Empiricism in Business Ethics: Suggested Research Directions

Author(s): Diana C. Robertson

Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 12, No. 8 (Aug., 1993), pp. 585-599
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25072441 .
Accessed: 21/06/2014 00:56

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Business Ethics.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Empiricism in Business Ethics:
Research Directions Diana c. Robertson
Suggested

ABSTRACT. This paper considers future directions of This paper suggests eight guidelines for empirical
empirical
research in business ethics and presents
a series of research to advance of ethical be
understanding
recommendations. Greater should be on the havior both in the and the marketplace.
emphasis placed workplace
normative basis of empirical studies, behavior (rather than Much of the extant research has focused on the
attitudes) should be established as the key dependent vari decision making
workplace, particularly managerial
able, theoretical models of ethical decision making should be and employee attitudes and behavior; ethics in the
tested, and studies need to focus on
empirical theory-build has received less attention. Yet both
Extensions of and the unit of are marketplace
ing. methodology analysis we are to enhance
seem if
with recommendations the important understanding
proposed together concerning
need for replication and validity, and building links to
of ethical decision-making processes in business.
The to be are derived from a
managerial and public policy applications. guidelines proposed
review of empirical research to date in the field of
business ethics and are based on the premise that the

Scholarship
in business ethics has increased dramati field will benefit from further development of
in the past decade. Much of the sustained and are not meant to exclude norma
cally empiricism; they
cumulative contribution to the field has come from tive theory but are suggested as a complementary
the normative perspective, that is, from research aimed stream for in
building knowledge. Articles published
at standards of the Journal Business Ethics were
determining "right and wrong" of systematically
Normative research takes as its examined to detect trends in studies from
(Goodpaster, 1984). empirical
foci the values, norms, or rules of conduct which the onset of publication in
through
1982
1990.1
are as is also made to studies pub
govern ethical behavior and which presented Reference empirical
an ideal. lished elsewhere. Many of the guidelines will suggest
In contrast, the focus of this paper is on empiricism on initial efforts and
building existing studies which
in business ethics research. The aim is to suggest constitute an excellent
foundation for further in
research avenues which are
likely
to enrich the field
quiry. The guidelines
are not meant to
point
to
in a cohesive manner, much as normative research weaknesses in present research, but to
empirical
has done to this research is defined most areas in which work has
point. Empirical identify the promising
as on observable been and to in which
very broadly here research based already done, identify those
phenomena and pursued using scientific method. little work has been attempted.

Diana C Robertson isRobert Egelston Term Assistant Professor of

1. Base on normative
empirical research foundations
Legal Studies at The Wharton School, University of Pennsyl
vania. While on this paper, Dr. Robertson was a
working
the most source of reluctance to
Visiting Assistant Professor at The London Business School.Her Probably important
research interests include individuals' investigate ethical behavior
empirically is uncer
decision-making processes
as to what
about ethical issues and the impact
of corporate compensation
and tainty exactly constitutes ethical conduct.
control systems on ethical behavior. Dr. Robertson has about what is ethical is essential to
employees' Clarity empirical
published articles in the Sloan Management Review, Journal efforts which seek to understand conditions under
of Business Ethics, and
Organization
Science. which individuals will behave ethically. Goodpaster

Journal ofBusiness Ethics 12: 585-599, 1993.

? 1993Kluwer Academic Publishers.Printed in theNetherlands.

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 586Diana C. Robertson

as unethical
(1984) distinguishes between normative ethics and pense account, (Haan, 1982). Frederick
ethics. Normative ethics research is in out that an inevitable of
descriptive (1992) points "blending"
volved in standards of right and wrong, empirical work and normative implications takes
determining
whereas ethics research is concerned with place in all research.
descriptive
and explaining what exists, most notably research must state its assumptions
describing Empirical
ethical and unethical behavior. Empirical research is about what constitutes ethical and unethical behavior
under what terms
descrip based on normative theory (Boyce
and Jensen, 1978).
encompassed Goodpaster
tive research, and includes surveys, case studies, and Normative can be used to the
theory operationalize
historical works that relate to actual experience; concept of ethical behavior in business. this
Ideally,
is the study of that experience. would be a collaborative effort
knowledge gained by operationalization
not to act, between normative and empirical researchers. Nor
Empiricists do specify how people ought
but instead specify the conditions under which indi mative research can make the dimensions of ethical
viduals are likely to act in particular ways. behavior more to the business
explicit specific
recounts the concern and empirical research can determine ways
Fleming (1987) expressed by setting,
to measure
business ethics researchers he interviewed about "the these dimensions. Wolfe (1991) chroni
lack of between the normative and cles the difficulties of applying theoretical
integration general
descriptive research (p. 19). Re writings of core philosophers such as Kant to the
methodologies"
searchers trained in versus business narrower ethical issues that arise in "the
philosophy troubling
school researchers trained in methods have circumstances in our business environment"
(p. 409).
empirical
for the most part not collaborated on business ethics Some type of interim step is needed in which today's
research, and in many instances have failed even to normative researchers address themselves to
specific
the existence of the other perspective. questions of right and wrong behavior in that busi
acknowledge
Kahn (1990) calls for the intersection of normative ness environment.
Certainly, many
normative re

and what he terms "contextual" research, which searchers are that

1990;
doing exactly (DeGeorge,
includes the study of organizational and work group Donaldson, 1989; Werhane, 1988), and empiricists
and their on ethical decision need to look very closely at this work. For example,
properties impact
Kahn believes that it is only within this DeGeorge examines the ethics of trade secrets,
making.
intersection that academic research can be connected Donaldson the ethics of international business trans
to normative and and Werhane the ethicsof mergers and
organizational practice. However, actions,
researchers tend to pursue sepa Each of these is norma
descriptive entirely acquisitions. taking general
rate, although often parallel, research tracks even tive principles and applying them to specific business
when investigating the same phenomenon. practices.
It is interesting to note that in Goodpaster's If a study purports to examine unethical sales
formulation, research is not possible in for example, then a normative basis of
descriptive practices,
the absence of normative research (to establish what which sales are unethical
determining practices
is and is not ethical). It is imperative that researchers should be formulated. One example is the empirical

operationally define what is ethical before attempt investigation by Browning and Zabriskie (1983) of
to uses a
ing explain
what conditions affect ethical be the ethics of industrial buyers. Their study
havior. research is supposedly "value definition of ethical behavior in business relation
Descriptive
contain norma on normative of justice and
free," but empirical studies defacto ships based principles
tive both in the choice of what is studied fairness. However, Randall and Gibson (1990) found
judgments
and how results are interpreted (Forsyth, 1980; that only 22% of the business ethics studies they
and For the decision reviewed a definition of ethics to
Forsyth Pope, 1984). example, provided general
to towards the ethics of acquiring
study attitudes
the reader.

information about a firm's competitors means that Consider, for example, the practice of "churning,"
that some a
from the outset it is assumed information whereby stockbrokers engage in excessive trades in
are unethical. Normative client account, in order to increase commis
gathering techniques judg usually
ments on the part of the researcher are also involved sions. Normative research would be concerned with
in the of acts, such as "padding" one's ex establishing
a basis for
evaluating
what iswrong with
labelling

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Business Ethics and Research Directions 587

Stockbroker to the client, and

intent, harm a the two professions
churning. phers, but dialogue between
breach of fiduciary be considered.
duty would needs to be encouraged and extended.
research the un
Empirical might begin by taking
nature as a
ethical of churning given, and then
attempt to
explain the conditions under which it 2.
Emphasize behavior as the key dependent variable
occurs, when stockbrokers pressure
e.g., experience
from their branch managers for firm profitability, or This paper considers the purpose of business ethics
are a auton as
when stockbrokers given great deal of research the discovery of the meaning and deter
omy and discretion in
handling client portfolios. At minants of ethical behavior. If that is the purpose,
the very least a two-step process of first establishing then the investigation of attitudes about what is
a basis for to be unethical, and ethical and unethical than actual
considering churning (rather behavior)
then attempting to understand it seems more be a secondary concern. Yet, attitude studies
likely may
to be in business ethics research. Indeed, atti
productive. proliferate
Another possible approach would be to merge tude research is useful for describing the bases on
normative and empirical research. In investigating which individuals judge what is and is not ethical,
what stockbrokers do as they manage client port but it is not a substitute for research that investigates
folios, the challenge would be to identify the ethical ethical behavior.
dimension of those transactions (normative research) The tenuousness of the relationship between atti
at the same time that the conditions tudes and behavior has been well-domonstrated
organizational
are
under which they take place examined (empirical (Fishbein and Ajzen,
1975), and would
seem to be
a would in an area of sensitivity
research). Such study require the collab especially applicable for
oration of normative and empirical perspectives. research subjects such as ethics. Fishbein and Ajzen's
Waterman examines the role of psychological
(1988) theory of reasoned action hypothesizes that behavior
theories and empirical data in normative research. is determined one's intention to the
by perform
He as
proposes that theories such John Rawls' (1971) behavior; intention, in turn, is determined both by
veil of ignorance be tested experimentally by setting attitude about the behavior and by subjective norm,
up conditions meeting Rawls' notion of operating i.e., the perceived social pressure to perform or not to
behind such a veil, and then studying the effects of the bahavior. Thus, knowledge of individ
perform
on
imposing such conditions subjects' responses. He uals' attitudes about a particular behavior may not
also proposes psychological research to measure and reveal how likely they are to engage in the behavior.
test the stated costs and benefits of or For the same individuals who hold very
teleological example,
consequentialist claims. attitudes toward income tax evasion may
negative
Waterman's can be extended to test well be guilty of minor tax infractions;
suggestions assessing their
a of normative
empirically great deal research. attitudes may not accurately reflect their tax-paying
Fritzsche and Becker (1984), for example, study the behavior.
decision-making processes of managers, and con In addition to attitude research in business ethics,
clude that the decisions made can be an area of in which research
categorized inquiry significant
to ethical theories. A concept such as the has been made is that of moral
according progress reasoning
existence of a social contract and the specification of 1969; Rest 1986). This research
(Kohlberg, indirectly
its dimensions em
(Dunfee, 1991) could be tested addresses issues of ethical behavior, pointing to the
to determine if people believe that their need for further elaboration
of the
pirically bridge between
behavior is to a social contract. moral and moralaction
operating according reasoning (Blasi, 1980).
Keeley (1988) demonstrates that normative and Studies such as those of Bommer etal. (1987), Ferrell
are both critical to the and Gresham (1985), Fritzsche (1991), Hunt and
descriptive theory study of
social contracts. Vitell (1986), Stead et al. (1990),Trevino (1986), and
Empirical researchers need to recognize that the Trevino and Youngblood to model
(1990) attempt
field of business ethics demands explicit recognition the ethical decision making process within organiza
of the normative dimension of what is researched. tions, using a interactionist perspec
person-situation
Social scientists are not to become tive. The person-situation interactionist
expected philoso perspective

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 588Diana C. Robertson

that factors within the individual as An a normative model is the decision

recognizes (such example of
stage of moral combine with factors tree model et al.
reasoning) proposed by Cavanaugh (1981)
within the situation (such as variables which three ethical theories: utilitari
organizational incorporates
of compensation and control to anism, theories of and theories of justice.
systems) produce rights,
ethical or unethical decision making. This model requires that
a decision be acceptable

Perhaps the lack of focus on ethical behavior rests to each of these theories (with certain
according
on issues. It is less threat Laczniack
methodological probably specified exceptions). Similarly, (1983)
for respondents to report their attitudes a framework based on normative theories.
ening presents
towards other people's cheating on tests than it is for His framework requires the decision maker
to ask
them to report honestly about their own cheating a series of about an action or practice: if
questions
behavior. However, other fields of study, such as the answers are the decision
uniformly negative,
that also deal with sensitive issues, have maker can conclude that the action is probably
criminology,
devised methods to elicit information about behav ethical. Several normative models of decision mak
ior. In a later section
of this paper some suggestions ethics issues have been deline
ing about marketing
are made about research methods suitable for study ated and are reviewed and Fritzsche
by Tsalikis
behavior rather than attitudes. that
ing (1989). These models specify ethical principles
Norton one of the few to consider in
(1989) conducted empiri marketers sought
their everyday
cal studies that measures behavior found in the decision making.

Journal
in the first nine years of its
of Business Ethics By contrast, empirical models attempt to specify
A check for $5.00 was enclosed in a the factors influencing an individual's of
publication. perceptions
sent to executives. were an act as unethical as well as the factors
questionnaire Respondents influencing
asked to cash the check only if they responded to the individual to engage in the unethical act. For
the survey. Norton then charted the incidence of a
example,
Hunt and Vitell (1986) formulate "gen
check cashing tied to response, discovering that for eral theory of marketing ethics", which includes
the most part the executives in the study followed and teleological evaluation of a be
deontological
the instructions Norton does havior. In a the
given. Interestingly, making deontological judgment
not attempt to establish a normative basis for his individual assesses the inherent or
"rightness"
that cashing the check (and not complet an act, and in making a
assumption "wrongness" of teleological
constitutes unethical behavior.
ing the questionnaire) evaluation the individual considers the act's possible
Studiesof ethical and unethical behavior pub consequences for all affected parties. These evalua
lished in other include research on student tions lead in turn to behavioral intentions and
journals
and on on
cheating behavior, lying, and shoplifting, behavior. Building the work of Hunt and Vitell,
ethical behavior such as altruism (Azjen, 1991 ;Forsyth the model of ethical decision making proposed by
and Berger, 1982; Romer et al, of the Ferrell et al. includes a step in which the
1986). Many (1989)
studies published in other sources tend to investigate decision maker in "moral evaluations"
engages using
behavior that is illegal as well as unethical, including a or moral philosophy
deontological teleological
studies of corporate crime (Clinard and Yeager, 1980; before deciding whether or not to engage in an act.
Cochran and Nigh, 1987). some of the
Jones (1990) synthesizes existing
empirical ethical decision-making models, noting
3. Test theoretical models of ethical decision making their similarities and limitations (Dubinsky and
Loken, 1989; Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt and
Considerable attention has been focused on the 1986; Rest, 1986; Trevino,
Vitell, 1986). Jones points
and empirical theo
of both normative out that with the exception of Ferrell and Gresham
development
retical models of decision-making behavior about each of the models contains a stage of moral judg
ethical issues. A normative model specifies the ment or evaluation. None of these models has been
factors that the decision maker should be taking into tested, and sp?cification of the measure
sufficiently
account. An
empirical model, by contrast, describes ment of moral evaluations is needed.
the variables and interactions among the variables One test of ethical decision making is the causal
that do influence the decision maker. model of Trevino and Youngblood Trevino
(1990).

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Business Ethics and Research Directions 589

and in-basket experiment 1990 articles in the

Youngblood's found that 29.4% of the Journal of Business
more ethical decision making was made Ethics are concerned with
by indi ethical theory and its
viduals with higher stages of moral devel most of the theoretical articles reflect
cognitive development,
and an internal of normative to be
opment locus control. Ethical theory rather than theory empiri
decision was influenced tested. Few are in the of
making indirectly through cally engaged generation
the outcome about manage models of ethical behavior, including
subjects' expectancies comprehensive
ment's response to the ethical behaviors the specification of independent variables and their
probable
in the experiment. of models The work of Rawls serves
presented Testing interrelationships. (1971)
promises to increase of the in as an of normative research
understanding ways outstanding example
which individuals make ethical and that builds theory; it is more difficult to
point
to
judgments,
should be particularly helpful in specifying the prominent examples of empirical research that fur
interaction between situational and individual vari ther this objective.
ables in moral For example, of empirical studies with
making judgments. Examples managerial
to the Ferrell et al. features include those on corporate codes of
according (1989) model, applications
of the
organizational culture, differential ethics that analyze their content and address issues of
including
association one asso
(the individuals with whom implementation and effectiveness
(Mathews, 1988).
ciates within the Another prominent
organization), opportunity factors example of empirical research of
in unethical and "individual interest to managers is the case study approach.
(to engage behavior),
moderators" all have an effect on Some case studies in business ethics an
(characteristics) provide
both moral evaluations and behavioral intentions. individualized portrait of what goes wrong in an
that leads to unethical behavior. For
organization
example, the extensive check and mail and
kiting
4. Focus on wire fraud at E. F. Hutton were in the
empirical research theory building embedded
corporate culture and the compensation system of

Empiricism appears to be gaining a stronger foot the firm (Chilla, 1988).

hold in business ethics, at least in the articles A further of empirical research of in
example
published in theJournal ofBusinessEthics from 1982 terest to
managerial practice is the
study of
the
to 1990. In 1990, 32.6% of the articles were of features on ethical behavior
published impact organizational
empirical research; in 1982, 2.9% of the studies were within the organization. Surveys have demonstrated
the em that such as performance
empirical (Table I). However, strength of organizational factors,
pirical research seems to be in its applications to pressures, contribute to unethical behavior (Baum
managerial practice rather than to the of hart, 1961; Brenner 1977; Posner and
and Molander,
generation
theory. Although 18.9% of the 1989 articles and Schmidt, 1987). Empirical studies have investigated
the impact of firm profitability and growth (Cochran
TABLE I and Nigh, 1986), of the reward system (Robertson
Journal of Business Ethics and Anderson, 1993), competitive environment

(Staw and Szwajkowski, 1975) and ethical climate

and Cullen, on ethical judgment or
(Victor 1988)
behavior. Results demonstrate that organizational
variables do indeed have an effect on
employee
ethical behavior.
If there are "deficits" to be found in the overall
research in the field of business ethics, the major
deficit of normative to be in its
theory would appear
application, whereas the deficit in em
managerial
is contribution to a
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
piricism theory. This constitutes
further reason for the two approaches to work more
(34) (29) (35) (56) (55) (65) (101) (95) (95)
is the weakness
Year of Publication closely together: the strength of each
(# of Articles) of the other.

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 590Diana C. Robertson

5. Include other units of analysis as which have received very little

ingly deserving,
(Table II).Although the examination of one
journal
There is a great deal of on the individual not cover studies in
emphasis certainly does comprehensively
or as actor and
(manager employee) very litde con the field of business ethics, it does tell us what types
cern with ? the journal favors. Articles on
group behavior work groups, depart of research the teach
ments, organizational entities, or the environment ing of business ethics abound. Articles on corporate
external to the organization. For the most part group codes of ethics are also plentiful most do
(although
behavior constitutes unexplored not address the issue of the on
territory.2 impact of codes
The most notable exceptions
to this focus on the
employee behavior). As far
as functional areas within
individual actor occur in studies in which the firm the corporation, management for the most
(focused
itself is considered to be the unitof analysis. For part on organizational behavior and the manage
a number of researchers have ment of human is the furthest
example, investigated resources) clearly
the relationship between corporate social responsi advanced, whereas finance, and particu
marketing,
bility and firm profitability (Aupperle et al, 1985; larly accounting, receive less notice.
on
Cochran and Wood, 1984). Other studies have been Emphasis workplace ethics appears more
concerned with issues of the corporation as actor, than that on ethics. The
prominent marketplace
particularly pertaining
to corporate
(Cli number of articles on both codes of ethics and on
criminality
nard and Yeager, 1980; Cochran and management itself attests to this
Nigh, 1987). organizational
Such studies are more likely
to consider environ interest in employee ethical behavior. Marketplace
mental factors to the such as ethics, in contrast, is concerned with issues such as
(external
organization)
the effects of
competition in the the
industry,
amount and form of in the and TABLE II
regulation industry,
economic conditions. Research
general topicsl
Other to a focus on the individual
exceptions Journal ofBusiness Ethics
include the work of Victor and Cullen (1988)who (All articles published)
delineate various
types of ethical climates in organi
zations and discuss their effects on 1988 1989 1990
organizational
members. Reidenbach and Robin a
(1991) propose
model of "corporate moral development," building Cross-national 5.0% 4.2% 3.2%
on the that if individuals can be classi
assumption International 7.0% 7.3% 7.5%
fied to
according stage of moral development, Corporate codes of ethics 3.0% 7.3% 4.2%
can be business ethics 9.0% 9.4% 5.3%
corporations similarly categorized. Despite Teaching
the controversy their categorization of Corporate social responsibility 8.0% 8.4% 3.2%
surrounding
into their does focus on Theory25.0% 18.9% 29.4%
companies stages, approach
the organization as the unit of Professional ethics 1.0% 10.5%2 2.1%
analysis. Sathe (1986)
Ethics and economics 9.0%3 0.0% 2.1%
discusses the core values of Cummins Engine, par
Environmental 1.0% 1.1% 0.0%
its on customer service and
ticularly emphasis
case studies can con
relations. Such Management
community 5.0% 6.3% 2.1%
tribute to an of how organizational Employee rights
understanding Other issues 10.0% 12.6% 11.1%
management
values are formed, communicated the
throughout 4.0% 5.2% 3.2%
Marketing
and how to influence
organization, they operate Finance 3.0% 4.2% 4.2%

employee behavior. 4.0% 2.1% 4.2%

Accounting

1
are neither exclusive nor exhaustive.
Categories mutually
6. Pursue 2
systematic research This includes a special issue on Professionals and Social
Responsibility.
the in the 3
Examining topics addressed Journal of This includes a
special issue, Discussion of U.S.
Bishops
Business Ethics reveals certain themes that have Pastoral Letter. The
majority
of articles in this issue were

a seem
received great deal of attention and others, classified as Ethics and Economics.

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Business Ethics and Research Directions 591

the ethics of mergers and 7. Broaden the methodological base

deceptive advertising,
acquisitions, the ethics of competitive analysis, and
consumer looked at we and
boycotts (Smith, 1990). Yet, comparatively Having study business ethics
why
little research has been directed to
marketplace what we tend study,
to
the question of "how" we
ethics. This appears to be due to the development of study business ethics remains. Gatewood and Carroll
interest on the part of in use of four
organizational behaviorists (1991) report the major data-gathering
business ethics, which only recently is techniques in business ethics research: "self-report
studying being
matched by comparable interest on the part of questionnaires, hypothetical ethical dilemmas or
and finance academic researchers. vignettes, the interview, and of actual
marketing recording
Individual researchers need to conduct a series of
illegal behavior" (p. 668). Fleming (1987) concluded
studies on the same in a and from his interviews with scholars in the area of
topic systematic
sequential fashion if the field of business ethics is business that researchers may not be satisfied
ethics
to build about ethical behavior. Most with present The
knowledge methodologies. following sugges
is conducted as an individual tions are presented in order to raise some possi
research project with
out an overall program specifying research bilities of further methodologies; this is not meant
priorities,
and interrelationships. The recently in to be an exhaustive list of all ap
sequencing methodological
Business Ethics Quarterly provides a forum available to business ethics researchers.
augurated proaches
for authors to reply to other authors' articles. Such
about issues fundamental to the field of Cross-national ethics is becoming a
dialogue design. Corporate
business ethics should help focus research efforts and It is no
global topic (Frederick, 1991). longer possible
enable business ethics researchers to establish mutual to discuss business ethics from the of a
perspective
research priorities. The objective should be to yield a country. Corporations are con
single increasingly
systematic creation of knowledge and to increase our business in and many are
ducting multiple markets,
of business ethics. mindful of the need to not
understanding understand only the
For empirical work to advance we need but also the ethical climate in
theory competitive operating
studies that are more comprehensive in scope, such other countries.
as cross-national research and longitudinal studies, as In a
general, paucity of international comparative
well as of studies that con studies has been noted
replication presently management (Adler, 1983;
tribute to our of ethical behavior. seems to be no
understanding Negandhi, 1983), and the problem
Cross-validation requires that results generated for less severe in business ethics studies. At present most
one of a can be of the cross-national work in the field of business
sample general population dupli
cated in a separate sample of the same ethics consists of attitude in
general surveys of respondents
It is to note that many different countries and Fritzsche, 1987;
population. encouraging (Becker
are
studies using scenarios from previous research Izraeli, 1988). A second type of international research
rather than developing new ones
(Weber, 1992). As is that of case studies of corporations in countries
this trend continues, cumulative analysis of results other than the U.S.
(Donaldson 1991). Cross-national
should contribute to business ethics refers to studies in which are made
knowledge. comparisons
Nevertheless, many studies tend to be conducted in between two or more countries. International studies
or with sets and
single industries particular employee are those in which the study report on ethical issues
are extended or The of in a country other than the U.S., but makes no com
rarely replicated. question
the of is seldom
generalizability findings explicitly parisons between countries. (This paper is treating
addressed. Also, most studies do not build in a the two as mutually exclusive, although arguments
cumulative sense. Rather to be isolated in
they tend could be made that they overlap).
that they address specific questions with Table II demonstrates the number of cross-national
specific
methodologies, and are content to offer
exploratory and international studies published in the
Journal of
findings. The is to build broader Business Ethics in 1988, 1989, and 1990. These
challenge, however, figures
models of ethical behavior,
specifying individual and are similar to those
reported by Adler (1983)
in a
variables, and into account
organizational taking survey of management journal publications from
contextual factors. 1971 to 1980, the later time frame of the
despite

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 592Diana C. Robertson

present study and steadily increasing economic indi order, the length of the salesperson's relationship
cators of internationalization. Considerable with the customer, and the amount of the sales
potential
exists to expand the focus of cross-national research person's commission
can be
systematically manipu
to include differences in corporate values among lated.
nations, the effects of governmental and economic are to
Vignettes particularly appropriate study
structures on ethical behavior, and the interface formation on sensitive
judgment topics. On these
between law and ethics. are to present responses that
topics, subjects likely
believe to be desirable. For
they socially example,
Experimental design. Studies such as those of Hegarty Clark (1966) reports that a survey of executives
and Sims (1978 and 1979),Kurtines (1986),Laczniak yielded uniformly negative reactions to
price-fixing
and Inderrieden (1987), and Trevino and Young and bribery. However, when the same subjects were
blood (1990) illustrate the contribution of experi asked to respond to
specific vignettes depicting
to our were more
mentation
understanding of ethical decision price-fixing and bribery, the executives
processes.
Experimental is particu of the unethical behavior presented. An
making design forgiving
for of the decision other advantage of vignettes is that
larly appropriate study making they present
issues as it allows the iden a situation. Issues in business ethics
process about ethical specific aspects of
tification and isolation of variables deci tend to be complex and multidimensional so that
affecting
sions. Results are able to cause and effect unidimensional measures are
specify inappropriate. Vignettes
relationships between variables or sets of variables. allow a range of situational or contextual factors to be
and Sims (1979), for example, varied the size considered in about whether or
Hegarty making judgments
of kickback in an experiment
a in order to determine not certain behavior is ethical.
the impact of incentive on
judgment about whether Factorial survey design has been used to deal with
or not the behavior sensitive as child abuse
is ethical. Experimental design subjects such (Garrett and
also allows for of actual behavior, as Rossi, as well as the seriousness of
investigation 1978), judging
two various crimes committed under differing circum
demonstrated by Forsyth and Berger (1982) in
studies tempting college students to cheat in a labo stances be very
(Hembroff, 1987), and thus may
or well-suited to issues of business ethics. Factorial
ratory setting. External validity generalizability
of the is a concern in survey design could be used, for example, to test
findings laboratory experi
ments, especially when students are used as the dimensions of moral intensity outlined by Jones
subjects.
This suggests that findings from experiments will (1991).
make the greatest contribution to of
understanding
ethical behavior when used in conjunction with Randomized response techniques. Randomized response
results from studies other methodologies have been used successfully in the study
employing techniques
of behavior ranging from auditing "shortcuts" by
(Trevino, 1992).
firms (Buchman and Tracy, 1982)
public accounting
Factorial survey design. Another promising and vir to
shoplifting (Reinmuth and Geurts, 1975). The
unexplored research method is that of the technique is based on the premise that survey
tually
factorial This melds tend to conceal embarrassing informa
survey design. technique prin respondents
ciples of experimental design with
conventional tion, and that a social desirability factor operates
Factorial survey design extends to encourage to what
survey methodology. respondents provide they
amethod to be the "correct" answer
used in business ethics research, that of the perceive (Randall and
or scenario 1961; Brenner and Metzger (1992) discuss
vignette (Baumhart, and Fernandes, 1991). Dalton
can be in
Molander, 1977; Fritzsche and Becker, 1984; Robert how useful this technique eliciting candor
son and Anderson, and Fritzsche and cooperation when to reveal
1993). Cavanaugh asking respondents
(1985) andWeber (1992) review the business ethics sensitive information about themselves.
studies that utilize Factorial survey design In order to break down social desirability bias,
vignettes.
allows the dimensions of a multitude of variables to are asked to select which to
respondents questions
be isolated within each vignette. For example, in a answer based on a system such as the of a coin or
flip
sales scenario, factors such as the size of the potential the last digit of the serial number on a dollar bill. For

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Business Ethics and Research Directions 593

to answer a ques
example, respondents may be told Qualitative research also appears particularly
tion about their taking office supplies home only if well-suited to ethical behavior because it
studying
their coin flip results in "heads". If the coin flip is tends to consider not only the behavior itself, but
"tails", they are requested either not to answer the also the way in which the individual views that
at all or are asked to to another behavior. Ethical seems to involve a
behavior
question respond compli
are thus from hav cated, dynamic process which includes the individ
question. Respondents protected
their answers associated with them since the ual's perceptions and interpretations of the behavior.
ing
researcher will not know which the re as
questions Qualitative methods such personal interviews may
spondent has answered. Through
the randomization be more for capturing
suitable those human pro
process, the researcher is able to estimate, based on cesses of and
perception interpretation (Liedtka,
which an individual has that one image of
probability theory, question 1992). Kahn (1990) concludes
answered. Because it is
probability-based, this tech business ethics research is that of an historical
is effective with sizes. process. Ethics to be a part of a
is believed or
nique only large sample person's
an institution's Ethical
behavior takes
history. place
As studies of business ethics prolif within a social setting in which a
Meta-analysis. complex myriad of
erate, we should be able to of situational variables need to be considered. Observa
apply techniques
to about ethical behavior. tion and participant observation are par
meta-analysis findings techniques
a to capture
Meta-analysis involves quantitative analysis of ticularly well-suited and analyze such
group of studies
that investigate the same research
complexity.
an excellent
question through somewhat similar methods (Ban Jackall (1988) presents example of the
1986). The purpose of meta-analysis is from field
gert-Drowns, insights emerging in-depth qualitative
to discover patterns in studies that may show dif work in corporate settings. He describes a system of
ferent results. Meta-analysis statement norms and values that tends to act in
requires the organizational
and testing of hypotheses. We need to build our base place of individuals' ethical beliefs and values. Em
of studies and bank of results focusing on ethical or separate their
ployees "bracket" personal ethics in
behavior, but we soon be at a where we order to conform to what is on the in a
may point required job
can examine overall results. For are a manner to that described
example, there similar by Carr (1968).
of business ethics studies that explore the (1991) interviews with managers
number Similarly, Toffler's
between age and ethical attitudes or demonstrate the complexity both of ethical issues
relationship
behavior et al, 1989; McDonald and Zepp, themselves and the ways in which individuals think
(Betz
business ethics issues.
1988). Meta-analyses summarizing through the
research literature could become part of the meth Sieber (1973) suggests a number of ways in which

odological repertoire of business ethicists (Glass etal., qualitative research can contribute to
quantitative
1981; Green and Hall, research, including the use of research in
1984). qualitative
the design, data collection, and analysis stages of
Qualitative research.Qualitative and quantitative em survey research. Similar arguments can be made for
not to other
pirical research do necessarily represent duelling the contribution of qualitative methods
has a contribution to make such as experimentation. For
paradigms. Rather, each quantitative methods,
to the field. Qualitative research includes numerous example, exploratory groups focus
could be con

specific research methods that investigate a research ducted with managers in a particular industry in

question in a natural setting rather than an artificial order to gain a sense of the types of ethical issues
one and Rossman, them, and the ways in which the managers
(Marshall 1989). Qualitative facing
methods are valuable to re handle them. Having identified a set of issues, the
particularly empirical
searchers concerned with theory. Rei researcher would then design a survey man
developing asking
chardt and Cook attest that agers in that how have handled such
(1979) quantitative industry they
methods have been the most successful at verifying issues, or an in-basket experiment to test
directly the
or theories, whereas to address the issues. Sieber also looks
confirming qualitative methods methods used
are the most successful at discovering or at the ways in which methods can
generating quantitative
theories. benefit qualitative research, and concludes that the

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 594Diana C. Robertson

of research methods offers "enormous factors tend to correlate with one an

integration consistently
opportunities for mutual advantage" (p. 1337). other.

Establish validity. Although is not a meth

validity
like those proposed above, its as 8. Build links to and public
odology importance managerial policy applications
part of those methodologies deserves A
emphasis.
measure is considered valid if it does what it was Further research of to both managers
interest and
intended to do discusses is needed, and more
(Nunnally, 1973). Nunnally public policymakers specific
the difficulties of measuring abstract rather than links between the research itself and recommenda
concrete variables; abstract variables are constructs tions from the research should be elabo
stemming
construct we
and require validity, defined by Schwab rated (Derry and Green, 1989). If accept the
as the between a construct that the ultimate purpose of business ethics
(1980) correspondence position
and the procedure used to measure that construct. research is to serve as a to sound
guide ethically
Measures of ethical behavior must first address the decision then we need to consider how
making,
of what constitutes ethical behavior; the research, particularly normative research, can be
question
question of validity
in empirical research thus relates made accessible and useful to individuals in a posi
back to the earlier point that empiricists need to use tion to shape corporate and social
policy. Empirical
normative theory
to establish what is and is not research has made some links to application, particu
ethical behavior. A further dimension of construct to
larly managerial application (see, for example,
is that of convergent that is, the Victor and Cullen, 1988), but normative research has
validity validity,
to which two or more different meas made very few.
degree using
ures of the same construct the same results. One area in which normative research
yields promising
studies in the field of business ethics have could have impact is that of corporate codes of
Empirical
not addressed the topic of convergent validity. ethics. Data on the of codes of ethics
prevalence
et al. that
Cavanaugh (1981) and Beauchamp and suggest large numbers of major U.S. corpora
Bowie (1979) discuss the difficulty of establishing tions have adopted such codes and that the trend is
criteria for ethical behavior. Randall and in Europe as well 1988;
defining accelerating (Berenbeim,
Gibson (1990) lament that of the empirical business Berenbeim, 1992; Ethics Resource Center, 1990).
ethics studies they examined 64% provided no theo Furthermore, recent
proposed guidelines from the
retical foundation at all. Lewis over U.S. Commission treat corporate ethics
(1985) reports Sentencing
300 different definitions of business ethics contained codes as demonstrable evidence of good faith efforts
in books and articles on the subject. Similarly, Derry to prevent corporate crime, and may be considered
25 business ethics texts in the reduction of sentences
(U.S. Sentencing Com
and Green (1989) examine
and conclude that there is a serious lack of clarity as mission, 1991). These guidelines should have the
to what constitutes business ethics. If we encounter effect of further increasing the adoption of codes of
such difficulty defining the field, it is not surprising ethics, as well as possibly restructuring some
existing
studies often choose not to confront codes. For to be more
that individual example, codes of ethics tend
the definitional issue.What is surprising is that these concerned with employee conduct directed against
same studies the firm, as
sometimes purport to measure what is such employees' leaking proprietary
ever than with on
ethical without defining
it. information, illegalities behalf of the
This concern for construct validity suggests that firm, such as price gouging of customers or unfair
social scientists should work to indices of on contracts and Moore,
develop bidding practices (Cressey
ethical and unethical behavior based on normative 1983).
theory. Anecdotal evidence hints that individuals Corporate codes appear to be an excel
of ethics

may not be consistent in their ethical behavior. An lent area in which business ethics researchers can
who would never take even the least have an codes of ethics are
employee impact; important
office lie to the boss statements about corporate priorities
expensive supplies home may organizational
about hours worked. Construction of indices of (Drake and Drake, 1988). Analysis of the ethical
ethical behavior would aid in testing which ethical codes has contributed to under
principles underlying

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Business Ethics and Research Directions 595

and societal values to the field's future research

standing of fundamental corporate tageous agenda (Payne
in which ethical and Giacalone,
(Frederick, 1991). This approach, 1990).
codes are dissected in order to reveal the normative This early stage of the development of the busi
on which the codes operate, demonstrates ness ethics field affords the to take stock
principles opportunity
how normative research adds to understanding of of the present state of research and to plot our future
research directions. Business ethics is a sensitive and
corporate policy and behavior.
Empirical research on the effectiveness of codes of complex topic that will benefit from a systematic
and the means to and test over the next
ethics, by which corporations enforce effort originate theory
them, can also contribute to
managers' formulation decade. Perhaps by the end of the century we can
and use of codes 1989; Laczniack and conclude that business ethics truly constitutes a field
(Brooks,
Inderrieden, 1987; Mathews, 1988; Robertson and of study with a substantive base and with
knowledge
of how codes work some to the field, or at least a
Schlegelmilch, 1993). Knowledge theory unique unique
within with on the on framework, rather than
corporations emphasis impact conceptual only theory
behavior would be beneficial to those borrowed from other fields.
employee
responsible for code implementation. The purpose of this paper has been to propose
In addition to codes of ethics, corporations are in avenues for future research in
promising empirical
creasingly institutionalizing ethics through employee business ethics. To this point in time, the dominant
in ethics and the creation of
corporate contribution has been from normative ethics. Em
training
concerned with the handling of is now but
positions directly pirical research only gaining momentum,
ethical issues (Center for Business Ethics, 1986; has not built a major cumulative contribution. This
Raelin, initiatives such as these has that research will be
1987). Corporate paper argued empirical
seem to indicate
that corporations would be recep most valuable if it pursues certain direc
scholarly
tive to research that will enable corporate tions. In summary form these are:
findings
to
management successfully address ethical issues.
A number of recent articles address normative 1. Base
empirical research
on normative
foundations.
to business and em
theory (See, for example, Dees and
needs Greater collaboration between normative

Crampton, 1991; Donaldson, 1989; Goodpaster, pirical perspectives is needed. Empiricists should
1991; Hoffman, and have direct significance state as and as the nor
1991) explicitly precisely possible
for managers. Donaldson's conceptualization of mative foundations of their research investigations.
fundamental and their correlative corporate
rights
duties could be extended to include a very 2. behavior as the key dependent variable.
specific Emphasize
set of Bowie's Ethical and unethical behavior should become the
managerial guidelines. Similarly,
on can be articu focus of research. Attitude research is
(1982) guidelines whistleblowing empirical
lated as corporate policy specifying
circumstances valuable, but only in conjunction with research on
under which should engage in whistle behavior, not as a substitute for it.
employees
blowing.
3. Test theoretical models of ethical decision
making.
Information on how individuals make decisions
Conclusion about what constitutes ethical behavior and whether
or not to engage in that behavior will add to under
As a is still very
relatively young field, business ethics standing
of the determinants of ethical decision
much in the stage of from other and ethical behavior.
borrowing theory making
most as well as
disciplines, notably philosophy,
its own theory. At this 4. Focus on Norma
building embryonic stage of empirical research theory building.
our we have a deal to learn from tive research has made a considerable contribution to
development, great
the successes and failures
of other disciplines, par theory building, whereas empirical research has pro
are in the
ticularly those that also engaged study of duced greater application for managers. Empirical
human behavior. Assimilation of multidisciplinary research is equally capable of substantive
making
on business ethics should prove advan contribution to
perspectives theory.

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 596 Diana C. Robertson

5. Include other units of analysis. An advocated investi References

gation of behavior should not be limited to individ

or Adler, J.: 1983, 'Cross-Cultural Research:
ual managerial employee behavior. The behavior Nancy Management
The Ostrich and the Trend', Academy ofManagement
of work groups, departmental units, and corpora
Review 8 (2), 226-232.
tions, along with that of other stakeholder groups
Ajzen, leek: 1991, The Theory of Planned Behavior: Some
such as consumers and shareholders, are of
equal Unresolved Issues', Behavior and Human
Organizational
interest.
Decision Processes 50, 179?211.

Kenneth E., Archie B. Carroll, and D.

Aupperle, John
6. Pursue systematic research. Multiple studies inves Hatfield: 1985, An Empirical Examination of the Rela
similar research questions will advance busi Between
tigating tionship Corporate Social Responsibility and
ness ethics towards amore cohesive field of study. Profitability', Academy ofManagement Journal 28 (2), 446?
463.

7. Broaden the Robert L.: 'Review

methodological base. Survey methodol Bangert-Drowns, 1986, of
Developments
in Meta-Analytic Method', Psychological Bulletin 99(3),
ogy has tended to dominate empirical business ethics
388-399.
research (Randall and Gibson, 1990). Other meth
Baumhart, C: 1961, 'How Ethical Are Business
cross-national Raymond
odologies including design, experi
men?', Harvard Business Review 39 (July?August) 6?19,
mental design, factorial survey design, randomized 156-176.
response techniques, meta-analysis, and qualitative
Tom L. and Norman E. Bowie: 1979, Eds.,
Beauchamp,
methods are
suggested. Ethical Theory and Business (Prentice-Hall,
Englewood
Cliffs, NJ).
8. Build links to
managerial and public policy applica Becker, Helmut and David J. Fritzsche: 1987, 'AComparison
tions. Normative research can make more explicit its of the Ethical Behavior of American, French and German
usefulness for public policy and for management. Managers',
Columbia
Journal of World
Business Winter,

research, which has made a 87-95.

Similarly, empirical
to to Ronald E.: 'An Outbreak
public policy and
contribute Berenbeim, 1988, of Ethics', Across
greater attempt
can further increase its of theBoard 25(5), 15-19.
management, specification
Berenbeim, Ronald E.: 1992, Ethics Practices
the applications of its research findings. Corporate (The
Conference Board, Inc., New York).
Betz, Michael, Lenahan O'Connell, and M.
Jon Shepard:
1989, 'Gender Differences in Proclivity for Unethical
Acknowledgement Behavior', Business Ethics 321?324.
Journal of 8(5),
Blasi, Augusto: 1980, 'BridgingMoral Cognition and Moral
The author wishes to thank Thomas W. Dunfee and Action: A Critical Review of the Literature',
Psychological
William S. Laufer for their comments on an earlier Bulletin 88(1) (July) 1-45.
draft of the paper. Bommer, Michael, Clarence Gratto, Gravander, and
Jerry
Mark Tuttle: 1987: 'A Behavioral Model of Ethical and
Unethical Decision Making', Journal of Business Ethics 6,
Notes 265-280.

Bowie, Norman E.: 1982, Business Ethics Inc,

(Prentice-Hall,
1 It is
recognized that articles published in the Journal of Englewood Cliffs, NJ).
not status W. D. and L. C. 1978, Moral A
Business Ethics do represent the of the Boyce, Jensen: Reasoning: Psy
completely
field of business ethics. However, this publication has pub chological-PhilosophicalIntegration (University of Nebraska
lished the greatest number of articles of any single journal Press, Lincoln, NE).
on the topic of business ethics and has published work by Brenner, Steven N. and Earl A Molander: 1977, 'Is the Ethics
most of the of Business Changing?', Harvard Business Review 55(1),
leading scholars in the field.
2 57-71.
This is particularly true of articles published in theJournal
Business Ethics. and management are Brooks, Leonard J., Jr. 1989, Codes of Ethics',
of Sociological journals 'Corporate
more
likely
to include units of analysis other than the Journal ofBusiness Ethics 8(2, 3), 117-129.
individual. Browning, John and Noel B. Zabriskie: 1983, 'How Ethical
Are Industrial Buyers?', IndustrialMarketing Management
12,219-224.

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Business Ethics and Research Directions 597

Buchman, Thomas A. and

John
A.
Tracy: 1982, 'Obtaining Dubinsky, Alan J. and B. Loken: 1989, 'Analyzing Ethical
to Sensitive Questions: Conventional Ques
Decision Making in Marketing', Journal of Business Re
Responses
tionnaire versus Randomized search 19(2), 83-107.
Response Technique', Jour
nal ofAccounting Research 20(1), 263?268. Dunfee, Thomas W.: 1991, 'Business Ethics and Extant

Carr, Albert Z.: 1968, Is Business Bluffing Ethical?', Harvard Social Contracts', Business Ethics Quarterly 1 (l), 23?51.
Business Review 46, 143?148. England, George W.: 1975, The Manager andHis Values: An
International Perspective (Ballinger Publishing Co., Cam
Cavanaugh, Gerald F. and David J. Fritzsche: 1985, 'Using
in Business Ethics Research', Research in Cor bridge).
Vignettes
Social and 7, JAI Press Inc., 279? Ethics Resource Center: 1990, Ethics Policies and in
porate Performance Policy Programs
293. American Business: a Landmark U.S.
Report of Survey of
* Resource Center and the Behavior
Cavanaugh,
Gerald F., D. J. Moberg,
and Manuel
Velasquez: Corporations (Ethics
1981, The Ethics of Organizational Polities', Academy of Research Center, Washington, DC).
Review 6, 363?374. Ferrell, O. C. and G. Gresham: 1985, 'A
Management Larry Contingency
Center for Business Ethics: 1986, 'Are Institu Framework for Understanding Ethical Decision Making
Corporations
inMarketing', Journal ofMarketing 49 (Summer), 87?96.
tionalizing Ethics?', Journal of Business Ethics 5 (2), 85?
91. Ferrell, O. C, Larry G. Gresham, and John Fraedrich: 1989,
Ciulla, B.: 1988, 'When E. F. Hutton in 'A Synthesis of Ethical Decision Models for Marketing',
Joanne Speaks',
Thomas Donaldson and Patricia H. Werhane
(eds.), Journal ofMacromarketing Fall, 55?64.
Ethical Issues inBusiness:A PhilosophicalApproach (Prentice Fishbein, Martin and I.Ajzen: 1975, Belief Attitude, Intention
to
Hall, Inc.,Englewood Cliffs, NJ), pp. 123-139. and Behavior: An Introduction
Theory
and Research

Clark, John C: 1966, Religion andMoral Standards ofAmerican (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA).
Business (Southwestern Publishing, Cincinnati, OH). Fleming, John E.: 1987,A Survey and Critique of Business
Clinard, Marshall B. and Peter C. 1990, Ethics Research, 1986', inWilliam C. Frederick (ed.),
Yaeger: Corporate
Crime (Free Press, New York). Research inCorporate Social Performance andPolicy (JaiPress
Cochran, Philip L. and Robert A. Wood: 1984, 'Corporate Inc., Greenwich, CT), pp. 1?23.

Social
Responsibility
and Financial Performance', Acad Forsyth, Donelson R: 1980,A Taxonomy of Ethical Ideolo
emy ofManagement Journal 27(1), 42?56. gies', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39, 175?
Cochran, Philip L. and D. Nigh: 1986, 'Illegal Corporate 184.

Behavior: An
Empirical Examination', paper presented
to Forsyth, Donelson R and Rick E. Berger: 1982, 'The Effects
the of IL. of Ethical Ideology on Moral Behavior', The Journal of
Academy Management, Chicago,
Donald R. and Charles A. Moore: 1983, Social Psychology 117,53?56.
Cressey, 'Managerial
Values and
Corporate Codes of Ethics',
California Manage Forsyth, Donelson R. andWilliam Ray Pope: 1984, 'Ethical
mentReview 25(4), 53-77. \ Ideology and Judgments of Social Psychological Research:
Dalton, Dan R. and Michael B. 1992, 'Towards Multidimensional Analysis', Journal ofPersonality and Social
Metzgar:
Candor, Cooperation, and Privacy in Applied Business Psychology 46(6), 1365-1375.
Ethics Research: The Randomized Research
Technique',
Frederick,William C: 1992, 'The Empirical Quest for Nor
BusinessEthics Quarterly 2(2), 207-221. mative
Meaning:
Introduction and Overviews', Business

Dees, and Peter C. 1991, 'Shrewd Ethics Quarterly 2(2), 91-98.

J. Gregory Crampton:

Bargaining
on the Moral Frontier: Toward a
Theory
of Frederick,William C: 1991, 'TheMoral Authority of Trans
in Practice', Business Ethics Quarterly 1(2), 135? national Corporate Codes', Journal ofBusiness Ethics 10(3),
Morality
167. 165-177.

DeGeorge, Richard R.: 1990, Business Ethics (Macmillan Fritzsche, David J.: 1991, A Model of Decision-Making
Publishing, New York). Incorporating Ethical Values', Journal of Business Ethics
Derry, Robbin and Ronald M. Green: 1989, 'EthicalTheory 10(11), 841-852.
in Business Ethics: A Critical Assessment', Journal of Fritzsche, David J. and Helmut Becker: 1984, 'LinkingMan
? An
Business Ethics 8(7), 521-533. agement Behavior to Ethical Philosophy Empirical
Donaldson, John: 1991, European Cases in Business Ethics Investigation', Academy ofManagementJournal 27(1), 166?
(Academic Press Limited, London).
175.

Donaldson, Thomas: 1989, The Ethics of InternationalBusiness Garrett, Karen and Peter H. Rossi, Judging
the Seriousness
of Child Abuse', Medical Anthropology 2(1)
(Oxford University Press, New York). (Winter),
Drake, Bruce H. and Eileen Drake: 1988, 'Ethical and Legal 1-48.

Aspects of Managing Corporate Cultures', California Gatewood, Robert D. and Archie B. Carroll: 1991, 'Assess

Review Winter, 107?123. ment of Ethical Performance of Members:

Management Organization

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 598 Diana C. Robertson

A Framework', Re Laczniak, Gene R. and Edward Inderrieden: 1987, 'The

Conceptual Academy of Management J.
view 16(4), 667-690. Influence of Stated Organizational Concern upon Ethical
Glass, G. V., B. McGaw, and M. L. Smith: 1981, Meta-analysis Decision Making', Journal of Business Ethics 6(1), 297?
inSocialResearch (Sage,Beverly Hills, CA). 307.

Kenneth E.: 1984, Ethics in Lewis, P. V.: 1985, 'Business Ethics': Like
Goodpaster, Management (Harvard 'Defining Nailing
Business School, Boston). Jello to theWall', Journal ofBusines Ethics 4, 377-383.
Goodpaster,
Kenneth E.: 1991, 'Business Ethics and Stake Liedtka, Jeanne M.: 1992, 'Exploring Ethical Issues Using
holder Analysis', Business Ethics Quarterly 1 (1), 53?73. Personal Interviews', Business Ethics Quarterly 2(2), 161?
Green, Bert F. and A. Hall: 1984, 'Quantitative 181.
Judith
Methods for Literature Reviews', Annual Review Marshall, Catherine and Gretchen B. Rossman: 1989, Design
of Psy

chology 35, 37?53. ingQualitative Research (Sage Publications, Newbury Park,

Haan, N.: 1982, 'Can Research on be 'Scientific'?',
Morality CA).
American 37, 1096?1104. Mathews, M. Cash: 1988, Strategic Intervention in
Psychologist Organizations:

Resolving Ethical Dilemmas (Sage Publications, Newbury

W. and P. Sims, 'Some
Hegarty, Harvey Henry Jr.: 1978,
Determinants of Unethical Decision Behavior: An Ex Park, CA).
periment', Journal ofApplied Psychology 63, 451?457. McDonald, Gael M. and Raymond A. Zepp: 1988, 'Ethical
W. and Henry P. Sims, 1979, of Chinese Business
Hegarty, Harvey Jr.: 'Organiza Perceptions Hong Kong Managers',
tional Philosophy, Policies, and Objectives Related to Journal ofBusiness Ethics 7(11), 835?845.
Unethical Decision Behavior: A A R: 1983, 'Cross Cultural Re
Laboratory Experiment', Negandhi, Management

Journal ofApplied Psychology 64(3), 331?338. search: Trend and Future', Journal of International
Business

Hembroff, A. 'The Seriousness of Acts and Social Studies 14, 17-28.

Larry
Contexts: A Test of Black's Theory of the Behavior of Norton, Edgar: 1989, Ajiimple Quantitative Test of Finan
Law', AmericanJournal ofSociology 93(2), 322?347. cial Ethics', Journal ofBusiness Ethics 8(7), 561?564.
Hoffman, W. Michael: 1991, 'Business and Environmental
Nunnally, Jum C: 1973, Psychometric Theory (McGraw-Hill,
Ethics', Business Ethics Quarterly 1 (2), 169?184. New York).
Hunt, Shelby D. and Scott Vitell: 1986, 'AGeneral Theory of Payne, Stephen
L. and Robert A. Giacolone: 1990, 'Social
to the Perception
Marketing Ethics', Journal ofMacromarketing 6 (Spring), Psychological Approaches of Ethical
5-16. Dilemmas', Human Relations 43 649?665.
(7),
Izraeli, Dove: 1988, 'Ethical Beliefs and Behavior Posner, Z. and Warren H. Schmidt: 1987, 'Ethics in
Among Barry
A Cross-Cultural Busi American A
Managers: Perspective', Journal of Companies: Managerial Perspective', Journal
nessEthics 7 (4), 263-271. ofBusinessEthics 6(5), 383-391.
Jackall, Robert: 1988, Moral Mazes: The World of Corporate Raelin, A.: 1987, 'The Professional as the Executive's
Joseph

Managers (Oxford University Press, New York). Ethical

Aide-de-Camp',
The
Academy ofManagement
Exec

Jones, Thomas M.: 1991, 'Ethical Decision Making by Indi utive 1(2), 171-183.
viduals in An Model', Randall, Donna M. and Maria F. Fernandes: 1991, 'The
Organizations: Issue-Contingent

Academy ofManagement Review 16(2), 366?395. Social Desirability Response Bias in Ethics Research',
Kahn, William A.: 1990, 'Toward an Agenda for Business Journal ofBusiness Ethics 10(11), 805-817.
Ethics Research', Academy ofManagement Review 15(2), Randall, Donna M. and Annetta M. Gibson: 1990, 'Meth

311-328. in Business Ethics Research: A Review and

odology

Keeley,
Michael: 1988, A Social-Contract
Theory of Organiza
Critical Assessment', Journal of Business Ethics 9(6), 457?
tions of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, 471.
(University IN).

Kohlberg,
Lawrence: 1969, 'Stage
and
Sequence: The
Cogni Rawls, John: 1971, A Theory ofJustice (Harvard University
tive-Developmental Approach
to Socialization', in D. A. Press, Cambridge).
Goslin(ed.),Handbook of Socialization Theory andResearch Reichardt, Charles S. and Thomas D. Cook: 1979, 'Beyond
(RandMcNally, Chicago), pp. 347-480. Qualitative versus Quantitative Methods', in Thomas D.

Cook and Charles S. Reichardt (eds.), Qualitative and

Kohlberg, Lawrence: 1981, The Philosophy ofMoral Develop
ment
(Harper
& Row, San
Francisco). Quantitative Methods inEvaluation Research (Sage, Beverly
Kurtines, William M.: 1986, 'Moral Behavior as Rule Gov Hills, CA), pp. 7-32.
erned Behavior: Person and Situation Effects on Moral Reidenbach, R Eric, and Donald P. Robin: 1991, 'A Con
Decison Making', Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology ceptual Model of Corporate Moral Development', Journal
50(4), 784-791. ofBusiness Ethics 10(4), 273-284.
Laczniak, Gene R.: 1983, 'Framework for Market Reinmuth, E. and Michael D. Geurts: 1975, 'The
Analyzing James
1, 48?57. Collection of Sensitive Information a
ing Ethics', Journal ofMacromarketing Using Two-Stage,

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Business Ethics and Research Directions 599

Randomized Response Model', Journal ofMarketing Re Choices in a Competitive Business World (JohnWiley &
search 12 (November), 402-407. Sons, Inc., New York).
Rest, James
R.: 1986, Moral Development:
Advances in Research Trevino, Linda Klebe: 1986, 'Ethical Decision Making in
andTheory (Praeger,New York). Organizations:
A Person-Situation Interactionist Model',

Robertson, Diana C. and Erin Anderson: 1993, 'Control Academy ofManagement Review 11 (3), 601?617.
on Ethical
System and Task Environment Effects Trevino, Linda Klebe: 1992, to
Judg 'Experimental Approaches
ment: An Exploratory Study of Industrial Salespeople', Studying Ethical-Unethical Behavior in Organizations',
Organization Science, forthcoming.
Business Ethics Quarterly 2 (2), 121-136.
Robertson, C. and Bodo B. Schlegelmilch: 1993,
Diana Trevino, Linda Klebe and Stuart A. Youngblood: 1990, 'Bad
'Corporate Institutionalization of Ethics in the United Apples in Bad Barrels: A Causal Analysis of Ethical
States and Great Britain', Journal of Business Ethics 12, Decision-Making Behavior', Journal ofApplied Psychology
133_144. 75(4), 378-385.
Romer, Daniel, Charles L. Gruder, and Terri Lizzardo: 1986, Tsalikis, John and David J. Fritzsche: 1989, 'Business Ethics:
'A Person-Situation to Altruistic Behavior', A Literature Review with a Focus on Ethics',
Approach Marketing
1001? Journal ofBusiness Ethics 8(9), 695-743.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51(5),
1012. UJS. Commission: 1991, manu
Sentencing Unpublished
Sathe, Vijay 1986, 'How toDecipher and Change Organiza script, Sentencing of Organizations.
tional Culture', in R. H. Kilman and Associates
(ed.), Victor, Bart and John B. Cullen: 1988, 'The Organizational
Managing Corporate
Cultures
(Jossey-Bass, Inc., San Fran Bases of Ethical Work Climates', Administrative Science
cisco). Quarterly 33(1), 101-125.
Schwab, D. P.: 1980, 'Construct Validity in Organizational Waterman, Alan S.: 1988, 'On the Uses of Psychological
Behavior', in
Barry
M. Staw and
Larry
L.
Cummings Theory and Research in the Process of Ethical Inquiry',
(eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (JAI Press, PsychologicalBulletin 103(3), 283-298.
Greenwich, CT), 2, 3?43. Weber, James: 1992, 'Scenarios in Business Ethics Research:

Sieber, Sam D.: 1973, 'The Integration of Field Work and Review, Critical Assessment, and Recommendations',

Survey Methods', American Journal of Sociology 78 (May), Business Ethics Quarterly 2(2), 137?159.
1335-1359. Werhane, Patricia H.: 1988, 'Two Ethical Issues in
Mergers
Smith, N.
Craig: 1990, Morality
and the Market: Consumer and Acquisitions', Journal ofBusiness Ethics 7(1, 2), 41?45.
Pressurefor Corporate Accountability (Routledge, London Wolfe, Art: 1991, 'Reflections on Business Ethics:What Is It?
andNew York). What Causes It?And, What Should a Course in Business
Staw, Barry
M. and
Szwajkowski:
Eugene 1975, 'The Scar Ethics Include?' Business Ethics Quarterly 1 (4), 409-439.
of Environ
city-Munificence Component Organizations
ments and the Commission of Acts', Administrative
Illegal Department of Legal Studies,
Science 20, 345?354.
Quarterly The Wharton School,
Stead, W. Edward, Dan L. Worrell, and Jean Garner Stead:
'An Model for and
University of Pennsylvania,
1990, Integrative Understanding
Philadelphia, PN 19104-6369,
Ethical Behavior in Business
Managing Organizational',
U.S.A.
Journal ofBusinessEthics 9(3), 233-242.
Toffler, Barbara L.: 1991,Managers Talk Ethics:Making Tough

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.227 on Sat, 21 Jun 2014 00:56:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions