CHAPTER II

The Markandeya Puranam: An Introduction to the Oral and Textual Traditions

In the previous chapter, I have discussed about a few Kulapuranas, which show a

common schema of caste genealogy claiming and reclaiming social status of a few

occupational castes. In this chapter, I will examine the Markandeya Puranam as narrated

by Kunapuli community and its three different versions, which show diverse ideological

aspects dealing with the same caste genealogy of the Padmasali and its affiliated caste,

Kunapuli.

I have selected the following versions available in published form in Telugu:

i. The Markandeya Puranam, commissioned by Padmasali caste and written by a

Vaishnavite poet called Yellakara Nrisimha Kavi, who lived between1511-68 AD.

This text written in dvipada29 (two cantos) style, comprises nine chapters.

ii. The Markandeya Puranam, written by a Shaivite poet, Parvatamantri

Linganamatya around 16th century. It is also in dvipada style, comprises eight

chapters.

iii. The Markandeya Charitam (Veedhinatakam), a hand-written copy by Rachakonda

Venkatachalam belonging to Kunapuli sub-caste. The text had been composed

between 1942 and 1944 in the form of yakshaganam and harikatha adopting

dvipada gathi ragada, a native literary style, comprising of eight chapters.

The above-mentioned versions show a similar approach to the narration of lineage

of Padmasalis, their founder Bhavanarishi and his mission of weaving clothes for gods.

However, the authors constructed these versions while describing some important events.

These texts appear to be ideologically motivated and the poets interpreted the story to suit
                                                                                                                       
29
Dvipada is a native literary composition with two-line metre and with short lyrical lines. Dvipada is
generally used in ballads. Hence, most of the Kulapuranas are written in this style.
61  
 
the needs of the caste and sub-caste. In addition, it is to be examined to know how the

events are constructed and all the texts commonly articulate the origin of Padmasali caste,

its evolution, occupation, caste identity and its relationship with gods. The analysis is made

by focusing on caste genealogy, emphasising the ideological aspect of the different

versions rather than describing all commonalities and differences. I would discuss the

differences in these versions of Kulapuranam, its ethics, its origin, and the significance of

the endorsed occupation by gods. I would argue that each version has a particular ideology.

By analysing the mythical and sacred content of the above versions, I will try to examine

why the authors had chosen the Markandeya Puranam as a caste genealogy of the

Padmasali community and how their stories were created parallel to the Maha Puranas.

1. Introduction

The Markandeya Puranam is one of the popular legends widely circulated in

Telangana through Nakashi painted scrolls, oral tradition and written texts. Although it is

regarded as one of the eighteen scared Maha Puranas attributed to Vedavyasa, a few

versions found in the form of Kulapuranam have a different narrative, which describe caste

genealogy of Padmasalis. According to Jagdish Mittal and Kondapalli Sheshagiri Rao,30

the theme of the Markandeya Puranam is narrated using painted scrolls with a few

different names. Such variations have been observed by Pulikonda Subbachary, a scholar

who worked on performing groups. He confirms that there are different versions of the

Kulapuranam such as the Padma Puranam, the Padma Samhita, the Bhavanarishi

Puranam, and the Bhavanrishi Mahatmyam (Subbachary 113). Most importantly, the

theme is depicted in most of the oldest available painted scrolls in the Deccan region.

                                                                                                                       
30
Jagdish Mittal is an artist and art critic, who is the first one to document the Nakashi scroll paintings
whereas Dr.Kondapalli Sheshagiri Rao was the first one to identify this art form. He conducted a survey on
scroll painting tradition in the region in 1972.
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Evidently, the oldest scroll available with Jagdish Mittal is Markandeya Kulapuranam of

1625 AD.

Several scholars, who worked on the genre of Kulapurana repeatedly mention

scrolls narrating this particular Kulapuranam. Barabara Rossi in her seminal work From

the Ocean of Painting: India’s Popular Paintings 1589 to the Present talks about

Telangana scroll paintings: “the tradition culturally links its caste of professional painters

with other castes”. She further states, “. . . scrolls illustrating legends from the Markandeya

Purana, including the origin of the weavers’ caste, are produced upon request for the

Kunapuli caste, a story telling community that serves the Padmasalis, who are viewers.”

(Rossi 91).

Pulikonda Subbachary summarised the Bhavanarishi Puranam, which is believed

to be part of classical Markandeya Maha Purana. He says that all the Kunapuli performers

indisputably claim that the theme is derived from the Maha Purana. They have written

down their oral stories in the form of poetry for the purpose of recording their oral

tradition, and a few texts, the Bhargavi Parinayam, the Padma Puranam, the Padmasalila

Kulayachaka Puranam, which are acquired by him show a rich literary style just as any

other popular literature of the time (Subbachary 114). However, it is not known whether

these versions have been translated from the Markandeya Maha Purana, which is believed

to be the original transcript composed by Vyasa, or inspired from the medieval Telugu

literature.

Going by the entire flow of events described in the Kulapuranas, it may be assumed

that a deliberate attempt is made to combine a few opening sections of Maha Puranas and

the legends of occupational castes. The construction of the Kulapuranas more or less retain

63  
 
the section of creation of the cosmos that is derived from the “original” text but the entire

plot is a new creation or addition of orally popular legends, which narrate the anecdotes of

belonging to the occupational castes and caste genealogies. Similarly, in the case of the

Markandeya Puranam narrated by Kunapulis, the amalgamation of myth and caste

genealogy of Padmasalis is depicted. The necessity of declaration of caste genealogy seems

to be the central concern of the versions of the Markandeya Kulapuranam.

Although, several authors who composed Kulapuranas claimed that the

Markandeya Maha Purana is the source of their literary compositions, very few truthfully

depended on the classical prototype. In Telugu literature, many poets have translated this

Purana, but Marana was the first poet to translate Markandeya Puranam into Telugu during

the Kakatiya period (Subramanyam 69). G.V. Subramanyam, in his seminal work the

Pradhamandra Mahapuranam, opines that the Markandeya Maha Purana was first

composed in the 3rd century AD and a few sections were added later. According to him,

Marana, a contemporary of Thikkana,31 compiled the first Telugu Purana32 (Markandeya

Puranam) and dedicated to Gannaya Senani, who served under Kakathi Prathaparudra.

Subramanyam believes that the translation must have taken place between 1313 and 1320

AD, a peaceful era of Kakatiya (Subramanyam 72). If it is considered that Marana’s

translation is the first Telugu Purana, no evidence is available to ascertain why the poet had

chosen Markandeya Maha Purana over other Maha Puranas and why the Purana has been

                                                                                                                       
31
Thikkana was one of the three Telugu poets, who translated major sections of The Mahabharata Sanskrit
into Telugu for the first time. The other poets were Nannaya and Errapragada.
32
Divakarla Venkatavadhani, in the prologue of Pradhamandra Maha Puranamu, infers that Marana’s
Markandeya Puranam is the first ever Telugu Purana of the translation era/Puranic era even though it is
much later than Basava Puranam and the Mahabharata. He says that the Basava Puranam does not have the
features of a Purana and Mahabharata is an‘epic’ and not a Purana.

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chosen as a source to construct a Kulapuranam. The reason and purpose of the translation

is to be examined in the light of the medieval social, political and religious conditions.

1.1 The Shivakavi Tradition-The Age of Purana Translations

As discussed earlier, the rising consciousness about Veerashaiva reformations in

the Deccan region necessitated the medieval Telugu rulers to focus on cultural activities.

Particularly, Kakatiyas’ patronage of Kulapithas and Shaivite literature helped in shaping

up a new tradition of translating and creating Puranas. The early Veerashaivism produced

several Shivakavis (poets belonging to Shaivite literary tradition), who adopted a native

style of literature called deshi unlike popular margi style that was in vogue. Particularly in

the Deccani region, the Shaivite literature evolved as a new genre vis-à-vis Sanskrit

literature. Panditharadhya Charitra of Palkuriki Somanatha is one such literary

composition, which paved ways to Shivakavi tradition and Shaivite literature in Telugu

speaking region.

Somanatha introduces a simple style of narration to reach out to common people

and evoke mugdha bhakti33 in them. The style is an amalgamation of classical tradition and

folk tradition. According to G.V.Subramanyam, “bhakti has always been a full-fledged

rasa (aesthetic relish) in Indian folk literature” and it was Somanatha, who “brought this

feature of Indian folk literature into the classical/elite/literate tradition of literary

composition in Telugu” (Panikkar 542, 543). Somanatha’s style of writing aimed at

addressing the common people, who were not learned and thus, “all the works of

Somanatha are known for their colloquial, lucid, emotional style, meant for the purpose of
                                                                                                                       
33
Mugdha bhakti is a type of devotion with innocence, which was propagated in the Shaivite tradition. It is
like madhura bhakti or romantic devotion to Vaishnavites.

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liturgical recitation and emotional singing” (Panikkar 542). It appears that the style of

Somanatha inspired many poets, ballad singers and performers and the notion of mugdha

bhakti was the central aim for selecting Shaivite theme for several Kulapuranas. Possibly,

the style of Shivakavis must have been influenced by the Buddhist and Jain literature that

was written in prakrit and it was already popular even before Somanatha’s mode of

writing. As the Buddhist literature is written in pali language prior to Shivakavi tradition,

the deshi style Telugu literature, like pali, was well received by common people. The style

was not only accepted by the larger social classes but also regarded as a simple non-

brahminical mode, which was used to propagate the non-Vedic ideology. During Kakatiya

period, the deshi style literature was identified with dvipada. The Ranganatha Ramayanam

(Telugu) by Gona Buddha Reddy is one of the first dvipada style writings available

(Panikkar 546).

Coming to the translations of the Sanskrit Puranas, Nannaya was the first Telugu

poet, who translated few chapters of the epic Mahabharata between AD 1047 and 1053.

Marana must have followed the Shivakavi tradition and translated the Markandeya Maha

Purana into Telugu for the first time. Perhaps the Maha Purana, which reveals both

Shaivite and Vaishnavite leanings of the sage Markandeya, must have inspired both

Marana and Gannaya Senani, who respected both religions. Prof. H.H.Wilson, in the

preface to the Vishnu Purana-A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition, states that the

Markandeya Maha Purana has a distinct character and is different from other Maha

Puranas. It does not articulate any particular sectarian spirit; shows little of religious tone

and “it presents an uninterrupted succession of legends” (Wilson 34, 35). These distinct

features might have encouraged Marana to present a unique Purana that was suitable for

the diverse religious and cultural conditions in the Deccan region.

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 With the feature of kathakavya (multiple narrative) Marana’s Markandeya

Puranam “marked a beginning for the Mahapurana and purana works in Telugu being

taken up in big way after this period and continued up to the end of the medieval period”

(Panikkar 547). Thus, several translations came up particularly in deshi style with a variety

of literary forms. One of these literary variations is Vachana (short compositions in poetic

prose), which is developed by Shaivite poets in Karnataka.34 A few Kulapuranas are also

composed in the form of yakshaganam and harikatha to suite performative needs. These

versions are created either by the Kunapuli performers, who knew art of writing poetry or

by others, who were commissioned by the Kunapulis.

1.2. Translations of the Markandeya Puranam in Vachana form

After Marana, Ponnathota Aubalakavi, a poet who belonged to 1540 AD, made a

subsequent translation of the Markandeya Puranam.35 Another translation of the Purana by

Manda Kameshwarakavi is found in the 19th century. According to Subramanyam, it is the

only available translation of Markandeya Purana after Aubalakavi’s text. During this

period, several versions of the Purana have been composed in Vachana form. A few poets

who were responsible for Vachana form of the Purana are Thimmaraju Laxmanacharya,

Nori Gurulinga Shastri, Kallurri Venkata Subramanya Deekshithulu and Vemuri

Jagannatha Sharma. These texts were written in the simple narrative method in order to

reach out to larger section of the people. By the end of 16th century, several texts were

                                                                                                                       
34
Sanjeev Nayyar writes that Vachanas were composed by Basava and his contemporaries during the 12th
and 13th centuries. See “Basavanna and Virasaivism – Lingayat Movement” (Chapter I), May 2001,
eSamskriti. 25th February, 2015.<http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Basavanna-ad-Vir-Shaivism-
Lingayat-Movement-1.aspx>
35
Aubalakavi composed Markandeya Puranam (unavailable) and Vamana Puranam. A poem in the Vamana
Puranam, which is found at Madras Archives, claims that he wrote Markandeya Puranam and dedicated the
two texts to Rana Jagadeka Bhupathi, a ruler of Chennapatnam (present Madras).
67  
 
composed in the form of yakshaganam36 and in the 17th century, the form reached its

zenith. Yakshaganam, largely used by performers in Kulapurana tradition, both oral and

written forms had gone hand in hand. “The continued existence of the oral tradition in its

own right, parallel to and in constant interaction with the literate tradition, can clearly be

seen throughout” (Panikkar 535). Because, yakshaganam, with its combination of songs

and dialogues, is best suitable for folk performances. The form can be differentiated as

songs or song-based narrative, ballad, performance, and conversational narrative. It is also

known by the names Veedhinatakamu (street-drama) or Veedhibhagavatamu (street

performance of the Bhagavata people) or Bayalata (open-air performance) (Panikkar 547,

548). We find mention about yakshaganam and its performers in Somanatha’s

Panditaradhya Charitra of the 12th century. According to this, it may be true that the

performing groups had practiced yakshaganam in their oral tradition much before the first

literary composition. Evidently, Subramanyam points out that no traces of written literature

are found in Telugu before Nannaya and thus, several literary scholars often described the

pre-Nannaya period as one of “oral literature”. He states, “There is a strong evidence to

suggest that there was a vibrant tradition of folk literature in Telugu including a wide

variety of songs, ballads, narratives and theatrical performances, during the pre-Nannaya

period” (Panikkar 535). Therefore, it is clear that the oral tradition in Telugu used folk

literature, legends from Puranas and native literary genres and this is the reason why the

Kulapuranas are written in the form of deshi, particularly in the form of dvipada.

All the above-mentioned versions are either directly related to the theme of

Markandeya Maha Purana or translations of the same. However, two important texts are

                                                                                                                       
36
Sugreevavijayam (16th century) of Kandukuri Rudrakavi, which is the first available yakshaganam written
in Telugu.
68  
 
found by the name Markandeya Puranam with different content focusing on caste

genealogy of Padmasalis. They are composed in dvipada style. Yellakara Nrisimha Kavi, a

Vaishnavite poet, composed one of the versions. Parvatamantri Linganamatya, a Shaivite

poet, composed another version. Both texts can be dated back to the middle of the16th

century. G.V. Subramanyam, in the fifth chapter of the Pradhamandhra Mahapuranam,

discussed about these texts and termed them as “Puranam kani Puranam” which literally

means “the Purana that was not.” He did not acknowledge these texts as translations of the

Markandeya Puranam rather he defined them as caste genealogies of Padmasalis. He states

that both versions show no substantive relation with the Maha Purana even though they

show a few characteristic features of ‘Purana’ in the opening (Subramanyam 623).

Although Subramanyam mentions that the two versions deal with genesis of Padmasali

caste and its evolution focusing on elucidating the legacy of Bhrigu, Markandeya and

Bhavanarishi, he overlooks the aspect of the construction of caste genealogy and its

function. Perhaps, his view was limited to the comparison between the translations of the

Markandeya Maha Purana and these two new versions, which are not entirely based on the

‘original’ theme of the Maha Purana. However, Subramanyam acknowledges these two

versions as different literary compositions, which show a common aim of invoking

Shaivite viewpoint and subsequently, he opines that Yellakara’s version is the first

Markandeya Puranam composed in simple dvipada form (Subramanyam 625). Thus, it

may also be true that Yellakara might have been the first poet, who composed the

Padamasali Kulapuranam in written form.

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2. Narrative Structure of Kulapuranas- A Brief Summary and Commentary

Drawing from various oral and textual sources, I have tried to cull out a summary

of the Kulapuranam (Markandeya Puranam), in order to understand commonalities and

differences among the versions. The broad theme of the Kulapuranam is to present a

conscious structure of caste history of Padmasalis. The texts narrate the stories of the birth

of Bhavanarishi, the origin of occupation and the relationship between the community and

the gods and goddesses associated with their community. A few versions also describe the

birth of Kunapuli sub-caste and their affiliation with the Padmasalis. However, I have

selected three versions of the Markandeya Kulapuranam and analysed the narrative in

which the celebration of caste and negotiation of cultural identity is richly articulated. The

differences, which are found in these versions, can be seen in terms of ideology, identity

and distinctive character of the caste status while foregrounding the class hierarchy in non-

brahminical sects. The textual forms are more independent and seem to be drawn from the

literary style of Classical Purana without losing the core essence of the legend. The

language, the form and the narrativity are very close to the semiotic structure of Maha

Puranas.

The central aim of creating the Kulapuranam or inserting stories related to the

occupational castes into Maha Purana can be seen as an assertion of identity of non-

brahminical castes and rejection of dominant versions that ignored the social function of

Sudra castes. Generally, the themes of Maha Puranas focus on Brahmanism describing the

various ambiences and accessories such as beautiful architecture, furniture embellished

with precious stones, clothing, oil lamps, clean rooms, dazzling ornaments, variety of

weapons and so on, but they do not take pains to elucidate who created them serving many

70  
 
important purposes. This absence of a record of social relevance of occupational castes and

their neglected social status in the formulation of Maha Puranas might have been the

reasons for the origin of Kulapurana tradition.

2.1 Central Idea of the Markandeya Kulapuranam

The aim of the Markandeya Kulapuranam is to establish a strong bond between

gods and Bhavanarishi, the founder of Padmasali caste and his mission of weaving clothes.

The key point in the story is not the origin of cosmos but the legacy of Bhavanarishi. The

Puranam focuses on description of the austere life of Markandeya, who later gave birth to

Bhavanarishi, a sage who was assigned to weave clothes for the gods and goddesses. Lord

Vishnu bestows him with the lotus stem from his navel, from which the sage creates

beautiful clothes. While offering these clothes to gods, the asuras (demons) swallow the

entire bundle of clothes. Bhavanarishi gets back the clothes by killing the demons. When

he goes to offer the clothes to Lord Shiva, he asks for tiger skin instead. Thus,

Bhavanarishi travels all over the world in search of tigers and finds them in the possession

of Bhadravathi, whom he later marries and gets the tigers.

While coming back to Lord Shiva with tigers, he confronts Kaluvasura, a powerful

demon instigated by the sage Narada. Bhavanarishi furiously fights with him but realises

that he needs additional help to win the war. He then requests Lord Shiva to help by

creating retinue with his sweat. This is when Pakasena, the founder of Kunapuli

community emerges from the sweat of the sage and helps him win the war and save the

tigers. During this war, Bhavanarishi transforms one of the pregnant tigers into a cub in

order to save her. The cub that was rescued by Pakasena (the progenitor of Kunapuli

community) and his people became insignia of Kunapuli community. Having recognised

71  
 
the valour and help by Kunapulis, Bhavanarishi grants them a boon to make their life by

narrating and performing the Kulakatha (story of the caste). For their timely help, the

community is also called with another name Samayamuvaru and they claim their small

share in Padmasalis’ income. The share is also called tyagamu (renunciation or sacrifice).

2.1.1 Common Events Described with Subtle Variations

i. Creation of the universe based on Maha Purana

ii. Description of sage Bhrigu’s lineage

iii. Marudhwathi and Mrikanda performing penance for children

iv. Humiliation of naked gods by demons and gods requesting Lord Vishnu and Lord

Shiva for clothing

v. Birth of Bhavanarishi from the yaga (sacrificial fire) performed by Markandeya

vi. Lord Shiva declining clothes presented by Bhavanarishi and asking for tiger skin

vii. Bhavanarishi obtaining tiger skin and the marriage of Bhadravathi and

Bhavanarishi

viii. War between Kaluvasura and Bhavanarishi

ix. Mention about Pakasena or Kunapuli

x. The legacy of Bhavanarishi and the lineage of Padmasalis

2.1.2 Specific Mentions in Different Versions

i. Markandeya takes Bhavanarishi and Panchamamuni to Lord Shiva, requesting for

the art of cloth making

ii. Construction of the loom out of the corpus of demised Kaluvasura

iii. Mention of clothes made for goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesha

72  
 
 iv. Origin of Kunapuli community

3. A Brief Summary of the Markandeya Puranam by Yellakara Nrisimha Kavi

This is an unpublished Kulapuranam based on the Sanskrit version, which is

centred around Markandeya and Bhavanarishi the founder of Padmasali. The purana is

commissioned by Padmasali community, between 1511 and 1568 AD. The story comprises

the detailed account of Markandeya and his son Bhavanarishi, who made and presented

clothes to gods, his marriage to Bhadravathi and their 101 sons by whom the weaving

tradition is continued. Though the story is sponsored by Padmasali caste, no account of

Kunapuli is discussed in it (Suresh 174). Dr. G V. Subrahmanyam in the Prathamandhra

Mahapuranam mentions that, according to the historians, the author, Yellakara Nrisimha

Kavi was a poet belonging to the period 1511-68 AD. Nrisimha Kavi was a disciple of

Tirumala Laxmanacharya and son of Krishnayamatya. The Markandeya Puranam

comprises of nine chapters in the ‘dvipada’ style, which hitherto remains unpublished.37

Even though Nrisimha Kavi mentioned that there is a Sanskrit original for this purana, it is

unavailable.

In the introduction to the kavya (poetic composition), the poet, Nrisimha Kavi

acknowledges that Padmasalis are the inspiration for his Markandeya Puranam and goes

on to praise them immensely in the following cantos. In the first canto, the poet describes

how Lord Brahma created the world. Also, the narrative continues to describe the dialogue

between Shounaka mahamuni (great sage) who was performing penance in the

Naimisharanya (a forest named Naimisha) and Markandeya asking Suta mahamuni about

the history of Bhrigu lineage and continues to describe Suta’s narration. In the second
                                                                                                                       
37
Currently this Purana is available at the Centre for Oriental Research in Sri Venkateshwara University in
Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh (P-R-132).
73  
 
canto, the poet goes on to describe the lineage from Daksha to Mrikanda and narrates in

detail, the story of Kardama Prajapati. The above description matches the opening section

of the classical Markandeya Purana that is believed to be written by Vedavyasa. However,

Yellakara’s later section describes the glory of the sage Bhrigu in detail followed by events

which are absent in the Maha Purana. The third canto illustrates the penance of Mrikanda,

birth of Markandeya and his short life span, which results in an austere penance to please

Lord Shiva where Markandeya is blessed with immortality. In the fourth canto, the

remaining life of Markandeya is narrated.

All these events which are not found in the Maha Purana substantiate the Shaivite

connection of the Padmasali community. According to the Kulapuranam, Markandeya

initiated weaving as an occupation by giving birth to Bhavanarishi as well as created a

legacy of Padamasalis. Since Markandeya was rescued from Lord Yama and blessed to

have immortal life by Lord Shiva, the weavers community adopted Shaivism.

A few other episodes which are narrated in Yellakara’s Markandeya Puranam

prove that the myth is equivalent to Bhagavata and Markandeya was a great devotee of

Lord Vishnu. The socio-political conditions, shaped by both Shavite and Vaishnavite belief

systems that were predominant during the creation of Kulapuranam are certainly reflected.

The construction of story, the origin of cosmos and the sacred deeds of Markandeya all

manifest in the Kulapuranam that make it a sacred book of Padmasalis. Yellakara, being a

Vaishnavite poet, introduced Markandeya as a devotee of Lord Vishnu based on the

74  
 
Markandeya Maha Purana and portrayed as a gift of Lord Shiva to appease the Bhandari38

people who followed Veerashaivism during his time.

Markandeya performs an austere penance for more than 10,000 years and Indra, the

Lord of gods, tries to distract Markandeya from his penance by sending the celestial

nymphs Rambha, and Menaka, who fail in their effort. Seeing the fire of Markandeya

penance burn all the worlds, the gods go to Sri Mahavishnu (another name for Lord

Vishnu) for rescue. Sri Mahavishnu blesses Markandeya with Vishnunama chintana (in the

prayers of Lord Vishnu) that is eternal. Markandeya then tours all the sacred places and

when he is in Badarikashrama (a holy place near present Badarinath) there is a huge

calamity and all worlds are submerged in water. He then goes to the banyan leaf where Sri

Mahavishnu is residing and then praises vatapatra sayee (Lord Vishnu, who slept on

banyan leaf) and enters into Vishnu nasaputam (the world in the nostrils of Lord Vishnu)

and visualises the akhilanda bhanda (the universe) and gives birth to Pancha mamuni and

Bhavanarishi, who became progenitors of the weavers’ caste.

The fifth canto exclusively narrates the origin of weaving occupation and the

mission of producing clothes for clothless gods. The canto begins with the sages

questioning Suta mahamuni how such an austere celibate bachelor like Markandeya can

have a child and how that child went on to provide clothes to all the three worlds. Then the

poet narrates quoting Suta’s response that devas (gods), sages and celestial beings such as

yakshas, kinneras and kimpurushas had no clothes to wear, felt ashamed about their

situation and went and praised Lord Shiva and pleaded for clothes stating that having no

clothes to cover their pride is worse than being insulted by caste. Lord Shiva then summons

                                                                                                                       
38
Bhandari is a weaving community. According to Linganamatya, they are descendents of Bhavanarishi.
75  
 
Markandeya and orders him to perform an oblation to provide clothes for all the three

worlds. From the oblation that Markandeya performed were born two strong powerful

brothers as bright as the Sun. Of these, the younger was Bhavanarishi, who performed

penance to invoke Sri Mahavishnu (Lord Vishnu) to learn the art of weaving and went on

to prepare clothes for all the three worlds upon the orders of Lord Shiva.

In the sixth canto, the narrative goes on to describe how the ocean of milk was

churned in the Chakshusha Manvantara (a period of Manu) and when goddess Lakshmi

Devi was born from it, Samudra (Lord of Ocean) called upon Bhavanarishi and asked him

to weave a celestial saree for her. Bhavanarishi weaves a celestial silk saree and presents it

to the goddess Lakshmi with kumkum and turmeric.39 She, out of gratitude and happiness,

considers him her brother. Bhairava (a form of Lord Shiva) alleges that Bhavanarishi is not

providing everyone with the best celestial silk garments and curses that the clothes given

by him will not last long. Bhavanarishi upset by Bhairava’s curse, in turn curses him to

roam around naked with a trident in his hand. Also, the story of Gajanana is also narrated

in the following way. Gajanana asks Lord Shiva about his marriage and Shiva advises him

to see Bhavanarishi for his wedding clothes. Gajanana following the advice goes to

Bhavanarishi, prays him and asks for wedding clothes. Bhavanarishi tells him “since your

marriage is tomorrow, please stay in my house until tomorrow.” Thus the adage

“Gajanana’s marriage is tomorrow” has become popular.

In the seventh canto, the following story is narrated. Sun God has three wives

Sangya, Chaya and Badaba. Of these, Badaba had two daughters Ashvini and Bhadravathi.

Of the two, Bhadravathi was an extremely beautiful girl. One day when she was taking a

                                                                                                                       
39
Presenting a saree with kumkum and turmeric powders is a traditional Hindu custom.
76  
 
stroll in her garden, sage Narada appears to her and informs her that it is decided by Lord

Brahma in Satyaloka (abode of Brahma) that Bhavanarishi, son of Markandeya, will be her

husband. After hearing Sage Narada’s words, Bhadravathi begins to pray and worship

Katyayani (a form of Goddess Parvati, wife of Lord Shiva) for being gifted with

Bhavanarishi as her husband. Katyayani, having pleased with Bhadravathi’s worship

requests Lord Shiva to fulfill her devotee’s desire. Shiva calls upon Bhavanarishi and asks

him to bring a tiger’s skin for him. Bhavanarishi searches for tigers all over the three

worlds and does not find one anywhere. Frustrated, Bhavanarishi asks Sage Narada where

all the tigers went. Narada informs him that all the tigers are in the custody of Bhadravathi

in a place called Siddhashrama on the Meru hill.

In the eighth canto of the epic poem, the story continues as follows. Bhavanarishi,

following the advice of Sage Narada, goes on to the Meru hill and is seen by Bhadravathi

and her maidens when he is taking a bath in the river. Bhadravathi, mesmerised by the

handsome and charming Bhanavarishi, at once recognises that he is the one sage Narada

indicated, and takes him to her father, the Lord Sun. Bhavanarishi tells Lord Sun about the

task that he was there for and the Lord objects to the killing of tigers. However,

Bhavanarishi convinces him that it is for Lord Shiva and gains his acceptance for the tiger.

Lord Sun also requests Bhavanarishi to accept his daughter as his bride. Bhavanarishi tells

him that he will marry Bhadravathi as per the decision of Sri Mahavishnu, but first he will

complete the task as required by Lord Shiva. He presents his diamond ring to Bhadravathi

as a token, and accepts diamond crown and gifts from his future mother-in-law Badaba.

Meanwhile, the demon Kaluvasena, instigated by sage Narada, invites Bhavanarishi for

dual warfare. Bhavanarishi uses the weapon acquired from Sage Vishwamitra and kills the

demon in a ferocious battle.

77  
 
 The ninth canto continues to narrate the story of the great wedding of Bhavanarishi

and Bhadravathi that was celebrated for three days all across the three worlds and the

lineage of their children Padmasalis who learnt the art of weaving from Sri Mahavishnu.

The Padmasalis brought the cottonseeds on to the earth and wove colourful cloth from their

thread to make garments for all. The Purana concludes with Ashvini, the granddaughter of

Lord Sun, with the permission of the Lord, marrying her daughters to Bhavanarishi’s sons

and the continuation of the great lineage of Padmasalis.

4. A Brief Summary of the Markandeya Puranam by Parvatamantri Linganamatya

Parvatamantri Linganamatya was a Shaivite poet and followed Shivakavi tradition.

In the opening section, he describes himself as the follower of Panditaradhya and offers

prayers to poets belonging to the Kavya tradition (epic poetry). He composed the

Markandeya Puranam in dvipada meter comprising eight cantos.40 The poem describes the

story as narrated by the Sage Gargeya to Valakhilya.

This unpublished volume’s date is unknown but the style and details given in the

book suggest that the writing must have taken place after 1568.41 The story is based on the

original text, which shows various events entirely different from Yellakara Nrisimha

Kavi’s version. The main story has a similar beginning but with the traditional

panchalakshana style. The general characteristic feature of a Purana is the description of

panchalakshana (five characteristics). They are: 1) history, 2) cosmology based on

                                                                                                                       
40
This unpublished manuscript is currently in the Oriental Research Centre in Sri Venkateswara University
in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.
41
There is no concrete evidence to determine the period of Linganamatya. The poet does mention
Panditardhya Charithra in his kavya (a long poem), which indicates that he could have been a contemporary
of Panditardhya of 12th century AD. However, Dr. G V Subrahmanyam mentions that the poetic tradition,
diction and style of the kavya indicates that the poet is of a later age than Nrisimha Kavi. As it is determined,
Yellakara Nrisimha Kavi belongs to the period 1511-68 AD. It is plausible that Linganamatya must have
belonged to a period after 1568 AD.
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symbolic and dogmatic principles, 3) secondary creation, 4) genealogy of kings and 5)

Manvantaras (lineage of Manus) (Subramanyam 623). It gives the history of the Padmasali

caste, genesis of the world, Manvantaras, entire genealogy of Bhrigu focusing on

Markandeya’s immortal ascetic life and his son, Bhavanarishi and his deeds. However, the

poet interpreted a few events in order to establish the Shaivite prominence.

The first canto of the kavya describes the birth of Lord Brahma from the blooming

lotus, the description of times when Manus are born and the creation of the chaturvarna

(four varnas). Along with these, the poet also describes the narrative of birth of

Markandeya to Mrikanda with the boon of Lord Brahma, about Bhavanarishi and his

amazing ability and skills to weave colourful fabrics.

In the second canto, Valakhilya and others question sage Gargeya about the reason

behind Lord Shiva wearing a tiger’s hide while other gods are wearing silk garments.

Gargeya then begins to recite the story of Lord Shiva, who once seated in the assembly of

gods adorned by silk garments demands for a tiger’s hide for him. Then Bhavanarishi, the

creator of garments for all the three worlds, pledges to bring the tiger’s hide goes on to

bring it for Lord Shiva with his permission. All the tigers in three worlds, upon hearing that

Bhavanarishi is coming after them, flee towards Eastern Mountains. Bhavanarishi searches

all the forests for the tigers. He finds all other animals except tigers and is surprised not to

find them. Then he conjures that they could be on the Mountain of dawn and goes up to it

to find them. On the mountain of dawn, he catches sight of the beautiful young woman

Bhadravathi adorned with celestial garments, perfumes and jewellery, in a twelve-storied

mansion constructed by Vishwakarma. He sees his image on the magical garment in the

hand of Bhadravathi and realises that she is in deep love with him as she is engrossed

79  
 
looking at the image imprinted on the garment, which is presented to her by her mother.

Upon meeting, he explains to her that he is on a mission to obtain tiger’s hide for Lord

Shiva and came there looking for tigers. Bhadravathi takes him to her father, Lord Sun and

expresses her wish to marry him. Lord Sun consents to her love and requests Bhavanarishi

to marry his daughter. As Bhavanarishi accepts the marriage proposal immediately,

Bhadravathi is elated and provides the information about the tigers. Bhavanarishi takes the

tigers to Devaloka (adobe of gods) to fulfill the order of Lord Shiva. He skins one of the

tigers, and provides the hide to Lord Shiva. Bhavanarishi creates Pakasena to guard all the

tigers on mount Gandhamanu.

In the third canto, the poet narrates the story of the wedding of Bhavanarishi and

Bhadravathi, which gains acceptance from Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma and

all the other gods. Lord Shiva summons Brihaspati and sets up the muhurtham (auspicious

time) for the wedding. All the gods and the three worlds attend the wedding. Bhavanarishi

presents all the gods with wonderful garments and tiger’s hide to Lord Shiva. Bhavanarishi

and Bhadravathi have 101offsprings in the due course of their happy married life.

Bhavanarishi orders his offsprings to provide garments to all the people of Anga, Vanga,

Kalinga, Gurjara, Chola, Kukura, Kerala and Magadha kingdoms.

In the town of Vishalakshi, the nephews of the demon Kaluvasena (Kaluvasura),

Jagati Andhakasura and Bhasmasura are the rulers, and they wanted to have Sringara

(romance) with their wives and decorated them all with diamonds, jewels and precious

ornaments. However, they realised the real Sringara in the form of saree and approached

their uncle Kaluavasura for garments, particularly the saree. They explain to him that

sarees are very crucial for any romance and Sringara and the amaras (immortal gods) have

80  
 
them and ask him to steal them from them. Kaluvasura goes to Kailasa (the abode of Lord

Shiva), turns himself into a fly and sticks to the tail of Nandeeshwara (the Bull, the vehicle

of Lord Shiva). In the meantime, Bhavanarishi also visits Kailasa to present Lord Shiva,

wonderful garments woven with thousands of colours. Kaluvasura turns into a bed bug,

enters into the bed of Bhavanarishi, and learns all the art of weaving. He also steals the

loom of Bhavanarishi, takes it to the town of Vishalakshi, and orders his nephews to guard

it. Bhavanarishi learns the conspiracies of Kaluvasura, goes to the trinity, Brahma, Vishnu

and Maheswara, seeks their blessings and tells them he is going to a war with Kaluvasura,

to defeat him, bring back his loom and the art of weaving. Kaluvasura claims that he is a

superior warrior and will defeat Bhavanarishi easily and thus asks him to retreat.

Bahavanarishi, angered by the arrogance of Kaluvasura, beheads him with one stroke of his

sword. But, as many times Bhavanarishi tries to behead him, Kaluvasura’s head falls to the

earth and it springs back to stick to his neck and brings him back alive. This happens how

many ever times Bhavanarishi tries to behead him. The fighting continues for several days

but Kaluvasura is undefeated and their bodies turn crimson, soaked with blood.

Bhavanarishi thinks that only the brahmastra, the weapon of Lord Brahma or the

chandrahasa, Lord Shiva’s sword would be able to kill Kaluvasura. He goes and meets

them in the night, gets the weapons and returns to war in the morning. Bhavanarishi’s

brothers bring the tigers for help and Bhavanarishi gets on a ferocious tiger and valiantly

kills the demons. The tigers drink the blood of demons so that it does not touch the earth,

since each drop of blood of the demons gives birth to more demons. Finally, Bhavanarishi

kills Kaluvasura with brahmastra and chandrahasa in a ferocious battle. He then

constructs a loom from the body of Kaluvasura using his various body parts such as hair,

nerves, skin and bones. When Bhavanarishi beheads Kaluvasura in the Tretayuga (the

81  
 
epoch of the Ramayana), it disappears and reappears in Dvaparayuga (the epoch of the

Mahabharata).

In the town of Kambhoji, a community called Bhandaris, known as the descendants

of Bhavanarishi and another community called Atakaras, descendants of Kaluvasura

happen to see the head of demised Kaluvasura. Bhanu, head of the Bhandaris and Atma,

head of Atakaras go for hunting. After a while of hunting, they get tired, take rest under a

bush and see a head glowing like a bright lamp. Bhanu recognises the head as that of

Kaluvasura and claims it since his grandfather Bhavanarishi had killed the demon. Atma

also claims the head as his property as it is his grandfather. However, Bhanu grabs the head

and takes it back to his place. After some days, Atma goes and snatches the head from

Bhanu and shows to his people proudly that it is his grandfather’s head. Bhanu approaches

his caste leaders and they advise him to pray to Bhavanarishi. Bhanu prays to Bhavanarishi

and goes to war with Atma. During this war, a great warrior named Chemateshwara is born

from the sweat of Bhanu. Fighting with Chemateshwara, Atma turns into an invisible

demon called Mallakasura and disappears. Unable to trace Mallakasura, Chemateshwara

prays to goddess Chandika. She advises him to go into the ocean and use the net to capture

Mallakasura, who is hiding in the ocean. Chemateshwara captures Mallakasura, kills him,

collects his blood in a pot, and presents it to Chandika Devi. The goddess soaks cotton

thread in the blood and orders Chemateshwara to weave a garment and he declines her

order saying that they are used to weaving in five colours and it is not appropriate to weave

with thread soaked in blood. Then the goddess orders the communities of Thoguta and

Penumal to weave the garments. Then the three Lords Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara

(Lord Shiva) form a jury and decide to place Kaluvasura’s head on Lord Shiva’s temple.

They also advise Bhandaris and Atakaras to live in peace and harmony thereafter.
82  
 
 In the eighth canto, the poet explains that he translated the text from Sanskrit into

Telugu, in ‘dvipada’ meter and concludes with the prayer of Lord Shiva who had given the

boon of immortality to Markandeya. The story of Markandeya has been added towards the

end.

All the sages ask Sage Suta to narrate the story of Markandeya who attained the

boon of immortality from Lord Shiva. Sage Suta narrates the story of Markandeya who

was born as a boon to Mrikanda after performing an austere penance to Lord Shiva praying

for children. Lord Shiva, along with goddess Parvati, appear to Mrikanda and offer him a

choice between 100 sons who will live long but without good qualities or a boy who will

only live 16 years with all the best qualities in the world and bring name and fame to his

lineage. Mrikanda prefers the latter, names him Markandeya, teaches him all the education,

and makes him into a learned boy. Markandeya, brilliant and genius by birth, learns

everything from his father quickly and becomes a learned person. When Markandeya

attains the age of fifteen, Mrikanda gets terribly worried about the brilliant boy’s destined

death at the age of sixteen. Markandeya learns about his destiny and his father’s worry and

decides to perform austere penance to Lord Shiva to seek his blessings. In the meanwhile,

Lord Yama (the god of death), comes to take his life away as soon as he completes the age

of sixteen. Markandeya starts to run away from Lord Yama. However, when Lord Yama

warns him that he cannot run far away from him, Markandeya embraces Shiva Linga and

clings on to it. Lord Yama says that no force in this universe can stop his yamapasha

(noose) from taking away his life since Lord Brahma had written that destiny when

Markandeya was born. He throws the yamapasha to grab the life of Markandeya and pulls

with all his almighty. Since Markandeya was clinging to Shiva Linga the yamapasha also

pulls the Linga and Lord Shiva is deeply perturbed by this. Disturbed and angered that his
83  
 
disciples are being assaulted, Lord Shiva appears in his viswaroopa (gigantic form) with all

his four hands wielded with weapons and kicks Lord Yama. Lord Yama falls like a

chopped tree. Lord Shiva grants the boon of immortality to Markandeya. Then Lord

Brahma and Lord Vishnu and all the gods pray to Lord Shiva that death is inevitable to any

mortal human being and thus Lord Yama, being the death god, must be brought back to

life. Lord Shiva brings back Lord Yama to life and orders Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and

all the gods that all his disciples must be protected. Thus ends the eighth canto and the

Purana.

Linganamatya’s version is more descriptive elaborating the events in poetic style.

The language and the flow of events show that the text is written to suit the recitation of the

Kulapuranam rather using for a folk performance. It is not known whether this story was

written in order to make a few corrections found in the oral Kulapuranam, which was

narrated by Kunapulis. Unlike Yellakara, the poet discusses more about Bhavanarishi in

the initial chapters and about Markandeya in the later sections. He conceived Bhavanarishi

as a hero, who fought for his occupation rather than a mere progenitor of caste. This

establishes Padmasalis equally powerful like warrior-caste, Kshatriya, and the caste

genealogy, tracing from great sage Markandeya, claim the higher social status in the caste

system. This version explains the legacy of Bhavanarishi more ornately and precisely,

without discussing the origin of Kunapuli. He only mentions the name Pakasena and

portrays him as Bhavanarishi’s servant. This approach creates a sense of romanticism

about the occupational caste. Hence, it appears that Linganamatya was a Shaivite poet and

must have belonged to Padmasali community or Padmasalis might have commissioned his

version. However, there is no evidence available to establish his association with

Padmasali caste.
84  
 
5. A Brief Summary of the Markandeya Puranam by Rachakonda Venkatachalam

Among several independent compositions, which are composed during the 19th and

20th centuries, only a few are ascribed to Kunapulis. They are generally composed in the

form of yakshaganam, harikatha and veedhinatakam. A native version of Markandeya

Charitham, in the form of veedhinatakam (yakshaganam) is found during my fieldwork.

Gadi Venkatadri of Jagityala acquired this unpublished hand-written copy, which shows

two forms, yakshaganam, harikatha, dated between 1942 and 1944. (Fig.13). The text is

ascribed to Rachakonda Venkatachalam, a Kunapuli performer who belonged to Nalgonda

district of Telangana. The poet explains that the story, which he learnt, is taken from the

Bhagavatam composed by a Sitaramayogi in the form of Veedhinatakam. Nevertheless,

there is no such story found in the Bhagavata Purana. Hence, we can assume that the story

might have been taken from Veedhibhagavatam, an umbrella term used for a set of street

performances in Telangana. It is not clear whether this version is a reproduction of

veedhinatakam by Sitaramayogi or his own composition. However, it may be true that

Venkatachalam, being a performer, might have taken the story from a version written for

yakshaganam performance in 1942, and also composed in the form of harikatha in 1944.

Dr. Prodduturi Yellareddy in his Telangana Yakshagana Rachana Prayogam states that

Markandeya Charitra has been performed in the form of yakshagana for ages (Yellareddy

342, 346).

The Markandeya Charitham is composed in deshi style and the poet claims that it is

written in dvipada gathi ragada.42 However, there is blend of songs, poems and prose, and

                                                                                                                       
42
Dvipada gathi ragada is a style of literature that comprises of Ragada and Dvipada meter. Ragada is an
indigenous literary style influenced by Sanskrit, Prakrit and Deshi meter style. Dvipada is another native free
verse poetic structure with two cantos. Gati is flow of writing.
85  
 
the language used by the poet is local-dialect. The text shows three literary styles as the

first section is written in yakshaganam and the same is modified into Harikatha. The

section in the form of yakshaganam is explanatory, whereas, the harikatha form is shorter

as it is meant for a different performance. harikatha is a “story of gods”43 particularly

associated with Hari (Lord Vishnu). It is a “composition of music, dance and literature”

(Adibhatla 5, 25). A few scholars believe that harikatha is an offshoot of Yakshaganam.

However, according to Dr. S.V.Jogarao, the two are different forms and have different

approaches.44 Only the modern performers particularly belonging to Telugu region claim

that both are same (Jogarao 74, 75). However, several versions of the Markandeya

Puranam are written in both forms, and perhaps, that is why the sections in the

Venkatachalam’s version show different poetic forms.

In this with prose, he used many other poetic methods called seesa, kanda, dvipada,

and champakamala. Hence, it may also be called champu kaavya. The long poem begins

with a chapter, Pralayakala Mahatyam (the description of apocalypse) and then Bhrigu

Mahatyam (the description of the greatness of sage Bhrigu). The story starts with an

account of assembly of sages Shavana, Bharadwaja, Shandilya, Kumbha Bhavana,

Vasishta, Bhargava, Gautama and Mandapala, who gather to perform a penance and debate

over who is the most gentle tempered of the three Thrimurtis (Lords Brahma, Vishnu and

Shiva). One sage says Lord Shiva, other says Lord Vishnu, and another says Lord Brahma.

                                                                                                                       
43
According to the famous harikatha performer, Adibhatla Narayanadasu, main features of a Harikatha are
theological dogmas, ethical values and devotion. It is a composition of dance, song, instrument and
preaching.
44
Andhra Vanjmaya Charithra holds different views. Famous yakshagana composer Bagepally
Ananthamacharya opined harikatha and yakshaganam are similar. S.V. Jogarao disagrees with this argument
citing the historical development of these forms. Nayakas patronised written Yakshaganas during 16th and
17th century well before harikatha, which was initiated with the name of Abhang in Maharashtra in 17th
century. No writer mentioned about these forms as it is said that harikatha is an offshoot of the yakshagana
during this time. Harikatha, as a modern form is called as Kathakaalakshepam or kaalakshepam in Karnataka.
86  
 
Meanwhile, sage Bhrigu arrives and all the other sages approach him, as he is the most

learned and wisest among them. Bhrigu set off on the mission to find out the gentlest of the

Trimurtis. He first goes to Lord Brahma and approaches him arrogantly. Lord Brahma gets

enraged and kicks the sage. Bhrigu gets very angry and imprecates Lord Brahma that he

shall have no worship or temples whatsoever on the earth. Saint Bhrigu goes to Lord Shiva

to explain his situation and even Lord Shiva gets very angry about his behaviour, as he is

disturbed in his romance with his wife Parvathi and kicks him out of Kailasa. Sage Bhrigu

gets angry with Lord Shiva and imprecates him that he would receive worship to his

phallic form only.

Then, the enraged sage, Bhrigu goes to Lord Vishnu’s abode and does not get any

response from Lord Vishnu. The disappointed sage kicks Lord Vishnu on his chest.

However, Lord Vishnu very gently and peacefully pacifies the sage by splitting the eye (an

embodiment of arrogance) on his feet, making him sit on his throne and washing his feet

with scented water. Having lost the arrogance, sage Bhrigu tells Lord Vishnu that he did all

this to clear the doubt expressed by the saints. He goes to the sages and reports to them that

Lord Vishnu is the most gentle of the Thrimurthis. However, the sages inform Bhrigu that

since Lord Shiva had no clue about the purpose of sage Bhrigu’s visit to the Kailasa, he

misunderstood the act of the sage, and cursed Bhrigu’s son Mrikanda to become a child-

less person.

Mrikanda and his wife, Marudwathi wait for ages to have children. One day when

the sage Durvasa arrives in their home, they pray to the sage to bless them with children.

Sage Durvasa advises them to perform severe penance to Lord Shiva in the divine garden

on the banks of river Cauveri. The couple performs penance to Lord Shiva for a thousand

87  
 
years and Lord Shiva appears to them and blesses with a magnificent boy, who would

acquire all the wisdom and knowledge on the earth but would live for only sixteen years.

Marudwathi becomes pregnant and gives birth to a bright boy in the month of Ashvayuja,

in the star of Punarvasu and on the midnight of Saptami, the Monday. All the saints,

Brahmins and gods are impressed by the brightness of the boy who is born. The boy is

named Markandeya upon the advice of all the saints and Brahmins. The boy grows up as

an apple of his parents and learns all the Vedas, Puranas, knowledge and wisdom. During

his upanayana (a ritual to become a complete Brahmin), akashavani (the heavenly voice)

reminds the parents that the boy is short-lived and will die at the age of sixteen. As all the

Brahmins had already blessed the boy to live forever during the upanayana, they advise the

boy to perform penance for Lord Shiva to attain a longer life. The boy seeks his parents’

permission and goes to bilva vana (a forest of Bilva trees) on the bank of river Saraswati to

perform the penance.

When Markandeya turns sixteen, he is destined to die and Lord Yama (God of

death) sends his soldiers to fetch the life of the boy. However, the soldiers are unable to go

any close to the boy due to the fire of the penance that is protecting the boy. They inform

the same to Lord Yama and Yama himself goes to fetch the life of the boy. However, he is

bedazzled by the light and fire around the boy and informs him that he has come to end his

life and he needs to fulfill his Dharma. However, Markandeya refuses to go with him and

an altercation happens between him and Yama. Yama throws his death cord to pull away

life from Markandeya and the boy refuses to go with him and embraces a Shiva Linga

praying to Lord Shiva. Lord Yama’s death cord also pulls Lord Shiva’s life from Linga and

Shiva gets enraged by this and comes down to kill Lord Yama, but all the saints, gods,

88  
 
Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma prevent him. Thus, Lord Shiva forgives Yama and grants

full span of life to Markandeya.

One day all the three hundred crore gods go to Lord Shiva and express that they are

annoyed by demons as they have no clothes to cover their bodies. Lord Shiva assures them

that they would soon get the clothes and the demons will be killed. He then summons sage

Markandeya to Kailasa in order to make the clothes for all the three worlds and the gods.

He requests Markandeya to make clothes and save the grace of Lord Vishnu, Lord Brahma,

Gods and the three worlds and save them from the harassment of the demons. Markandeya

was advised to perform a sacrificial ritual to give birth to two young handsome and bright

boys, Panchaputi and Bhavanarishi, who would be born from the Sravana Gunda

(sacrificial pit). He was told that the younger one would be able to accomplish the task by

praying to Lord Vishnu on the banks of river Mandakini.

Markandeya performs the penance. As indicated by Lord Shiva, the two sons are

born, and both of them learn all the education, knowledge and wisdom from Saint

Vishwamithra. The younger one Bhavanarishi bestowed with the task of providing clothes

to saints, gods and the three worlds by Lord Vishnu and is blessed with the art of cloth

making and the resources necessary for it. He makes clothes for all, gifts them, and is

blessed by everyone. This story is told by Suta mahamuni addressing all the saints. After

all the saints and gods get their clothes, Lord Shiva asks Bhavanarishi for a tiger-hide for

himself. Bhavanarishi goes in search of tiger’s hide. Bhadravathi, the daughter of Sun god,

asks her very well-dressed father that from where do these clothes come from. Sun God

informs her about Bhavanarishi. By then the decision is made in Satya Loka about the

marriage of Bhavanarishi and Bhadravathi. Bhavanarishi comes to the garden where

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Bhadravathi is sitting with her companions. On his arrival, she takes him to Lord Sun to

seek his consent for their marriage. Lord Sun agrees to the proposal but in return,

Bhavanarishi requests for tigers and insists that Lord Shiva’s wish is more important than

the marriage. With the permission of Lord Sun, he leaves for Lord Shiva’s abode along

with the tigers.

Enroute to Kailasa, saint Narada meets Bhavanarishi and informs him about a

demon Kaluvasena, who has been harassing everyone. Before meeting Bhavanarishi, the

tricky saint Narada had already met Kaluvasena and tells him about Bhavanarishi,

portraying him as an “arrogant person” who has mastered the art of cloth making and

wants to attack Kaluvasena’s empire. Kaluvasena gets enraged and invites Bhavanarishi for

a fierce battle. He orders his feudatory demon kings Khadgasura, Tarakasura, Gajasura,

Jihvasura, Andhakasura to fight with Bhavanarishi. Bhavanarishi fights the demons with

all valour and courage; however, they are reborn again as soon as they are killed.

Bhavanarishi seeks Lord Shiva for advice and Shiva says a person called Pakasena, who

will take birth from a rock, will be able to herd tigers and will be able to assist him in the

war. Bhavanarishi prays to Lord Shiva and sprinkles water on a rock and Pakasena is born

from the rock. Pakasena herds the tigers and makes sure that the blood of the killed demons

does not touch the earth. As the rebirth of the demons is stopped, Bhavanarishi prays to

Lord Shiva and kills the demon Kaluvasena with the weapon chandrahasa. Veerabhadra,

the commander-in-chief of Lord Shiva’s army also assists Bhavanarishi in the battle. After

the battle, Bhavanarishi tells Pakasena that his children would be named as Samayamvaru

due to his timely help and will be blessed by all the saints and gods of three worlds. Also,

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since Pakasena herded the tigers very well and killed the demons, his children would be

popular on the earth as Kunapuli and their caste would be Padigaraju45.

The Purana ends with Bhavanarishi blessing the entire lineage of Pakasena. The

poet also describes that after Kaluvasura’s death a loom (that is used for weaving clothes)

was made from the body parts of the demon.

5.1 Parts of Kaluvasura’s Body used in Making of the Loom

• Skull – kandela chippa

• Throat – naade

• Hip bone - donuga

• Moustache – kudurulu

• Hands – undetalu

• Hair – kunche

• Ribs – laaka baddelu

• Nerves – sootraalu

• Ears – talupulu

• Heart – savalaksha gundelu

• Feet – paakollu

• Eyes – didlu

(The above terms in Telugu are used in Kunapuli community dialect, which denote

the implements of a loom)

Venkatachalam upholds both Shaivite and Vaishnavite beliefs in his text. The story

is written in simple free verse style to reach out to even common people. This version
                                                                                                                       
45
Another name of Kunapuli community, who holds flags with the insignia of Padmasali caste
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shows some new additions such as gods humiliated and harassed by Kaluvasena,

Bhavanarishi’s tutelage under Vishwamitra and origin of Kunapulis and their assistance to

Bhavanarishi in the war. The poet takes the name of Vishwamitra as the teacher of

Bhavanarishi due to his popularity among the masses. No other version mentions about

these events. By discussing humiliation of gods, the poet substantiates that the prestige of

gods was in the hands of a Padmasali. This event is significant in the making Kulapuranam

and the beginning of weaving as an essential occupation. Also, he gives the details of

implements of the loom, which was created by Bhavanarishi. The event describes

Bhavanarishi not only as a hero who killed the demon but also as the creator of the loom.

The caste genealogy of Kunapuli is also a necessary addition to proclaim the performer’s

identity and to reiterate the importance of the Kunapulis addressing the communities of

Padmasalis and Kunapulis.

6. Common Episodes in the Kulapuranas

All versions of Kulapuranam attribute the story to sage Suta,46 who narrates the

events of Markandeya Purana in conversation with sage Shounaka and other sages.

Generally, the events described as answers to the questions asked by Shounaka and others

participated in the discourse. Thus, the written text is based on oral narration of Suta that

was written down later by Vyasa, like all Puranas. Evidently, these versions make Suta

responsible for the narrative structure. Similarly, the written Kulapuranas must have

shaped based on oral tradition. It is not possible to ascertain whether all Kulapuranas are

based on oral tradition and the Maha Puranas are the sources for them, other than a few

translations. However, in the case of Markandeya Kulapuranam, narrated by Kunapulis,

                                                                                                                       
46
Suta was the bard belonging to a mixed caste (born to a Brahmin mother and Kshatriya father), who
narrated the epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.

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there is no direct source for the translation even though many of the versions claim that the

Kulapuranam is Vyasaproktha (penned by Vyasa).

Analysing the three versions, I have tried to comprehend the main events that

determine the Kulapuranam and its focus on the caste-lineage and the origin of occupation.

I have given a brief idea of the structure of Kulapuranam, based on oral and textual stories

and compared with the versions compiled by Yellakara, Linganamatya and

Venkatachalam.

6.1 Creation of the World Narrated in the Kulapuranas

The opening section of a Kulapuranam narrates the genesis of the world that shows

a strong bonding between gods and human world. Generally, the creation of the world is

attributed to Lord Brahma or all the Thrimurthis.47 However, few other Kulapuranas

attribute the creation to different gods. For instance, the Jamba Puranam gives this credit

to Jambavantha and Adishakthi instead of Lord Brahma or Thrimurthis. The creation of the

world, according to the popular Markandeya Puranam, is described commonly elaborating

the birth of Thrimurthis, birth of navabrahmas (the nine Brahmas) and Sage Bhrigu (one of

the navabrahmas). Linganamatya attributes the creation of world to Aja (Brahma) by the

command of Lord Shiva. This version gives importance to Shaivism as the text is written

during Shaivite literature in vogue in the South and Bhakthi movement of Krishna cult in

the North India and a few parts of Southern Karnataka. According to Linganamatya’s

version, the birth of Lord Brahma from the Lotus originated from Lord Vishnu, who is

assumed as Krishna resting on banyan leaf. The narration reflects the cultural diversity of

the time. Apparently, Padmasalis would follow both Shaivism and Vaishnavism, which is
                                                                                                                       
47
The three great Lords Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are regarded equally powerful in Hindu religion. They
represent the triple function: Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the preserver and Shiva is the destroyer.
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richly visible in their Kulapuranam and their practice. Rachakonda Venkatachalam’s

version also talks about apocalypse, the birth of Sage Bhrigu, the test of Bhrigu on

deciding who is the most peaceful and gentle of the three Lords Brahma, Vishnu and

Shiva.

Quoting sage Shuka and sage Suta, (the chief narrators of the Puranas) further

elucidates the lineage of Sage Bhrigu from Daksha to Mrikanda, later Markandeya and his

son Bhavanarishi. Citing Bhrigu, who declared lord Vishnu to be the best of all gods,

Yellakara gives importance to Vaishnavite tradition. This aspect of lineage is necessary to

proclaim that the Padmasali caste originated from brahminical roots. The ancestral account

of Padmasali is richly narrated by adopting generally accepted elements such as birth of

Markandeya and the related story of how Bhavanarishi is blessed by one of the thrimurthis

or the birth occurred because of sacrificial performance or boons acquired through a

penance. These events confirm how humans related to gods, and the birth of male child is

considered auspicious and part of tradition.

6.2 Bhavanarishi as a Divine Incarnation

Another important point that is predictable in all versions of the Kulapuranam,

structured as a sacred text, is the attribution of divinity to Bhavanarishi. He is portrayed as

the purest one who emerges from a sacrificial fire. The recurring element of divinity and

the engagement of community with theological bent, if not spiritual is reiterated in the

Kulapuranam to increase belief in supernatural powers and internalisation of divine

powers.

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 Guntaka, referring to various texts, establishes that Bhavanarishi is an incarnation

of Lord Vishnu. “On the request of Lord Brahma and gods, Lord Narayana was born to

Markandeya as “Bhavanamurthi” (an image of his thought) as the sage performed a

penance (Guntaka 70). Hence, he is also called as Bhavanarayana.48 Kanneganti

Veerabhadracharya writes in the introduction to the Padma Samhita (Telugu), a translation

and commentary by Gudimella Ramanujacharya that the story of Bhavanarishi and his

weaving assignment must have been derived from the Padma Samhita, a Sanskrit Kavya

ascribed to Pundarika Maharshi (Gudimella 6).

6.3 Weaving as an Occupation

All the versions trace the origin of weaving occupation back to Bhavanarishi.

Bhrigvadula Prabhavamu narrates that when Lord Shiva requests Lord Narayana to grant

seeds of the fibre, Narayana says “the Padmasalis are my lineage and came forward to

serve the world (by making clothes), hence I am granting them the seeds”(Guntaka 75).

The origin of occupation in the Markandeya Puranam begins with a description

about the humiliation of gods by demons due to their naked bodies. The narrative describes

that the gods are humiliated by demons for not having clothes to wear and the torture of

demon Kaluvasura, expressed by gods before Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu. Yellakara’s

version does mention this but not Kaluvasura’s torture. Whereas in Linganamatya’s version

the event is not described but credit is given to Lord Vishnu for encouraging Bhavanarishi

to make clothes. Guntaka Narsayya’s account explains how Lord Brahma worries about

gods, who do not have clothes and how the three Lords (thrimurthis) chose Markandeya

and made him perform the penance. Then Bhavanarishi is born with the “element”, amsha

                                                                                                                       
48
Bhavanarishi is also known as Bhavanarayana and Veda Sheersha.
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of Lord Vishnu in him. Bhavanarishi makes all the garments needed for all the gods. Both

Venkatachalam and Yellakara’s versions mention that all the 300 crore gods go and pray to

Lord Shiva that they do not have clothes to wear. These adjustments have been made

repeatedly depending on cultural changes and religious beliefs. Nonetheless, the birth of

Bhavanarishi and his heroic deeds are richly articulated in all the versions without any

modification.

6.4 Marriage of Bhavanarishi and Bhadravathi

All the versions of the Kulapuranam necessarily describe the marriage of

Bhavanarishi and Bhadravathi as the most important episode in order to establish the

legacy of Bhavanarishi to the weaving community. These versions maintain that the

marriage is conspired by divine powers. Let us look at the various versions that talk about

the marriage of Bhavanarishi and Bhadravathi.

In a popular oral story, Lord Shiva orders Bhavanarishi to get Tiger’s hide for him.

When he goes in search of tigers, he meets Bhadravathi and marries her on the request of

her father, the Sun god. The Yellakara’s version confirms that sage Narada informs

Bhadravathi that it is the wish of Lord Brahma that she would be married to Bhavanarishi.

She performs penance to goddess Parvati, who seeks the help of Lord Shiva to unite the

couple. Lord Shiva orders Bhavanarishi for tiger’s hide and sends him to her place.

Bhavanarishi informs Bhadravathi that he first needs to accomplish the task given to him

by Lord Shiva and then he would marry her.

The version written by Parvatamantri elucidates that Bhavanarishi goes looking for

tigers only at the behest of Lord Shiva’s demand for Tiger’s hide (it is not told as a maya of

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Lord Vishnu). Goddess Parvati presents a portrait of Bhavanarishi painted on a cloth to the

mother of Bhadravathi and Bhadravathi falls in love with the person in the portrait.

Bhavanarishi tells her that after presenting the Tiger’s hide to Lord Shiva, he shall marry

her.

Whereas Venkatachalam in his version writes that it is decided in Satyaloka (the

world of Brahma) that Bhavanarishi shall marry Bhadravathi. Lord Shiva demands tiger’s

hide and sends Bhavanarishi to the place of Bhadravathi. Bhadravathi learns about

Bhavanarishi from her father and decides to marry him. Once he comes for tigers, she

obtains his consent for the marriage and he promises to marry her after he delivers the

tiger’s hide to Lord Shiva and then leaves with a tiger.

All the versions describe that the marriage of Bhadravathi and Bhavanarishi was a

divine plan and all the gods along with the trinity visit the abode of the Sun god to attend

the wedding. The couple performed a sacrificial ritual and gave birth to 101 sons who

spread across the country and continued the weaving occupation. The episode shows three

important points such as Bhavanarishi’s accomplished mission of acquiring tiger-skin for

Lord Shiva as his costume, marrying daughter of Sun god and finally, giving birth to 100

sons. Thus, the marriage of Bhadravathi and Bhavanarishi is not only an important episode

in the Kulapuranam but also is a significant break in the story, which helps substantiating

the grihasta dharma49 (house-holding fulfillment) of Bhavanarishi and uninterrupted

legacy of Padmasalis.

                                                                                                                       
49
Grihasta dharma literally means the duties of householders. The Sanskrit phrase Grihasta refers to
household and Dharma means righteousness.
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6.5 Bhavanarishi as A Warrior

The famous war between Kaluvasura and Bhavanarishi is also richly described to

glorify Bhavanarishi and his accomplishment in serving Lord Shiva. All the versions more

or less describe Bhavanarishi’s heroic deeds and the help he gets from Lord Shiva. This

episode is very significant for Kunapuli community, which trace its origin to this war.

However, the sequence of the episode is formulated differently in each version. According

to the Markandeya Puranam, sage Narada instigates the demon Kaluvasura while

Bhavanarishi is returning with the tigers. Kaluvasura initiates a ferocious battle with

Bhavanarishi. According to this version, all this is said to be done due to the promise owed

by Lord Vishnu to the gods and sages to have Kaluvasura annihilated by Bhavanarishi.

Yellakara’s version also confirms that sage Narada instigates Kaluvasura against

Bhavanarishi, whereas Linganamatya gives different reasons for the war between

Kaluvasura and Bhavanarishi. It is said that the in-laws of Kaluvasura ask him for clothes

for romance and he goes to Kailasa (the abode of Lord Shiva) and steals the art of cloth

making from Bhavanarishi and then a ferocious battle is fought between them. The reason

for battle between Bhavanarishi and Kaluvasura is described differently in Guntaka’s

Bhrigvadula Prabhavamu. The demon Kaluvasura is jealous of Bhavanarishi and his 101

sons making clothes for all the three worlds and thus attacks them to steal the art of cloth

making and hence a ferocious battle is fought between them. Venkatachalam describes that

sage Narada instigates Kaluvasura while Bhavanarishi is returning with the tiger and a

ferocious battle ensues, all this is said to be a maya (illusion/miracle) of Lord Vishnu.

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6.6 Construction of the Loom

The construction of the loom is also elaborately depicted with a few modifications

in the different versions. According to the Markandeya Puranam, Bhavanarishi kills

Kaluvasura and constructs a loom from his body parts. This event is not described in

Yellakara’s version but Linganamatya and Venkatachalam talk about the victory of

Bhavanarishi and the construction of the loom with body parts of Kaluvasena (another

name of Kaluvasura). Both Venkatachalam and Linganamatya mention Payakasena

(another name of Pakasena) during the war episode and Guntaka describes him as the

servant of Bhavanarishi. Nevertheless, there is no mention of construction of the loom in

Guntaka’s version.

The Markandeya Puranam ends with Bhavanarishi’s task, entrusted to him by Lord

Shiva, his marriage with Bhadravathi. They bear 101 children and they become the

Padmasalis and establish the sect of Padmasali. We see this description in Yellakara’s

version too and, in addition, we also see that with the blessing of Lord Surya, Bhavanarishi

gets his sons married to Ashwinis. Linganamatya’s narrative is continued further. Instead

of Bhavanarishi’s children becoming Padmasali s, it is described that his son Bhanu’s

children become Padmasalis. It is also narrated that after Bhavanarishi beheads

Kaluvasura, the head disappears in Tretayuga and appears in Dvaparayuga (in another

epoch). The head is seen both by Bhandaris, who belong to the lineage of Bhavanarishi and

Atakaras, who belong to Kaluvasura lineage. Bhanu, the leader of Bhandaris takes away

the head. Then the leader of Atakaras, Atma declares war with Bhanu to get the head of his

ancestor. But, gods interfere and resolve the dispute by convincing them to suspend the

head of demised Kaluvasura on a temple’s gate. Nevertheless, other versions of the

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Markandeya Puranam do not mention the battle for Kaluvasura’s head. Except

Linganamatya, there is no description and mention of these stories in Yellakara, Guntaka

and Venkatachalam’s versions.

6.7 Story of Cloth Making

The Markandeya Puranam elucidates that Bhavanarishi, after making the clothes,

first presents them to goddesses Parvati, Lakshmi and Saraswati and then to other gods and

sages with great dedication and humility. It appears same in all versions. Later,

Bhavanarishi presents clothes to all and then to Kalabhairava and Kalabhairava gets upset

as he gets them last and curses Bhavanarishi’s clothes – in turn, Bhavanarishi curses

Kalabhairava. Except Yellakara’s version, we do not see this episode in any of the

versions. Another incident is mentioned in the Kulapuranam that while Bhavanarishi is

fetching the white colored lotus fibre from Lord Vishnu, the asuras (demons) attack him

and swallow the lotus fibre, Bhavanarishi wages a war against the asuras and annihilates

them and regains the fibre. Lord Shiva declines the “spittle” clothes and demands for

Tiger’s hide for his clothes (he treats them as spittle because they were swallowed by the

asuras. There is no mention of ‘spittle’ clothes but Lord Shiva demands for Tiger’s hide in

Yellakara’s and Linganamatya’s versions. In Guntaka and Venkatachalam’s account, Lord

Shiva demands for Tiger’s hide.

6.8 Description of Kunapulis in Kulapuranas

The oral version of the Markandeya Puranam mentions the birth of Kunapulis.

During the ferocious battle between Bhavanarishi and Kaluvasura, Kunapuli people were

born from Bhavanarishi’s sweat. They helped Bhavanarishi in the battle along with the

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tigers and goddess Kalika Devi. However, Yellakara describes the annihilation of

Kaluvasura by Bhavanarishi, but no mention of Kunapuli folk is found in this version. In

Linganamatya’s version, there is no mention of Kunapuli or goddess Kalika Devi, but it is

described that Bhavanarishi was helped by his brothers and tigers; by the brahmastra and

the sudarshana chakra weapons in the battle. Probably, the author suggests that the

Kunapulis as the brothers of Bhavanarishi. In Guntaka’s version, Pakasena (a Kunapuli

warrior) is said to be guarding the tigers while the ferocious battle is in progress and

helping Bhavanarishi. Also, there is a mention of a powerful weapon of Lord Shiva that

helps Bhavanarishi instead of brahmastra and sudarshana chakra.50 Venkatachalam

elaborately explains how Bhavanarishi is helped by Pakasena, who is born from a rock,

with the blessings of Lord Shiva’s mantra. Lord Shiva’s weapon Chandrahasa (sword) and

Veerabhadra stand by him in the battle with Kaluvasura.

The birth of Kunapuli and the confirmation as an affiliated caste is also established

in these versions. According to the Kulapuranam, Bhavanarishi tells that folks born from

his sweat are called Kunapuli, Samayam varu and Padigarajulu, and these people will be

very dear and near to his family, sing praises of his lineage, are like their households and

thus must be fostered by Padmasalis, He thus takes an oath from three crore gods. This

episode is not described in Yellakara and Linganamatya’s versions.

Whereas according to Guntaka, Padmasalis summon the children of Pakasena, the

guardian of the tigers, and ask them to travel to different countries and propagate their

great achievements and the medals bestowed on them by the Gods. They are called the

Kunapuli soldiers and they propagate the valour and greatness of Padmasalis in various

                                                                                                                       
50
Weapons bestowed by Lord Brahma and Vishnu
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regions. They encounter the demons and enemies of the Padmasalis. In order to defeat

them, they follow the religion of Shakteya where they perform penances to Shakti and are

entangled in all kinds of wrong doings and addictions – but they believe in their caste

profession to eke out their living – it is not mentioned that the Kunapulis are fostered by

the Padmasalis.

According to Venkatachalam’s version, after the battle is over, the children of

Bhavanarishi notify Pakasena that hereafter their lineage will be called Samayamvaru and

are blessed by the gods. Since they were in the guard of the tigers and helped to annihilate

the asuras, they will be called Kunapuli on the earth belonging to the caste of Padigaraju

and happily live hereafter; there is no mention of Kunapuli as the arthibiddalu.

6.9 Mention of Lord Ganesha and Goddess Lakshmi in Kulapuranas

The Kulapuranam, through a few events, confers belief in all gods, goddesses and

sages treating them equally important. Interestingly, one of the above versions also

mentions additional episodes, which are not in the Kulapuranam. The attempt is to bring all

the popular gods and goddesses, who are related with daily household rituals. For instance,

Yellakara Nrisimha Kavi’s version narrates an anecdote of Lord Gajanana (Lord Ganesha)

and goddess Lakshmi. According to this version, goddess Lakshmi is born from the

Ksheerasagara (ocean of milk) when it was churned by gods and demons. Thus, Lakshmi

regarded as daughter of Samudra (Ocean God). One day Samudra summons Bhavanarishi

and orders him to present goddess Lakshmi with divyambara (the celestial clothing).

Bhavanarishi presents goddess Lakshmi with the celestial cloth along with turmeric and

kumkum and she treats him as her own brother.

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 In a different episode, Lord Gajanana asks Lord Shiva about his wedding and Lord

Shiva tells him that it is “tomorrow” and asks him to get wedding garments from

Bhavanarishi, who tells him that since his wedding is “tomorrow” he can stay in his house

until then. This being mentioned as the legend behind the proverb, “Gajanana’s wedding is

tomorrow.” Both events show how Bhavanarishi was popular, ritualistic and close to gods

and goddesses.

Thus, the versions of Markandeya Kulapuranam establish their lineage in the

realms of sages and proclaim their sacred origin of caste and occupation. The entire

construction of story is based on discourse of lineage of Padmasalis and their vocation,

which sets apart from the nature of Classical Purana. All the versions can be seen as

improvisations to suit the needs of the community and their cultural beliefs in a given

socio-cultural condition. The versions discussed above explain how the community is

associated with both Shaivism and Vaishnavism same time.

7. The Caste Genealogy in the Kulapuranam and its Significance

According to all versions of Markandeya Kulapuranam, Padmasalis are the

offspring of sages who are assigned to make clothes for all the worlds. Probably this is the

only occupation which serves continuously all the social classes according to their needs.

The Kulapuranam claims that the lineage of Padmasali had its roots beginning from Lord

Vishnu, as their ancestors were the progeny of Lord Brahma, who emerged from the navel

of Lord Vishnu. The lineage starts from sage Bhrigu, who was born from the heart of Lord

Brahma or on his wish and is considered as one of the powerful sages described in

Puranas. The family of Bhrigu is considered as the true beginning of Padmasali ancestry.

Because, their founder-hero Bhavanarishi was the son of Markandeya who was a blessed
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son of Mrikanda, the grandson of Bhrigu. Mrikanda’s penance and Markandeya’s birth is

eloborately explained.

Eventhough, Kulapuranam begins with specific features of Purana, which explains

the origin of the universe, lineage of gods, sages and creation of the Earth, it narrates the

story that establishes the significance of Padmasalis’ caste and its direct relation with gods

and sages. It provides with the names of the ancestors, their offshoots and their sacred

cultural history. The propagation of the cultural history through Kulapuranam tradition is

like orientation of their oblivion to caste genealogy, customs and the origins of their

occupation. The caste genealogy shows a exogomus patriarchal order and is the essential

feature that is often found in the Kulapuranam.

7.1 Legacy of Bhrigu: The Account of Caste Genealogy of Padmasalis in Various

Texts

The Padmasali geneology is expalined in all the versions of Kulapuranam bridging

between the birth of gods and the first human. The genealogy, from Lord Brahma to sage

Bhrigu and his grandsons, is assumed as a divine plan. It is articulated in terms of dharma

and karma (good and bad deeds) from Mrikanda’s penance to the birth of Markandeya.

The narrative is constructed in such a way that the events follow the Purana style and

encourage readers and audience to connect the divine world with the human world or the

myth and the past.

According to the genealogy mentioned in the 11th chapter, Brahmanda Purana, in

the 1st chapter of Bhagavata and in the 10th chapter of Vishnu Puranam, Padmasali caste

belongs to Bhrigu’s clan. The caste geneology begins with Sage Bhrughu emerging from

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Lord Brahma’s heart as one of the manasaputra. He married Kyathi and had three children

namely Bhargavi (goddess Lakshmi),51 Dhata and Vidhata. Bhrigu’s son Dhatha married to

Ayathi and blessed with a son Praanudu. However, no description is available about the

family of Pranudu as his lineage ends here. Vidhatha married to Niyathi and gave birth to

Mrikanda, one of the main characters in the Kulapuranam. Mrikanda and his wife

Marudwathi performed strict penance and blessed with a son, Markandeya. The immortal

Markandeya was bestowed with a son known as Bhavanarishi from a sacrificial ritual. The

lineage of Bhavanrishi, the protagonist of Kulapuranam, is articulated in terms of sacrality.

Towards the end, the caste geneology indicates that Bhavanarishi and his wife Bhadravathi

(daughter of Sun god) had 100 sons with different gotras, who are regarded as Padmasalis.

Thus, all the present Padamsalis are believed to be the decendents of Bhavanarishi’s 100

sons and claim that Bhavanarishi, as their founder-hero of their caste who handed over the

occupation of weaving.

                                                                                                                       
51
Padmasalis believe that Bhargavi is none other than Goddess Lakshmi, the wife of Lord Vishnu. Hence,
they regard her as sister and Lord Vishnu as brother-in-law. It is mentioned in 11th chapter of Brahmanda
Purana. Janjanam Bhaskara Rao, in the foreword to Padmashakhavamsha Pradipika of Pokuri
Adinarayanaswamy, mentions Lakshmi as Padmasalis’ sister. Hence, they are in-laws of Lord Vishnu.
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 Above chart is cited on “Telugu Padmasali Blog”
http://padmashaliblog.blogspot.in/2010/02/padmashali-vamsha-vruksham.html. The chart matches
the caste genealogy described in the Markandeya Puranam.
 

By and large, the caste genealogy claims its connection with the three gods, Vishnu,

Brahma and Shiva and encompasses the events directly associated with them. Until

Mrikanda’s birth, the caste genealogy appears to have substantiated the direct relation with

Lord Brahma. By explaining Markandeya’s birth as a result of the penance performed by

Mrikanda, the Kulapuranam ascertained the birth of Markandeya as a boon of Lord Vishnu

and his immortal life is granted by Lord Shiva.

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 The caste genealogy focuses on caste identity and its roots. Its intention is not only

to assert the higher social status in a caste hierarchy but also aims at providing evidence

that the caste is created and endorsed by the trinity. For example, Kulapuranam highlights

the verses (56, 57, 58 shlokas) found in the 2nd chapter of the Bhavanarishi Puranam,

which explains Lord Vishnu’s words addressing Bhavanarishi that due to the possession of

lotus fibre (used for cloth-making) they would be called Padmasalis and would be

respected by all four varnas. Those who disrespect Padmasalis would be treated as traitors

(Guntaka 43, 44). Such examples are given in Kulapuranas to substantiate the legacy of

caste and its long history and it can be traced back to the origin of the universe. Hence, the

Kulapuranam begins with the creation of the world by Lord Brahma, who was born from

the Padma (lotus) and the descendants of his son, Bhrigu, who had taken up the job of

weaving clothes using the fibre from the Padma granted by Lord Vishnu. They belonged to

the Padma lineage. Thus the occupation brings the name to the caste Padmasalis.

Guntaka Narsaiah Panthulu opines that Brahmins composed Puranas in the

Buddhist era and kept the authority of writing texts to themselves. Hence, there is no

possibility of documenting the history of Padmasalis in any Purana. However, the very

Puranas mentioned 100 Markandeyas as sons of Vedasheersha (Bhavanarishi) without any

further detailed description about them. Thus, it is proved that the story of Bhavanarishi

and his 100 sons is different from the content of any Purana (Guntaka 39).

Padmashakha Vamsha Prakashika of Pabbathi Jettipogula Lakshminrisinha

Panditha gives an anecdote that explains why the caste story is not found in Vyasa’s Maha

Puranas. According to the story, Padmabhuvacharya was a “blessed child” of Padmateja

and Padmamukhi. Once when he was travelling, he encounters Vyasa, who was in fact

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waiting for Padmabhuvacharya. Vyasa was delighted to meet him and said, “I have been

waiting for you to tell the truth that one of the eight sons of Bhavanarishi denied clothes to

Ganapathi (Lord Ganesha) and disrespected Ganapathya sect.52 Hence, he was cursed by

Ganapathi. Due to the curse of Ganapathi, he could not write about Padmasali history in

any of the Puranas. Thus, after taking the consent of the heads of the caste,

Padmabhuvacharya established four Kulapithas, and opined that there was a need to write

caste genealogy of Padmasalis (Guntaka 59).

The caste genealogy can be traced back to Padma Purana’s 33rd section, which

describes birth of Markandeya with the blessings of Lord Shiva, and Padmasalis are the

descendants of Markandeya. Hence, several Padmasalis believed that their gotra53 is

Markandeya and followed three sects, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Smartha (Guntaka 37). In

Telugu, Padmashakha Vamsha Pradeepika of Pokuri Adinarayanaswami gives 2050

gotras of Padmasalis.

Several caste genealogies are written in Telugu.54 A few were published in the early

20th century and a few manuscripts believed to have been composed in Sanskrit are

unavailable. The consciousness of caste and genealogy must have been there for ages. But,

according to the sources mentioned in Guntaka’s Bhrigvadula Prabhavamu, “it was Shri

Pattabhiramaiah, a spiritual guru, who lost to Shri Kandala Ramanujacharya in a discourse

held in 1810 to recognise whether Padmasalis were Shaivites or Vaishnavites. He

                                                                                                                       
52
The rise of Ganapathya cult was a significant departure from the traditional Saivism and it coincided with
the rise of tantric form of worship in ancient India some time during the post Gupta period. The basic concept
of this cult is found in Ganapathi Upanishad, which portray him as Brahma and as the creator, preserver and
destroyer.
53
Gotra refers to a patriarchal clan, exogamous in nature as marriage in the same gotra is prohibited and
indicates the people of common progeny
54
Guntaka gives a short list of the caste genealogies written in Telugu. They are Padmashakha Vamsha
Prakashika, Bhrigu Santhati, Markandeyabhavanarishi Purana Sarasangraham, Markandeyopakyanam,
Bhavanarishi Charita: Vachanam Harikatha Yakshaganam, Padmashali Vidhi Grandhamala and so on.

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organised a meeting in Bombay and showed an old manuscript of the Bhavanrishi

Puranam to the people of weavers’ community” (Guntaka 43). The Shri Bhavanarishi

Mahatmyam (Sanskrit) is regarded as the Bhavanarishi Puranam and it is one of the most

important caste genealogies among all available texts.55 Another version of the Puranam,

the Bhavanarishi Charita-Vachanam, written by Sornapudi Rajanna, a teacher belonging to

Padmasali caste, is found with three sections. The first section of this text narrates the

lineage of Bhrigu to Markandeya. The second section illustrates the story of Bhavanarishi

and the final section is a discussion and romanticisation of caste genealogy, its ancient

culture and the importance of occupation. The caste genealogy found in a different version

of the same, in the form of yakshaganam, written by an anonymous Vaishya (Merchant

caste) poet, which shows new imaginary events in the Puranam. The

Markandeyopakyanam by Kankata Obakavi, which is adapted into different formats also

show the same caste genealogy. The Markandeyabhavanarishi Purana Sarasangraham by

an anonymous Vaishnavite of Nizamabad, published by Kunapuli Kondanamudu is also

found both Padmasali and Kunapuli genealogy (Guntaka 48). The Bhrigu Santhati is

another composition by Kunapuli Bhatta Venkataswami of Eluru, which shows a few

fictitious anecdotes. The text is written based on karma, curses and boons in order to create

awareness of righteousness and fear of god among the transgressors of the caste. The

purana portrayed Pakasena as a warrior, who not only helped Bhavanarishi in the war with

                                                                                                                       
55
The Bhavanarishi Mahatmyam (Sanskrit) came into light in 1893 and published by Manikyamandira,
Chennai. According to Guntaka, it was Puranam Kondappa, a Kunapuli performer, who got it first translated
with the help of a few Vaishnavite poets sponsored by Padmasalis of Narayanavanam of Chittor District. But,
the All India Padmaslai Meeting held in 1921 at Pullampeta of Cuddapah discussed the erroneous addition
made to the text and a decision was taken to edit and republish the text. In 1923, All India Padmasali
Meeting, Mangalagiri, a committee was formed to take up the publication of the caste genealogy. In 1929, the
publication found a sponsor in Hyderabad but it was only in 1968 it was published and released in
Hyderabad with the help of Guntaka and a few other Padmasalis. Janamanchi Sheshadri Sharama was
assigned to make the correction. He observes a few deliberate additions in the translation (12th and 13th
chapters were added).
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Kaluvasura, but also depicted him as an intelligent advisor, made strategies to win the war.

The text also elaborates the genealogy of Pakasena and his 10 sons, who were trained as

“pandithulu” (learned masters) to narrate stories of their ancestors (Guntaka 51).

However, Guntaka shows discomfort in acknowledging a few Kulapuranas

associated with Kunapuli performers due to their fictitious additions and erroneous

interpretations of the events of “original” Bhavanarishi Puranam. After studying and

analysing the Padma Purana, the Bhavanarshi Purana and other Maha Puranas (epic

puranas), Upa Puranas (sub puranas) in detail, he authored the Bhrigu Vamsheeyula

Charitra (the history of the lineage of the sage Bhrigu) without any fiction or fabrications

in the year 1859 AD. The Bhrugvadula Prabhavamu is depicted in the fourth chapter of

this literary composition.

7.2 Portrayal of Bhavanarishi as an Incarnation of Lord Vishnu

According to the story written by Guntaka, one day, Lord Brahma realises that all

the Gods, Goddesses and human beings do not have decent clothes to wear and feels

ashamed at the fact that they are roaming around covering their bodies with leaves and

branches. He then ponders over who would be the most efficient person to provide clothing

to the Gods, Goddesses and human beings. Lord Brahma recollects that all the people of

the three worlds are being harassed by a demon called Kaluvasena (Kaluvasura) and they

have been praying him for relief. Lord Brahma, realising that it is only Lord Narayana

(Vishnu), who can get rid of Kaluvasena, goes at once to him along with Lord Indra and

other Gods. Lord Narayana listens to Lord Brahma and asks him to search for a person

who can be a parent to Lord Vishu’s reincarnation to kill Kaluvasena. Lord Brahma and

gods request Lord Narayana to be born to Markandeya who has been performing penances
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and has earned all the divine wisdom and knowledge. They request Lord Narayana to be

born to Markandeya as the image of his thought (Bhavana murthi) as he performs penance.

Lord Narayana agrees and the gods along with Indra and Lord Brahma go to Markandeya

and pray him to perform the penance. Markandeya, though an austere celibate, obliges to

the request of the gods and begins to perform the penance to protect the worlds and

continue his lineage. All the gods including Lord Shiva, Lord Narayana, Lord Brahma and

gods and goddesses and sages were present at the penance and offered their blessings. In

the meantime, a magnificent person is born out of the sacrificial fire but since he was born

from an unfinished penance, every one asks Markandeya to continue the penance and as he

continued, there comes a magnificent, mesmerising, amazing personality with all the Suns

shining and lot of good omens.

7.3 Padmasali: The Name Given by Lord Vishnu

Bhavanarishi wanted to present Lord Narayana (another name of Lord Vishnu) with

the first set of clothes, and hence he sets off to Vaikuntha, the abode of Lord Narayana, and

offers him to choose the best from them. Lord Narayana becomes extremely happy

receiving the clothes, chooses a yellow garment from it, and blesses Bhavanarishi with the

title vastra brahma (creator of clothes). Bhavanarishi also offers clothes to goddess

Lakshmi (wife of Lord Vishnu) and she picks the best of the garments, tells him that her

place of birth i.e. Padma, the Lotus has gained significance since he has made clothes with

lotus fibres and blesses him. Lord Narayana says, “Your creation is appreciated. You all

gained respect and due to your work everyone is protected from being ashamed. You have

created clothes using the lotus fibre, thus your descendants would be called Padmasalis”

(Guntaka 72).

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7.4 The Legacy of Bhavanarishi and the Origin of Weaving Occupation

Bhavanarishi feels that his children must learn the art of cloth making and goes to

Lord Shiva to seek his blessings. Lord Shiva agrees with him and takes them to Lord

Narayana for seeds of the fibre. Lord Narayana says to Lord Shiva that since the

Padmasalis are his lineage he would bless them with the seeds of the fibre and would

assign them to make clothes for all future generations.

Padmasalis summon Pakasena, who has been guarding the tigers, and bestow him with the

all the titles that gods had given them and sends him to various countries. Eventually

during the process of spreading their valour Padmasalis fought wars, faced demons and

contradicted with the sects within themselves. Some started worshipping ‘shakti’ and

practicing witchcraft and other sorceries. Thus, they got degenerated and lost the skill and

art of cloth making. However, those who continued to make clothes and practice the art of

cloth making flourished and prospered for ages to come.

8. Conclusion

Apparently, the above-discussed versions show a similar approach taking earlier

prototype as a model for their narrative text. It is not clear, whether the story is derived

from one original Markandeya Purana or not, as there is no strong available evidence.

Moreover, the accounts of Bhavanarishi weaving clothes for gods, marrying Bhadravathi

and killing Kaluvasura are not part of any conventionally written Markandeya Puranas,

except the birth and life of Markandeya and Bhavanarishi (Subbachary 115). Therefore, the

Kulapuranam can be seen as an improvisation, and a mythic creation, which is evolved as

an authentic, sacred Kulapuranam over a period. With an inquisitive transformation and

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evolution, the Markandeya Puranam emerged as a parallel/alternative text vis-à-vis the

Classical Purana. Most of the written versions of Markandeya Purana emphasise the

importance of the weaving occupation, which was initiated by Bhavanarishi, the progenitor

of Padmasali caste, on the request of gods. No historical evidence is available to show how

these versions came into practice and what might be the authentic source for these textual

forms. However, it may be assumed that these versions are a result of popular oral

tradition, which later translated into textual forms to preserve the rich Kulapurana tradition.

Largely, these versions somehow maintain a similar plot with subtle changes in events and

narrations and claim the higher status of the caste or reclaim the brahminical position,

which was lost over the years.

Apart from these versions of Kulapuranam, written and compiled by various

writers, there are few versions, which are written by Kunapuli performers themselves.

Guntaka mentions a few versions associated with Kunapuli performers and expresses his

discomfort in accepting them. One such example that he cites is Bhatta Venkata Swamy’s

Bhrigu Santhathi, a randomly written poetic version, which talks about the prominence of

Kunapulis over Padmasalis. The story is constructed with numerous fictitious events in

order to reassert the significant role of Pakasena, the founder of Kunapuli, who helped

Bhavanarishi on many occasions and wins the heart of gods. Hence, it is clear that the

Kulapuranas are stories of caste and caste genealogy and are created to establish the social

status of a community asserting their cultural identity. The construction of events and

narrative structure of the Puranas apparently show these are different from the Maha

Puranas and have a strong social function in motivating the occupational castes. Moreover,

the common structure of Kulapuranam and its thematic approach reveal the ideological

implication of both Padmasalis and Kunapulis. However, the tradition of the written
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Kulapuranas not only stands alone as a different genre in Telugu literature but also

confirms the literary skills of the poets belonging to the Kunapuli performing community.

Correspondingly, the Kulapuranam takes form and transforms into various literary

compositions spreading across the various regions and imbibing various social, religious

and cultural conditions. They reflect the age of devotion, age of negation of literary

hierarchy and witness the grand oral tradition of South India.

So far, I have discussed a few versions of Markandeya Kulapuranam text, which

narrated the dynamics of caste genealogy and cultural politics of Padmasali community in

Telangana. The scrolls in my collection can be seen as yet another intermedial version of

Markandeya Kulapuranam as they are part and parcel of oral performances. The following

chapter deals with the Painted Puranas and examines further the aspect of caste genealogy.

114