Shear Strength 9

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In engineering applications, when working with steel, concrete, or timber, it is necessary to ensure
that they do not fail in tension, compression, or shear. Here, we design them such that their tensile
strength is greater than the tensile stresses within the material, that the compressive strength is
greater than the compressive stresses within the material, and that the shear strength is greater
than the shear stresses within the material. ¿ soils , failure almost always occurs∈shear .
Soil consists of an assemblage of grains. Failure takes place when the shear stresses exceed
the shear strength along the failure surface within the soil mass. Along the failure surface when
the shear strength is exceeded, the soil grains slide over each other and failure takes place. There
will rarely be a failure of individual soil grains. Shear failure occurs well before the crushing or
breaking of individual grains. Figure 9.1 shows the failure of an embankment. Shear stress is
denoted byτ , and shear strength (or shear stress at failure) is denoted by τ f . The soil wedge shown
by the darker zone will be stable and will remain in equilibrium only if τ < τ f .When τ becomes
equal toτ f , failure takes place where the soil wedge slides down along the failure surface. Such
shear failure can occur within the backfills behind retaining walls or in the soil mass underlying a
foundation.
9.2 MOHR CIRCLES
At this stage, let's have a brief overview of Mohr circles, which are generally covered in subjects
such as Engineering Mechanics or Strength of Materials. A Mohr circle is used for graphically
presenting the state of stress at a point in a two-dimensional problem. Figure 9.2a shows the state
of stress at point A with respect to a Cartesian coordinate system where σ x and σ yare the normal
stresses acting along the x and y direction on y and x planes respectively and the shear stresses are
7 .<y' Our sign convention is:

 compressive stresses arc positive (hence tensile stresses are negative)

 shear stresses producing counter clockwise couples are positive

181
182 Geotechnical Engineering

The million-dollar question is, what would be the normal σ x 'and theτ x ' y' stresses on a plane at A inclined
at θ to vertical (see Figure 9.2a)? In other words, the coordinate axes are rotated counter clockwise by an
angleθ , what would be the new normal and shear stresses with respect to x ’ and y ’ directions? These
values would also represent the normal and shear stresses on two different orthogonal planes at A.
Remember, we are still referring to the same point A.

Figure 9.2 Stress transformation and Mohr circle for state of stress at point A:

(a) Stresses at the point and (b) Mohr circle

 Shear Strength 183

It can be shown by equilibrium considerations that they are given by

σ x+σ σ −σ y
σx =
'
( )( )
2
+ x
2
y
cos 2 θ−τ xys sin 2θ (9.1)

σ x −σ y
( )
τ x ' y' =
2
sin 2θ +τ xy cos 2θ (9.2)

From Equations 9.1 and 9.2, it can be shown that the major and minor principal stresses at A are:

σ 1,3 = ( σ +σ2 )± R
x y
(9.3)

Where

σ x −σ y 2 2
R=
√( 2 ) + τ xy (9.4)

Here, σ 1 and σ 3 are the major (larger) and the minor (smaller) principal stresses, respectively. They are
the maximum and minimum possible values for the normal stress at point A. remember the principal
stress occurs on a plane having no shear stress. The planes on which the principal stresses occur are
known as principal p lanes .The two principal planes are perpendicular to each other. Using equations
9.1 and 9.2, the normalσ x ' and shear τ x ' y' stress with respect to the new coordinate axes O x' and O Y 'can
be determined for any value of θ . These are simply the stresses acting on a plane through point A, inclined
at an angle of θ to vertical.
From Equations 9.1 and 9.2:
2
σ +σ σ x −σ y 2 2 σ −σ y
[ ( )] ( )
σx− x y
'
2
=
2
cos 2θ +τ 2 xy sin 2 2 θ−2 τ xy x
2 (
sin 2 θ cos 2θ ) (9.5)

σ x −σ y 2 2 σ x −σ y
2
[ τ x y −0 ] =
' '
( 2 ) 2 2
sin 2 θ+τ xy cos 2θ+ 2 τ xy
2 (
sin 2 θ cos 2 θ ) (9.6)

2
σ +σ σ x −σ y 2 2
[ ( )]
∴ σx− x y
'
2
+ [ τ x y −0 ] =
' '
2

2 ( )
+τ xy =R2 (9.7)

The above is an equation of a circle in σ x ' =τ ' xy space where R,σ x ,σ y, and τ xy are known constants. The
circle has a radius of R and the coordinates of the center are ( σ x +σ y ¿/2 and 0. Such a circle drawn on
σ −¿τ ¿ space (see figure 9.2b), is called a Mohr ∘≤¿. It is a convenient, graphical way of determining the
normal and shear stresses at any plane passing through point A.
184 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 9.3 rotation of a plane at a point: (a) point (b) Mohr circle

It can be seen from the Mohr circle in Figure 9.2b that the maximum shear stresses at A is the same as the
radius of the Mohr circle R. Equation 9.3, which gives the principal stress values is even clearer from
looking at the figure.
The state of stress at every point (e.g., point A in Figure 9/2a) within the soil mass can be represented
by a unique Mohr circle. Figure 9.3a shows a point for which the state of stress is represented by a Mohr
circle shown in Figure 9.3b. The normal σ aand shear τ b on plane-a are shown by point-a on the Mohr
circle. What would be the values of σ b and τ b on plane-b inclined at an angle of an θ counterclockwise to
plane-a? They can be obtained by going counterclockwise by 2 θ from point-a on the Mohr circle, as
shown in Figure 9.3b. This is a key feature of a Mohr circle.

Example 9.1: Draw a Mohr circle for the state of stress at a point shown in the illustration and
find the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at the point. What would be the inclinations
of these planes?
 185 Shear Strength

Example 9 .1: Continued

What would be the normal and shear stresses on a plane inclined at 30 ° to

vertical, counter clockwise?

Solution:
σ x+ σ y 2 2 95−35 2
R=
√( 2 ) √(
+τ xy =

( σ x +σ y )
)2
2
+ 40 =50 kpa

center= , 0=65 , 0
2

A Mohr circle is drawn from the above. The coordinates of the vertical and
horizontal planes in σ −τ space are (95, 40) and (35, - 40) respectively. They can be
marked on the Mohr circle as points P and Q.
186 Geotechnical Engineering

Example 9.1: Continued

From the Mohr circle,∝=tan−¿1 ¿ (40/30)=53.130 →∝/2=26.57 °

Major and minor principal stresses are: σ 1 =115 kPa, σ 3 =15 kPa.

They are shown as point a and B on the Mohr circle. The major principal plane is inclined at
26.57 ° to vertical (clockwise) and the minor principal plane is inclined at 26.57 ° to horizontal
(clockwise). These planes are shown in the figure on page 185.

Maximum shear stress (τ max=50 kPa ) is represented by the two points C and D at the end of the
dashed vertical line. It occurs on two planes: one inclined at 18.43 ° to vertical (counter-clockwise)
and the other inclined at 18.43 ° to horizontal (counterclockwise). These planes are shown in the
figure.
The plane inclined at 30 ° to vertical (counterclockwise) is represented by point E on the Mohr
circle. This point is obtained by going 60 ° counter clockwise from point P on the Mohr circle. Here:

σ E =45.4 kPaand τ E =46.0 kPa

9.3 MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION

Mohr (1900) proposed a shear failure criterion for materials such as soils. He suggested that shear failure
takes place when shear stresses exceed shear strength along the failure surface such as one in Figure 9.1.
Nothing that shear strength τ f is a function of the normal stress σ f on the failure plane, they are related
by:

τ f =f (σ f ) (9.8)

A plot of Equation 9.8 on τ −σ plane gives the failure envelope shown in Figure 9.4a. The failure
envelope suggested by Mohr is not necessarily a straight line. We have seen that for every point

Figure 9.4 Failure criterion: (a) Mohr’s (b) coulomb

 Shear Strength 187

within the soil mass, the state of stress is represented by a unique Mohr circle. Therefore, the soil mass
remains stable if all the Mohr circle are contained within the envelope. The two circles in Figure 9.4a
represent the states of stress at two different points within the soil: A and B. Circle A touches the failure
envelope where τ =τ f ; hence shear failure takes place at point A. Circle B is well within the envelope
( τ< τ f ); therefore, point B is stable. You may note that we are only showing the upper half of the Mohr
circle due to symmetry about the horizontal axis. This will be the case in future discussion as well.

Coulomb (1776) suggested that τ f is proportional toσ f , and related them by:

τ f =c+ σ tan ϕ

Where c and ϕ are the shear-strength parameters, known as the cohesion and friction angle respectively.
Large parameters equate to more strength. tan ϕ Is similar to the friction coefficient μ that you may have
encountered in physics. The friction angle is also known as the angle of internal frictionor the
angle of shearing resistance . For now, cohension can be seen as the stickiness of the soil.
The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is the same as Equation 9.9; we replace the slightly curved Mohr’s
failure envelope (Figure 9.4a) with Coulomb’s straight line (Figure 9.2b), which is a reasonable
approximation, particularly when the normal stresses are not very high.
It can be seen in Figure 9.4b and Equation 9.9 that the soil derives its shear strength from two separate
components: cohesion and friction. The contribution from cohesion is c, which remains the same at all
stress levels. The frictional contributionσ f tan ϕ , however, increases with the increasing value of σ f . In
granular soils, ϕ is slightly larger for angular grains than it is four rounded grains due to better
interlocking between grains. In angular soils, it can vary in the range of 28 °−45° ; the lower end of the
range for loose soils and the upper end for dense soils. Relative density D r , is directly related to the
friction angle with a higher Dr , implying a higherϕ . Understandably, granular soils have no cohension
(i.e., c=0) and consequently, the failure envelope will pass through the origin in τ −σ plane. You can feel
the grittiness in a granular soil, but it is never sticky. The stickiness comes only when the soil is
cohensive, as is the case with clays. Typical values of cohesion can range from 0 to more than 100 kPa,
depending on whether we are talking in terms of total stresses or effective stresses, which we will discuss
later.

9.4 A COMMON LOADING SITUATION

Let’s consider a soil element (or point) as shown in figure 9.5a where the point is initially under an
isotropic state of stress under a confining pressure of σ c. In other words, the stresses are equal all around,
and the Mohr circle is simply a point at R in Figure 9.5b (Think!). Keeping the confining pressure σ c, let’s
apply an additional vertical normal stress ∆ σ and increase it from zero. At any stage of loading, the
principal stresses are: σ 3 =σ c and σ 1 =σ c +∆ σ , acting on vertical and horizontal planes respectively. A
Mohr circle can be drawn at any stage of loading using the
188 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 9.5 A common loading situation: (a) state of stress (b) Mohr circle
representation (c) failure plane

above values, where the diameter of the Mohr circle is ∆ σ (also the principal stress difference at that
instant). When ∆ σ increases, the Mohr circle becomes larger, and this continues until the Mohr circle
touches the failure envelope (at P) and the failure takes place. Let’s ignore the smaller Mohr circle and
take a closer look at the failure circle.
The minor principal stress σ c remains constant throughout the loading and is represented by a fixed
point R. The radius of the Mohr circle at failure is ∆ σ f /2. T is the center of this circle, which touches the
envelope at P. Therefore, TP is perpendicular to the failure the failure envelope. PS is perpendicular to
the σ -axis. Therefore,¿TPS == ϕ . Nothing that the major and minor principal planes are horizontal and
vertical respectively (see Figure 9.5b), it can be deduced that the failure plane, represented by the point P
on the Mohr circle, is inclined at the 45+ ϕ/2 to horizontal or 45−ϕ /2 to vertical (Figure 9.5c). OS and
SP give the values of normal σ f and shear τ f stresses on the failure plane. They are:

∆ σf
σ f =σ c + ¿ (9.10)
2

∆ σf
τ f= cos ϕ (9.11)
2

The maximum shear stress at the point is given by:

∆ σf
τ max= (9.12)
2
 Shear Strength 189

Example 9.2: A granular soil specimen is initially under an isotropic stress state where the
all around confining pressure is 50 kPa. The specimen is subjected to additional vertical
stress that is gradually increased from zero. The specimen failed when the additional vertical
stress was 96 kPa. What is the friction angle of the soil?

Another specimen of the same granular soil at an isotropic confining pressure of 80 kPa is
subjected to similar loading. Find the following:

a. The additional vertical stress required failing the sample

b. Major and minor principal stresses at failure
c. Orientation of the failure plane
d. Normal and shear stresses on the failure plane
e. Maximum shear stress within the sample and orientation of this

Solution: At failure, σ 3 = 50 kPa and σ 1 = 50 + 96 = 146 kPa. The Mohr circle (dashed) is
shown with center at rand radius (∆ σ f /2) of 48 kPa. In granular soils, c = 0. Therefore, the
failure envelope passes through the origin. The envelope is tangent to the Mohr circle at P.

∴<OPT =90 °
PT 48
sin ϕ= = =0.490 → ϕ=29.3 °
OT 98

For the second specimen, we can use the friction angle calculated here.
Now, σ 3 f = 80 kPa and σ 1 f = 80 + ∆ σ f , where ∆ σ f unknown. The subscript f denotes failure.

∆ σ f /2
a. sin ϕ=0.490= → ∆ σ f =153.8 kPa
80+ ∆ σ f /2
190 Geotechnical Engineering

Example 9.2: Continued

b.σ 3 f =¿ 80 kPa and σ 3 f = 80 + 153.8 = 233.8 kPa
c. Failure plane is oriented at 45 + 29.3/2 =, 59.7° to horizontal
d. σ f = 80 + 76.9 - 76.9 sin 29.3 = 11 9.2 kPa; τ f = 76.9 cos 29.3 = 67.0 kPa
c.τ max= ∆ σ f /2 = 76.9 kPa is represented by the top of the Mohr circle

Therefore, the inclination of this plane would be 45° to horizontal.

9.5 MOHR CIRCLES AND FAILURE ENVELOPES IN TERM OF σ AND σ '

Let’s considered the state of state at point × within a saturated soil mass .The normal stresses in
saturated soils are carried by the soil grains and pore water, and we could separate the total stress into
effectiveness stress and pore water pressure as (see Section 5.2 in chapter 5);
σ 1 =σ ' 1 +u (9.13)

And
σ 3 =σ ' 3 +u (9.14)

The pore water pressure is hydrostatic and is equal in all directions. The total stresses, effective
stresses, and the pore water pressure at X are shown in Figure 9.6b. From Equations 9.13 and 9.14,
σ 1 −σ 3=σ ' 1−σ ' 3 ,hence both Mohr circles have the same diameter. They are separated by a
horizontal distance of u. when the pore water pressure is negative, the stress will be the furthest to the
right.
In Section 9.4 and Example 9.2, we saw how the Mohr circle expands from a point until it touches the
failure envelope when the failure occurs. Larger initial confining pressures correspond to larger
values of ∆ σ f at failure. Let’s see how we can determine the failure envelope and find the cohension
and friction angle in terms of total and effective stresses.
Let’s take three representative soil samples from A, B, and C, and subject them to different confining
pressures. Maintaining the confining pressure, we will apply additional vertical stress ∆ σ and
increase this from zero until the fails at ∆ σ f , when we will measure the pore water pressure u f . The
principal stress at failure in terms of total and effective stresses can be computed for each sample as
follows:

σ 3 f =σ c (9.15)

σ ' 3 f =σ c −u f (9.16)
Shear Strength 191

Figure 9.6: Total and effective stresses; (a) state of stress (b) Mohr circle
representation

σ 1 f =σ c + ∆ σ f (9.17)

σ ' 1 f =σ c + ∆ σ f −u f (9.18)

From the above values, separate Mohr circles and failure envelope can be drawn in terms of total and
effective stress, as shown in Figure 9.7. The shear strength parameter can be determined in terms of
total (c , ϕ) and effective (c ' ,ϕ ' ) stresses.

9.6 DRAINED AND UNDRAINED LOADING SITUATIONS

Figure 9.8 shows an embankment being built on the ground, which will impose stresses ( ∆ u 1,∆ σ 3) and
pore water pressures ∆ u at every point, in addition to the stresses pore water
192 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 9.7 Mohr circles and failure envelopes in terms of σ and σ ’

Figure 9.8 Drained and undrained loadings

pressures existing initially. Let’s look at two extreme situations: (a) immediately after construction,
known as short-term, (b) very long time after construction, known as long-term. It is necessary to
ensure that the soil mass remains stable at all times: short-term, long-term and at any time in between.
If the embankment was built slowly such that there was no buildup of excess pore water pressure
and there was adequate time available for drainage, the loading is known as drained loading. This
situation is far from reality-engineers cannot wait that long. On the other hand, if the entire
embankment is placed instantaneously, there will be buildup of pore water pressure with hardly any
time allowed for drainage in the short-term. Such loading is known as undrained loading. In reality
the loading rate falls somewhere between the two situations, and is neither fully drained nor fully
undrained. Most of the time, the short-term loading is assumed to be instantaneous, hence undrained,
especially in clays. In granular soils, which have high permeability, even short-term loading is
drained.
Irrespective of the loading rate, all the excess pore water pressure would have eventually
dissipated over time (i.e., long term) after the embankment had been placed. This situation can be
analyzed as drained loading. For all soils, drained loading can be assumed for long-term analysis.
 Shear Strength 193

The total stress or short-term analysis is generally carried out in terms of total stresses using
undrained shear strength parameters c u and ϕ u.Here, soil is treated as a continuum without separating
it into soil skeleton and pore water. It is not necessary to know the pore water pressures. The effective
stress or long-term analysis is carried out in terms of effective stresses using the drained shear
strength parameters c ' and ϕ ' . The laboratory test procedures for determining the undrained and
drained shear strength parameters are discussed in the following sections.

9.7 TRIAXIAL TEST

A triaxial test apparatus is used to carry out what we have been discussing in Sections 9.4, 9.5, and
9.6. It is used to apply a confining pressure to a cylindrical soil specimen and apply a vertical stress,
which is increased until the specimen fails. There are provisions to measure the pore water pressures.
A schematic diagram of a triaxial test setup is shown in Figure 9.9.
Triaxial tests are carried out generally on 38-50 mm diameter soil specimens with length-
diameter ratios of 2:1. On special occasion, larger diameter samples are used. The specimen is
wrapped in an impermeable rubber membrane, and the O-rings at the top and bottom provide a
watertight seal, thus allowing drainage from only the top and/or bottom of the sample. The sample is
placed on a pedestal (with provisions for drainage and pore water pressure measurement) and
enclosed in a cylindrical Perspex cell filled with water. Cell pressure applied to the water within the
Perspex cell applies the isotropic all-around confining pressure σ c to the specimen. The additional
vertical stress ∆ σ or the principal stress difference ( σ 1 −σ 3), sometimes calleddeviator stress, is
applied in the form of a load using a piston.

Figure 9.9 Triaxial test setup

194 Geotechnical Engineering

The test consists of two stages: (a) application of isotropic confining pressure σ , and (b)
application of the deviator stress∆ σ . Depending on whether the drainage is allowed or not during
these two stages, we simulate different loading scenarios. While applying confining pressure, if
drainage is allowed, the soil specimen consolidates. When the drainage valve is closed, thus not
allowing any drainage, the specimen cannot consolidate irrespective of the magnitude of the
confining pressure. Here, the confining pressure is carried solely by the pore water. While applying
the deviator stress, allowing drainage simulates drained loading, and not allowing any drainage
simulates undrained loading. This gives three possible combinations that are commonly used. They
are:
a. Consolidated drained (CD) triaxial test (ASTM D4767)
b. Consolidated undrained (CU) triaxial test ( ASTM D4767;AS 1289.6.4.2)
c. Unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial test (ASTM D2850; AS 1289.6.4.1)

You may ask, Why not include the unconsolidated drained triaxial test too? It just has no practical
relevance.

9.7 Consolidated Drained (CD) Triaxial Test

In a consolidated drained triaxial test, the drainage is allowed throughout the entire test during the
application of both σ , and ∆ σ .The specimen is consolidated under all-around confining pressure of σ ,
and then loaded under drained conditions. The loading rate is generally slow enough (e.g., axial strain
of 0.1% per hour) to ensure there is no buildup of excess pore water pressure at any stage. If there is
no initial pore water pressure such as backpressure, stresses are the same as the effective stresses at
all times. Therefore, the envelopes are the same in terms of total and effective stresses, hence ϕ=ϕ ' .
Even when sampling below the water table, the saturation level can fall below 100% due to the
stress relief of the sample. Compacted clay sample are difficult to saturate by simply soaking in a tank
for a few days. To ensure the full saturation of the samples, especially in clays, sometimes we apply a
constant pressure through the drainage line into the sample and maintain it throughout the test. This
pressure is generally high enough to dissolve any remaining pore air. This is known as backpressure
u0 , which is simply initial constant pore water pressure that remains within the soil. Any excess pore
water pressure that is developing during the undrained loading will be in addition to this
backpressure, which is like a datum. Increasing the cell pressure and backpressure equally has no
effort on the effective stress.
It is interesting to note that for normally consolidated clays, c ' ≈ 0. Average values of ϕ ' for
normally consolidated clays can range from 20° for highly plastic clays to more than 30° for silty or
sandy clays. If over consolidated, ϕ ' will be lower and c’ will be higher. For compacted clays, ϕ ' is
typically 25-30° and can be as high as 35° . Laboratory test data suggest that ϕ 'decreases with an
increasing plasticity index (Kenny 1959; Bjerrum and Simons 1960; Ladd et al. 1977)
 Shear Strength 195

9.7.2 Consolidated Undrained (CU) Triaxial Test

In a consolidated undrained triaxial test, drainage is allowable only during the isotropic confinement,
thus allowing the sample to consolidate. As in the CD triaxial test, backpressure can be applied
during the consolidation process and turned off during shear. At the end of consolidation, there will
be no excess pore water pressure, and the sample is ready for loading. When the additional vertical
stress ∆ σ is being applied, drainage is not allowed, and thus the sample is being loaded under the
undrained conditions at relatively high strain rates (e.g., axial strain of 1% per minute). During the
undrained loading, which typically takes about 10-20 minutes, there will be development of excess
pore water pressure, which is measured continuously throughout the loading. The total and effective
stresses are different at failure, and separate Mohr circles can be drawn, giving failure envelopes in
terms of total and effective stresses. The test gives c , ϕ , c ' and ϕ '. The values of c ' and σ ' derived
from a CU triaxial test are the same as those obtained from a CD triaxial test. The total stress
parameters c and σ are of little value.

9.7.3 Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Triaxial Test

An unconsolidated, undrained triaxial test is carried out almost exclusively on cohesive soils. Here,
no drainage is allowed at any stage of the test. The isotropic confining pressure is applied with the
drainage valve closed, so (provided the sample is saturated) no consolidation can take place, however
large the confining pressure is. The entire cell pressure is carried by the pore water. The sample is
then loaded under undrained conditions. During the test, there will be pore water pressure
developments, which are not measured. Therefore, the effective stresses remain unknown. Mohr
circles are only drawn in terms of total stresses, which enable the failure envelope to be drawn in
terms of total stresses, giving c u and ϕ u. The subscript u denotes undrained loading. The undrained
loading to failure takes about 10-20 minutes. It can be deduced (see Figure 9.10) that the deviator
stress at failure ∆ σ f would be the same at any confining pressure. For the three total-stress Mohr
circles in Figure 9.10, the effective-stress Mohr circle is the same. Increasing the confining pressure
simply increases the pore water pressure by the same values, leaving the effective stress unchanged.
The failure envelope, in terms of total stresses,

Figure 9.10 Mohr circles for a UU triaxial test

196 Geotechnical Engineering

is horizontal for a saturated soil, implying that the ϕ u ≈ 0. c u is known as undrained shear strength of
the clay.
During undrained loading, the volume of the soil sample remains constant. Therefore, when the
sample is compressed, the length decreases and the cross-sectional area increase. In computing the
additional vertical stresses, the corrected area should be used. If A0 =initial cross-sectional area of the
sample, and ε = axial strain present, the corrected area can be computed as A0 /(1−ε ).
Being relatively quick and inexpensive, UU triaxial test are quite popular in geotechnical
engineering practice for deriving the undrained shear strength of the clay. However, the test does not
provide the shear strength parameters in terms of effective stresses c ' and ∅ ' , which are required for
carrying out an effective stress analysis.
Now that we have means of deriving c ' ,ϕ ,c u , and ϕ u, determining when to use which one may
be a bit confusing. Recall our discussion on drained and undrained loading in Section 9.6. In cohesion
less soils, always use ϕ u and c ' =0 , and carry out the analysis in terms of effective stresses. For long-
term analysis in clays, assuming drained conditions, use c ' and ϕ ' to carry out an effective stress
analysis. For short-term analysis in saturated clays, assuming undrained conditions, use c ' and ϕ ' to
carry out an effective stress analysis. For short-term analysis in saturated clays, assuming undrained
conditions, use c u and ϕ u=0 to carry out total stress analysis.

Example 9.3: The shear strength parameters in terms of effective stresses are: c ' = 15 kPa and
∅ ' =30° . In an unconsolidated, undrained UU triaxial test on a sample of this clay, the cell
pressure was 250 kPa and the deviator stress at failure was 136 kPa. What would have been the
pore water pressure at failure?

Another specimen of the same day consolidated under a cell pressure of 120 kPa and
backpressure of 50 kPa was slowly loaded to failure under drained conditions. The backpressure
was maintained during the shearing as well. What would have been the additional vertical stress
at failure?

Solution: Let’s draw the envelope first with c '=¿ 15 kPa and ϕ ' =30°

For the first sample, at failure:

σ 3 f =250 kPa ,∆ σ f =136 kPa
∴ σ ' 3 f =250−u f where u f is the pore water pressure at failure.
The Mohr circle at failure is shown in part (a) of the illustration on page 197.
For ∆ APT :
68
sin 30= →u f =208 kPa
26+ ( 250−u f ) +68
 Shear Strength 197

Example 9.3: Continued

The second is a CD test with a constant back pressure of 50 kPa throughout:

u0 = 50 kPa, σ ' 3 f = 120 kPa

σ ' 3 f = 70 kPa; ,∆ σ f =¿x (unknown)

The Mohr circle is shown in part (b) of the illustration.

For dAPT:

x
sin 30= → x=96 kPa→ ∆ σ f =192
26+70+ x
198 Geotechnical Engineering

9.7.4 Unconfined Compression Test

An unconfined compression test (ASTM D2166), also known as a uniaxial compression test, is a
special case of a triaxial test. Here, it does not require the sophisticated triaxial setup. The test is
mainly for cohesive soils where the samples can stand unsupported. The test setup is quite
simple, as there is no confining pressure required. The vertical stress is increased relatively fast
until failures takes place under the applied vertical stress of q u, which is known as the
unconfined compressive strength (see Figure 9.11a). At failure σ =0 and σ 1 =qu .The pore water
pressure and effective stresses are unknown. Therefore, a Mohr circle can be drawn only in
terms of total stresses (see Figure 9.11b). It can be seen from the Mohr circle that:

1
c u= q u (9.19)
2

Unconfined compression tests are simpler and quicker to perform that are UU triaxial tests. The
only drawback is that they are less reliable than the c u derived from a UU test. A rough estimate
of the unconfined compressive strength can be obtained from a pocket penetrometer; a sample
handheld device that is pushed into the clay sample or walls of an excavation and read off
directly. The estimate costs literally nothing, but the values are very approximate. A hand-held
torvane is a similar device that is pushed into the clay and twisted, thus applying a torque, until
the clay is sheared and the reading give an estimate of q u. Undrained shear strength can be
1
obtained as q.
2 u
Skempton (1957) suggested that for normally consolidated clays, the undrained shear
strength and the effective vertical overburden stress q v 0 are related by:

cu
=0.0037PI+0.11 (9.20)
σ 'v 0

Figure 9.11 Unconfined compression test: (a) loading

(b) Mohr circle
 Shear Strength 199

For consolidated clays (Ladd et al. 1977):

cu cu
( ) ( )
σ 'v 0 OC
=
σ'v 0 NC
(OCR )0.8 (9.21)

Jamiolokowski et al. (1985) suggested that:

cu
( )
σ 'v 0 OC
=( 0.23± 0.04 )( OCR )0.8 (9.22)

Mesri (1989) suggested that for all clays, c u /σ ' p =0.22where σ ' p is 5the preconsolidation pressure
(see Section 8.3 in Chapter 8). These empirical correlations are useful in estimating the undrained
shear strength of clays. On the basis of c u or q u clays can be classified as shown in Figure 9.12.

Figure 9.12 Classification of clays based on q u

Example 9.4: Two 50 mm diameter undisturbed samples A and B are taken from the clay at
the depths shown. It is expected that sample A is slightly over consolidated and B is normally
consolidated. For the clay LL = 65 and PL = 1.7:

a. Estimate the undrained shear strength of sample B

b. Assuming OCR = 2 for sample A, estimate its undrained shear strength
c. If an unconfined compression test is carried out on sample B, what would be the
failure load?

Continues
200 Geotechnical Engineering

Example 9.4: Continued

Solution:
a. For sample B. using Equation 9.20:
cu
=0.0037 ×38+0.11=0.251
σ 'v 0
At this depth:
σ ' v0 =3× 17+9 ( 19−9.81 )=133.7 kPa
∴ c u=0.251 ×133.7=34 kPa

b.
( cu /σ ' v 0)NC =0.251
From Equation 9.21

( cu /σ ' v 0)OC =0.251 ×20.8 =0.437

At the depth of sample A:
σ ' v0 =3× 17+2 × ( 19−9.81 )=69.4 kPa
∴Undrained shear strength of sample A, c u=0.437× 69.4=30 kPa
c. Unconfined compressive strength of sample A, q u=2c u=60 kPa

9.8 DIRECT SHEAR TEST

A direct shear test (ASTM 03080; ASI289.6.2.2) is fairly simple in principle. It is carried out mostly
on granular soils, but sometimes on cohesive soils too. The problem with cohesive soils is in
controlling the strain rates to achieve drained or undrained loading. In the case of granular soils,
loading is always assumed drained. A schematic diagram of the shear box is shown in Figure 9.13a.
The soil sample is placed in a square box approximately 60 mm ×60 mm in plan, which is split into
upper and lower halves as shown. One of the halves (lower in the figure) is fixed and the other is
pushed or pulled horizontally relative to the other half, thus forcing the soil sample to shear (fail)
along the horizontal plane separating the two halves. Under a specific normal load N, the shear load S
is increased from zero until the sample is fully sheared. During the test, the horizontal δ hor and
vertical δ ver deformations of the sample are recorded continuously along with the shear load. Normal
stress and shear stress on the horizontal failure plane are calculated as (J = NIA and T = S IA, where
A is the plan area of the sample, which decreases slightly with the horizontal deformation.
Generally, the shear stress is plotted against the horizontal displacement and the vertical
displacement is plotted directly under it against the horizontal displacement (Figure 9.13b). For
 Shear Strength 201

Figure 9.13 Direct shear test: (a) schematic diagram (b) τ −δ hor −δ ver variations

Loose s and s and normally consolidated clays, the shear stress increases to a maximum value τ f at
large strain. While shearing, the sample contracts; hence the vertical displacement is downward. In
dense sands and over consolidated clays, shear stress increases to a maximum value τ f , peak and
decreases to a lower value τ f .residual at larger strains. The maximum value of shear stress is known as
the peak shear strength, and the value at large strain is known as the residual shear strength. Here,
we can define the failure in terms of peak or residual values of shear stress. In loose sands and
normally consolidated clays, they are the same. The test can be repeated for three or more different
values of normal load N, and shear stresses at failure and the corresponding normal stresses can be
plotted on τ −σ space where they lie on a straight line, which is the failure envelope. The cohesion
and friction angle can be determined from this envelope.
As the loading progresses in dense sands or over consolidated clays, the sample compresses initially,
but only up to the point where it cannot compress any further. Then the grains start sliding over each
other, enabling the sample to expand as seen in Figure 9. 13b. This is known as dilation. Irrespective
of the initial relative density, at very large strains, all samples would reach the same void ratio, known
as the critical void ratio, and the soil would be said to have reached critical state. For all practical
purposes, residual values can be taken as the critical state values. In dense sands or over consolidated
clays, ϕ ' peakis greater thanϕ ' residual; the denser the sand, the larger the difference. At large strains, the
cohesive bonds are destroyed and the residual strength is purely frictional. Therefore, c ' residual ≈ 0 in
cohesive soils. Typical values of peak and residual friction angle for granular soils are given in Table
9.1. which friction angles do we use in practice- peak or residual? It depends on the situation. In most
geotechnical engineering problems,
202 Geotechnical Engineering

Table 9.1 Friction angles of granular soils (after Lambe and Whitman 1979)
Friction angle, ϕ (degrees)

Soil type Residual Peak

Medium-dens, sill 26-30 28-32
Dense silt 26-30 30-34
Medium-dense, uniform fine-Io-medium sand 26-30 30-34
Dense, uniform fine-lo-medium sand 26-30 32-36
Medium-dense, well-graded sand 30-34 34-40
Dense, well-graded sand 30-34 38-46
Medium-dense sand and gravel 32-36 36-42
Dense sand and gravel 32-36 40-48

strains are small and peak values are appropriate. In problems involving large strains (e.g.,
landslides), residual values may be more appropriate.
Clays have a fabric that comes from the particle orientations and the bonds between them. Two
extreme situations are flocculated and dispersed fabrics (see Section 3.3). Most of the time, it is in
between these two. When a clay is remolded (i.e., highly disturbed), some of the bonds are broken
and the fabric is partly destroyed. This leads to a reduction in strength and stiffness. Sensitivity S, is
defined as the ratio of the undisturbed to the remolded shear strength. At very large strains, clay
becomes remolded; therefore. the ratio of peak to residual shear strength is approximately equal to the
sensitivity. Highly sensitive clays have flocculated fabric. In highly sensitive clays, sensitivity can be
as high as 10 or even more, where the clay will lose its strength almost completely when remolded.
Some clay will regain their strength after some lime since remolding. They are known to be
thixotropic. This is common in bentonite, which is commonly used as drilling fluid to support the
boreholes.
9.9 SKEMPTON'S PORE PRESSURE PARAMETERS
Sir Alec Skempton (1954), a professor at Imperial College- United Kingdom, introduced a simple
concept to estimate the change in pore water pressure ∆ uin a soil element due to the changes in major
and minor total principal stresses (∆ σ 1 and ∆ σ 3) in undrained loading. This is widely used in
engineering practice due to its simplicity and for its practical value.

Figure 9.14 shows the major d ∆ σ 1 and minor ∆ σ 3total principal stress increments applied on
point X, which results in a pure water pressure change of ∆ u . This can be separated into two
scenarios shown on the right: (a) an isotropic loading where ∆ σ 3 is applied in all directions, leading
to a pore water pressure change of ∆ u 1 and (b) a deviator stress of ∆ σ 1 - ∆ σ 3 applied only in the
vertical direction, which changes the pore wat.er pressure by ∆ u 2.
 Shear Strength 201

Figure 9.14 Pore water pressure buildup due to principal stress increments

Therefore,∆ u=∆ u 1+ ∆ u2. Skempton (1954) expressed the change in pore water pressure due to ∆ σ 1
and ∆ σ 3as:

∆ u=B [ ∆ σ 3 + A ( ∆ σ 1−∆ σ 3 ) ] (9.23)

Where ∆ u 1 = B∆ σ 3, and ∆ u 2 = BA( ∆ σ 1−∆ σ 3 ) where BA is sometimes denoted by A . The

constants A and B are known as Skempton's pore pressure parameters.
B is the ratio of the pore water pressure increase to the increase in confining pressure in
undrained loading. In a fully saturated clay, B ≈ 1. Even with a slightly lower degree of saturation, B
can be significantly less than 1. A typical variation of B with the degree of saturation is shown in
Figure 9.1 5a. This B-parameter is often used in triaxial tests to determine if the sample is fully
saturated. A value for B greater than 0.95 is often a good indication that the sample is fully saturated.
If the soil skeleton is very stiff (e.g., very dense sands or very stiff clays), B can be significantly less
than 1 even when fully saturated.
In clays, A is a function of the over consolidation ratio OCR, stress path, anisotropy, strain rate,
etc. It varies during the loading. The value of A at failure is denoted by A f ,the variation of which
with OCR is shown in Figure 9.ISb. For normally consolidated clays, A f is generally close to 1, but
can be as low as 0.5. For lightly over consolidated clays, A f is in the range of 0-0.5. Highly over
consolidated clays dilate under deviator loading where A f can be negative, implying that negative
pore water pressures develop. For very sensitive clays, A f can be greater than 1.
It should be noted that ∆ σ 1 and ∆ σ 3 are not necessarily the changes to σ 1 andσ 3 . They are the
algebraically larger and smaller values, respectively, of the two principal stress increments.
Compressive stress increments are positive.
 204 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 9.15 Typical values of pore pressure parameters: (a) B (b) A,

(adapted from Bishop and Henkel 19132. Craig 2004)

Example 9 .5: A saturated, normally consolidated clay sample is subjected to a consolidated, undrained
triaxial compression test under a backpressure of 50 kPa. The cell pressure during consolidation is 200
kPa.

When the sample is fully consolidated, the drainage valve is dosed and the additional vertical stress is
increased from zero to 11 0 kPa when the sample failed. During this period of shearing, the pore water
pressure increased by 90 kPa. Find the effective friction angle and Skempton's A-parameter at failure.

Continues
 Shear Strength 205

Example 9.5: Continued

Solution: At the end of consolidation, the 50 kPa back pressure is locked in when the drainage valve
is dosed. Let's summarize the values at the (a) start of shearing and (b) end of shearing:

(a) Start of shearing (b) End of shearing (failure)

σ 1 =σ 3=200 kPa σ 3 =200 kPa , σ 1=310 kPa
u=50 kPa u=140 kPa

∴ During shear [ i. e , between ( a )∧( b ) ]

∆ σ 3=200−200=0
∆ σ 1=310−200=110 kPa
∆ u=140−50=90 kPa

Assuming B=1(saturated) and substitution these in Equation 9.23:

90=0+ A f ( 110−0 ) → A f =0.82
At failure:
σ ,3 f =200−140=60 kPa ; σ , 3 f =310−140=170 kPa
Clay is normally consolidated→ c ,=0
Drawing the Mohr circle in terms of effective stresses with the envelope passing through the
origin, ϕ , can be calculated as 28.6° .

9.10 σ 1 =¿ σ 3 RELATIONSHIP AT FAILURE

Let's see how the major and minor principal stresses at failure are related. The Mohr circle at failure
is shown in Figure 9.16 along with the failure envelope.
Radial line OP is perpendicular to the failure envelope at P:

OP ( σ 1 f −σ 3 f ) /2
sin ϕ= =
OA c cot ϕ+¿ ( σ 1 f +σ 3 f ) /2 ¿

σ 1 f −σ 3 f σ −σ 3 f
2 (
= 1f
2 )
+sin ϕ+ c cos ϕ

1+sin ϕ 1+ sin ϕ
σ 3 f =σ 3 f ( 1−sin )ϕ +2 c √( 1−sin ϕ)
(9.24)
And
 σ 3 f =σ 3 f ( 1−sin ϕ
1+sin ϕ ) +2 c (
1−sin ϕ
√ 1+ sin ϕ )
(9.25)
206 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 9.16 Mohr circle at failure

It is useful to note that:

( 1−sin ϕ
1+sin ϕ ) ϕ
=tan (45− )
2
2
And

1+sin ϕ
( 1−sin )ϕ =tan (45+ ϕ2 )
2

The above derivations, including Equations 9.24 and 9.25, are applicable in terms of effective stresses
and total stresses.
9.11 STRESS PATHS
Stress paths are very useful for tracking the progress in loading. For example, when a sample is
loaded in a triaxial apparatus or in a situation where we want to monitor the state of stress at a point
under an embankment, we can always draw a series of Mohr circles representing every change. This
can become messy with a cluster of Mohr circles. A stress path is a neat way around it- we only mark
the top of the Mohr circle. The entire Mohr circle is represented by a point, known as a stress point, as
shown in Figure 9.17a.

In most geotechnical engineering applications, the vertical σ v and horizontal σ h normal stresses
are the principal stresses. For now we will assume σ v= σ 1 and σ h = σ 3 . The top of the
 Shear Strength 207

Figure 9.17 Stress path concept: (a) stress point (b) Mohr circles and
stress path(c) stress path and failure envelope in s- t plane

(σ ¿ ¿ v +σ h ) (σ ¿ ¿ v−σ h)
Mohr circle has coordinates of ¿ and ¿in τ −σ plane. We will call them s
2 2
(σ ¿ ¿ v +σ h ) (σ ¿ ¿ v−σ h)
and t respectively, defining s = ¿ and t= ¿. We will reserve the notations p
2 2
and q for three-dimensional representations, which are used in critical-state soil mechanics but not
discussed here.
A stress path is the locus of the stress point as shown in Figures 9.17b and 9. 17c. Here, we will
just show the top of every Mohr circle and connect them as the loading progresses. Instead of drawing
the Mohr circles on τ −σ plane, we will draw stress paths on s-t plane. In τ −σ plane, the failure
envelope is τ f =c+ σ f tan ϕ . What would be the failure envelope in s-t plane? From the Mohr circle
at failure, shown in Figure 9.16:

σ 1 f −σ 3 f σ +σ
2 ( )
= 1 f 3 f sin ϕ+c cos ϕ
2
i.e., t f =s f sin ϕ+ c cos ϕ
208 Geotechnical Engineering

Therefore, the slope of the failure envelope in s-t plane is sinϕ and the intercept on t-axis is c cosϕ .
When the stress path meets the failure envelope on s-t plane, failure takes place.
As in the case of Mohr circles, stress paths can also be drawn in terms of effective stresses where
(σ ' ¿ ¿ v +σ ' h)
s can be replaced with s', where s' = ¿ . There is no t', since t is the same as t'.
2
Remember, there is nothing calledτ ' - water cannot carry shear stress. Generally, total and effective
stress paths are plotted on the same graph where both s and s' are shown on the horizontal axis,
preferably using the same scale for all s, s', and t.

Example 9.6: A consolidated, undrained triaxial test on a specimen of normally consolidated

saturated day (c' = 0) was carried out under an all-around confining pressure of 500 kPa.
Consolidation took place against a backpressure of 100 kPa. During und rained loading, the
additional vertical stress ∆ σ f was increased to failure and the test data are summarized.

∆ σ f ( k Pa ) 0 68 134 182 237

272*

u ( k Pa ) 100 129 177 218 288 333*

a. Draw total and effective stress paths.

b. Find the effective friction angle.
c. What is Skempton's A-parameter at failure?

Another specimen of the same day, consolidated under 500 kPa and backpressure of 100
kPa, is subjected to a drained loading to failure.

d. Draw the effective stress path in the above plot.

e. Find the principal stress difference at failure.

Solution: a. The computed values during the undrained loading are summarized in the table.

The stress paths are shown on page 209.

 Shear Strength 209

Example 9.6: Continued

b.
136
sin ϕ ,=tan α = =0.45 →ϕ ,=26.7 °
303
c.
∆ uf 233
Af= = =0.86
∆ σ f 272
d. for the drained loading, the stress path (with 45° to s’-axis) intersects the failure
envelope at:

s' =¿ 726 kPa and t = 326 kPa

' σ 'v + σ 'h

s= =726 kPa
2
and

σ 'v −σ 'h
t= =326 kPa
2
Solving these equations, at failure:

σ 'hf =400 kPa∧σ 'vf =1052kPa

u f =100 kPa , σ 'hf =500 kPa
 210 Geotechnical Engineering

 A circle represents the state of stress at a point. Due to symmetry, we only

show the upper half in geotechnical engineering.
 Shear strength is derived from two separate components friction and cohesion.
The frictional contribution is proportional to the normal stress, and cohesive
contribution is a constant at all stress levels.
 Clays are undrained short-term and drained long-term. Granular soils are
drained both in the short-term and in the long-term. Use c' and ϕ 'for drained
analysis (in terms of effective stresses) and c uand ϕ ' for undrained analysis (in
terms of total stresses).
 For normally consolidated days and granular soils, c' = 0.
 For clays, during undrained loading, ϕ u= 0. The undrained shear strength c u (=
1/2 q u ¿ can be obtained from a UU triaxial, unconfined compression test, or
estimated by using a pocket penetrometer or empirical correlations.
 Failure can be defined in terms of peak or residual values.
ϕ 'peak > ϕ'residual∧c 'res ≈ 0.
 Skempton's pore pressure equation relates the changes in σ 1 , σ 3 ,and u, under
undrained conditions. Irrespective of the initial state of stress.
 c and ϕ∈τ−σ plane are similar to c cos ϕ and tan−1 ( sin ϕ ) in s-t planes; in
τ −σ plane we draw stress paths.
 When plotting Mohr circles, use the same scales for both ( σ and τ ) axe;
otherwise a circle would look like an ellipse. In stress path plots, the same
scale for both axes is recommended.
 Empirical correlations are useful for preliminary estimates. They are very
approximate.
 Clays are classified as soft, medium, etc. based on q u(see Figure 9.12).

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A saturated clay sample was consolidated in the triaxial cell under a cell pressure of 150 kPa
without any backpressure. The drainage valve was then closed and the deviator stress was
gradually increased from zero to 200 kPa when failure occurred. If c' = 15 kPa and ϕ ' =¿20°,
find the pore water pressure and Skempton's A-parameter at failure.

Solution: This is a CU triaxial test. At failure σ ' 3 f =σ ' c =150−uf and∆ σ f = 200 kPa where
u f is the pore water pressure at failure.
 Shear Strength 211

From the Mohr circle:

100
sin 20= →u f =−1.2 kPa
15 cot 20+150−uf +100
During the entire shear:
∆ σ 3=0 , ∆ σ 1=200 kPa , ∆ u=−1.2kPa
Substituting these in Equation 9.23, with B¿1:
−1.2
Af= =−0.006
200

1. A conventional, consolidated drained triaxial test was carried out on a normally consolidated
day sample. The consolidation pressure was 150 kPa and the deviator stress at failure was
320 kPa. Find the effective friction angle.

An identical specimen of the same clay was consolidated to 150 kPa and was subjected to a
conventional, undrained triaxial test where the deviator stress at failure was 100 kPa. Find the
pore water pressure and Skempton's A-parameter at failure.

solution: The day is normally consolidated.

∴ c ' =0
In the CD test, at failure, σ ' 3 f =150 kPa , ∆ σ f =¿ 320 kPa:
160
sin ϕ' = →ϕ ' =31.1°
150+160
212 Geotechnical Engineering

The friction angle ϕ ' must be the same in the CU triaxial test, where at failure, ∆ σ f = 100
kPa, and σ 3 f = 150 kPa. The pore water pressure at failure u f is unknown.

50
sin 31.1= → σ ' 3 f =46.9 kPa→ uf =σ 3 f −σ '3 f =103.1 kPa
σ ' 3 f +50
During the entire shear in the CU test:

∆ σ 3=0 , ∆ σ 1=100 kPa , ∆ u=103.1 kPa

∴Substituting these in Equation 9.23, A f = 1.03

2. A series of consolidated, undrained triaxial tests were carried out on three identical saturated
clay specimens. The results are:
Shear Stress 213
214 Geotechnical Engineering

a. Mohr circles: From the tangents to the Mohr circles, c = 34 kPa, ϕ = 18°; and c' = 25
kPa and ϕ '= 28°
b. Stress points: From the stress points envelope shown below, c = 26 kPa, ϕ = 19°; and
c' = 19 kPa, ϕ '= 28°

3. The current state of stress at a saturated clay element in the ground is:

Total vertical stress, σ v 0=120 kPa

Total horizontal stress, σ h0 =70 kPa

Pore water pressure, u0 = 30 kPa

The friction angle and cohesion in terms of effective stresses are 30° and 10 kPa respectively.
Skempton's A and B parameters are both 1. Due to some loading at the ground level, the total
vertical stress is rapidly increased under undrained conditions, while the total horizontal
stress remains the same. Using Mohr circles, find the maximum additional vertical stress that
the soil element can take before failure is reached and the pore water pressure at failure is
reached

Solution: Initially, σ v 0= 120 kPa, σ h0 = 70 kPa, u0 = 30 kPa.

Let the additional vertical stress applied at failure be x kPa.
Therefore, during the undrained loading to failure, ∆ σ 3=0 , ∆ σ 1=x .
Substituting in Equation 9.23 with A = 1 and B = 1, ∆ u can be estimated as x.
Therefore, at failure: σ 3 f = 70 kPa, σ 1 f = 120 + x kPa, u f = 30 + x kPa

σ ' 3 f =40−x kPa , σ ' 1 f =90 kPa

25+0.5 x
sin 30=
17.3+ ( 40−x ) +( 25+ 0.5 x)
x= 21.5 kPa and u f =30+ x=51.5 kPa
 Shear Strength 215

1. Repeat Problem 4 using stress paths.

Solution:

Initially, σ v 0=120 kPa , σ h 0=70 kPa∧u0=30 kPa

σ v 0 +σ h 0 σ −σ h 0 σ ' v 0+ σ ' h 0
∴ s 0=¿ =95 kpa; t= v 0 =25kpa; s ' 0 = =65 kpa
2 2 2

Let's apply a small vertical stress increment y and calculate the changes in s, t, u, and s'. We
can draw the total and effective stress paths from these:

∆ σ v = y , ∆ σ h=0

Substituting these in Equation 9.23, ∆ u = y:

∆ σ v+ ∆ σ h
∆ s= =0.5 y
2
∆ σ v −∆ σ h
∆ t= =0.5 y
2
∆ s' =∆ s−∆ u=0.5 y − y=−0.5 y
i.e., when the vertical stress is increased by y, s and t both increase by 0.5y while s' decreases
by 0.5y. The changes will be in the same proportion when the loading continues.

Now that we have the initial values and the changes, we can show them in s-t and s'-t planes:

' ' −1
c cos ϕ =10 cos 30=8.7 kPa ; α =tan ( sin 30 )=26.6 °

The initial state, in terms of effective and total stresses, is represented by the points E (65, 25)
and T (95, 25) respectively.

The effective and total stress paths, starting from E and T, are drawn as straight lines, inclined
at 45° to horizontal, as shown in the figure on page 216. When the effective stress path meets
the effective failure envelope at F, failure takes place.

At failure (see figure on page 216):

25+ z
tan26.6=0.5= → z=10.8 kPa
17.3+ 65−z

i.e., t has increased by 10.8 kPa to failure. Therefore, the additional vertical stress that was
placed was 2 ×10.8 = 21.6 kPa. The pore water pressure at failure is 30 + 2z = 51.6 kPa
216 Geotechnical Engineering

1. Skempton's A and B parameters of a saturated clay deposit are 0.8 and 0.97 respectively. Due
to the construction of an embankment on this clay, the total horizontal and vertical stresses at
a point increased by 40 kPa and 60 kPa respectively. What would be the increase in pore
water pressure? The above clay has c' = 0 and ϕ ' = 27°. A triaxial sample is consolidated
under a cell pressure of 300 kPa and backpressure of 100 kPa. Once the consolidation was
completed, the sample was sheared undrained by applying a vertical load. What would be the
principal stress difference and pore water pressure at failure?
Solution:

∆ σ h=40 kPa; ∆ σ v =60 kPa→ ∆ σ 3=40 kPa∧∆ σ 1=60 kPa

Substituting in Equation 9.23

∆ u=0.97 [ 40+ 0.8 ( 60−40 ) ]=54.3 kPa

At failure, let ∆ σ f = x.

With ∆ σ 3 = 0 and ∆ σ 1 = x, from Equation 9.23:

∆ u f =0.97(0+ 0.8 x )=0.776 x

u f =100+0.776 x , σ 3 f =300 kPa ;∧σ 1 f =¿300 + x
The Mohr circle at failure is shown in the figure on page 217:
0.5 x
sin 27= → x=145.3 kpa
200−0.776 x+ 0.5 x
Deviator stress at failure = 145.3 kPa
Pore water pressure at failure = 100 + 0.7i'6 x = 212.8 kPa
 Shear Strength 217

REVIEW EXERCISES
1. A consolidated, drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay under
confining pressure of 276 kPa. The deviator stress at failure was 276 kPa.

a. Find the friction angle.

b. What is the inclination of the failure plane to horizontal?
c. Determine the normal and shear stresses acting on the failure plane.
d. Determine the normal stress on the plane of maximum shear stress
e. Explain why the failure took place along a plane as determined in (b) not along the
plane where the shear stress is the maximum

Answer: 19.5°; 54 .1°; 368 kPa, 130 kPa; 414 kPa

2. A series of consolidated, undrained triaxial tests were carried out on specimens of a saturated
clay under no backpressure. The test data at failure are summarized:

Confining Deviator Pore water

Pressure (kPa) stress (kPa) pressure (kPa)
150 192 80
300 341 154
450 504 222

a. Draw the Mohr circles and find the cohesion and friction angles in terms of effective
stresses.
b. Compute Skempton's A- parameter at failure for all three specimens
218 Geotechnical Engineering

a. Is the soil normally consolidated or over consolidated? Why?

b. d. Another specimen of the same day that was consolidated under a cell pressure of
250 kPa was subjected to a consolidated, drained triaxial test. What would be the
deviator stress at failure?

Answer: 32 kPa, 27.9°; 0.42, 0.45, 0.44; c ' ≠ 0 and A f ≈ 0.45 → over consolidated; 546
kPa

3. A consolidated, drained triaxial test was carried out on a normally consolidated day. The
specimen was consolidated under a cell pressure of 100 kPa and backpressure of 30 kPa. The
axial deviator stress was slowly increased to failure so that there was no excess pore water
pressure development while shearing. The specimen failed under a deviator stress of 130 kPa.
The backpressure of 30 kPa was maintained throughout the test. Find the effective friction
angle and the normal and shear stresses on the failure plane.
Answer: 28.8°; 104 kPa, 57 kPa
4. Consolidated, undrained triaxial tests were carried out on three samples with no backpressure.
The test results at failure are summarized:
Cell pressure (kPa) 300 400 600
Principal stress difference at failure (kPa) 186 240 360
Pore water pressure at failure (kPa) 159 222 338
Using (a) Mohr circles and (b) stress points, determine the shear strength parameters in terms
of total and effective stresses.
Answer: 5 kPa, 13°; 7 kPa, 23°
5. A series of unconsolidated, undrained triaxial tests were carried out on three samples of clay.
The confining pressures and the additional vertical stresses that are required to fail the
samples are summarized below. Draw the Mohr circles in terms of total stresses, and
determine c u and ϕ u .

Confining pressure (kPa) 100 300 600

Additional vertical stress at failure (kPa) 252 271 290
Answer: 120 kPa, 2.4°
6. The failure envelope obtained in an unconsolidated, undrained triaxial test is shown on page
219, along with the Mohr circle from an unconfined compression test. Show that:

cos ϕu
q u=2 ( )
c
1−sin ϕ u u
From the above, deduce that when ϕ u = 0, q u = 2 c u
 Shear Strength 219

1. A consolidated, undrained triaxial test is being carried out on a normally consolidated clay
where c' = 0 and ϕ u = 26°. The triaxial specimen was consolidated under a cell pressure of
300 kPa and backpressure of 80 kPa. Skempton's A-parameter al failure is estimated to be
0.80. The drainage valve has since been closed and the vertical deviator stress increased to
failure. What would be the deviator stress and pore water pressure at failure?
Answer: 153 kPa, 202 kPa
2. A normally consolidated soft clay specimen is consolidated in the triaxial cell under an all-
around pressure of 200 kPa with no backpressure. The drainage valve is then dosed and the
cell pressure increased by 300 kPa and the pore water pressure increased to 300 kPa. Then,
the vertical deviator stress was increased from 0 to 110 kPa when the sample failed, and the
pore water pressure was 420 kPa. Find the effective friction angle and Skempton's pore
pressure parameters B and Ai' A second specimen of the same clay is consolidated under an
all-around pressure of 70 kPa. Under undrained conditions, the vertical stress is increased to
failure. Find the vertical deviator stress and pore water pressure at failure.
A third specimen of the same clay was isotropically consolidated under 70 kPa and was
subjected to a vertical deviator stress that was increased to failure under drained conditions.
What would be the deviator stress at failure?

Answer: 24.0°, 1.0, 1.09; 39 kPa, 42 kPa; 96 kPa

3. A 50 mm diameter normally consolidated clay sample with ¿27° was subjected to an
unconfined compression test where it failed under the axial load of 157 N. Find the undrained
shear strength and the pore water pressure within the sample.
Answer: 40 kPa, - 48.1 kPa
4. A direct shear test is carried out on a sandy soil, and the normal loads and the peak and
residual shear loads at failure are summarized below. Assuming that the cross-section area
220 Geotechnical Engineering

of the direct shear sample remains the same in all tests, determine the peak and residual
effective-friction angles:
Normal load (N) 100 200 350
Peak failure shear load (N) 75 153 262
Residual failure shear load (N) 60 118 212
Answer: 31°,37°
7. A clay sample was consolidated in a triaxial cell under a backpressure of 50 kPa and cell
pressure of 150 kPa. The drainage valve was then closed and the cell pressure was increased
to 200 kPa when the pore pressure increased to 98 kPa. What is Skempton’s B-parameter?
The above sample was then subjected to a vertical deviator stress, which was increased from
zero under undrained conditions. The sample failed when the pore water pressure was 160
kPa and the deviator stress was 70 kPa. What is Skempton's A-parameter at failure?
Assuming the clay is normally consolidated, find the friction angle in terms of effective
stresses.
Answer: 0.96; 0.92, 27.8°
8. A consolidated, undrained triaxial test was carried out on a 73.0 mm diameter and 146.6 mm-
long decomposed granodiorite sample at an initial water content of 26%. The sample was
obtained from Palmerston Highway, North Queensland, Australia, to back-analyze a slope
failure, and was initially consolidated under a cell pressure of 200 kPa and backpressure of
150 kPa. The drainage valve was dosed and the cell pressure was increased to 254 kPa when
the pore water pressure increased to 182 kPa. Find Skempton's B-parameter. The nature of the
soil sample is such that it was not possible to achieve a higher B value. The drainage valve
was opened and the sample was consolidated further under the cell pressure of 254 kPa and
backpressure of 150 kPa. At the end of consolidation, the drainage valve was dosed, locking
in the backpressure in preparation for the undrained loading. The axial strain ε , additional
vertical stress applied to the sample under undrained conditions ∆ σ , and the pore water
pressure u measured during the test are summarized in the table on page 221:
a. Plot the total and effective stress paths
b. Plot∆ σ and pore water pressure against the axial strain on the same plot
c. Find the peak and residual shear stresses at failure, and the corresponding values of
Af
Answer; 0.59; 133 kPa, 117 kPa; 0.06, - 0.09
221 Shear Strength

c(% ) ∆ σ (kPa) u(kPa)

0 2 155
0.4 10 155
0.5 24 157
1 22 161
1.5 51 165
2 70 175
2.5 100 185
3 121 191
3.5 145 195
4 166 197
4.5 186 197
5 200 197
5.5 215 195
6 227 193
6.5 236 190
7 243 187
7.5 249 184
8.5 256 179
9.5 264 170
10.5 266 165
12.5 264 158
14.5 259 152
16.5 253 149
18.5 248 145
20.5 248 143
22.5 233 142

9. A direct shear test was carried out on a sand sample under normal stress of 450 kPa. The
shear stress al failure was 310 kPa. Assuming that the failure plane was horizontal, draw a
Mohr circle and find the principal stresses and the orientations of the major and minor
principal planes.
Answer: 34.6°; 1040 kPa, 287 kPa; inclined at 117.7° and 27.7° respectively to horizontal
10. The following test data were obtained from three consolidated, undrained tests on a
saturated clay with no backpressure:

Confining cell pressure, σ c(kPa) 100 200 300

Deviator stress at failure, ∆ σ f (kPa) 146 191 239

Pore water pressure at failure, u f (kPa) 56 133 176

222 Geotechnical Engineering

a. Plot the stress points at failure and determine the shear strength parameters c' andϕ ' .
b. Compute Skempton's A-parameters at failure for all three samples. Why are they
different?
c. Is the clay normally consolidated or over consolidated?
d. Three further samples of the same clay, A, B, and C, are consolidated under a
confining pressure of 150 kPa with no backpressure. Sample A is sheared slowly
under drained conditions with the drainage valve open to ensure there is no pore
water pressure building up. Sample B was sheared quickly under undrained
conditions with the drainage valve closed. In the case of Sample C, the drainage
valve was dosed and the confining pressure was increased to 250 kPa. Then the
deviator stress was quickly applied to failure under undrained conditions. Find the
deviator stress at failure for all three samples. Assume an appropriate value of A f for
samples B and C.
Answer: 42 kPa, 19°; 0.38, 0.70 and 0.74; OC; 263 kPa, 173 kPa, 173 kPa

11. The state of stress at a point within a saturated clay is given as: σ v 0= 140 kPa, σ h0 = 100 kPa,
u0 = 40 kPa. Skempton's A and B parameters for this day are 0.5 and I respectively. Shear
strength parameters are: c' = 0 andϕ ' = 26°.
a. Calculate the initial values s0 , s ' 0 ,and t 0 and show the total and effective stress
points, along with the failure envelope on s -s'-t plane (see Worked Example 5).
b. When the following stress changes take place at this point under undrained
conditions, calculate the changes in s, s', and t
i. Both σ v and σ h increased by 10 kPa.
ii. σ v increased by 10 kPa and σ h remained the same.
iii. σ h decreased by 10 kPa and σ v remained the same.
c. From the above values from (b), plot the stress points for the three situations.
Assuming the loading continues with further increments, draw the stress paths in
terms of total and effective stresses.
d. Determine the maximum shear stress and the corresponding pore water pressure in
the soil element at failure for scenarios (ii) and (iii).
e. Discuss the stress paths for loading scenario (i).
Answer: (a) 120 kPa, 80 kPa, 20 kPa; (b) 10 kPa, 0, 0; 5 kPa, 0, 5 kPa; - 5 kPa, 0, 5 kPa
(d) 35 kPa, 25 kPa; 35 kPa, 55 kPa
Shear Strength 223

12. The state of stress at a point within a saturated clay is given as: σ v 0= 140 kPa, σ h0 = 100 kPa,
u0 = 40 kPa. Skempton's A and B parameters for this day are 0.5 and I respectively. Shear
strength parameters are: c' = 0 andϕ ' = 26°.
a. Calculate the initial values s0 , s ' 0 ,and t 0 and show the total and effective stress points,
along with the failure envelope on s -s'-t plane (see Worked Example 5).
b. When the following stress changes take place at this point under undrained conditions,
calculate the changes in s, s', and t
i. Both σ v and σ h increased by 10 kPa.
ii. σ v increased by 10 kPa and σ h remained the same.
iii. σ h decreased by 10 kPa and σ v remained the same
c. In which of the above scenarios will there be no failure?
d. In scenario (iii), what would be the vertical and horizontal stresses at failure?
Answer: (a) 120 kPa, 80 kPa, 20 kPa; (b) 10 kPa, 0, /0 kPa; 5 kPa, 5 kPa, 5 kPa; - 5 kPa, 5
kPa,
- 5 kPa; (c) scenario (i); (d) 140 kPa, 79 kPa
224 Geotechnical Engineering

Quiz 5. Shear Strength

Duration: 20 minutes
1. In a direct shear test on a sandy soil, the shear load at failure was 135 N
when the normal load was 190 N. What is the friction angle of the
sand?
(1point)

2. In a consolidated, drained triaxial test on a sandy soil, the principal

stress difference at failure was twice the confining pressure. What is
the effective friction angle?
(2 points)

3. An unconsolidated, undrained triaxial test was carried out on three

clay samples from a homogeneous, saturated clay at confining
pressures of 100 kPa. 200 kPa, and 300 kPa. In all three cases, an
additional vertical stress of 110 kPa was required to fail the samples,
suggesting that ϕ u=¿0 and c u=¿ 55 kPa. If it is known that the clay
has c' = 15 kPa and ϕ ,= 25°, what would be the pore water pressures at
failure for the above three samples?
(7 points)