Ancient Egyptian religion

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Ancient Egyptian religion

Beliefs

 Duat
 Ma'at
 Mythology
 Numerology
 Philosophy
 Soul

Practices

 Funerals
 Offering formula
 Temples

Deities

 Amun
 Amunet
 Anhur
 Anubis
 Anuket

 Apep
 Apis
  Aten
 Atum
 Bastet

 Bat
 Bes
 Four sons of Horus

 Geb
 Hapy
 Hathor
 Heka
 Hemsut

 Heqet
 Horus
 Isis
 Kek
 Khepri

 Khnum
 Khonsu
 Maahes
 Ma'at

 Mafdet
 Mehit
 Menhit
 Meretseger

 Meskhenet
 Monthu
 Min
 Mnevis

 Mut
 Neith
 Nekhbet
  Nephthys

 Nu
 Nut
 Osiris
 Pakhet
 Ptah

 Qebui
 Ra
 Ra-Horakhty
 Raet-Tawy

 Reshep
 Satis
 Sekhmet
 Seker
 Selket

 Sobek
 Sopdu
 Set
 Seshat
 Shu

 Tatenen
 Taweret
 Tefnut
 Thoth

 Wadjet
 Wadj-wer
 Wepwawet

 Wosret

Texts

 Amduat
  Books of Breathing

 Book of Caverns
 Book of the Dead

 Book of the Earth

 Book of Gates

 Book of the Netherworld

Related religions

 Atenism
 Hermeticism
 Kemeticism

Ancient Egypt portal

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Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals which were
an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. It centered on the Egyptians' interaction with many
deities who were believed to be present in, and in control of, the forces of nature. Rituals such as
prayers and offerings were efforts to provide for the gods and gain their favor. Formal religious
practice centered on the pharaoh, the king of Egypt, who was believed to possess a divine power
by virtue of his position. He acted as the intermediary between his people and the gods and was
obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain order in the
universe. The state dedicated enormous resources to Egyptian rituals and to the construction of
the temples.

Individuals could interact with the gods for their own purposes, appealing for their help through
prayer or compelling them to act through magic. These practices were distinct from, but closely
linked with, the formal rituals and institutions. The popular religious tradition grew more
prominent in the course of Egyptian history as the status of the Pharaoh declined. Another
important aspect was the belief in the afterlife and funerary practices. The Egyptians made great
efforts to ensure the survival of their souls after death, providing tombs, grave goods, and
offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the deceased.
The religion had its roots in Egypt's prehistory and lasted for more than 3,000 years. The details
of religious belief changed over time as the importance of particular gods rose and declined, and
their intricate relationships shifted. At various times, certain gods became preeminent over the
others, including the sun god Ra, the creator god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis. For a brief
period, in the theology promulgated by the Pharaoh Akhenaten, a single god, the Aten, replaced
the traditional pantheon. Ancient Egyptian religion and mythology left behind many writings and
monuments, along with significant influences on ancient and modern cultures.

Contents
 1 Theology
o 1.1 Deities
o 1.2 Associations between deities
o 1.3 Unifying tendencies
o 1.4 Atenism
 2 Other important concepts
o 2.1 Cosmology
o 2.2 Divine pharaoh
o 2.3 Afterlife
o 2.4 Judgment
 3 Writings
o 3.1 Mythology
o 3.2 Ritual and magical texts
o 3.3 Hymns and prayers
o 3.4 Funerary texts
 4 Practices
o 4.1 Temples
o 4.2 Official rituals and festivals
o 4.3 Animal cults
o 4.4 Oracles
o 4.5 Popular religion
o 4.6 Magic
o 4.7 Funerary practices
 5 History
o 5.1 Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods
o 5.2 Old and Middle Kingdoms
o 5.3 New Kingdom
o 5.4 Later periods
o 5.5 Legacy
 5.5.1 Modern times
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 Bibliography
 9 Further reading
 10 External links
Theology
The beliefs and rituals now referred to as "ancient Egyptian religion" were integral within every
aspect of Egyptian culture. Their language possessed no single term corresponding to the modern
European concept of religion. Ancient Egyptian religion was not a monolithic institution, but
consisted of a vast and varying set of beliefs and practices, linked by their common focus on the
interaction between the world of humans and the world of the divine. The characteristics of the
gods who populated the divine realm were inextricably linked to the Egyptians understanding of
the properties of the world in which they lived.[1]

Deities

Main article: Ancient Egyptian deities

The gods Osiris, Anubis, and Horus, in order from left to right

The Egyptians believed that the phenomena of nature were divine forces in and of themselves.[2]
These deified forces included the elements, animal characteristics, or abstract forces. The
Egyptians believed in a pantheon of gods, which were involved in all aspects of nature and
human society. Their religious practices were efforts to sustain and placate these phenomena and
turn them to human advantage.[3] This polytheistic system was very complex, as some deities
were believed to exist in many different manifestations, and some had multiple mythological
roles. Conversely, many natural forces, such as the sun, were associated with multiple deities.
The diverse pantheon ranged from gods with vital roles in the universe to minor deities or
"demons" with very limited or localized functions.[4] It could include gods adopted from foreign
cultures, and sometimes humans: deceased Pharaohs were believed to be divine, and
occasionally, distinguished commoners such as Imhotep also became deified.[5]

The depictions of the gods in art were not meant as literal representations of how the gods might
appear if they were visible, as the gods' true natures were believed to be mysterious. Instead,
these depictions gave recognizable forms to the abstract deities by using symbolic imagery to
indicate each god's role in nature.[6] Thus, for example, the funerary god Anubis was portrayed as
a jackal, a creature whose scavenging habits threatened the preservation of the body, in an effort
to counter this threat and employ it for protection. His black skin was symbolic of the color of
mummified flesh and the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection. This
iconography was not fixed, and many of the gods could be depicted in more than one form.[7]

Many gods were associated with particular regions in Egypt where their cults were most
important. However, these associations changed over time, and they did not mean that the god
associated with a place had originated there. For instance, the god Monthu was the original
patron of the city of Thebes. Over the course of the Middle Kingdom, however, he was displaced
in that role by Amun, who may have arisen elsewhere. The national popularity and importance of
individual gods fluctuated in a similar way.[8]

Amun-Ra kamutef, wearing the plumed headdress of Amun and the sun disk representing Ra

Associations between deities

The Egyptian gods had complex interrelationships, which partly reflected the interaction of the
forces they represented. The Egyptians often grouped gods together to reflect these relationships.
Some groups of deities were of indeterminate size, and were linked by their similar functions.
These often consisted of minor deities with little individual identity. Other combinations linked
independent deities based on the symbolic meaning of numbers in Egyptian mythology; for
instance, pairs of deities usually represent the duality of opposite phenomena. One of the more
common combinations was a family triad consisting of a father, mother, and child, who were
worshipped together. Some groups had wide-ranging importance. One such group, the Ennead,
assembled nine deities into a theological system that was involved in the mythological areas of
creation, kingship, and the afterlife.[9]

The relationships between deities could also be expressed in the process of syncretism, in which
two or more different gods were linked to form a composite deity. This process was a
recognition of the presence of one god "in" another when the second god took on a role
belonging to the first. These links between deities were fluid, and did not represent the
permanent merging of two gods into one; therefore, some gods could develop multiple syncretic
connections.[10] Sometimes, syncretism combined deities with very similar characteristics. At
other times it joined gods with very different natures, as when Amun, the god of hidden power,
was linked with Ra, the god of the sun. The resulting god, Amun-Ra, thus united the power that
lay behind all things with the greatest and most visible force in nature.[11]

Unifying tendencies

Many deities could be given epithets that seem to indicate that they were greater than any other
god, suggesting some kind of unity beyond the multitude of natural forces. In particular, this is
true of a few gods who, at various times in history, rose to supreme importance in Egyptian
religion. These included the royal patron Horus, the sun god Ra, and the mother goddess Isis.[12]
During the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC), Amun held this position. The theology of the
period described in particular detail Amun's presence in and rule over all things, so that he, more
than any other deity, embodied the all-encompassing power of the divine.[13]

Because of theological statements like this, many past Egyptologists, such as Siegfried Morenz,
believed that beneath the polytheistic traditions of Egyptian religion there was an increasing
belief in a unity of the divine, moving toward monotheism. Instances in Egyptian literature
where "god" is mentioned without reference to any specific deity would seem to give this view
added weight. However, in 1971 Erik Hornung pointed out that the traits of an apparently
supreme being could be attributed to many different gods, even in periods when other gods were
preeminent, and further argued that references to an unspecified "god" are meant to refer flexibly
to any deity. He therefore argued that, while some individuals may have henotheistically chosen
one god to worship, Egyptian religion as a whole had no notion of a divine being beyond the
immediate multitude of deities. Yet the debate did not end there; Jan Assmann and James P.
Allen have since asserted that the Egyptians did to some degree recognize a single divine force.
In Allen's view, the notion of an underlying unity of the divine coexisted inclusively with the
polytheistic tradition. It is possible that only the Egyptian theologians fully recognized this
underlying unity, but it is also possible that ordinary Egyptians identified the single divine force
with a single god in particular situations.[14][15]

Atenism

Main article: Atenism

During the New Kingdom the pharaoh Akhenaten abolished the official worship of other gods in
favor of the sun-disk Aten. This is often seen as the first instance of true monotheism in history,
although the details of Atenist theology are still unclear and the suggestion that it was
monotheistic is disputed. The exclusion of all but one god from worship was a radical departure
from Egyptian tradition and some see Akhenaten as a practitioner of monolatry rather than
monotheism,[16][17] as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained
from worshipping any but the Aten. Under Akhenaten's successors Egypt reverted to its
traditional religion, and Akhenaten himself came to be reviled as a heretic.[18][19]
Other important concepts
Cosmology

The air god Shu, assisted by other gods, holds up Nut, the sky, as Geb, the earth, lies beneath.

The Egyptian conception of the universe centered on Ma'at, a word that encompasses several
concepts in English, including "truth," "justice," and "order." It was the fixed, eternal order of the
universe, both in the cosmos and in human society. It had existed since the creation of the world,
and without it the world would lose its cohesion. In Egyptian belief, Ma'at was constantly under
threat from the forces of disorder, so all of society was required to maintain it. On the human
level this meant that all members of society should cooperate and coexist; on the cosmic level it
meant that all of the forces of nature—the gods—should continue to function in balance.[20] This
latter goal was central to Egyptian religion. The Egyptians sought to maintain Ma'at in the
cosmos by sustaining the gods through offerings and by performing rituals which staved off
disorder and perpetuated the cycles of nature.[21][22]

The most important part of the Egyptian view of the cosmos was the conception of time, which
was greatly concerned with the maintenance of Ma'at. Throughout the linear passage of time, a
cyclical pattern recurred, in which Ma'at was renewed by periodic events which echoed the
original creation. Among these events were the annual Nile flood and the succession from one
king to another, but the most important was the daily journey of the sun god Ra.[23][24]

When thinking of the shape of the cosmos, the Egyptians saw the earth as a flat expanse of land,
personified by the god Geb, over which arched the sky goddess Nut. The two were separated by
Shu, the god of air. Beneath the earth lay a parallel underworld and undersky, and beyond the
skies lay the infinite expanse of Nu, the chaos that had existed before creation.[25][26] The
Egyptians also believed in a place called the Duat, a mysterious region associated with death and
rebirth, that may have lain in the underworld or in the sky. Each day, Ra traveled over the earth
across the underside of the sky, and at night he passed through the Duat to be reborn at dawn.[27]

In Egyptian belief, this cosmos was inhabited by three types of sentient beings. One was the
gods; another was the spirits of deceased humans, who existed in the divine realm and possessed
many of the gods' abilities. Living humans were the third category, and the most important
among them was the pharaoh, who bridged the human and divine realms.[28]
Colossal statue of the Pharaoh Ramesses II

Divine pharaoh

See also: Pharaoh

Egyptologists have long debated the degree to which the Pharaoh was considered a god. It seems
most likely that the Egyptians viewed royal authority itself as a divine force. Therefore, although
the Egyptians recognized that the Pharaoh was human and subject to human weakness, they
simultaneously viewed him as a god, because the divine power of kingship was incarnated in
him. He therefore acted as intermediary between Egypt's people and the gods.[29] He was key to
upholding Ma'at, both by maintaining justice and harmony in human society and by sustaining
the gods with temples and offerings. For these reasons, he oversaw all state religious activity.[30]
However, the Pharaoh’s real-life influence and prestige could differ from that depicted in official
writings and depictions, and beginning in the late New Kingdom his religious importance
declined drastically.[31][32]

The king was also associated with many specific deities. He was identified directly with Horus,
who represented kingship itself, and he was seen as the son of Ra, who ruled and regulated
nature as the Pharaoh ruled and regulated society. By the New Kingdom he was also associated
with Amun, the supreme force in the cosmos.[33] Upon his death, the king became fully deified. In
this state, he was directly identified with Ra, and was also associated with Osiris, god of death
and rebirth and the mythological father of Horus.[34] Many mortuary temples were dedicated to
the worship of deceased pharaohs as gods.[22]

Afterlife

The Egyptians had elaborate beliefs about death and the afterlife. They believed that humans
possessed a ka, or life-force, which left the body at the point of death. In life, the ka received its
sustenance from food and drink, so it was believed that, to endure after death, the ka must
continue to receive offerings of food, whose spiritual essence it could still consume. Each person
also had a ba, the set of spiritual characteristics unique to each individual.[35] Unlike the ka, the ba
remained attached to the body after death. Egyptian funeral rituals were intended to release the
ba from the body so that it could move freely, and to rejoin it with the ka so that it could live on
as an akh. However, it was also important that the body of the deceased be preserved, as the
Egyptians believed that the ba returned to its body each night to receive new life, before
emerging in the morning as an akh.[36]

Originally, however, the Egyptians believed that only the pharaoh had a ba,[37] and only he could
become one with the gods; dead commoners passed into a dark, bleak realm that represented the
opposite of life.[38] The nobles received tombs and the resources for their upkeep as gifts from the
king, and their ability to enter the afterlife was believed to be dependent on these royal favors.[39]
In early times the deceased pharaoh was believed to ascend to the sky and dwell among the
stars.[40] Over the course of the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BC), however, he came to be more
closely associated with the daily rebirth of the sun god Ra and with the underworld ruler Osiris
as those deities grew more important.[41]

Judgment

During the late Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) and the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055
BC), the Egyptians gradually came to believe that possession of a ba and the possibility of a
paradisiacal afterlife extended to everyone.[37][42] In the fully developed afterlife beliefs of the New
Kingdom, the soul had to avoid a variety of supernatural dangers in the Duat, before undergoing
a final judgment known as the "Weighing of the Heart". In this judgment, the gods compared the
actions of the deceased while alive (symbolized by the heart) to Ma'at, to determine whether he
or she had behaved in accordance with Ma'at. If the deceased was judged worthy, his or her ka
and ba were united into an akh.[43] Several beliefs coexisted about the akh's destination. Often the
dead were said to dwell in the realm of Osiris, a lush and pleasant land in the underworld.[44] The
solar vision of the afterlife, in which the deceased soul traveled with Ra on his daily journey, was
still primarily associated with royalty, but could extend to other people as well. Over the course
of the Middle and New Kingdoms, the notion that the akh could also travel in the world of the
living, and to some degree magically affect events there, became increasingly prevalent.[45]

Writings
See also: Ancient Egyptian literature

While the Egyptians had no unified religious scripture, they produced many religious writings of
various types. Together the disparate texts provide a very extensive, but still incomplete,
understanding of Egyptian religious practices and beliefs.[46]

Mythology

Main article: Egyptian mythology

Ra (at center) travels through the underworld in his barque, accompanied by other gods[47]

Egyptian myths were metaphorical stories intended to illustrate and explain the gods' actions and
roles in nature. The details of the events they recounted could change to convey different
symbolic perspectives on the mysterious divine events they described, so many myths exist in
different and conflicting versions.[48] Mythical narratives were rarely written in full, and more
often texts only contain episodes from or allusions to a larger myth.[49] Knowledge of Egyptian
mythology, therefore, is derived mostly from hymns that detail the roles of specific deities, from
ritual and magical texts which describe actions related to mythic events, and from funerary texts
which mention the roles of many deities in the afterlife. Some information is also provided by
allusions in secular texts.[46] Finally, Greeks and Romans such as Plutarch recorded some of the
extant myths late in Egyptian history.[50]

Among the significant Egyptian myths were the creation myths. According to these stories, the
world emerged as a dry space in the primordial ocean of chaos. Because the sun is essential to
life on earth, the first rising of Ra marked the moment of this emergence. Different forms of the
myth describe the process of creation in various ways: a transformation of the primordial god
Atum into the elements that form the world, as the creative speech of the intellectual god Ptah,
and as an act of the hidden power of Amun.[51] Regardless of these variations, the act of creation
represented the initial establishment of maat and the pattern for the subsequent cycles of time.[22]

The most important of all Egyptian myths was the myth of Osiris and Isis.[52] It tells of the divine
ruler Osiris, who was murdered by his jealous brother Set, a god often associated with chaos.[53]
Osiris' sister and wife Isis resurrected him so that he could conceive an heir, Horus. Osiris then
entered the underworld and became the ruler of the dead. Once grown, Horus fought and
defeated Set to become king himself.[54] Set's association with chaos, and the identification of
Osiris and Horus as the rightful rulers, provided a rationale for Pharaonic succession and
portrayed the Pharaohs as the upholders of order. At the same time, Osiris' death and rebirth
were related to the Egyptian agricultural cycle, in which crops grew in the wake of the Nile
inundation, and provided a template for the resurrection of human souls after death.[55]

Another important mythic motif was the journey of Ra through the Duat each night. In the course
of this journey, Ra met with Osiris, who again acted as an agent of regeneration, so that his life
was renewed. He also fought each night with Apep, a serpentine god representing chaos. The
defeat of Apep and the meeting with Osiris ensured the rising of the sun the next morning, an
event that represented rebirth and the victory of order over chaos.[56]
Ritual and magical texts

The procedures for religious rituals were frequently written on papyri, which were used as
instructions for those performing the ritual. These ritual texts were kept mainly in the temple
libraries. Temples themselves are also inscribed with such texts, often accompanied by
illustrations. Unlike the ritual papyri, these inscriptions were not intended as instructions, but
were meant to symbolically perpetuate the rituals even if, in reality, people ceased to perform
them.[57] Magical texts likewise describe rituals, although these rituals were part of the spells used
for specific goals in everyday life. Despite their mundane purpose, many of these texts also
originated in temple libraries and later became disseminated among the general populace.[58]

Hymns and prayers

The Egyptians produced numerous prayers and hymns, written in the form of poetry. Hymns and
prayers follow a similar structure and are distinguished mainly by the purposes they serve.
Hymns were written to praise particular deities.[59] Like ritual texts, they were written on papyri
and on temple walls, and they were probably recited as part of the rituals they accompany in
temple inscriptions.[60] Most are structured according to a set literary formula, designed to
expound on the nature, aspects, and mythological functions of a given deity.[59] They tend to
speak more explicitly about fundamental theology than other Egyptian religious writings, and
became particularly important in the New Kingdom, a period of particularly active theological
discourse.[61] Prayers follow the same general pattern as hymns, but address the relevant god in a
more personal way, asking for blessings, help, or forgiveness for wrongdoing. Such prayers are
rare before the New Kingdom, indicating that in earlier periods such direct personal interaction
with a deity was not believed possible, or at least was less likely to be expressed in writing. They
are known mainly from inscriptions on statues and stelae left in sacred sites as votive offerings.[62]

Funerary texts

Main article: Ancient Egyptian funerary texts

Section of the Book of the Dead for the scribe Hunefer, depicting the Weighing of the Heart.

Among the most significant and extensively preserved Egyptian writings are funerary texts
designed to ensure that deceased souls reached a pleasant afterlife.[63] The earliest of these are the
Pyramid Texts. They are a loose collection of hundreds of spells inscribed on the walls of royal
pyramids during the Old Kingdom, intended to magically provide pharaohs with the means to
join the company of the gods in the afterlife.[64] The spells appear in differing arrangements and
combinations, and few of them appear in all of the pyramids.[65]

At the end of the Old Kingdom a new body of funerary spells, which included material from the
Pyramid Texts, began appearing in tombs, inscribed primarily on coffins. This collection of
writings is known as the Coffin Texts, and was not reserved for royalty, but appeared in the
tombs of non-royal officials.[66] In the New Kingdom, several new funerary texts emerged, of
which the best-known is the Book of the Dead. Unlike the earlier books, it often contains
extensive illustrations, or vignettes.[67] The book was copied on papyrus and sold to commoners
to be placed in their tombs.[68]

The Coffin Texts included sections with detailed descriptions of the underworld and instructions
on how to overcome its hazards. In the New Kingdom, this material gave rise to several "books
of the netherworld", including the Book of Gates, the Book of Caverns, and the Amduat.[69]
Unlike the loose collections of spells, these netherworld books are structured depictions of Ra's
passage through the Duat, and by analogy, the journey of the deceased person's soul through the
realm of the dead. They were originally restricted to pharaonic tombs, but in the Third
Intermediate Period they came to be used more widely.[70]

As Egypt became more modernized, its archaic practices were substituted with new and efficient
scientific techniques. Some of these scientific advancements were related to the development of
mummification. By enhancing their advanced practice of mummification, the Egyptians were
able to reach a new level of excellency concerning afterlife.

Practices

First pylon and colonnade of the Temple of Isis at Philae.

Temples

Main article: Egyptian temple

Temples existed from the beginning of Egyptian history, and at the height of the civilization they
were present in most of its towns. They included both mortuary temples to serve the spirits of
deceased pharaohs and temples dedicated to patron gods, although the distinction was blurred
because divinity and kingship were so closely intertwined.[22] The temples were not primarily
intended as places for worship by the general populace, and the common people had a complex
set of religious practices of their own. Instead, the state-run temples served as houses for the
gods, in which physical images which served as their intermediaries were cared for and provided
with offerings. This service was believed to be necessary to sustain the gods, so that they could
in turn maintain the universe itself.[71] Thus, temples were central to Egyptian society, and vast
resources were devoted to their upkeep, including both donations from the monarchy and large
estates of their own. Pharaohs often expanded them as part of their obligation to honor the gods,
so that many temples grew to enormous size.[72] However, not all gods had temples dedicated to
them, as many gods who were important in official theology received only minimal worship, and
many household gods were the focus of popular veneration rather than temple ritual.[73]

The earliest Egyptian temples were small, impermanent structures, but through the Old and
Middle Kingdoms their designs grew more elaborate, and they were increasingly built out of
stone. In the New Kingdom, a basic temple layout emerged, which had evolved from common
elements in Old and Middle Kingdom temples. With variations, this plan was used for most of
the temples built from then on, and most of those that survive today adhere to it. In this standard
plan, the temple was built along a central processional way that led through a series of courts and
halls to the sanctuary, which held a statue of the temple's god. Access to this most sacred part of
the temple was restricted to the pharaoh and the highest-ranking priests. The journey from the
temple entrance to the sanctuary was seen as a journey from the human world to the divine
realm, a point emphasized by the complex mythological symbolism present in temple
architecture.[74] Well beyond the temple building proper was the outermost wall. In the space
between the two lay many subsidiary buildings, including workshops and storage areas to supply
the temple's needs, and the library where the temple's sacred writings and mundane records were
kept, and which also served as a center of learning on a multitude of subjects.[75]

Theoretically it was the duty of the pharaoh to carry out temple rituals, as he was Egypt's official
representative to the gods. In reality, ritual duties were almost always carried out by priests.
During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, there was no separate class of priests; instead, many
government officials served in this capacity for several months out of the year before returning to
their secular duties. Only in the New Kingdom did professional priesthood become widespread,
although most lower-ranking priests were still part-time. All were still employed by the state, and
the pharaoh had final say in their appointments.[76] However, as the wealth of the temples grew,
the influence of their priesthoods increased, until it rivaled that of the pharaoh. In the political
fragmentation of the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070–664 BC), the high priests of Amun at
Karnak even became the effective rulers of Upper Egypt.[77] The temple staff also included many
people other than priests, such as musicians and chanters in temple ceremonies. Outside the
temple were artisans and other laborers who helped supply the temple's needs, as well as farmers
who worked on temple estates. All were paid with portions of the temple's income. Large
temples were therefore very important centers of economic activity, sometimes employing
thousands of people.[78]

Official rituals and festivals

State religious practice included both temple rituals involved in the cult of a deity, and
ceremonies related to divine kingship. Among the latter were coronation ceremonies and the sed
festival, a ritual renewal of the pharaoh's strength that took place periodically during his reign.[79]
There were numerous temple rituals, including rites that took place across the country and rites
limited to single temples or to the temples of a single god. Some were performed daily, while
others took place annually or on rarer occasions.[80] The most common temple ritual was the
morning offering ceremony, performed daily in temples across Egypt. In it, a high-ranking priest,
or occasionally the pharaoh, washed, anointed, and elaborately dressed the god's statue before
presenting it with offerings. Afterward, when the god had consumed the spiritual essence of the
offerings, the items themselves were taken to be distributed among the priests.[79]

The less frequent temple rituals, or festivals, were still numerous, with dozens occurring every
year. These festivals often entailed actions beyond simple offerings to the gods, such as
reenactments of particular myths or the symbolic destruction of the forces of disorder.[81] Most of
these events were probably celebrated only by the priests and took place only inside the
temple.[80] However, the most important temple festivals, like the Opet Festival celebrated at
Karnak, usually involved a procession carrying the god's image out of the sanctuary in a model
barque to visit other significant sites, such as the temple of a related deity. Commoners gathered
to watch the procession and sometimes received portions of the unusually large offerings given
to the gods on these occasions.[82]

Animal cults

The Apis bull

At many sacred sites, the Egyptians worshipped individual animals which they believed to be
manifestations of particular deities. These animals were selected based on specific sacred
markings which were believed to indicate their fitness for the role. Some of these cult animals
retained their positions for the rest of their lives, as with the Apis bull worshipped in Memphis as
a manifestation of Ptah. Other animals were selected for much shorter periods. These cults grew
more popular in later times, and many temples began raising stocks of such animals from which
to choose a new divine manifestation.[83] A separate practice developed in the Twenty-sixth
Dynasty, when people began mummifying any member of a particular animal species as an
offering to the god whom the species represented. Millions of mummified cats, birds, and other
creatures were buried at temples honoring Egyptian deities.[84][85] Worshippers paid the priests of a
particular deity to obtain and mummify an animal associated with that deity, and the mummy
was placed in a cemetery near the god's cult center.

Oracles
The Egyptians used oracles to ask the gods for knowledge or guidance. Egyptian oracles are
known mainly from the New Kingdom and afterward, though they probably appeared much
earlier. People of all classes, including the king, asked questions of oracles, and, especially in the
late New Kingdom their answers could be used to settle legal disputes or inform royal
decisions.[86] The most common means of consulting an oracle was to pose a question to the
divine image while it was being carried in a festival procession, and interpret an answer from the
barque's movements. Other methods included interpreting the behavior of cult animals, drawing
lots, or consulting statues through which a priest apparently spoke. The means of discerning the
god's will gave great influence to the priests who spoke and interpreted the god's message.[87]

Popular religion

While the state cults were meant to preserve the stability of the Egyptian world, lay individuals
had their own religious practices that related more directly to daily life.[88] This popular religion
left less evidence than the official cults, and because this evidence was mostly produced by the
wealthiest portion of the Egyptian population, it is uncertain to what degree it reflects the
practices of the populace as a whole.[89]

Popular religious practice included ceremonies marking important transitions in life. These
included birth, because of the danger involved in the process, and naming, because the name was
held to be a crucial part of a person's identity. The most important of these ceremonies were
those surrounding death (see "Funerary practices" below), because they ensured the soul's
survival beyond it.[90] Other religious practices sought to discern the gods' will or seek their
knowledge. These included the interpretation of dreams, which could be seen as messages from
the divine realm, and the consultation of oracles. People also sought to affect the gods' behavior
to their own benefit through magical rituals (see "Magic" below).[91]

Individual Egyptians also prayed to gods and gave them private offerings. Evidence of this type
of personal piety is sparse before the New Kingdom. This is probably due to cultural restrictions
on depiction of nonroyal religious activity, which relaxed during the Middle and New Kingdoms.
Personal piety became still more prominent in the late New Kingdom, when it was believed that
the gods intervened directly in individual lives, punishing wrongdoers and saving the pious from
disaster.[62] Official temples were important venues for private prayer and offering, even though
their central activities were closed to laypeople. Egyptians frequently donated goods to be
offered to the temple deity and objects inscribed with prayers to be placed in temple courts.
Often they prayed in person before temple statues or in shrines set aside for their use.[89] Yet in
addition to temples, the populace also used separate local chapels, smaller but more accessible
than the formal temples. These chapels were very numerous, and probably staffed by members of
the community.[92] Households, too, often had their own small shrines for offering to gods or
deceased relatives.[93]

The deities invoked in these situations differed somewhat from those at the center of state cults.
Many of the important popular deities, such as the fertility goddess Taweret and the household
protector Bes, had no temples of their own. However, many other gods, including Amun and
Osiris, were very important in both popular and official religion.[94] Some individuals might be
particularly devoted to a single god. Often they favored deities affiliated with their own region,
or with their role in life. The god Ptah, for instance, was particularly important in his cult center
of Memphis, but as the patron of craftsmen he received the nationwide veneration of many in
that occupation.[95]

Magic

Main article: Heka

The word "magic" is used to translate the Egyptian term heka, which meant, as James P. Allen
puts it, "the ability to make things happen by indirect means".[96] Heka was believed to be a
natural phenomenon, the force which was used to create the universe and which the gods
employed to work their will. Humans could also use it, however, and magical practices were
closely intertwined with religion. In fact, even the regular rituals performed in temples were
counted as magic.[97] Individuals also frequently employed magical techniques for personal
purposes. Although these ends could be harmful to other people, no form of magic was
considered inimical in itself. Instead, magic was seen primarily as a way for humans to prevent
or overcome negative events.[98]

Amulet in the shape of the Eye of Horus, a common magical symbol

Magic was closely associated with the priesthood. Because temple libraries contained numerous
magical texts, great magical knowledge was ascribed to the lector priests who studied these texts.
These priests often worked outside their temples, hiring out their magical services to laymen.
Other professions also commonly employed magic as part of their work, including doctors,
scorpion-charmers, and makers of magical amulets. It is also likely that the peasantry used
simple magic for their own purposes, but because this magical knowledge would have been
passed down orally, there is limited evidence of it.[99]

Language was closely linked with heka, to such a degree that Thoth, the god of writing, was
sometimes said to be the inventor of heka.[100] Therefore, magic frequently involved written or
spoken incantations, although these were usually accompanied by ritual actions. Often these
rituals invoked the power of an appropriate deity to perform the desired action, using the power
of heka to compel it to act. Sometimes this entailed casting the practitioner or subject of a ritual
in the role of a character in mythology, thus inducing the god to act toward that person as it had
in the myth. Rituals also employed sympathetic magic, using objects believed to have a
magically significant resemblance to the subject of the rite. The Egyptians also commonly used
objects believed to be imbued with heka of their own, such as the magically protective amulets
worn in great numbers by ordinary Egyptians.[101]
Funerary practices

Main article: Ancient Egyptian burial customs

Because it was considered necessary for the survival of the soul, preservation of the body was a
central part of Egyptian funerary practices. Originally the Egyptians buried their dead in the
desert, where the arid conditions mummified the body naturally. In the Early Dynastic Period,
however, they began using tombs for greater protection, and the body was insulated from the
desiccating effect of the sand and was subject to natural decay. Thus the Egyptians developed
their elaborate embalming practices, in which the corpse was artificially desiccated and wrapped
to be placed in its coffin.[102] The quality of the process varied according to cost, however, and
those who could not afford it were still buried in desert graves.[103]

The Opening of the Mouth ceremony being performed before the tomb

Once the mummification process was complete, the mummy was carried from the deceased
person's house to the tomb in a funeral procession that included his or her friends and relatives,
along with a variety of priests. Before the burial, these priests performed several rituals,
including the Opening of the mouth ceremony intended to restore the dead person's senses and
give him or her the ability to receive offerings. Then the mummy was buried and the tomb
sealed.[104] Afterward, relatives or hired priests gave food offerings to the deceased in a nearby
mortuary chapel at regular intervals. Over time, families inevitably neglected offerings to long-
dead relatives, so most mortuary cults only lasted one or two generations.[105] However, while the
cult lasted, the living sometimes wrote letters asking deceased relatives for help, in the belief that
the dead could affect the world of the living as the gods did.[106]

The first Egyptian tombs were mastabas, rectangular brick structures where kings and nobles
were entombed. Each of them contained a subterranean burial chamber and a separate, above
ground chapel for mortuary rituals. In the Old Kingdom the mastaba developed into the pyramid,
which symbolized the primeval mound of Egyptian myth. Pyramids were reserved for royalty,
and were accompanied by large mortuary temples sitting at their base. Middle Kingdom
pharaohs continued to build pyramids, but the popularity of mastabas waned. Increasingly,
commoners with sufficient means were buried in rock-cut tombs with separate mortuary chapels
nearby, an approach which was less vulnerable to tomb robbery. By the beginning of the New
Kingdom even the pharaohs were buried in such tombs, and they continued to be used until the
decline of the religion itself.[107]

Tombs could contain a great variety of other items, including statues of the deceased to serve as
substitutes for the body in case it was damaged.[108] Because it was believed that the deceased
would have to do work in the afterlife, just as in life, burials often included small models of
humans to do work in place of the deceased.[109] The tombs of wealthier individuals could also
contain furniture, clothing, and other everyday objects intended for use in the afterlife, along
with amulets and other items intended to provide magical protection against the hazards of the
spirit world.[110] Further protection was provided by funerary texts included in the burial. The
tomb walls also bore artwork, including images of the deceased eating food which were believed
to allow him or her to magically receive sustenance even after the mortuary offerings had
ceased.[111]

History
Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods

Narmer, a Predynastic ruler, accompanied by men carrying the standards of various local gods

The beginnings of Egyptian religion extend into prehistory, and evidence for them comes only
from the sparse and ambiguous archaeological record. Careful burials during the Predynastic
period imply that the people of this time believed in some form of an afterlife. At the same time,
animals were ritually buried, a practice which may reflect the development of zoomorphic deities
like those found in the later religion.[112] The evidence is less clear for gods in human form, and
this type of deity may have emerged more slowly than those in animal shape. Each region of
Egypt originally had its own patron deity, but it is likely that as these small communities
conquered or absorbed each other, the god of the defeated area was either incorporated into the
other god's mythology or entirely subsumed by it. This resulted in a complex pantheon in which
some deities remained only locally important while others developed more universal
significance.[113][114] As the time changed and the shifting of the empires changed like the middle
kingdom, new kingdom, and old kingdom, usually the religion followed stayed within the border
of that territory.

The Early Dynastic Period began with the unification of Egypt around 3000 BC. This event
transformed Egyptian religion, as some deities rose to national importance and the cult of the
divine pharaoh became the central focus of religious activity.[115] Horus was identified with the
king, and his cult center in the Upper Egyptian city of Nekhen was among the most important
religious sites of the period. Another important center was Abydos, where the early rulers built
large funerary complexes.[116]

Old and Middle Kingdoms

During the Old Kingdom, the priesthoods of the major deities attempted to organize the
complicated national pantheon into groups linked by their mythology and worshipped in a single
cult center, such as the Ennead of Heliopolis which linked important deities such as Atum, Ra,
Osiris, and Set in a single creation myth.[117] Meanwhile, pyramids, accompanied by large
mortuary temple complexes, replaced mastabas as the tombs of pharaohs. In contrast with the
great size of the pyramid complexes, temples to gods remained comparatively small, suggesting
that official religion in this period emphasized the cult of the divine king more than the direct
worship of deities. The funerary rituals and architecture of this time greatly influenced the more
elaborate temples and rituals used in worshipping the gods in later periods.[118]

The pyramid complex of Djedkare Isesi

Early in the Old Kingdom, Ra grew in influence, and his cult center at Heliopolis became the
nation's most important religious site.[119] By the Fifth Dynasty, Ra was the most prominent god
in Egypt, and had developed the close links with kingship and the afterlife that he retained for the
rest of Egyptian history.[120] Around the same time, Osiris became an important afterlife deity.
The Pyramid Texts, first written at this time, reflect the prominence of the solar and Osirian
concepts of the afterlife, although they also contain remnants of much older traditions.[121] The
texts are an extremely important source for understanding early Egyptian theology.[122]

In the 22nd century BC, the Old Kingdom collapsed into the disorder of the First Intermediate
Period, with important consequences for Egyptian religion. Old Kingdom officials had already
begun to adopt the funerary rites originally reserved for royalty,[42] but now, less rigid barriers
between social classes meant that these practices and the accompanying beliefs gradually
extended to all Egyptians, a process called the "democratization of the afterlife".[123] The Osirian
view of the afterlife had the greatest appeal to commoners, and thus Osiris became one of the
most important gods.[124]

Eventually rulers from Thebes reunified the Egyptian nation in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–
1650 BC). These Theban pharaohs initially promoted their patron god Monthu to national
importance, but during the Middle Kingdom, he was eclipsed by the rising popularity of
Amun.[125] In this new Egyptian state, personal piety grew more important and was expressed
more freely in writing, a trend which continued in the New Kingdom.[37]
New Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom crumbled in the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC), but the
country was again reunited by Theban rulers, who became the first pharaohs of the New
Kingdom. Under the new regime, Amun became the supreme state god. He was syncretized with
Ra, the long-established patron of kingship, and his temple at Karnak in Thebes became Egypt's
most important religious center. Amun's elevation was partly due to the great importance of
Thebes, but it was also due to the increasingly professional priesthood. Their sophisticated
theological discussion produced detailed descriptions of Amun's universal power.[126][127]

Increased contact with outside peoples in this period led to the adoption of many Near Eastern
deities into the pantheon. At the same time, the subjugated Nubians absorbed Egyptian religious
beliefs, and in particular, adopted Amun as their own.[128]

Akhenaten and his family worshipping the Aten

The New Kingdom religious order was disrupted when Akhenaten acceded, and replaced Amun
with the Aten as the state god. Eventually he eliminated the official worship of most other gods,
and moved Egypt's capital to a new city at Amarna. This part of Egyptian history, the Amarna
period, is named after this. In doing so, Akhenaten claimed unprecedented status: only he could
worship the Aten, and the populace directed their worship toward him. The Atenist system
lacked well-developed mythology and afterlife beliefs, and the Aten seemed distant and
impersonal, so the new order did not appeal to ordinary Egyptians.[129] Thus, many probably
continued to worship the traditional gods in private. Nevertheless, the withdrawal of state
support for the other deities severely disrupted Egyptian society.[130] Akhenaten's successors
restored the traditional religious system, and eventually they dismantled all Atenist
monuments.[131]

Before the Amarna period, popular religion had trended toward more personal relationships
between worshippers and their gods. Akhenaten's changes had reversed this trend, but once the
traditional religion was restored, there was a backlash. The populace began to believe that the
gods were much more directly involved in daily life. Amun, the supreme god, was increasingly
seen as the final arbiter of human destiny, the true ruler of Egypt. The pharaoh was
correspondingly more human and less divine. The importance of oracles as a means of decision-
making grew, as did the wealth and influence of the oracles' interpreters, the priesthood. These
trends undermined the traditional structure of society and contributed to the breakdown of the
New Kingdom.[132][133]

Later periods

In the 1st millennium BC, Egypt was significantly weaker than in earlier times, and in several
periods foreigners seized the country and assumed the position of pharaoh. The importance of
the pharaoh continued to decline, and the emphasis on popular piety continued to increase.
Animal cults, a characteristically Egyptian form of worship, became increasingly popular in this
period, possibly as a response to the uncertainty and foreign influence of the time.[134] Isis grew
more popular as a goddess of protection, magic, and personal salvation, and became the most
important goddess in Egypt.[135]

Serapis

In the 4th century BC, Egypt became a Hellenistic kingdom under the Ptolemaic dynasty (305–
30 BC), which assumed the pharaonic role, maintaining the traditional religion and building or
rebuilding many temples. The kingdom's Greek ruling class identified the Egyptian deities with
their own.[136] From this cross-cultural syncretism emerged Serapis, a god who combined Osiris
and Apis with characteristics of Greek deities, and who became very popular among the Greek
population. Nevertheless, for the most part the two belief systems remained separate, and the
Egyptian deities remained Egyptian.[137]

Ptolemaic-era beliefs changed little after Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30
BC, with the Ptolemaic kings replaced by distant emperors.[136] The cult of Isis appealed even to
Greeks and Romans outside Egypt, and in Hellenized form it spread across the empire.[138] In
Egypt itself, as the empire weakened, official temples fell into decay, and without their
centralizing influence religious practice became fragmented and localized. Meanwhile,
Christianity spread across Egypt, and in the third and fourth centuries AD, edicts by Christian
emperors and iconoclasm by local Christians eroded traditional beliefs. While it persisted among
the populace for some time, Egyptian religion slowly faded away.[139]
Legacy

Altar to Thoth of a Kemetic follower.

Egyptian religion produced the temples and tombs which are ancient Egypt's most enduring
monuments, but it also influenced other cultures. In pharaonic times many of its symbols, such as
the sphinx and winged solar disk, were adopted by other cultures across the Mediterranean and
Near East, as were some of its deities, such as Bes. Some of these connections are difficult to
trace. The Greek concept of Elysium may have derived from the Egyptian vision of the
afterlife.[140] In late antiquity, the Christian conception of Hell was most likely influenced by
some of the imagery of the Duat. Biblical accounts of Jesus and Mary may have been influenced
by that of Isis and Osiris.[141] Egyptian beliefs also influenced or gave rise to several esoteric
belief systems developed by Greeks and Romans, who considered Egypt as a source of mystic
wisdom. Hermeticism, for instance, derived from the tradition of secret magical knowledge
associated with Thoth.[142]

Modern times

Traces of ancient beliefs remained in Egyptian folk traditions into modern times, but its
influence on modern societies greatly increased with the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria in
1798 and their seeing the monuments and images. As a result of it, Westerners began to study
Egyptian beliefs firsthand, and Egyptian religious motifs were adopted into Western art.[143][144]
Egyptian religion has since had a significant influence in popular culture. Due to continued
interest in Egyptian belief, in the late 20th century, several new religious groups have formed
based on different reconstructions of ancient Egyptian religion

Egyptian literature
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Copy of the Westcar Papyrus on display in the Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin

Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and is some of the earliest known
literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that
is, the book.[1]

Contents

 1Ancient
 2Christian
 3Islamic
 4Modern
 5Notable writers
 6See also
 7References

Ancient[edit]

Plates vi & vii of the Edwin Smith papyrus at the Rare Book Room, New York Academy of Medicine

See also: Ancient Egyptian literature

The ancient Egyptians wrote works on papyrus as well as walls, tombs, pyramids, obelisks and
more. Perhaps the best known example of ancient Jehiel literature is the Story of Sinuhe;[2] other
well-known works include the Westcar Papyrus and the Ebers papyrus, as well as the famous Book
of the Dead. While most literature in ancient Egypt was so-called "Wisdom literature" (that is,
literature meant for instruction rather than entertainment), there also existed myths, stories and
biographies solely for entertainment purposes. The autobiography has been called the oldest form of
Egyptian literature.[3]
The Nile had a strong influence on the writings of the ancient Egyptians,[4] as did Greco-
Roman poets who came to Alexandria to be supported by the many patrons of the arts who lived
there, and to make use of the resources of the Library of Alexandria.[5] Many great thinkers from
around the ancient world came to the city,
including Callimachus of Libya and Theocritus of Syracuse. Not all of the great writers of the period
came from outside of Egypt, however; one notable Egyptian poet was Apollonius of Rhodes.
Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs It
was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House
of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and
observatories. Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid
and Coffin Texts, were spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside
administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this
period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhufand
Weni. The genre known as Sebayt (Instructions) was developed to communicate teachings and
guidance from famous nobles; thelpuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural
disasters and social upheaval, is a famous example.
The Story of Sinuhe, written in Middle Egyptian, might be the classic of Egyptian literature. Also
written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the
marvels performed by priests. The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of near-
eastern literature. Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was more often
employed to write popular pieces like the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any. The former
tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to
return to Egypt. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular
Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the
demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the Graeco-Roman
period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great
pharaohs such as Ramesses II.

Christian[edit]
Alexandria became an important center in early Christianity during roughly the 1st to 4th century
CE. Coptic works were an important contribution to Christian literature of the period and the Nag
Hammadi library helped preserve a number of books that would otherwise have been lost.

Islamic[edit]
See also: Arabic literature and Islamic literature
By the eighth century Egypt had been conquered by the Muslim Arabs. Literature, and especially
libraries, thrived under the new Egypt brought about by the Muslim conquerors.[6] Several important
changes occurred during this time which affected Egyptian writers. Papyrus was replaced by
cloth paper, and calligraphy was introduced as a writing system. Also, the focus of writing shifted
almost entirely to Islam. The earliest novel written in Egypt was Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus
Autodidactus, the earliest example of a science fiction and theological novel.[7] The concept of a
"brief statement praising a literary product", now known as a blurb, also dates back to medieval
Egyptian literature from the 14th century, and was known as taqriz in medieval Arabic literature.[8]
Many tales of the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) can be traced to medieval
Egyptian storytelling traditions. These tales were probably in circulation before they were collected
and codified into a single collection. Medieval Egyptian folklore was one of three distinct layers of
storytelling which were incorporated into the Nights by the 15th century, the other two being
ancient Indian and Persian folklore, and stories from Abbasid-era Baghdad.[9]
Modern[edit]
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Arab world experienced al-Nahda,
a Renaissance-esque movement which touched nearly all areas of life, including literature.[10] One of
the most important figures from this time was Naguib Mahfouz, the first Egyptian to win the Nobel
Prize in Literature. In 1914 Muhammad Husayn Haykal wrote Zaynab, considered the first modern
Egyptian as well as Islamic novel.
There is a new writing movement of literature in Egypt that spawned during the 1990s.[11] During this
decade, the youth has faced socio-economic, cultural, and political crises. Not only has Egypt's
population nearly doubled since 1980 with 81 million people in 2008, leading to a rural-urban
migration that has led to the Arabic term al-madun al-‘ashwa’iyyah, or ‘haphazard city', around Cairo,
but unemployment has remained high and living expenses have increased amid the overcrowding.
In turn, the difficulty of living in poverty has inspired new Egyptian literature that focuses on crises,
namely irrational and fragmented works that focus on isolated individuals dealing with an ever-
expanding and changing Arab culture. [12] The publication industry in Egypt has grown demonstrably
by entrepreneurial publishers, for significant instance, Dar Sharqiyat and Dar Merit, which have led
to a less problematic market for new authors becoming published. This surge of literary production
has led to experimentation with traditional themes, a greater emphasis on the personal, an absence
of major political concerns, and a more refined and evolving use of language. Husni Sulayman
founded Dar Sharqiyat, a small-scale publishing house that printed avant-garde work during the
1990s.[13] After some financial difficulty, Dar Merit replaced it as a leading avant-garde publisher,
printing over 300 books by 2008. Many critics have referred to the new generation of writers as the
Sharqiyyat generation in reference to the publishing company. [14] The proliferating authors include
Samir Gharib ‘Ali, Mahmud Hamid, Wa’il Rajab, Ahmad Gharib, Muntasir al-Qaffash, Atif Sulayman,
May al-Tilmisani, Yasser Shaaban, Mustafa Zikri and Nura Amin. Safez, Sabry. "The New Egyptian
Novel". Publication company Dar Merit is an open supporter of the new writing. With the direction of
its owner, Muhammad Hashim, Dar Merit has helped facilitate the discussion and dissemination of
the writing despite a pessimistic chance of compensation after the cost of publishing. Consequently,
small publishing houses, because they are not state owned, are not influenced by the traditional
literary elite and have produced new tastes of Egyptian writing. For example, stories by Ahmed
Alaidy, published by Dar Merit, focus on youth mall culture, used vernacular Arabic, and featured
text messages. These works challenge the orthodoxy of form and style in Arabic literature.
The 1990s has also seen a rise of women writers due to the ease of modern, privatized
publishing.There has been a lot of press and criticism on female authors, good and bad, and are
pejoratively described as kitabat al-banat, which translates to girls' writing. Moreover, most novels
during this time were relatively short, never much longer than 150 pages, and chronicle the
individual instead of the lengthy representation of family relationships and national
icons.[15] Stylistically, many novels now featured schizophrenic, first-person narrators instead of
omniscient narrators.[16]
Since the awarding of the International Prize for Arabic Fiction (IPAF), there have been 18
nominations for Egyptian writers. 2 IPAF awards were given consecutively to an Egyptian writer in
2008, Bahaa Taher's Sunset Oasis, and in 2009, Yusuf Zeydan's Azazel Dar merit publishes works
that challenged the orthodoxy of Arabic literature. The Egyptian literary scene under Mubarak's
Presidency was active and many authors published their works in Lebanon due to regime's
controlling censorship. Many novels, such as the graphic novel "Metro" by Magdy el-Shafei, were
banned from publication due to cultural codes such as indecency (currently in publication
development). There are noteworthy books amid the predictable post-revolutionary pulp. In 2004,
the Nasserist intellectual Abdel-Halim Qandil was seized by government security forces, beaten and
abandoned in the desert. Qandil’s books, “Red Card for the President” among them, were banned
under Mubarak for their strident attacks on the regime — though bootlegged photocopied versions
did manage to get here and there. Today, “Red Card,” with its distinctive caricature of Mubarak as a
baton-carrying Napoleon, is a best seller. Humphrey Davies, the English translator of “Metro” and
“The Yacoubian Building,” notes that graphic novels and comics have been immensely popular as
well as frequently targeted by censors because of “the immediacy of their visual impact.” Looking
ahead, he adds: “How they will be treated by the authorities will be a litmus test for their commitment
to freedom of expression.” The Mubarak Award, the state’s top literary honor, has been rechristened
the Nile Award.[17] Bahaa Taher is arguably the greatest living Egyptian fiction writer. Taher is only
now gaining the international recognition he deserves. The Guardian said of Sunset Oasis: “Bahaa
Taher is one of the most respected living writers in the Arab world. At 73, he has weathered political
purges and a lengthy exile from his native Egypt to carry off the Booker Prize for Arabic fiction. The
recognition is long overdue.”
Moreover, a notable writer in Cairo today is Youssef Ziedan. Ziedan has dominated the bestseller
lists in Egypt as of late. His nonfiction work, Arab Theology and the Roots of Religious Violence
(2010), was one of the more widely read books in Cairo in the months before the January 25
Revolution.[18]

Notable writers[edit]
Main article: List of Egyptian writers

 Taha Husayn
 Yūsuf Idrīs
 Sonallah Ibrahim
 Tawfiq al-Hakim
 Gamal Abdel Nasser
 Naguib Mahfouz
 Nawal El Saadawi
 Bahaa Taher
 Alaa Al Aswany
 Abdel Hakim Qasem
 Miral al-Tahawy
 Ahmed Zaky Abushady
 Noor Abdulmajeed

Religion in Egypt
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Religion in Egypt controls many aspects of social life and is endorsed by law. The 2006
census counting method included religion, so the number of adherents of the different religions are
usually rough estimates made by religious and non-governmental agencies.
Egypt is predominantly Muslim, with Muslims accounting for 88% of a population of around 80 million
Egyptians[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9] The vast majority of Muslims in Egypt are Sunni. A significant number of
Sunni Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders.[10] There are under fifty
thousand Ahmadi Muslims.[11] There is a minority of Mu'tazila numbering a few thousands. Estimated
numbers of Egypt's Shia Twelvers and Ismailism range from 800,000 to about two to three
million.[12][13][14]
According to the Constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic
law.[15] Article 45 of the Constitution extends freedom of religion to the three Abrahamic
religions (Islam, Christianity and Judaism), but only those three.
The remainder of Egyptians, numbering between 10% and 20% of the population,[2] mostly belong to
the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Christian Church.[1][4][5][6][7] The
most recent declarations, made by Pope Shenouda III and bishop Morkos of Shubra in 2008, put
forward the number of Orthodox Copts in Egypt as being over 12 million. Other estimates made by
church officials estimate this number to be 16 million.[16] Protestant churches claim a membership of
about 300,000 Egyptians,[17] and the Coptic Catholic Church is estimated to have a similar
membership among Egyptians.[8][9] Based on these estimates, the total number of Christians in Egypt
is between 15% and 20% of a total population of 80 million Egyptians. While some government
sources have claimed a percentage of around 6 to 10%,[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] a number of published
sources such as the Washington Institute, in addition to some of the Coptic sources, uphold that
Christians represent more than 10% of the total population and claim that they actually still compose
up to 15 or even 20% of the Egyptian population.[26][27][28][29][30][31]
There is a small but historically significant non-immigrant Bahá'í population, estimated around 2,000
persons,[24] and an even smaller community of Jews about 200,[24][32] an unknown number of
Egyptians identify as atheist and agnostic as public expressions of irreligion risk violence. The non-
Sunni, non-Coptic communities range in size from several hundreds to a few thousand. The
original Ancient Egyptian religion has disappeared in Egypt as a result of new religions being formed
then introduced to Egypt.
Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar Mosque, founded in 970 AD by the Fatimids as
the first Islamic University in Egypt and the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria established in the
middle of the 1st century by Saint Mark.
In Egypt, Muslims and Christians live as neighbors, sharing common history, national
identity, ethnicity, race, culture, and language.[24]
The Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) that is heard five times a day has the informal effect of regulating
the pace of everything from business to media and entertainment.[citation needed] Cairo is famous for its
numerous mosque minarets and is justifiably dubbed "the city of 1,000 minarets",[33] with a significant
number of church towers.[citation needed] This religious landscape has been marred by a history of religious
extremism,[34] recently witnessing a 2006 judgement of Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, which
made a clear legal distinction between "recognized religions" (i.e., Islam, Christianity, and Judaism)
and all other religious beliefs. This ruling effectively delegitimizes and forbids practice of all but the
three Abrahamic religions,[35] and made it necessary for non-Abrahamic religious communities to
either commit perjury or be denied Egyptian identification cards (see Egyptian identification card
controversy), until a 2008 Cairo court case ruled that unrecognized religious minorities may
obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court
documents.[36]
 The Hanging Church of Cairo, built in the third or fourth century AD, is one of the most famous Coptic Churches
in Egypt.

In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January the 7th) was recognized as an
official holiday,[37] though Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state
security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their
religion.[38] Naguib Sawiris, one of Egyptians successful businessmen and one of the world's
wealthiest 400 people[39] is a Copt. At the same time there is a large number of private companies
shared by both Muslims and Copts.[citation needed]

Contents
[hide]

 1Freedom of religion and human rights

o 1.1Restrictions on conversion
o 1.2Relations with the Coptic minority
o 1.3Non-religious minorities
 2Religions in Egypt
o 2.1Recognized Abrahamic religions
 2.1.1Islam
 2.1.2Christianity
 2.1.3Judaism
o 2.2Unrecognized and persecuted beliefs
 2.2.1Ahmadiyya Islam
 2.2.2Bahá'í Faith
 2.2.3Hinduism
 2.2.4Atheism and agnosticism
 3See also
 4References

Freedom of religion and human rights[edit]

Freedom of belief and worship are formally recognized by the Egyptian Constitution, but are
effectively limited by government intervention and sectarian conflict.[40] Some aspects of the country’s
laws are heavily funded on Islamic principles. Religions other than Islam have typically had to be
deemed compatible with Sharia and petition for legal recognition.[40] Although the state provides
funds for the construction of mosques and the training of imams, no such aid is extended to non-
Muslim communities, whose requests for building permits are often denied or delayed. Individual
adherents of minority religions also face frequent discrimination by government officials, who often
deny them identity cards, birth certificates and marriage licenses. Authorities often fail to sanction
individuals involved in carrying out attacks against members of minority faiths, relying instead on
non-judicial procedures in order to avoid offending the Muslim majority.[40] The government also
discriminates against Islamic religious minority groups, most notably Shi’a Muslims, who face open
official discrimination, including being barred from admission to Al-Azhar University.
Restrictions on conversion[edit]

Legal opinion on apostasy by the Fatwa committee at Al-Azhar University in Cairo, one of the highest Islamic
institutions in the world,[41][42] concerning the case of a man who converted to Christianity: "Since he left the
Islam, he will be invited to express his regret. If he does not regret, he will be killed pertaining to rights and
obligations of the Islamic law." The Fatwa also mentions that the same applies to his children after they reach
maturity.

While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights
Watch, "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert
to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for
allegedly forging such documents.[43] The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent
conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become
Muslim.[44] Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal
procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will
sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may
stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that
they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening.[45] In 2007, a Cairo
administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion
to Christianity after converting to Islam.[46]However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative
Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their
religion on identity cards,[23][47] but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of
time.[48]
Relations with the Coptic minority[edit]
Coptic Christians, being the largest ethno-religious minority in Egypt, are the most negatively
affected by possibly discriminatory legislation. Copts in Egypt have faced increasing marginalization
after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser.[49][50] Until recently, Christians were required to
obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005
by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles
in building new churches. These obstacles are not as much in building mosques.[24][51][52]
Muslims and Christians share a common history and national identity; however, at times religious
tensions have arisen, and individual acts of prejudice and violence occur.[53] The most significant was
the 2000-2001 El Kosheh attacks, In which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody, inter-
religious clashes following a dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. "Twenty Christians and one
Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh, 440 kilometres (275 miles)
south of Cairo."[54] In 2005, in Kafr Salama village, Sharqiya governorate, an altercation between a
Muslim and a Christian resulted in the death of the Muslim. Muslim villagers later attacked the Abu
Sifin Church and several Christian homes and looted several shops before the authorities restored
order.[53] In 2006, one person, described by police as drunk and mad, attacked three churches
in Alexandria, leaving one dead and from 5 to 16 injured, although the attacker was not linked to any
organisation.[20][53][55] On January 7, 2010, Muslim gunmen open fire on Christian worshipers leaving a
church in Nag Hammadi resulting in the murder of nine Coptic Christians.[56] On January 1, 2011, at
least 21 people were killed and 83 injured when a car bomb exploded outside a Coptic Christian
church in Alexandria.[57]Then on October 14, 2012 in the absence of security officials 2 Muslims from
a group were killed after they tried to kidnap a woman from a Christian family.[58]
In January 2013 when the Muslim Brotherhood was in power, Christian nonprofit organization Open
Doors ranked Egypt as the 25th most difficult place to be a Christian, on their annual World Watch
List.[59]
Non-religious minorities[edit]
There are also a number of Egyptians who identify themselves as atheist and agnostic, but their
numbers are largely unknown, as openly expressing such positions risks legal sanction on the basis
of apostasy. In 2000, an openly atheist Egyptian writer, who called for the establishment of a local
association for atheists, was tried on charges of insulting Islam in four of his books.[60]

Religions in Egypt[edit]
Recognized Abrahamic religions[edit]
Islam[edit]
Main article: Islam in Egypt

Islamic Cairo As viewed from the Cairo Citadel

Islam has been the state religion in Egypt since the amendment of the second article of the Egyptian
constitution in the year 1980, before which Egypt was recognized as a secular country. The vast
majority of Egyptian Muslims are Sunni, with a
small Mu'tazila, Shia Twelvers and Ismailism communities making up the remainder.[61] A significant
number of Sunni Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders.[10] Egypt hosts the most important Sunni
institution in the world, Al-Azhar University. It is the oldest Islamic institution of higher studies
(founded around 970 C.E.), and is considered by many to be the oldest extant university in the
world.
Al-Azhar Mosque founded in AD 970 by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in Egypt

The Shia Ismaili caliphate of the Fatimids made Egypt their center, and made Cairo their capital.
Egypt's various social groups and classes apply Islam differently in their daily lives. The literate
theologians of Al-Azhar generally reject the popular version of Islam practised by religious preachers
and peasants in the countryside, which is heavily Sufi-influenced. Sufism has flourished in Egypt
since Islam was first adopted. Most upper- and middle-class Muslims believed either that religious
expression is a private matter for each individual or that Islam should play a more dominant role in
public life. Islamic religious revival movements, whose appeal cuts across class lines, have been
present in most cities and in many villages for a long time.
According to the constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic
law. The mainstream Hanafi school of Sunni Islam is largely controlled by the state, through Wizaret
Al-Awkaf (Ministry of Religious Affairs). Al-Awkaf controls all mosques and supervises Muslim
clerics. Imams are trained in Imam vocational schools and at Al-Azhar. The ministry supports Sunni
Islam and has commissions authorized to give Fatwā judgements on Islamic issues.

Christianity[edit]
Main articles: Christianity in Egypt and Copts in Egypt

About 10% of Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
Egyptian Christians are the largest Christian community in the Middle East by raw number of adherents.

Copts do not see themselves as a cultural or ethnic minority but Egyptians whose ancestors
embraced Christianity in the first century.[62] The Coptic Christian population in Egypt is the largest
Christian community in the Middle East.[21] About 95% of Egypt's Christians are members of
the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[4][5] an Oriental Orthodox Church, Traditionally believed to
be established in the 1st century A.D. by Saint Mark. The Church is headed by the Pope of the
Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, attests to Egypt's strong Christian heritage. It has a followers
of approximately 20 million Christians worldwide.
A common religious scene in Egypt: a mosque next to a church.

Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical
Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely
found in the urban regions of Alexandria and Cairo, and are members of the Greek Orthodox Church
of Alexandria, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Latin Catholic
Church, the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, the Maronite Church, the Armenian
Catholic Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, or the Syriac Orthodox
Church.
Significant minorities within Egypt's Christian community include the following denominations:[6]

 Apostolic Catholic and Orthodox Churches:

 The Coptic Catholic Church (an Eastern Catholic Church) has around 210,000[6] members in
Egypt and roughly 50,000 adherents abroad. It is in union with the Pope in Rome. It is
headed by the Coptic Catholic Patriarch of Alexandria, currently Ibrahim Isaac Sidrak.
 The Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria (an Eastern Orthodox Church) has around
350,000[6] adherents in Egypt, out of whom approximately 45,000 are of Greek (Hellenic)
descent. The Church has another 1.5 million adherents in Africa and between 10,000 and
15,000 ex-patriates in Europe, North and South America. The current Greek Orthodox
Patriarch of Alexandria is Pope Theodoros II.[63]
 The Melkite Greek Catholic Church (an Eastern Catholic Church) has about
7,000[6] members in Egypt. The eparchy of Egypt is looked after by a Protosyncellus, and
has between 35,000 and 50,000 ex-patriates in Europe, North and South America,
and Australia.
 The Armenian Apostolic Church (an Oriental Orthodox Church) has around
7,000[6] adherents in Egypt. Most of them follow the Holy See of Echmiadzin in Armenia,
rather than the Holy See of Cilicia in Lebanon.
 The Latin Catholic Church has around 7,000[6] adherents in Egypt. Most are citizens born in
Egypt but of foreign descent, like Italians, Maltese and French, or members of the
foreign diplomatic corps in Egypt. There are very few native Christian Egyptians who adhere
to the Latin Church, and those who do (several hundreds) do so mainly through marriage.
  The Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East (a Protestant church known in
Egypt as the Anglican Church) has between 10,000 and 15,000 members in Egypt.
 The Maronite Church (an Eastern Catholic Church) has around 5,000[6] adherents in Egypt.
 The Armenian Catholic Church (an Eastern Catholic Church) has around 1,200[6] adherents
in Egypt.
 The Chaldean Catholic Church (an Eastern Catholic Church) has about 500[6] members in
Egypt.
 The Syriac Catholic Church (an Eastern Catholic Church) has around 2,000[6] adherents in
Egypt.
 The Syriac Orthodox Church (an Oriental Orthodox Church) has a very small population in
Egypt, numbering between 450 and 500. Most are students of the Catechetical School of
Alexandria, or foreign students studying in Egyptian universities.

Archangel Michael's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Aswan. A noticeable large proportion of Egyptians in Upper
Egypt are of Coptic Orthodox heritage.

 Protestant churches also exist in Egypt. The total number of Protestants in Egypt is around
200,000.[6] they are:
 The Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile) (a Protestant Church) has around
140,000 members in Egypt.
 The Assemblies of God Church, which has around 40,000 adherents in Egypt.
 The Free Methodist Church, which has 120 churches and has around 10,000 adherents in
Egypt.
 The Christian Brethren Church, which has around 5,000 adherents in Egypt.
 The Pentecostal Church of God, which has Church around 3,500 adherents in Egypt.
 The Pentecostal Holiness Church, which has 1,400 adherents in Egypt.
 The Church of God of Prophecy, which has 1,100 adherents in Egypt.
 The Seventh-day Adventist Church has 852 adherents in Egypt.
Judaism[edit]
Main article: History of the Jews in Egypt
Annex of the Library of Jewish Heritage in Egypt, Ben Ezra Synagogue, Old Cairo.

Before 1956 and according to the 1948 census there were 65,639 Egyptian Jews, including Karaites.
Jews participated in all aspects of Egypt's social, economic and political life; one of the most ardent
Egyptian nationalists, Yaqub Sanu' (Abu Naddara), was Jewish, as were the musician Dawoud
Husni, popular singer Leila Mourad and filmmaker Togo Mizrahi. For a while, Jews from across
the Ottoman Empire and Europe were attracted to Egypt due to the relative harmony that
characterized the local religious landscape in the 19th and early 20th centuries. After the 1956 Suez
Crisis, a great number of Jews were expelled by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Their Egyptian citizenship
was revoked and their properties were confiscated. A steady stream of emigration of Egyptian Jews
followed, reaching a peak after the Six-Day War with Israel in 1967. Today, there are about 50
Jews.[24][32]
Unrecognized and persecuted beliefs[edit]
Ahmadiyya Islam[edit]
Ahmadiyya is traditionally a sect of Islam in the Muslim world. Ahmadis are small community in
Egypt, though the history of Ahmadiyya in Egypt begins in the 1930s.[64]Recently there has been an
upsurge of persecution of Ahmadiyya in Egypt, since Ahmadis are considered non-Muslim by the
Sunni Muslims in Egypt. [65]
Bahá'í Faith[edit]
Main article: Bahá'í Faith in Egypt
Police also regularly detain those without correct documentation and thus some Bahá'ís frequently
stay home to avoid possible arrest.[66] In 2008 a court case allowed Bahá'ís to obtain birth certificates
and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents.[36]
Informal estimates about Bahá'ís population in Egypt suggest that there are approximately
2000 Bahá'ís currently resident in Egypt,[67][68] though some go several times higher.[69][70]
Since their faith is not officially recognized by the state, they were not allowed to use it on their
national identity cards. Without valid identity cards Bahá'ís encounter difficulty registering their
children in school, opening bank accounts, and establishing businesses.[66] On 16 December 2006,
after only one hearing, the High Court of Egypt ruled against the Bahá'ís, stating that the government
would not recognize their religion in official identification cards.[35] The ruling left Bahá'ís unable to
obtain ID cards, birth certificates, or death certificates.[35] However, on January 29, 2008 Cairo's court
of Administrative Justice, ruling on two related court cases, ruled in favour of the Bahá'ís, allowing
them to obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on
court documents.[36] The ruling accepted the compromise solution offered by the Bahá'ís, allowing for
them to obtain identification papers without the Bahá'í Faith being officially recognized.[71][72]
During and since the 2011 Egyptian revolution tensions have remained high - homes have been
burnt[73] though Bahá'ís contributed to the dialog.[74] Since 2011 Bahá'ís while hopeful remain
concerned[68] and a Salafi spokesman has said of Bahá'ís "We will prosecute the Bahai's (sic) on
charge of treason."[69]
Hinduism[edit]
Main article: Hinduism in Egypt
Atheism and agnosticism[edit]
Main article: Irreligion in Egypt
There are Egyptians who identify themselves as atheist and agnostic; until 2008 only one case had
been reported, but their numbers are unknown, as openly expressing such positions risks legal
sanction on the basis of apostasy; however, as religious crimes in Egypt hold a status
to Antragsdelikt, this occurs only if a citizen takes the step of suing the person engaging in apostasy,
and cases are not initiated by the general prosecutor. Openly atheist and irreligious people in Egypt
endure constant violence and death threats from the public.[citation needed] In 2000, an openly atheist
Egyptian writer, who called for the establishment of a local association for atheists, was tried on
charges of insulting Islam in four of his books. Atheists or irreligious people cannot change their
official religious status, thus statistically they are counted as followers of the religion they were born
with. Many are now publicly expressing their views using pseudonyms on social networks and
blogs.[60]

See also[edit]
 Persecution of Copts
 Christianity in Egypt
 List of Coptic Churches in Egypt
 List of Coptic Orthodox Churches in Canada
 List of Coptic Orthodox Churches in the United States
 Hinduism in Egypt