

       
 

  

      


        

              
       
  
     
         

  
    
  
     


  
    
   
     


           

         
 
     
       


    

     

    

     

    
    

       
 

       

  
     
        

    

     
 
    

          
    

       
 

      


  
     

        

 
 

            

        
 
   
       
 
             
   
 
 
                   
        
     
        
 
    
   
         
    
 
    
  
 
        
    
        
        
    

        
 
       
        
    
      

  

         


        


         

       

         

           
  
       
  

        

   

   
    
   
    
     

     
  
  
      
     

     

  
     
 
  
   
  
  
   
  

    

    
     
    
    
    
    
       
       
       
     
     
  
           
  
  
  
  
  

  
         

 


    

 
    
    
    
    
    

    

      
 

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  

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    
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  
    
    
    

 

  
   
  
 
     
     
     
    
    
    
       
      
      
   
     
  
           
  
  
  
  
  

  
        

  


    

  
   
  
  
   
  
     
 

 

 
   
 
   
    
     

 

 

 

  
  
   
          


 


 

 
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  
  
  
   
   
 
 
 
  
   
  

  

    

     
    

Mathematics - II

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Course : ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS -II

After going through this unit, you will be able to

Vector algebra deals with addition, subtraction and multiplication of

Scalar Triple Vector:

Scalar triple product of three vectors is defined as a. b c or a b c .

abc = bca = cab

Vector Triple Product:

Vector triple product of a b and c is cross product of a and b c i.e.

a b c or cross product of a b and c

Remark : Vector triple product is not associative in general

5.2 VECTORS DIFFERENTIATION

Let v be a vector function of a scalar t. Let v be the small increment in

Taking limit t 0 we get,

Formulas of vector differentiation:

(v) If v v1i + v2 j + v3k

Again differentiating eqn

Example 3. Evaluate the following:

Check your progress:

5.3 VECTOR OPERATOR

The vector differential operator is defined as =i j k .

The gradient of a scalar function is denoted by grad or and is

defined as =i +j +k . Note that grad is a vector

5.3.2 Geometric meaning of gradient:

The grad is a vector right angled to the surface, whose equation is

Hence for r = x i + y j + z k any point on surface . dr = 0

i.e. at is right angles to d r and dr lies on the tangent plane to the

Geometrically represents a vector normal to the surface x, y, z =

Example 8: Find grad , where = x 2 y3 ez

Example 9: If r xi yj zk find grad r

Example 11: If 2x3 y y2z find grad at (1, -1, 2)

At (1, -1, and 2)

Example 13: Find grad r n

Example 14: Find grad log x 2 y2 z2

= 2 i ( log r)+ j ( log r)+ k ( log r)

Check your progress:

Find grad at (3, 2, -1)

(3) Show that grad r3 -3 r 5

(4) If F x, y, z x2 y2 + z2 Find F at (1, 1, 1)

(5) Show that f r r 0 where r xi + yj + zk

(6) Find unit vector normal to the surface x 2 y2 z2 3a 2 at (a, a, a)

[Hint :- Unit vector normal to surface i.e. ]

If v (x, y, z) = v1i + v2 j + v3 k can be defined and differentiated at each

Example 16 If F = x 2 y2 i + 2xyj + y2 2xy k , find F

Example 17 Show that div r = 3 where r = xi + y j +z k

Example 18 For r = xi + y j +z k show that div r n r = (n+3) r n

Solution: L.H.S. div r n r = . rn r

Example 19 Evaluate div r where r = xi + y j +z k

Example 20 If F = x 2 y3 z4 Find div (grad F)

Example 21 Find the value of div a r r n where a is a constant

5.3.4 Solenoidal Function: A vector function F is called Solenoidal if

5.3.5 Curl: The curl of a vector point function F is defined as curl

i.e. if w = w1i + w 2 j +w3k be the angular velocity of any particle of the

5.3.6 Irrotational field:

A vector point function F is called irrotational if F 0 at all points of the

Example 22 Find curl (curl F ) If F = x 2 y i -2 x z j 2 y z k at (1, 0, 2)

curl curl (F) = 2z + 2x i + 0j + 2z x 2 k

Example 23 Find curl V if V = x 2 + yz i + y2 +2x j z 2 +xy k

i z 2 +xy y 2 +2x - j z 2 +xy y 2 +yz

Example 24 Evaluate curl r where if r = xi + yj zk

Example 25 If F = x 2 y i + xzj 2yzk find div (curl F )

Example 27 If F = grad xy + yz zx , find (curl F ).