Table of Contents

1.0 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 2

2.0 PROCESS SELECTION..............................................................................................9

3.0 MATERIAL BALANCE...............................................................................................21

4.0 ENERGY BALANCE..................................................................................................31

5.0 MECHANICAL DESIGN............................................................................................48

6.0 SITE
SELECTION......................................................................................................................... 52

7.0
ECONOMIC
UREA FROM
8.0 PINCH
AMMONIA AND
ANALYSIS............................................................................................................................ 62

ANALYSIS............................................................................................................................ 85

9.0 CARBON DIOXIDE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION................................................................................90

10.0 PLANT LAYOUT........................................................................................................95

11.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION...............................................................................98

12.0 REFERENCES........................................................................................................100
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1. LITERATURE SURVEY

- Urea (NH2CONH2) is an organic compound and it is also known as carbamide.

Ammonia is usually used in agriculture sector especially to make fertilizers. Urea
is made from ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The production of
ammonia and urea are being done separately.

1.2. HISTORY OF UREA

- Urea is being discovered in the urine by H.M Rouelle in 1773. It was synthesized
in 1828 by Friedrich Wohler and urea is the first organic compound that has being
synthesized from inorganic starting materials. It was found when Wohler attempt
to synthesis ammonia cyanate. When he react silver cyanate with ammonium
chloride, the reaction produce white crystalline materials which is quite identical
with the urea in the urine. In the year 1870, urea had being produced by heating
in ammonium carbonate in a sealed vessel.

1.3. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION

- Urea is a nitrogen-containing chemical product which is produced in excess of

140,000,000 tonnes per year worldwide, of which more than 90% of world
production is destined for used as fertilizer.
- Ammonia is being produce from the reaction of ammonia and carbon dioxide and
it is also being produced commercially. Urea can be produced as prills, granules,
flakes, pellets, crystals and also solutions.
- In the urea containing the highest nitrogen in all solids nitrogenous fertilizers in
common used (46.4%N). It also containing the highest concentration dries
nitrogen fertilizer available. So it has the lowest transportation costs per unit of
nitrogen nutrient.
- Urea also suitable for liquid fertilizer because it is soluble in the water.
- The solid ureas are being market as prills or granules. Prills are cheaper compare
to granules since prills has the narrower size particles. Narrow size of particles
has the advantage if it is applied mechanically to soil.

1
 1.4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF UREA

1.4.1. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

UREA is an organic compound and it is also known as Carbamide.

IUPAC name Diaminomethanal

Chemical formula (NH2)2CO.

Molecular mass 60.07 g/mol

Dipole moment 4.56 p/D

Melting point 132 oF

Solubility Highly water soluble

FIGURE 1: CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF UREA MOLECULES

The urea molecule is planar and retains its full molecular point symmetry due to
conjugation of one of each nitrogen’s P orbital to the carbonyl double bond. Each
carbonyl oxygen atom accepts four N-H-O hydrogen bonds, a very unusual feature for
such a bond type. This dense hydrogen bond network is probably established at the
cost of efficient molecular packing. Urea is stable under normal conditions.

2
 1.4.2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Solid urea will melt at 135oC. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding with water urea is
very soluble.

1.33 x 103 kg/m3 , solid

Density

132.7oC decomposes
Melting point

Colorless
Color

odorless
Odor

Solubility in water 108 g/100 ml (20oC)

167 g/100 ml (40oC)
251 g/100 ml (60oC)
400 g/100 ml (80oC)
733 g/100 ml (100oC)

Vapour pressure < 10 Pa

Bulk density 0.8 kg.mg -3

FIGURE 2: CRYSTALINE UREA

3
1.5. RAW MATERIALS
1.5.1. PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA AND CARBON DIOXIDE

Ammonia is synthesis from hydrogen, H2 from natural gas and nitrogen, N2 from the air by
Haber-Bosch process. This process involves the reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen under
high pressure and temperature. However, natural gas contains some sulfurous
compounds which damage the catalysts used in this process. These are removed by
reacting them with zinc oxide, e.g.

ZnO + H2S ZnS + H2O

The methane from the natural gas is then reacted with water to form hydrogen and
carbon monoxide. Later it also reacted with water to form carbon dioxide.

CH4 + H2O 3H2 + CO

CH4 + 2H2O 4H2 + CO2

Then the reaction of carbon monoxide with water is converted to hydrogen and carbon
dioxide, and carbon dioxide is removed:

CO + H2O H2 + CO2

The nitrogen and hydrogen are then reacted at high pressure and temperature using an
iron catalyst to form ammonia:
N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Figure 3 : BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM OF AMMONIA PRODUCTION

4
 1.5.2. SYNTHESIS GAS PRODUCTION

The raw materials for preparing ammonia in nitrogen and hydrogen ratio 1:3 are water,
nitrogen (from the air), carbon-containing and hydrogen (from natural gas). Water and
methane from natural gas is injected in the primary steam reforming. After mixed it, the
mixing is the flowed through the secondary steam reforming.
 
1.5.3. METHANATION

Methanation is a physical-chemical process to generate methane from a mixture of various

gases out of biomass fermentation. Methane is the reverse reaction of steam methane
reforming which converts methane into synthesis gas. The main components are carbon
monoxide and hydrogen.

CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O

1.5.4. FEEDSTOCK PRE-TREATMENT AND RAW GAS PRODUCTION:

The chemical reaction go through gasification process where water, oxygen, air are
combined. It yields a gas mixture made from CO and H2in various proportions along with
carbon dioxide and nitrogen from air is used.

Any carbon containing feedstock will undergo a reaction:

CH4 + H2O 3H2 + CO ∆H= 88563.678 BTU/Ibmole

Natural gas consists predominantly of methane and is therefore the most hydrogen-rich and
energetically the best raw material for the steam-reforming route. The reforming ammonia
reaction is split into two sections.

The first section, the primary reformer proceed the process in indirectly heated tubes filled
with nickel-containing reforming catalyst and is controlled to achieve a partial conversion
only.
The second section, the secondary reformer proceed the process where the gas is mixed
with a controlled amount of air introduced through a nozzle. By combustion of a quantity of
the gas the temperature is raised sufficiently at higher temperature to about 1200oC that the
endothermic reforming reaction is completed with the gas adiabatically passing the catalyst
layer.

Carbon Monoxide Shift Conversion:

Carbon oxide must be removed from the raw synthesis gas of the gasification process in
order to synthesis ammonia. In the water gas shift reaction, carbon monoxide serves as
reducing agent for water to yield hydrogen and carbon dioxide and additional hydrogen:

CO + H2O H2 + CO2

5
1.6. APPLICATION OF UREA

1.6.1 In Agriculture:
- Urea is being used as fertilizers and animals feed. As known urea is
containing nitrogen and the nitrogen in it can help to promote growth
for both animals and plants. Ureas are also used in much multi-
component solid fertilizer formulation.
- There are some advantages by using urea as fertilizers which are urea
are more safer to ship and handle, it also not corrosive to equipment
compare if using nitrogen fertilizers, urea is high solubility in water so it
is easy to move in the soils and the last one is by using urea as
fertilizers it can be applied in many ways such as using equipment or
by spreading it by using hand.

1.6.2 In Industrial:

- With the mixed with many organics compounds urea has the ability to
form a loose compound.
- The organic compounds are held in channels formed by
interpenetrating helices comprising of hydrogen bonded area
molecules. This kind of behavior has been used to separate mixture.
This has been apply in production of lubricating oils.
- Ureas are also use as raw materials for manufactured plastics
(example urea-formaldehyde rasins) and glue (example urea-
melamine-formaldehyde).
- It also used as additive ingredient in cigarette, some ingredients for
making facial cleanser and also as a reactant in some ready to use
cold compresses for first aid used.

1.6.3. In Medicals:

- In medicals urea has been used to produce barbituric acids. Urea is

reacting with the malonic acids to form barbituric acids. Barbituric acids
are the parents of barbiturate drugs. Barbiturate drug is act as central
nervous system depressant.
- Urea also has been used to produce acylureas and urethanes for use
as sedatives and hypnotic. It is being made as sleeping pills. It is used
in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia.

6
UREA FROM
AMMONIA AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

2.0 PROCESS SELECTION

7
2.0 PROCESS SELECTION

2.1 Chronology of process

Focusing into two processes (Partial recycle process and Total recycle process)

2.1.1 Partial Recycle Process

This process is one of the simplest methods and also the least expensive (both capital
investment and operating cost). This method is divided into three main type of process.
Before partial recycle process being discovered, as shown in figure 1(typical unit involving
synthesis section only) liquid ammonia and gaseous carbon dioxide are pumped into urea
reactor at about 200 atm. The reactor temperature is maintain at about 185 Celsius by
regulating the amount of excess ammonia about 100% excess NH 3 is required, and about
35% of the total NH 3 is converted to urea (75% of carbon dioxide is converted). The reactor
effluent solution contains about 80% urea after carbamate stripping. The unconverted NH 3
and CO2 are driven off at moderate pressure by stream heating the effluent solution to
carbamate strippers.

Even though this process is the simplest of a urea process, there are some
limitations regarding ammonia gas. It is the least flexible and cannot be operate unless some
provision is made to utilize the large amount of off gas ammonia. Thus it must be used in
conjunction with the coproduction of some other material. For example ammonium
phosphate (used ammonia). One case in which the system can be used is the production of
urea ammonium nitrate solution; the converted NH 3 is used to make ammonium nitrate
solution. This solution than be mixed with the urea solution. Even in this case, most new
plant uses a TOTAL RECYCLE PROCESS.

Regarding partial recycle process all part of the off-gas ammonia and carbon dioxide
from the carbonate strippers is recycle to the urea reactor. Recycling is accomplished by
absorbing the stripper urea effluent, in the process steam condense or in mother liquor from
the crystallization finishing process. In this manner the amount of NH 3 in off-gas is reduced.
Any proportion of the unreacted ammonia can be recycled. Typically the amount of
ammonia that must use in some other process is reduced to about 15% of that from a
comparable once-through unit.

Mitsui Toatsu has made changes to the process and it be rename as Mitsui Toatsu
partial-recycle process as shown in figure 2. Liquid NH3 and gaseous CO2 are pumped to the
urea reactor at 200 atm. The temperature of the reactor is maintained at about 185 Celsius
by proper balance of excess NH 3 and carbonate solution feed. About 100%-110% excess
NH3 is used, about 70% of the NH3 and 87% of the CO2 are converted to urea. The
remaining 30% of the NH3 must be used in some other process. The reactor effluent
contains about 80% urea.

8
 Figure 1: Typical once through urea process

Figure 2: Mitsui Toatsu partial-recycle process

9
 Unreacted NH3 and CO2 are separated from the urea solution in the high pressure
separator and in two three steam-heated carbonate stripper at successively lower pressure.
The off-gas from the separator and the first stage stripper is absorbed in the high pressure
absorber by a side stream of partially stripper reactor effluent from the high pressure
separator. Heat involved in the absorber reaction is removed (to increase absorption
capacity) by the addition and expansion of part of liquid ammonia from the top of the
absorber is also recycled to the urea reactor after being condensed,

Since the amount of ammonia carbarnate that can be absorbed in the absorber solution
describe above is limited by its solubility in the system H 2O-urea-NH3, part of the ammonia
and carbon dioxide cannot be recycled and must be used in the production of a co-product
nitrogen material. As in the once through process, the operation of the urea plant still must
coincide with that of the co-product plant.

Other partial recycle process different in detail but accomplish similar results. Although
the investment cost is somewhat lower than for total recycle, the advantages apparently
does not compensate for the inflexibility arising from the necessity of operating a co-product
plant with mutual interdependency problems. However the partial recycle process continue
to find application, particularly, where UAN solution is a co-product.

2.1.2. Total Recycle process

In this process, all the unconverted ammonia-carbon dioxide mixture recycled to the
urea reactor (conversion 99%) and no nitrogen co-product is necessary. This is the most
flexible of the urea process because it depends upon the CO2 and NH3 supply from its
supporting ammonia plant for operation. However it also the most expensive in investment
and operating cost. Therefore, if the production of other material requiring ammonia is
planned, an integrated once-through or partial-recycle unit would have lower investment and
perhaps lower operating costs. The disadvantages are decreased reliability arising from
mutual dependence of two plants, inflexibility in proportions of co-products, and difficulties in
synchronizing the operation of two plants. Because of these difficulties, most manufactures
prefer a total recycle process, even when a second nitrogen product is desired.

The urea reactor effluent contains urea and water resulting from the synthesis
reaction; it also contains unconverted carbanate and excess ammonia. These ingredients
must separate to give a urea solution reasonably free from the other material and to recycle
the CO2 and NH3 to the synthesis reactor. In order to separate carbamate from urea, it must
be decomposed according to the equation.

NH2CO2NH4  (reversible) CO2 + 2NH3

10
 This reaction is the reverse of the first step of the synthesis process and is strongly
endothermic (37.7 kcal/g-mole). The decomposition is accomplished by various
combinations of supplying heat, lowering pressure of one or more ingredients. The NH 3 and
CO2 are removed from the urea solution as gases accompanied by some of the water in
vapor form. Naturally the CO2 and NH3 will recombine (released heat) when the temperature
is decreased or the pressure increased. Hence condensing by cooling and/or compressing a
gaseous mixture of CO2, NH3 and H2O produces a carbamate solution. This process can be
classified in five groups according to the recycle principle.

1. Hot gas mixture recycle

2. Separated gas recycle
3. Slurry recycle
4. Carbamate solution recycle
5. Stripping.

The separate gas recycle method was developed overcome the difficulties of the
mixed hot gas recycle process. The CO2 and NH3 can be compressed separately without
difficulties caused by carbamate formation. Process of this type were developed by inverta
(Switzerland) and CPI-Allied (United States). The principle of the process is that CO2 in the
gas mixture from the decomposers is absorbed selectivity in a solvent such as
monoethanolamine (MEA). The NH3remaining after CO2 removed is compressed and recycle
to the synthesis reactor. The CO2 is desorbed from the MEA solvent by heating and it is
recycled separately.

The process has the advantage that conversion is not reduced by recycling water to
the reactor and that the problem of recycling corrosive solution to the reactor is avoided.
Offsetting this is the difficulty in recovering heat and cost of MEA makeup. The number of
plants using the method is relatively small and it is not known to be in use in any of the large
plants (1000 tpd and up ) built in recent years.

The principle of the slurry recycle process is that the CO 2-NH3-H2O gas mixture goes
to a reactor to which light paraffin oil is added. Carbamate, formed in the reactor as an oil
suspension, which contains 35%-40% solids, is pumped into the urea synthesis unit wish
fresh CO2 and NH3.the mixture then goes through the carbarmate decomposers and the oil
is separated from the urea solution by decantation for reuse.

11
 CONDENSE
CO2-IN
RECY-OUT RECY-IN

COMP

MIXER
CO2-OUT REACTOR

FEED
TOP-LPS
HPS
HPS-IN
DRYER
GRANULE
NH3-OUT LPS
VALVE
HPS-OUT LPS-IN BOT-LPS

PUMP PRODUCT
NH3-IN D-OUT

The process inlet involves 2 streams that is inlet for NH 3 and CO2 respectively, labeled as
NH3 in and CO2 in. For NH3 pump in used while in inlet for CO 2 compressor is used. Both
stream then being channeled to the main reactor

In the main reactor, with temperature of 125 Celsius and 125 bars, the reaction occurs and
will produce Urea, NH3, CO2, carbamate, h2O, and biuret as product. All this substances
known as HPS in and be transfer into High Pressure Separator (HPS) at condition 125 atm.
From HPS there are two outlets. I outlet is for recycle stream and another is product stream.
For recycle stream, the components is carbamate is being recycle back, and be channeled
back into feed stream that goes into the main reactor (Total recycle process). For outlet
stream from HPS main have urea, NH3, CO2, H2O and biuret.

With a help from valve the pressure is reduce from 125 atm to 5 atm and goes into the
Lower Pressure Separator (LPS). At LPS there also have two product streams as in HPS,
ones is Biuret as top LHS and other components as BOTTOM LPS. Other components are
urea, NH3, CO2 and H2O. BOTTOM LPS next will be channeled to the dryer, to remove the
moisture contents. After that’s process it will pass through granule. At granule, it will undergo
process to make a fine powder for the urea.

12
2.1.3. Other process
 Once-through urea process

The unconverted carbamate is decomposed to NH3 & CO2 gas by heating the urea
synthesis reactor effluent mixture at low pressure. The NH3 & CO2 gas is separated
from the urea solution and utilized to produce ammonium salts by absorbing NH3, either
in sulfuric or nitric acid.

In this process liquid NH3 is pumped through a high pressure plunger pump and
gaseous CO2 is compressed through a compressor up to the urea synthesis reactor
pressure at an NH3 to CO2 feed mole ratio of 2/1 or 3/1. The reactor usually operates in
a temperature range from 175 to 190 Celsius. The reactor effluent is let down in pressure
to about 2 atm and the carbamate decomposed and stripped from the urea-product
solution in a steam heated shell & tube heat exchanger. The moist gas, separated from
the 85-90 % urea product solution, & containing about 0.6 tons of gaseous NH3 per ton
of urea produced is usually sent to an adjacent ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate
producing plant for recovery. An average conversion of carbamate to urea of about 60 %
is attained. Excess heat is removed from the reactor by means of a low-pressure steam-
producing coil in an amount of about 280,000 cal/Kg urea produced.

Once-through urea process

13
2.1.4. Comparison between types of reactor

Criteria Plug flow Continuous stirred Batch reactor Semi-batch reactor

reactor tank reactor

Phase Primarily gas Primarily gas Gas phase, Gas phase, liquid
suitability phase but liquid phase but liquid liquid phase & phase & liquid-solid
phase also phase also liquid-solid phase
applicable applicable phase

Usage Large scale, When agitation is Small scale Hydrolysis,

Fast reaction, required, production,
Homogenous Chlorination,
Reaction, Series Intermediate or
configuration for once short Reactive distillation.
Continuous
Production, different production,
High concentration
stream Pharmaceutical,
temperature,
Available with Fermentation.
tube or without
tube

Advantages High conversion Continuous High conversion Excellent control of

per unit volume, operation, per unit volume( raw material(limit
per pass ), unwanted side
Low operation Good operation reaction)
cost, control, Flexibility of
process
Continuous Easily adapt to two operation (one
operation, phase run, reactor for
multiple
Good heat Simplicity for
process),
transfer. construction,
Easy to clean.
Low
operating(labour)
cost

Easy to clean.

Disadvantag Shout down and Lowest conversion High operating Not common for
es cleaning may be per unit volume, cost, industrial
expensive, application.
By-passing and Product quality
Poor channelling may varies
temperature possible with poor compared to
agitation continuous

14
 control. process.

The reason that Plug flow reactor is chosen because this reaction involves between two
reactant in gaseous state (ammonia and carbon dioxide). Theoretically plug flow reactor
more familiar with reaction between gaseous states. Other reactor also can be consider, but
in order to achieve production of 300000 kg day of urea, plug flow reactor is more suitable in
large scale. The production of urea also is continuous production. For temperature of 185
Celsius can be consider last high temperature reaction, thus PFR are the best choice.
CSTR, batch, and semi-batch are more focusing one batch production, that not very suitable
for production of urea. Although in this production, the temperature is between 20-185
Celsius. That is more easy control by using batch reactor, temperature still in the range of
PFR temperature. In economy aspect, low operation cost, is one of the aspects that have the
main role, although it may be costly when reach time to shout down and cleaning the
reactor, it being cover by the profit generate by the production of urea.

15
2.2. Selection of process

2.1.2. Total recycle processes

One of the reasons that total recycle process is chosen is the conversion of urea. In this
process the conversion of urea is about 99% (satisfied with the aim to achieve conversion of urea
between (40%-70%). This is because all unconverted ammonia-carbon dioxide mixture is recycle and
no nitrogen co-product is necessary (reducing the cost)

2.1.3. Scoring and screening of two process

Factor Partial recycle process Total recycle process

Conversion of urea 80% 99%

Both processes give out high rate of conversion of urea, but

to achieve the aim, the process with the highest conversion
is selected. This is to make sure that when the process is
undergoing, the possibility to get lower conversion of urea
will be reduced.

Pressure (average) 200 atm 125 atm

At constant temperature, conversion increases with pressure

up to the critical point which is the point which is the point at
which the vapour phase is substantially eliminated and the
reactant are in the liquid state. The critical temperature is a
complex function of the temperature and composition of the
reactor content. For example at 150 Celsius a pressure
about 100 atm might be near optimum for a stoichiometric
NH3; CO2 ratio, but at this temperature the rate of reaction is
unacceptably slow. At the preferred temperature of 180-210
Celsius, pressure of 140-250 atm is commonly. thus the
lower the pressure are better.

Temperature (average) 185 Celsius 185 Celsius

Conversion of ammonia carbamate to urea in the absence of

excess ammonia increase with the temperature to the
maximum of about 50% at 170-190 Celsius when the
pressure is high to keep the reactant in the liquid state. The
rate of reaction increase with the temperature; it is slow at
150 Celsius and below (with stoichiometric NH3:CO2 ratio)
and quite rapid at 210 Celsius. A satisfactory approach to
equilibrium can be obtained in the temperature range of 180-
200 Celsius in 0.3-1.0 hours or at lower temperature with the
excess ammonia. Corrosion difficulties increase with the
temperature and the range of 180-210 Celsius is generally
accepted as optimum for most processes

16
Equipment Generally this process using More equipment than partial
less equipment that total recycle process
recycle process

The more complex the reaction involving the more complex

equipment that will be used up. The equipment involves
include heater, cooler

Cost Less cost High cost

Factor Partial recycle process Total recycle process

Conversion of urea -1 1

Pressure -1 1

Temperature 0 0

Equipment 1 -1

Cost 1 -1

High investment payback 0 1

Total 0 1

Chosen ×

2.3. Process Description

17
 First, the raw material, ammonia (NH3) at 20oC, 9 bar and considered pure is pumped
into mixer thus increase the pressure to 125 bar. For the carbon dioxide (CO 2), raw material
available is at 20oC and 1 bar, also considered pure. The CO2 then is feed to the mixer
through a compressor which increased the pressure to 125 bar. The mixer mix three streams
before been feed to the reactor which is the NH 3 and CO2 raw and also the ammonium
carbamate recycle stream.

At the reactor, the feed at temperature 86.920C is allowed to react thus produce urea
and water. Small amount of biuret is also produce as a side product. NH 3 and CO2 is first
react to produce ammonium carbamate. 95% of equilibrium is achieved at this rate. The
limiting reaction for this process is the conversion of ammonium carbamate to urea and
water where the result fluctuates to 40 – 70 % conversion. For the calculation, 40%
conversion of urea is taken. Then, all the remaining reactant and product that formed in the
reactor enter the stripper. Carbamate is removed in the top stream of stripper and remaining
compound is leaves the stripper at the bottom. Carbamate leaves the stripper in form of
vapor. Since carbamate required in feed stream is in liquid phase, a condenser is put in the
recycle stream. By using steam at 40 bar with 200C of superheat, the temperature of the
stream is reduced from 185 to 170 0C and the phase of carbamate is change from vapor to
liquid phase. Carbamate leaves the condenser at temperature 170 0C and pressure of 125
bar and will fed into the mixer.

Before entering the medium pressure separator, MPS and low pressure stripper, the
pressure of components leave the stripper is reduce from 125 bars to 18 bars and 18 bars to
5 bars respectively by using valves. Half of composition of NH 3 and CO2 is removed in the
top stream of MPS and the remaining NH 3 and CO2 is removed in the LPS. All the NH3 and
CO2 are transferred to storage tank to be reuse back as feed. Remaining component of urea,
water and Biuret is leave the MPS and then LPS at the bottom stream with pressure 18 bars,
temperature 140 0C and pressure 5 bars and temperature 800C respectively.

Next step is to reduce composition of water in product stream to 0.5% only. Vacuum
evaporator and prilling tower equipment is used for this process. The pressure of the product
stream leave the evaporator at 0 bar pressure since it operates in vacuum condition. The
temperature also reduces from 800C to 27.250C. Then, component that leaves the
evaporator at temperature 27.250C and pressure 0bar is entering the prilling tower. Air at
temperature at 250C is used to remove the remaining water in the product stream. At the end
of the process, the products components leave at the bottom of tower at pressure 1 bar and
temperature 250C, meanwhile air leave at temperature 26 0C. There are no waste and
wastewater treatment is needed since there no waste are produced and the water leave the
temperature in pure composition and at low temperature in this plant.

18
UREA FROM
AMMONIA AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

3.0 MATERIAL BALANCE

19
3.0 MATERIAL BALANCE

Selected capacity = 9.9 × 107 kg/year

No of working days = 330 day

Daily production = 300,000 kg/day

kg 1d kg
Production rate of urea: 300,000 x = 12,500
d 24 h h

Composition final product

kg
98.5 % urea = 0.985 (12500) = 12312.5
h

kg
1 % biuret = 0.01 (12500) = 125
h

kg
0.5 % water = 0.005 (12500) = 62.5
h

Reaction:

kJ
1 2NH3 + CO2 NH2COONH4 (100% completion) ∆H = 130
(34) (44) (78) mol

kJ
2 NH2COONH4 CO (NH2)2 + H2O (40% completion) ∆H = -21
mol
(78) (60) (18)

Side reaction:

3 2NH2CONH2 NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3

(120) (103) (17)

Overall reaction

4 2NH3 + CO2 CO (NH2)2 + H2O (Overall conversion 95%)

(34) (44) (60) (18)

From reaction 3 :

kg 120
125 of biured produced by = ( ) x 125
h 103

20
 kg
= 145.631 of urea
h

Therefore, urea produced by reaction:

kg kg kg
12 312.5 + 145.631 = 12 458.131
h h h

From reaction 4 :
34
NH3 feed = x 12458.131
60

kg
= 7059.608
h

44
CO2 feed = x 12456.131
60

kg
= 9135.963
h

Overall conversion = 0.95

7059.608 kg
NH3 required = = 7431.166
0.95 h

9135.963 kg
CO2 required = = 9616.803
0.95 h

It 100% completion of urea in reaction 4 :

60 kg
x 9616.803 = 13113.822 of urea produced
44 h

For 95% conversion:

kg
0.95 x 13113.822 = 12458.131
h

Urea is converting to biuret in reaction 3 :

kg kg kg
12458.131 - 12312.5 = 145.6309 of urea
h h h

Water produced:

18 kg
( ) x 12458.131 = 3737.439
60 h

21
For 40% completion of urea:

12312.5 kg
Flow rate of steam, ṁin = = 30781.25
0.4 h

CO2 + 2NH3 NH2CONH2 + H2 O

17(2) kg
NH3 react = x 12458.131 = 7059.608
120 h

44 kg
CO2 react = x 12458.131 = 9135.963
60 h

2NH2CONH2 + 2NH3 NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3

17
NH3 produced = x 145.631
120

kg
= 20.631
h

For unreacted NH3:

kg
7431.166 – 7059.608 +20.631 = 392.189
h

For unreacted CO2:

kg
9616.803 - 9135.963 = 480.84
h

Carbamate:

ṁin,total = ṁout,total

30781.25 = 392.189 + 480.84 + 12312.5 + 3737.439 +125 + ṁcarbamate

kg
Hence, ṁcarbamate = 13733.282
h

22
 3.1. Reactor

T = 86.92oC T = 180oC
Reactor:

P= 125 bar

NH3 = 7431.166 kg/h T=180oC NH3= 392.189 kg/h

CO2= 9616.803 kg/h CO2=480.84 kg/h

Carbamate=13733.282 kg/h Carbamate= 13733.282 kg/h

Urea= 12312.5 kg/h

Water= 3737.439 kg/h

Biuret=125 kg/h

Input Output

Flow Flow
Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction

NH3 7431.166 0.24 NH3 392.189 0.013

CO2 9616.803 0.31 CO2 480.84 0.016

23
Carbamate 13733.282 0.45 Carbamate 13733.282 0.446

Total 30781.251 100 Urea 12312.5 0.400

Water 3737.439 0.121

Biuret 125 0.004

Total 30781.25 1

3.2. Stripper

Carbamate= 13733.282 kg/h

Stripper:
o
T=40 C
P=125 bar

T=185oC

NH3=392.189 kg/h

CO2=480.84 kg/h NH3=392.189 kg/h

Carbamate=13733.282 kg/h CO2= 480.84 kg/h

Urea = 12312.5 kg/h Urea=12312.5 kg/h

Water=3737.437 kg/h Water= 3737.439 kg/h

Biuret = 125 kg/h Biuret =125 kg/h

Input Output

Flow Flow
Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction
Top product:

24
NH3 392.189 0.0127
Carbamate 13733.282 1
Bottom
CO2 480.84 0.0156 Product:

NH3 392.189 0.023

Carbamate 13733.282 0.4462 CO2 480.84 0.0282

Urea 12312.5 0.4000 Urea 12312.5 0.7222

Water 3737.437 0.1120 Water 3737.439 0.219

Biuret 125 0.00406 Biuret 125 0.00733

Total 30781.25 1 Total 17047.968 1

3.3. Medium Pressure Separator (MPS)

T=185oC NH3=196.095 kg/h

CO2= 240.42 kg/h

T=140oC

T=185oC
MPS:

P=18 bar NH3=196.095 kg/h

NH3=392.189 kg/h
CO2= 240.42 kg/h
CO2=480.84 kg/h
Urea=12312.5 kg/h
Urea = 12312.5 kg/h
Water= 3737.439 kg/h
Water=3737.437 kg/h
Biuret =125 kg/h
Biuret = 125 kg/h

Input Output

Flow Flow
Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction
Top Product:
NH3

25
 NH3 196.095 0.449
392.189 0.023

CO2 480.84 0.0282 CO2 240.42 0.551

Bottom
12312.5 0.7222 Product:
Urea NH3 196.095 0.00485

Water 3737.439 0.219 CO2 240.42 0.00595

Biuret 125 0.00733 Urea 12312.5 0.305

Total 17047.968 1 Water 3737.439 0.0925

Biuret 125 0.00309

Total 40413.034 1

3.4. Lower Pressure Separator (LPS)

NH3=196.095 kg/h

CO2= 240.42 kg/h

T=140oC

LPS:
T=80oC
P=5 bar
NH3=196.095 kg/h

CO2=240.42 kg/h

Urea = 12312.5 kg/h Urea=12312.5 kg/h

Water=3737.437 kg/h Water= 3737.439 kg/h

Biuret = 125 kg/h Biuret =125 kg/h

Input Output

Material Flow Mass fraction Material Flow Mass fraction

rate(kg/h) rate(kg/h)
Bottom Top Product:
Product:
NH3 196.095 0.00485 NH3 196.095 0.449

26
CO2 240.42 0.00595 CO2 240.42 0.551
Bottom
Urea 12312.5 0.305 Product:

Urea 12312.5 0.761

Water 3737.439 0.0925 Water 3737.439 0.231

Biuret 125 0.00309 Biuret 125 0.00773

Total 40413.034 1 Total 16174.930 1

3.5. Vacuum Evaporator

T=80oC
Water= 3611.159 kg/h

T=27.25oC
o
T=80 C
Vacuum
Evaporator:
Urea=12312.5 kg/h (98%)
Urea = 12312.5 kg/h
P=0 bar
Water= 126.28 kg/h
Water=3737.437 kg/h
Biuret =125 kg/h
Biuret = 125 kg/h

Total mass balance: Mass in = Mass out

F=E+P

Mass balance of urea: 12312.5 = (0.98P)

P = 12563.78

Input Output

Flow Flow
Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction
Top Product:

27
Urea 12312.5 0.761 Water 3611.159 1
Bottom
Water 3737.439 0.231 Product:
Urea 12312.5 0.9800

Biuret 125 0.00773 Water 126.28 0.01

Total 16174.930 1 Biuret 125 0.01

Total 12563.78 1

3.6. Prilling Tower

Water = 63.74 kg/h

Air

T=26oC

T=27oC
Prilling Tower:

P=1 bar
T=25oC
F

Urea = 12312.5 kg/h

Air
Water=126.28 kg/h

Biuret = 125 kg/h

E

Urea=12312.5 kg/h (98.5%)

Water= 62.5 kg/h

Biuret =125 kh/h

E = 12500kg/h (production rate)

Input Output

Flow Flow

28
Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction Material rate(kg/h) Mass fraction
Top Product:

Urea 12312.5 0.9800 Water 63.74 1

Bottom
Water 126.28 0.01 Product:
Urea 12312.5 0.985

Biuret 125 0.01 Water 62.5 0.005

Total 12563.78 1 Biuret 125 0.01

Total 12500 1

UREA FROM
AMMONIA AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

4.0 ENERGY BALANCE

29
4.0 ENERGY BALANCE

4.1 Method of calculation

Energy balance are necessary in order to determine energy that needed in a process such as
for heating and cooling, as well as power that needed in process design. In manual calculation
done in design project, calculation was done by using equation from previous lesson such as
in Elementary Principle of Chemical Processes. First law of thermodynamics also applied
which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. In forming manual energy balance
calculations, some assumptions are made as below:

i. Pure reactant are used

ii. Values calculated up to 3 decimal place
iii. Energy out = Energy in + Generation – Consumption – Accumulation

There are some other assumptions regarding to the equipment itself which are:

i. The potential and kinetic energy of streams are neglected, there are only enthalpy
changes are considered
ii. For standard enthalpy, the standard reference used are; ΔH = 0, P0 = 1atm, T0 = 298
K
iii. Equipment is assumed working in ideal condition
iv. Equipment is assumed perfectly insulated

30
4.2 Equations Used in Energy Balance
Equation used in calculation shown in table below:

Table 4.1: List of formula used

Denotation Formula
Heat Capacity, Cp (kJ/mol.˚C) a + bT + cT2 + dT3

Heat Load (kJ/hr) Q = m.λ

Error Percentage, % Estimated−Actual

% error = ×100
Actual

(Chemical Properties Handbook, Mc Graw Hills)

Table 4.2: Heat capacities of compounds

Compounds Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3 + eT4 (J/mol.K)

Ammonia 0.03515+0.00002954T +(4.42x10-9)T2+(-6.69 x10-12) T3
Carbon Dioxide 23.5061+0.038066T+(7.40x10-5)T2+(-2.23x10-7)T3+ (-2.34x10-10)T4
Ammonium
Carbamate 1 + 0.439932T

Urea 35.19258+0.079627T+(0.000473)T2+(-1.21x10-6)T3+ (1.26-9)T4

Water
92.053+(-0.04)T+(-0.000211)T2+(5.35x10-7)T3
(KNOVEL Database)

Table 4.3: Enthalphy of vaporization

λ = ∆H vap A Tc (K) n
= A(1-T/Tc)n (kJ/mol)

Ammonium Carbamate 38.049 539.82 0.38

Ammonia 31.523 405.65 0.364
Urea 87.864 705 0.38
Carbon Dioxide 18.26 304.19 0.24
Water 52.053 647.13 0.321
(Chemical Properties Handbook, Mc Graw Hills)

Table 4.4: Heat of Formation of Compounds

Compund Heat of Formation, ∆Hf at Tref = 298.15 K

Ammonia -67.20 kJ/kmol
Carbon Dioxide -393.509 kJ/kmol
Ammonium Carbamate -154.17 kJ/kmol
Urea -235.5 kJ/kmol
Water -285.8 kJ/kmol
Biuret -565.8 kJ/kmol
(Chemical Properties Handbook, Mc Graw Hills)

31
4.3 Energy Balance Calculation

Assumption: Datum temperature = 0˚C

Compounds that involve in this energy balance are ammonia (NH3), Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Ammonium carbamate (N2H6CO2), Urea (CH4N2O), water (H2O) and biuret (C2H5N3O2).

4.3.1. Reactor

T = 180˚C
T = 86.92˚C Reactor
NH3 = 7431.166 kg/hr 180˚C
NH3 = kg/hr
CO2 = 9616.803 kg.hr
CO2 = 37970.466 kg.hr
N2H6CO2 = 13733.282 kg/hr
N2H6CO2 = 75662.576 kg/hr
Total= 30781.251 kg/hr
CH4N2O = 48611.11 kg/hr
H2O = 14756.70365 kg/hr
C2H5N3O2 = 496.031746 kg/hr
Total= 30781.25 kg/hr

Figure 6.1: Energy Flow across a Reactor

Calculation for Inlet Stream:
At 86.92˚C:
CpNH3 : 0.03515+0.00002954T +(4.42x10-9)T2+(-6.69 x10-12) T3
= 0.002 kJ/kg.˚C
CpCO2 : 41.2067 + (-0.1071T) + (4.4902 x10-4 T2) + (-6.5056 x10-7 T3) + (4.9123 x10-10 T4)
= 0.723 kJ/kg.˚C
CpN2H6CO2 : 1 + 0.439932T
= 0.503 kJ/kg.˚C
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
=( 0.002 ×0.24 )+ ( 0.723× 0.31 ) + ( 0.503 ×0.45 )
= 0.473 kJ/kg.˚C
Heat from inlet stream = mCp∆T
= 30781.25 x 0.473 x 86.92
= 1265514.456 kJ/hr
∆H0reaction = ∆H0r,R-1 + ∆H0r,R-2
= ∆H0f,products + ∆H0f,reactants
= (-130) + 21
= -109 kJ/kmol (Exothermic reaction)

Amount of urea formed during reaction = 205.208 kmol/hr

Thus, heat of reaction = 205.208 kmol/hr ×-109 kJ/kmol

32
 = -22367.672 kJ/hr

Calculation for Outlet Stream:

At 180˚C:
CpNH3 : 0.03515+0.00002954T +(4.42x10-9)T2+(-6.69 x10-12) T3
= 0.002 kJ/kg.˚C
CpCO2 : 41.2067 + (-0.1071T) + (4.4902 x10-4 T2) + (-6.5056 x10-7 T3) + (4.9123 x10-10 T4)
= 0.753 kJ/kg.˚C

CpN2H6CO2 : 1 + 0.439932T
= 1.028 kJ/kg.˚C
CpCH4N2O : 35.19258+0.079627T+(0.000473)T2+(-1.21x10-6)T3+ (1.26-9)T4
= 0.986 kJ/kg.˚C
CpH2O : 92.053+(-0.04)T+(-0.000211)T2+(5.35x10-7)T3
= 4.508 kJ/kg.˚C
CpC2H5N3O2 : 1.784 kJ/kg.˚C

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
= (0.002 x 0.013) + (0.753 x 0.016) + (1.028 x 0.446) + (0.986 x 0.400)
+ (4.508 x 0.121) + (1.784 x 0.004 )
= 1.418 kJ/kg.˚C
75.338 90.925

Heat from outlet stream = mCp∆T

= 30781.25 x 1.418 x 180
= 7856606.25 kJ/hr

Heat input + Heat of reaction – Heat Output = Rate of Accumulation

1265514.456 + (-22367.672) – 7856606.25 = Rate of Accumulation
Rate of Accumulation = -6613459.466 kJ/hr
= -1837.072 kW
= -1.837 MW

Therefore, heat supply needed to sustain the reactor temperature at 180 oC is approximately
2 MW.

33
4.3.2. Stripper

Heat output from reactor outlet stream is heat input to stripper = 7856606.25 kJ/hr

T = 185˚C
N2H6CO2 = 13733.282 kmol/hr

T = 180˚C T = 185˚C
STRIPPER
NH3 = 392.189 kg/hr
CO2 = 480.84 kg.hr 185˚C NH3 = 392.189 kmol/hr
N2H6CO2 = 13733.282 kg/hr CO2 = 480.84 kmol/hr
CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr CH4N2O = 12312.5 kmol/hr
H2O = 3737.439 kg/hr H2O = 3737.439 kmol/hr
C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr C2H5N3O2 = 125 kmol/hr

Figure 6.2: Energy Flow Across A Stripper

Calculation for Outlet Stream:

For liquid at 185˚C:

CpNH3 : 0.03515+0.00002954T +(4.42x10-9)T2+(-6.69 x10-12) T3

= 0.002 kJ/kg.˚C

CpCO2 : 41.2067 + (-0.1071T) + (4.4902 x10-4 T2) + (-6.5056 x10-7 T3) + (4.9123 x10-10 T4)
= 0.755 kJ/kg.˚C
CpCH4N2O : 35.19258+0.079627T+(0.000473)T2+(-1.21x10-6)T3+ (1.26-9)T4
= 0.999 kJ/kg.˚C
CpH2O : 92.053+(-0.04)T+(-0.000211)T2+(5.35x10-7)T3
= 4.490 kJ/kg.˚C
CpC2H5N3O2 : 1.784 kJ/kmol.˚C

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
= (0.023 x 0.002) + (0.028 x 0.755) + (0.722 x 0.999) + (0.219 x 4.490) + (0.007 x 1.784)
= 5.464 kJ/kg.˚C

Heat from outlet stream = mCpΔT

= (17047.968 x 5.464 x 185)
= 17232767.97 kJ/hr
= 4786.88 kW
= 4.787 MW

34
For gas at 185˚C:
CpN2H6CO2 : 1 + 0.439932T
= 1.056 kJ/kg.˚C
Thus, heat carried by ammonium carbamate = mCpΔT+mλ , where λcarbamate = 0.118
kJ/kg
= (13733.282 kg/hr x 1.056 kJ/kg.˚C x 185) +
(13733.282 kg/hr x 0.118 kJ/kg)
= 2684554.499 kJ/hr
= 745.71 kW
= 0.746 MW

Heat input – Heat Output = Rate of Accumulation

2.182 MW – (0.746 MW + 4.787 MW) = Rate of Accumulation
Rate of Accumulation = -3.351 MW

Therefore, heat supply needed is about 3.5 MW to the stripping process.

35
4.3.3. Carbamate Condenser

H2O
T = 20 oC
T = 185 oC P = 40 bar
CARBAMATE
N2H6CO2 =13733.282 kg/hr CONDENSER
(Vapour)

T = 170 oC

N2H6CO2 = 13733.282 kg/hr

(Liquid)

Figure 6.3: Energy Flow Across Carbamate Condenser

Heat transfer, Q = Heat in – Heat out

Heat in = 13733.282 kg/hr × 1.056 kJ/kg.oC × 185 oC

= 2.683 MJ/hr

Heat out = 13733.282 kg/hr × 0.972 kJ/kg.oC × 170 oC

= 2.269 MJ/hr

Q = 2.683 MJ/hr – 2.269 MJ/hr

= 0.414 MJ/hr

= 414 kJ/hr

Water properties:

Pressure 40 bar with Tsat 250.3 oC

Cp= 4.289 kJ/kg.oC

Q = mCp∆ T

Take basis of calculation for mass transfer is 1000 kg of water per hour

414 kJ/hr = (1000 kg/hr × 4.289 kJ/kg.oC)∆ T

∆ T = 0.1 oC

Therefore, temperature out for water is = 20 oC + 0.1 oC = 20.1 oC

36
4.3.4. Medium Pressure Separator

Heat input to equipment = 17232767.97 kJ/hr

NH3 = 196.094 kg/hr

T = 185oC CO2 = 240.42 kg/hr

T = 140˚C
T = 185˚C M

P
NH3 = 392.189 kg/hr NH3 = 196.095 kg/hr
CO2 = 480.84 kg/hr S CO2 = 240.42 kg/hr
CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr
CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr
H2O = 3737.439 kg/hr
H2O = 3737.439 kg/hr
C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr
C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr

Figure 6.4: Energy Crossflow Across Medium Pressure Separator

Calculation for Outlet Stream:

For liquid at 140˚C:
CpNH3 : 0.03515+0.00002954T +(4.42x10-9)T2+(-6.69 x10-12) T3
= 0.002 kJ/kg.˚C

CpCO2 : 41.2067 + (-0.1071T) + (4.4902 x10-4 T2) + (-6.5056 x10-7 T3) + (4.9123 x10-10 T4)
= 0.759 kJ/kg.˚C
CpCH4N2O : 35.19258+0.079627T+(0.000473)T2+(-1.21x10-6)T3+ (1.26-9)T4
= 0.880 kJ/kg.˚C
CpH2O : 92.053+(-0.04)T+(-0.000211)T2+(5.35x10-7)T3
= 4.655 kJ/kg.˚C
CpC2H5N3O2 = 1.784 kJ/kmol.˚C
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
= (0.012 x 0.002) + (0.014 x 0.759) + (0.741 x 0.880) + (0.225 x 4.655) + (0.008 x 1.784)
= 1.724 kJ/kg.˚C
Heat from outlet stream = mCpΔT
= (16611.454 kg/hr x 1.724 kJ/kg.˚C x 140˚C)
= 4009340.537 kJ/hr

37
For gas at 185˚C:
For ammonia:
T
λ = 31.523 x (1- )0.364
405.65
= 1.792 kJ/kg
x = 0.449
CpNH3 : 0.03515+0.00002954T +(4.42x10-9)T2+(-6.69 x10-12) T3
= 0.002 kJ/kmol.˚C

For carbon dioxide:

T
λ = 18.26 x (1- )0.24
304.19
= 0.390 kJ/kg
x = 0.551
CpCO2 : 41.2067 + (-0.1071T) + (4.4902 x10-4 T2) + (-6.5056 x10-7 T3) + (4.9123 x10-10 T4)
= 0.755 kJ/kg.˚C

λ of mixture = ∑ xiλi
= (0.449 x 1.792) + (0.551 x 0.449)
= 1.020 kJ/kg
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCp
= (0.449 x 0.002) + (0.551 x 0.755)
= 0.417 kJ/kg.˚C
Heat out for steam = mCpΔT+mλ
= (436.514 kg/hr x 0.417 kJ/kg.˚C x 140) + (436.514 kg/hr x 1.020 kJ/kg )

= 25928.932 kJ/hr
Assumption: Cooling water at 25˚C enter and leaves the equipment at 50˚C
Heat cooling water gained = Heat in - Heat out
So, Q cooling water = 2.92 x 107 – (1.42 x 107 + 1.54 x 105)

= 1.49 x 107kJ/hr

Q = mCpΔT

Thus, m = Q/Cp∆T

= (1.49 x 107kJ/hr) / ( 5.05 kJ/kg.˚C x 25˚C)

= 1.18 x 105 kg/hr

Heat input – Heat Output = Rate of Accumulation

17232767.97 kJ/hr – (4009340.537 kJ/hr + 25928.932 kJ/hr) = Rate of Accumulation
Rate of Accumulation = 13197498.5 kJ/hr
= 3665.972 kW
= 3.666 MW
Therefore, to avoid heat accumulation, water is used as coolant thus produces steam for
reactor and stripper process.

38
4.3.5. Low Pressure Separator

Heat input to equipment = 4009340.537 kJ/hr

NH3 = 196.095 kg/hr

CO2 = 240.42 kg/hr

T = 140˚C T = 80˚C
L

NH3 = 196.095 kg/hr P CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr

CO2 = 240.42 kg/hr H2O = 3737.439 kg/hr
S
CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr
H2O = 3737.439 kg/hr
C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr

Figure 6.5: Energy Flow Across Low Pressure Separator

Calculation for Outlet Stream:

For liquid at 80˚C:

CpCH4N2O : 35.19258+0.079627T+(0.000473)T2+(-1.21x10-6)T3+ (1.26-9)T4
= 0.734 kJ/kg.˚C

CpH2O : 92.053+(-0.04)T+(-0.000211)T2+(5.35x10-7)T3
= 4.876 kJ/kg.˚C
CpC2H5N3O2 = 1.784 kJ/kg.˚C

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
= (0.761 x 0.734) + (0.231 x 4.876) + (0.008 x 1.784)
= 1.699 kJ/kg.˚C

Heat from liquid outlet stream = mCpΔT

= (16174.939 kg/hr x 1.699 kJ/kg.˚C x 80˚C)

= 2198497.709 kJ/hr

39
For gas at 140˚C:
For ammonia:
T
λ = 31.523 x (1- )0.364
405.65
= 1.792 kJ/kg
x = 0.449
CpNH3 : 0.03515+0.00002954T +(4.42x10-9)T2+(-6.69 x10-12) T3
= 0.002 kJ/kg.˚C

For carbon dioxide:

T
λ = 18.26 x (1- )0.24
304.19
= 0.390 kJ/kg
x = 0.551
CpCO2 : 41.2067 + (-0.1071T) + (4.4902 x10-4 T2) + (-6.5056 x10-7 T3) + (4.9123 x10-10 T4)
= 0.759 kJ/kmol.˚C

λ of mixture = ∑ xiλi
= (0.449 x 1.792) + (0.551 x 0.449)
= 1.020 kJ/kg
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCp
= (0.449 x 0.002) + (0.551 x 0.759)
= 0.419 kJ/kg.oC
Heat that escape = mCpΔT+mλ
= (16174.939 kg/hr x 0.419 kJ/kg.oC x 140oC) + (16174.939 kg/hr
x1.020kJ/kg)

= 965320.36 kJ/hr

Heat input – Heat Output = Rate of Accumulation

4009340.537 kJ/hr – (2198497.709 kJ/hr + 965320.36 kJ/hr) = Rate of Accumulation
Rate of Accumulation = 845522.468 kJ/hr
= 234.867 kW
= 0.235 MW
Therefore, to avoid heat accumulation, water is used as coolant thus produces steam for
reactor and stripper process.

40
4.3.6. Evaporator

Heat Input = 2198497.709 kJ/hr

H2O= 3611.159 kg/hr

T = 85˚C
T = 85˚C T = 27˚C

CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr EVAPORATOR

H2O = 3737.439 kg/hr CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr
C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr H2O = 126.28 kg/hr
C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr

Figure 6.2: Energy Flow Across A Evaporator

For liquid at 27oC:

CpCH4N2O : 35.19258+0.079627T+(0.000473)T2+(-1.21x10-6)T3+ (1.26-9)T4

= 0.628 kJ/kg.˚C
CpH2O : 92.053+(-0.04)T+(-0.000211)T2+(5.35x10-7)T3
= 5.046 kJ/kg.˚C
CpC2H5N3O2 = 1.784 kJ/kg.˚C

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCp
= (0.980 x 0.628) + (0.010 x 5.046) + (0.010 x 1.784)
= 0.684 kJ/kg.˚C
So, mCp∆T = 12563.78 kg/hr x 0.684 kJ/kmol.˚C x 27˚C
= 232027.889 kJ/hr

Assumption: λ steam at 85˚C is 2651.5 kJ/kg and heat of evaporation is 2295.5 kJ/kg

Heat input + Heat input by stream = Heat carried by water vapour + Energy of bottom
product
Heat input + S1 λS1 = E1 HE1 + Energy of bottom product
2198497.709 kJ/hr + (S1 x 2651.5 kJ/kg) = (3611.159 kg/hr x 2295.5 kJ/kg) + 232027.889
kJ/hr

S1 = 2384.667 kg/hr

41
4.3.7. Prilling Tower

Air
63.78 kg/hr water vapour T = 26˚C

T = 27˚C

CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr

H2O = 126.28 kg/hr
C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr Air
T = 25˚C

CH4N2O = 12312.5 kg/hr

H2O = 62.5 kg/hr
T = 25oC C2H5N3O2 = 125 kg/hr

Figure 6.6: Energy Balance Across Prilling Tower

Heat input to unit operation = 232027.889 kJ/hr

At 25oC:

CpCH4N2O : 35.19258+0.079627T+(0.000473)T2+(-1.21x10-6)T3+ (1.26-9)T4

= 0.624 kJ/kg.˚C
CpH2O : 92.053+(-0.04)T+(-0.000211)T2+(5.35x10-7)T3
= 5.052 kJ/kg.˚C
CpC2H5N3O2 = 1.784 kJ/kg.˚C

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCp g
= (0.985 x 0.624) + (0.005 x 5.052) + (0.010 x 1.784)
= 0.658 kJ/k.˚C

42
So, heat output mCp∆T = 12500 kg/hr x 0.658 kJ/kg.˚C x 25˚C
= 205625 kJ/hr
Assumption: Humidity of air at 25˚C is 0.01 with Cp equal to 1.009 kJ/kg.˚C
Heat carried by air = Heat input- Heat output
Q dry air = 232027.889 kJ/hr - 205625 kJ/hr
= 26402.889 kJ/hr
Thus,mass flow rate of air:
= 26402.889 kJ/hr ÷ (1.009 kJ/kg.˚C x 1˚C)
= 26167.383 kg/hr

43
4.4. Process flow diagram (by aspen 8.0)

44
 Material Balance Table

Stream ID   HP-NH3 HP-CO2 FEED STRIP-IN RECY-IN RECY- STRIP-

OUT OUT

From   P-1 C-1 M-1 R-1 S-1 CONDEN S-1

To   M-1 M-1 R-1 S-1 CONDEN M-1 V-1

Phase   Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Vapor Liquid Liquid

Substream:                
MIXED

Mole flow Kg/h              

r

AMMONIA  
UREA FROM
7431.166 0 7431.166 392.189 0 0 392.189

CARBO-01   0 9616.803 9616.803 480.84 0 0 480.84

AMMON-01   AMMONIA AND

0 0 13733.28
2
13733.28
2
13733.282 13733.28
2
0

UREA

WATER
 

 
CARBON DIOXIDE
0

0
0

0
0

0
12312.5

3737.439
0

0
0

0
12312.5

3737.439

BIURET   0 0 0 125 0 0 125

Total   7431.166 9616.803 30781.25 30781.25 13733.282 13733.28 17047.968

5.0 MECHANICAL DESIGN 1 2

Pressure bar 125 125 125 125 125 125 125

Temperature 0
C 20 20 86.92 180 185 170 185

4.5. Stream table

45
46
5.0 MECHANICAL DESIGN
5.1. Reactor

V
τ=
F
Where;
τ = residence time
m3
F = Volumetric flow rate into the reactor in
hr
V = Volume of the reactor in m 3

Density of liquid NH 3 = 618kg/m 3

Density of CO 2 gas at 185℃
PM
¿
RT
¿¿¿

kg
Density of carbamate = 1600
m3
7431.166 kg /h r
F NH3 = 3
=12.0245 m3 /h r
618 kg/m
9616.803 kg /h r
F CO2= 3
=66.7834 m 3 /h r
144 kg /m
13733.282 kg/h r
F Carbamate 3
=8.5833 m 3 /h r
1600 kg /m
F TOTAL=12.0245+66.7834+ 8.5833=87.3912 m3 /hr
1hr
τ =45 min × =0.75 hr
60 min
V =Fτ =¿

47
5.2. Stripping Column

x y
0 0
0.02 0.1
0.08 0.26
0.14 0.4
0.24 0.56
0.46 0.8
0.6 0.9
0.8 1
1.0 1.6

Rectification Operating Line (ROL)

R 1
Yn+1 = Xn + XD
(R+1) (R+1)

R
Thus : slope =
(R+1)

1
Intercept = XD
(R+1)

XB = 0

XF = 0.5

XD= 1

Stripping Operating Line (SOL)

L B
Y= X- XB
(L−B) (B−L)

From the graph, number of stages is equal to 5.

48
STRIPPER

49
UREA FROM
AMMONIA AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

6.0 SITE SELECTION

50
6.0 SITE SELECTION

6.1. INTRODUCTION

A preliminary site study will be conducted before proceeding with plant construction. The
location of the chemical plant is the key player as it can influence the plant operation and its
feasibility. The site of the plant is a vital aspect that must be taken into consideration in order to
obtain maximum profitability of the project as well as for the future expansion of the plant. The
plant should be located specifically where the minimum cost of production and distribution can
be obtained.

6.2. SITE SELECTION CRITERIA

There are some factors that should be considered in selecting the suitable site. The
characteristics of a site location chosen will have huge market effect on the success or
otherwise of a commercial venture. The choice of the final site should be based on a complete
survey of the advantage of various geographical areas, in addition to the advantage and
disadvantages of available industrial estates.
The basic site selection process takes into account the economic and geography of the
area in which the plant site will be placed.

The principal factors that need to be considering for the site location are:
 Location with respect to the marketing area
 Raw material supply
 Transport facilities
 Availability of labor
 Availability of utilities:
I. Water
II. Fuel
III. Power
 Availability of suitable land
 Environment impact, including effluent disposal
 Local community considerations
 Climate
 Political and strategic consideration

6.3. Marketing Area

Materials that had been produced in the bulk quantities it usually the cost of the product per
metric ton is relatively low and the cost of transportation is a significant fraction of the sales

51
price so the plant should be located close to the primary market . This consideration is much
less important for the low volume production and high priced products.

6.4. Raw Materials

Availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location. Plant that
produce bulk chemicals are best being located close to the source of the major raw material.
The source of raw materials can be far from the plant but as long as the cost of the shipping
product is less than the cost of shipping feed it will be fine.

6.5. Transport

The transportation of materials and products to and from the plant can be an overriding
consideration in site location. A site should be selected that is at least close to the major forms
of transport such as road, rail, waterway (canal or river) or sea port. Road transport is
increasingly used and it is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse. Rail transport
is usually cheaper for a long distance transport of bulk chemical compare to other type of
transport. The air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and
essential equipment and supplies, and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be
considered.

6.6. Availability of Labor

Labor is needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction construction
workers are often brought in the outside the site area but there should be an adequate pool of
unskilled labor available locally and labor suitable for training to operate to operate the plant.
Skilled craft workers such as electricians, welders and pipe fitters will be needed for plant
maintenance. Local labor laws, trade union customs and restrictive practices must be
considered when assessing the availability and suitability of the local labor for recruitment and
training.

6.7. Utilities(services)

Chemical processes invariably required large quantities of water for cooling and general
process use, and the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality. Process
water may be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority.

At some sites, the cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the
sea. At other locations cooling towers will be needed.

Electrical power is needed all the sites. Electrochemical processes require large
quantities of power and must be located close to a cheap source of power.

A competitively priced fuel must be available on site for steam and power generation.

52
 6.8. Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal

All industrial processes produce waste products, and full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered
by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site
survey to determine the standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment
should be made for each new project or major modification or addition to an existing process.

6.9. Local Community Consideration

The proposal plant must be fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
signification additional risk to the local population. Plants should generally be sited so as not to
be upwind of residential areas under the prevailing wind.

On the new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities for the
plant personnel such as school, bank, and housing. The local community must also be
consulted about plant water consumption and discharge and the effect of the plant on local
traffic. Some communities welcome new plant construction as a source of new jobs and
economic prosperity. More effluent communities generally do less to encourage the building of
new manufacturing plants, and in some cases may actively discourage chemical plant
construction.

6.10. Land

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion. The
land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load-bearing characteristics. A full site
evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.
Particular care must be taken when building plants on reclaimed land near the ocean in
earthquake zones because of poor seismic character of such land.

6.11. Climate

Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperatures require
the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe runs. Stronger
structures are needed at locations subject to high wind or earthquakes.

6.12. Political and Strategic Considerations

Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducement are often given by governments to direct
new investment to preferred locations, such as areas of high unemployment. The availability of
such grant can be the overriding consideration in site selection.

53
 In the globalized economy, there may be an advantage to be grained by locating the
plant within an area with preferential tariff agreements.

54
 6.13. Site Selection Comparisons

Below table is the comparison site selection for plant of production of urea in Gurun, Bintulu and Prai.

Gurun Industrial Park Kidurong Light Industrial Prai Industrial Complex

Estate

Location Gurun, Kedah Bintulu, Sarawak Prai, Pulau Pinang

Raw Materials  Nafas NPK Fertilizer  Jaya Chemical  PKSJ Commodities Sdn.
Gurun Supplier Bhd.

Transport Facilities

 Land  East Coast Expressways  Pan-Borneo Highways  Lebuh Raya Utara –

 Butterworth Railway Selatan
Station  Butterworth Railway
Station

 MISC Berhad (malaysia  Prai Port

 Water international shipping  Bintulu Port
corporation)

 Penang International  Penang International

 Air  Bintulu Airport
Airport Airport

55
 Gurun Industrial Park Kidurong Light Industrial Prai Industrial Complex
Estate

Utilities

 Water  Syarikat Air Darul  Cardno International  Perbadanan Bekalan

Aman Pty. Ltd. Air Pulau Pinang

 Power  Nur Generation Plants  Sarawak Power  Prai Power Station

Sdn. Bhd. Generation Plant (Prai Power Sdn. Bhd.)

 Sarawak Electricity
Supply Corporation
(SESCO)

Local community Approve Approve Approve

Climate  climate is in the range  climate is in the range  climate is in the range
of 35oC – 40oC of 35oC – 40oC of 35oC – 40oC

Area Available  150.5 hectares  97.3 hectares  211.8 hectares

Land price (per square feet)  RM 12.00  RM 20.00  RM 19.00

56
 Gurun Industrial Park Kidurong Light Industrial Prai Industrial Complex
Estate

Environmental Effect  Supported by steam  Use SIL 3 certified system

generation and distribution for the protection of  Local Exhaust Ventilations
system, demineralization environment where the have been set up in all the
water system, cooling requirement is met by formulation plants for the
water system, instrument highly available H51q control of air pollution.
air system, nitrogen controller.
production unit and waste  Implemented its waste
water treatment. water management to
minimize effects to the
 The noise generated from surrounding environment.
compressor operation will
not impose adverse  designated a storage facility
impacts to the residents to manage all scheduled
(1.5 km) wastes generated from
manufacturing activities to
ensure proper monitoring
before dispatching them for
treatment

Availability of Labor  NAZA Automotive  University Putra Malaysia  PERDA institution (PERDA-
Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. (Bintulu Campus) TECH)

 Perwaja Steel Sdn. Bhd.  Bintulu GIATMARA  Silicon Technology

Institution
 Langkasuka institution  Kolej Damai Institution
centre  Yayasan Bumiputra Pulau
Pinang
 IKM Gurun
 UiTM Permatang Pauh

57
 Universiti Sains Malaysia

58
 Gurun, Bintulu, Prai,
Characteristics Weight Kedah Sarawak Pulau
Pinang

Locations 5 4 3 3

Ammonia 5 4 3 4
Raw materials

Carbon dioxide 5 5 5 4

Land price (per square feet) 5 5 2 2

Land 5 5 4 5

Transportation
Water 5 3 5 4

Air 5 5 5 5

Availability of labor 5 3 4 5

Availability of utilities (overall) 5 3 4 3

Site consideration (area availability) 5 4 4 4

Climate 5 4 4 4

Local community consideration 5 5 5 5

Total 65 50 48 48

Ranking 1 2 2

Guidelines:
1= Too Bad ; 2 = Bad; 3 = Average ; 4 = Fairly Good ; 5 = Good
Ranking:
1 = selected location

59
6.14. Selected Site Location

In ordered to make the site selection, there are some criteria that need to be considered
before the site is being selected. For examples criteria that need to be consider are
transportation, climate, availability of labor, utilities, the most importance thing are the
supplier of the raw materials and many more. After some consideration of the criteria after
scoring and also screening process site location of Gurun Industrial Area has been selected
as the plant of urea production. There are some reasons below that why Gurun is being
chosen.

6.14.1. Industry Type and Location

Suitability of Gurun Industrial Park in Kedah to build our plant is good since this area is an
established industrial park that most of the industries here have related each other. This
area also is located far away from the residential area so it is safe from the communities that
live in Gurun area.

6.14.2. Reasonable Land Price

In Gurun Industrial Park, the land per square feet is only RM12.00. The price is cheaper
compare to the other industrial area. There is about 150.5 hectares of land that is available
in this area. Since to build a plant needed around 10 acres this means that the land available
is more than enough to build our plant. 10 acre of land in Gurun is about RM5, 227,200. The
land in Gurun is more reasonable and cheaper compare to the other two industrial area
which are RM8, 712,000 in Bintulu and RM 8, 276,400 in Prai. It also has many facilities in
this area such as waste disposal, storage and workforce.

6.14.3.Raw Materials Supply

Comparing the three locations, Gurun Industrial Park is the most suitable location since it is
the nearest location to the suppliers of the raw materials and this is the most important
things in the industry. This is because the raw material is the main things that needed to
make the product. As example without reactant, reaction cannot be occurring and product
cannot be produce. The nearest supplier of the raw materials of ammonia and carbon
dioxide to the plant is Nafas NPK Fertilizer Gurun. The raw material is can easily be
transport through land since there is North-South a highway and also it can easily be
transported by train since Gurun railway station is just a stone throw from the plant location.
By choosing Gurun, cost for transportation can be reduced and possibility of shortage of raw
material supply is low.

6.14.4. Availability of Labor

The growth of chemical and urea industry in Gurun has also increased demand for workers.
In Gurun Industrial Park, the nearest training centers such as ‘ Institusi Kemahiran
MARA’(IKM) Gurun. Skill labors are also not a problem and easy to get. Malaysia has many
well trained chemical engineering students. Some famous Institutes which have students of
chemical engineering that not really situated in Gurun but near to the Gurun such as
Universiti Sains Malaysia, University Technology Mara Malaysia (Kedah) and University
Technology PETRONAS. Jobs of high skilled labor can be filled by them.

60
 6.14.5. Utilities

Gurun Industrial Park has water supply from Syarikat Air Darul Aman. Syarikat Air Darul
Aman is supply water not only in for the Gurun Industrial Park but supply to whole Kedah.
Electricity supply is from Nur Generation Plants Sdn. Bhd. Every water supply and also the
electricity supply to the plant are being paid monthly and there is also contract for them to
supply water and electricity to the plant for a few years. By having this facilities, there will be
no problem regarding to the required utilities and can focus more on the business of urea
(fertilizers).

6.14.6. Climate

Malaysia is safe country and there is no four seasons occur in Malaysia. The weather is
nearly same all over the Malaysia. Thus, climate is not too important factor to be considered
since Malaysia is free of major natural disasters such as hurricane, volcanoes eruption,
earthquake and tornado. Malaysia is also breezed by light winds, bringing a gentle cooling
effect on the climate.

6.14.7. Political and Strategic Location

In Malaysia, politic is relatively stable. Any site whether led by the opposition or governing
party did not effect the industries since industries will bring income to the country. Using
MIBC for the shipping make it more easily to import and export the fertilizers.

6.14.8. Transportation Facilities

There are many good roads to access Gurun from all directions in Malaysia. Gurun is near to
to East Coast Expressway and it is about 350km long from other parts of the peninsular
Malaysia. Plant that located in Gurun usually air transportation will be at Penang
International Airport ( Bayan Lepas) because it is more nearer compare to Langkawi
International Airport. Broad transportation networks allow for fast transportation of goods
throughout the state.

61
UREA FROM
AMMONIA AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

7.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

62
7.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
7.1. CAPITAL COST

Capital costs is associated of the cost of construction of a new plant , the reconstruction or
modification from existing chemical plant.

Table 7.1 : Summary of Capital Estimating Classifications

CLASS OF ESTIMATE DESCRIPTION

DATA : Typically relies on cost information
Order-of-Magnitude Estimate for a complete process taken from previously
( Ratio or Feasibility ) built plants are then adjusted using
appropriate scalling factors, for capacity, and
for inflation to provide the estimated capital
cost.
DIAGRAMS : Block flow diagram
DATA : It utilizes a list of the major equipment
Study Estimate found in the process and is roughly sized and
( Major Equipment or Factored) the approximate cost determined. The total
cost of equipment is then factored to give the
estimated capital cost.

DIAGRAMS : Based on Process flow diagram

and costs from generalized charts
DATA : Requires more accurate sizing of
equipment. Approximate layout of equipment
Preliminary Design Estimate is made along with estimates of piping,
( Scope ) instrumentation and electrical requirements.
DIAGRAM : Process Flow Diagram,includes
vessel sketches for equipment , preliminary
ploy plan and elevation diagram
DATA : Requires preliminary specifications
for all the equipment, utilities, instrumentation,
Definitive Estimate electrical and off-sites
( Project Control ) DIAGRAMS : Final PFD ,vessel sketches,
plot plan and elevation diagrams , utility
balances and P&ID
DATA : Requires complete engineering of the
process and all related off-sites and utilities
Detailed Estimate and at the end of this detailed estimate, the
( Firm or Contractor’s ) plant is ready to go to the construction stage.

DIAGRAMS : All diagrams are required to

complete the construction of the plant

63
 ( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )
7.1.1. LANG FACTOR TECHNIQUE

Lang Factor method is the simple technique use to estimate the capital cost of chemical
plant. The cost determined from this method represent the cost to build a major expansion to
an existing chemical plant. The greater the Lang Factor, the less the purchased costs
contribute to the plant costs.The values for Lang Factor , F Lang are shown in the table 7.7
below.

Capital Cost = Lang Factor x Sum of purchased Costs oa All Major Equipment
Type of Chemical Plant Lang Factor = FLang
Fluid processing plant 4.74
Solid-fluid processing plant 3.63
Solid processing plant 3.10

The capital cost calculation is determined using equation below

n
CTM = FLang ∑ Cp , i
i=0

Where,

CTM = the capital cost (total module) of the plant

Cp ,i = the purchased cost for the major equipment units

n = the total number of individual units

FLang = the Lang Factor

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.1.2. MODULE COSTING TECHNIQUE

This method is the common technique to estimate the cost of a new chemical plant as the
best for making preliminary cost estimates. This costing technique relates all costs back to
the purchased cost of equipment evaluated for some base conditions. These base
conditions are handled by using multiplying factors that depends on the following :

a. The specific equipment type

b. The specific system pressure
c. The specific materials of construction

Equation below is to calculate the bare module cost for each piece of equipment. Bare
module is the sum of the direct and indirect costs.

CBM = Cop FBM

64
Where

CBM = bare module equipment cost : direct and indirect costs for each unit

FBM = bare module cost factor multiplication factor to account for the items plus the specific
materials of

construction and operating pressure.

Cop = purchased cost for base conditions : equipment made of the most common material ,
usually

carbon steel and operating at near ambient pressures.

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.1.3. PRESSURE FACTORS FOR THE PROCESS VESSELS

( P+1 ) D
+0.00315
2[850−0.6 ( P+1 ) ]
F P , vessel=
0.0063

For tvessel > 0.0063 m

If FP,vessel is less than 1,then FP,vessel = 1. For pressures less than -0.5barg, F P,vessel =1.25.It
should be noted that equation above is strictly true for the case when the thickness of the
vessel wall is less than 1/4D ; for vessel in the range D= 0.3 to 4.0 m.

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.1.4. PRESSURE FACTORS FOR OTHER PROCESS EQUIPMENT

The pressure factor , Fp ,for the remaining process equipment are given by the following
general form:

log10 Fp = C1 + C2 log10 P + C3 (log10)2

The value of C1 , C2 and C3 can be find at table A.2 at appendix A in reference book
Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edtion , Richard Turton .

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

65
7.2. MANUFACTURING COST

Is the sum of all resources consumed in the process of making the products. Factors
affecting the cost of manufacturing a chemical product:

a. Direct manufacturing costs :- Represent operating expenses that vary with the
production of the product demand drops, production rate is reduced to less than the
design capacity and at this lower rate , we would expect a reduction in the factors
making up the direct manufacturing costs.
b. Fixed manufacturing costs :- These costs are independent pf changes in production
rate.
c. General expenses :- Represent an overhead burden that is necessary to carry out
business functions include management , sales, financing and research functions.

Cost of manufacturing,COM are Fixed capital investment (FCI) : (C TM or CGR), cost of

operating labor (COL), cost of utilities (CUT), cost of waste treatment (CWT) and cost of raw
materials (CRM).
The cost of manufacture with depreciation ,COM is

COM = 0.28FCI + 2.73 COL + 1.23 (CUT + CWT + CRM )

The cost of manufacture without depreciation, COMd is

COMd = 0.180FCI + 2.73 COL + 1.23 (CUT + CWT + CRM )

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.2.1. STREAM FACTOR (SF)

The fraction of time of time that the plant is operating in a year must be known so that the
yearly cost of raw materials or utilities can be calculated. It is also represents the fraction of
time that the process unit is on-lined and operating at design capacity.

Numner of Days Plant Operates per Year

Stream Factor (SF) =
365

The typical value of stream factor are in the range of 0.96 to 0.90.

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

66
7.2.2. COST OF OPERATING LABOR ( COL )

This technique used to estimate operating labor requirement is based on dataaa obtained
from five chemical companies and correlated by Alkayat and Gerrard and the equation as
below:

NOL = (6.29 + 31.7P2 + 0.23NNP ) 0.5

Where ,

NOL = number of operators per shift

P : number of processing steps involving

NNP = Number of nonparticulate processing steps ( compressors, towers, reactors,

heaters,

exchangers)

The cost of labor can be calculated as follows :

Operating labor cost , COL = FOL x Labor Salary

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.2.3. UTILITY COST ( CUT )

The costs of utilities are directly influenced by the cost of fuel. It includes but not limited to
fuel gas , oil.coal , electric power steam (all pressures ), cooling water , process water, boiler
feed water , instrument air, inert gas and refrigeration costs.Specific difficulties concern
when estimating the cost of fuel, which directly impact the price of utilities such as
electricity , steam and thermal fluids.

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.2.4. RAW MATERIAL COST (CRM)

Raw material are often the natural resources such as oil , iron and wood before they are
processes to form a product. Raw material are important to the production process of a
country that has abundant natural resources and has an opportunity to export the materials
to other countries. Raw material cost is a cost of material or substance used in the primary
production or manufacturing a product.Raw materials are often referred to as commodities,
which are brought and sold on commodities exchanges around the world and can be

67
estimated by using the current price listed in such publications as the Chemical Market
Reporter (CMR) .

When doing economic evaluations for new , existing, or future plants, need to establish the
true selling or purchase price for all raw materials and products because the largest
operating is nearly always the cost of raw materials.The raw materials cost can be calculated
by multiplying the amount produce per year with the cost per unit weight.

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.2.5. WASTE TREATMENT COST ( CWT)

The costs of waste treatment is the cost related to treat the waste and by-product being
produced from the process. As environmental regulations continue to tighten , the problems
and costs associated with the treatment of waste chemical streams will increase. In recent
years there has been a trend to try to reduce or eliminate the volume of these streams
through waste minimization strategies. Such strategies involve utilizing alternative process
technology or using additional recovery steps in order to reduce or eliminate waste streams.
Although waste minimization will become increasingly important in the future, the need to
treat waste streams will continue.From our process our waste produce only a pure water and
the rest of the waste actually can be recycle and are stored in a storage tank.

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.3. BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS

Break-even analysis is the analysis of income, cost and profit structures with particular
reference to the break-even point, to show the effect on break-even point of changed in
income and cost. This required an estimation of fixed costs (FC) ,variable cost (VC) and total
revenues (TR).

(Chemical Engineering Design, Fourth Edition by R.K. Sinnott)

7.3.1. FIXED COST (FC)

Fixed cost (FC) is the costs that do not vary with the production rate. This type of cost is
actually all the bills that need to be throughout the entire plant operation. Such examples are
:

1. Maintenance
2. Operating Labor
3. Supervision
4. Laboratory cost
5. Plant overheads
6. Capital changes
7. Rates
8. Insurance
9. License fees & royalty payments

68
Fixed cost (FC) can be calculated by this formula :

¿ cost , FC=QT × f

Where ,
QT = Total plant operating per year
F = Fixed cost per tonne

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.3.2. VARIABLE COST (VC)

Variable cost (VC) is the costs that are dependent on the amount of product produced.
Example of variable cost are:

1. Raw materials cost

2. Miscellaneous operating materials costs
3. Utilities cost
4. Shipping and packaging

Variable cost (VC) can be calculated as below :

Variable cost , VC=v × Q

Where,

V = Variable cost per tonne

Q = Production capacity per year

Hence, Total cost , TC=FC +VC

is mainly to determine, the quantity at which the product at an assumed price, will generate
enough revenue to start earning profit during the plant starts its operation. Break- even point
is to estimate the volume or capacity for the company to reach the total cost equal to the
total revenue and no profit was earned yet. So, it can be defined as:

Break even = ( fixed cost / contribution ) x Selling price

Contribution = Selling price – Variable cost

This calculation will determines how many products needed to be selling to break even.
Once reached this point, all the cost associated with the production of urea is recovered and
beyond this point, it shows the plant start earning profits.

69
 ( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

7.4. CALCULATION

7.4.1. CAPITAL COST

i. Reactor

Volume = 65.40 m3

Temperature = 180 oC = 453 K

Pressure = 125 bar =

Purchased Equipment Cost, Cpo

TABLE A.1 Equipment Cost Data (From Appendix A)

Equipment Equipment K1 K2 K3 Capacity, Min Max

Type Description Units Size Size
Reactors Jacketed 3.3496 -0.2765 0.0025 Volume, 5 45
nonagitate m3
d

To calculate Cpo

Log10 Cpo = K1 + K2 log10 A + K3 (log10 A)2

= 3.3496 + [-0.2765 log10 64.80] + 0.0025 (log10 64.80)2
Cpo = $ 719.29 x 3.4
= RM 2445.59x

Bare Module Cost ,CBM

TABLE A.7
Equipment Type Equipment Description Bare Module Factor , FBM
Reactor Jacketed nonagitated 4.0

To calculate CBM,

CBM = Cpo FBM

= RM 2463 x 4.0 = RM9852

ii. Separator High Pressure

Volume = 21.80 m3

70
Purchased Equipment Cost, Cpo

TABLE A.1 Equipment Cost Data (From Appendix A) ( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and
Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B.
Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

Equipment Equipment K1 K2 K3 Capacity, Min Max

Type Description Units Size Size
Process Vertical 3.4974 0.4485 0.1074 Volume, 0.3 520
vessel m3
To calculate Cpo

Log10 Cpo = K1 + K2 log10 21.8 + K3 (log10 21.8)2

= [ 3.4974 + (0.4485 x 1.34 ) + 0.1074 (1.34)2 ]

= RM 66483.88

Bare Module Cost ,CBM

TABLE A.2 from ( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third
Edition, Richard Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )
Identification Equipment Type Equipment Material of
Number Description Construction
20 Process vessel Horizontal vertical Stainless Steel

From Figure A.18 Material Factor, FM = 3.1

To calculate CBM,

TABLE A.2 : Constant for Bare Module Factor

Equipment Type Equipment Description B1 B2

Process Vessel Vertical 2.25 1.82

CBM = Cpo FBM = Cpo ( B1 + B2 FMFP)

log10 FP = C1 + C2 log10 + C3(log10 P)2

C1 = C2 = C3 =0 so FP =1

Thus, CBM = RM 66483.88[ 2.25 + (1.82x 3.1 x 1)]

= RM 424690.78

iii. Separator Low Pressure

Volume : 24.56 m3

Purchased Equipment Cost, Cpo

71
TABLE A.1 : Equipment Cost Data (From Appendix A) ( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and
Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B.
Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

Equipment Equipment K1 K2 K3 Capacity, Min Max

Type Description Units Size Size
Process Vertical 3.4974 0.4485 0.1074 Volume, 0.3 520
vessel m3

To calculate Cpo

Log10 Cpo = K1 + K2 log10 A + K3 (log10 A)2

= [ 3.4974 + (0.4485 log10 24.56 ) + 0.1074 (1.39)2 ]

= RM 72844.42

Bare Module Cost ,CBM

TABLE A.2

Identification Equipment Type Equipment Material of

Number Description Construction
20 Process vessel Horizontal vertical Stainless Steel

From Figure A.18 Material Factor, FM = 3.1

To calculate CBM,

TABLE A.2 : Constant for Bare Module Factor .

( Sources : Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes ,Third Edition, Richard
Turton,Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B. Whiting/joseph A. Shaeiwitz )

Equipment Type Equipment Description B1 B2

Process Vessel Vertical 2.25 1.82

CBM = Cpo FBM = Cpo ( B1 + B2 FMFP)

log10 FP = C1 + C2 log10 P + C3(log10 P)2

C1 = C2 = C3 =0 so FP =1

Thus,

CBM = RM 72844.42 [ 2.25 + (1.82x 3.1 x 1)] = RM 574888.16

72
 TABLE 2 :Summary fixed capital cost estimation
Equipment Unit Total Price (RM)

Separator 2 999,578.94

Reactor 1 9852.00

Condenser 1 3,772,929.07

Compressor 1 826,829.95

Pump 1 66,184.68

mixer 1 149,60.00

Evaporator 1 1,212,780.00

Prilling Tower 1 340,340.00

Stripper 1 377,400.00

Storage tank 4 151,536.00

Valve 1 124,780.00

TOTAL 7,897,170.64

FLang = 4.74: taken from Table 7.7 for fluid processing plant
n
Capital Cost , CTM =F Lang ∑ C Pi
i=1
= Flang[ CBM,reactor + CBM,condenser + CBM,separator, + CBM,compressor + CBM,pump + CBM,mixer +CBM,evaporator +
CBM,prillingtower + CBM,stripper ]

= 4.74[9852 + 3,772,929.07+ 999,578.94 + 826,829.95 + 66,184.68 + 149,40 + 1,212,780 +

340,340 + 377,400]

73
= RM 7,897,170.64

7.4.2. MANUFACTURING COST

7.4.2.1. STREAM FACTOR (SF)

No . of days plant operates per year

stream factors , SF=
365

330
stream factors , SF=
365

= 0.9041

7.4.2.2. COST OF OPERATING LABOR

Equipment Types Number of Equipment N np

Compressor 1 1
Mixer 1 0
Reactor 1 1
Separator 2 2
Condenser 1 1
Valve 2 0
Dryer 1 1
Prilling Tower 1 0
Pump 3 0
mixer 2 2
stripper 1 1
Total 10 9

N OL =(6.29+31.7 P2 +0.23 N np )0.5

Where;

N OL = number of operators per shift

P = number of processing steps involving the handling of particulate solids. P=0

74
N np = number of nonparticulate processing steps handling steps and includes
compression, heating and cooling, mixing, and reaction.

2 0.5
N OL =( 6.29+31.7 ( 0 ) +0.23 ( 9 ) )

N OL =2.89

Number of operator per shift = 2.89

Assumptions :

Working day for 1 operator 4.7 Shift

Operator ∙ Week
Plant operates 3 Shift
Day
Plant running 24 Hour
Day
Operation hour 8232 Hour
Year
1 year 49 Week
Year
1 Year 343 Day
Year
Plant shutdown (maintenance) 3Week
Year
Shift needed for plant 1095 Shift
Year
Operator needed in a plant 2.89Operator 3 Operator
≈
Shift Shift
Total Operating Labor Cost RM 212,800.00

A single worker

344 Day 1 Week 49 Week

× =
Year 7 Day Year

49 Week 4 Shift 196 Shift

× =
Year Operator ∙Week Operator ∙ Year

Plant operate

1 Year=52 Week s

Vacation=3 Weeks

75
Total=( 52−3 ) Weeks=49Weeks

8 hour shift per week

365 Day 3 Shift 1095 Shift

× =
1 Year Day Year

1095 Shift 1Operator ∙ Year

F OL= × =5.59 Operator
Year 196 Shift

Hence, operating labor;

¿ FOL × no of operator per shift (N ¿¿ OL) ¿

¿ 5.59 ×2.89=16.16 ≈ 17

Cost of operating labor ,C OL=F OL × Labor Salary

¿ 17 ×13,300.00=RM 226,100.00

Operation hour;

( 8Shift
Hour
) × ( 3Day
Shift
)× ( 7Week
Day
) × ( 49Year
Week 8232 Hour
)= Year
Salary per month:

Position Salary (RM)

Operator 1,800.00
Manager 5,000.00
Assistant manager 3,500.00
Engineer 3,000.00
Total 13,300.00

7.4.2.3. UTILITY COST (CUT)

The cost of utilities, CUT to produce 3.3 x 106 kg urea per day is estimated:

Electricity at 440 V three-phase 50 Hz

Price = RM 0.20 /kWh

The cost of electricity =

kWh 330 d RM 0.20
10,000 × ×
d 1 yr kWh
= RM 660,000.00/yr

76
 Cooling water at 24°C
Price = RM 45.15/ 1000m3

The cost of cooling water =

kg 24 h 330 d m3 RM 45.15
10,000 × × × ×
h 1d 1 yr 1000 kg 1000 m3
= RM 3,575,880.00/ yr

Dry saturated steam at 140°C

Price = RM 84.51/ 1000kg

The cost of dry saturated steam =

kg 24 h 330 d RM 84.51
7,000 × × ×
h 1d 1 yr 1000 kg
= RM 4,685,234.40 / yr

Cost of utilities, CUT

= RM 660,000.00/yr + RM 3,575,880.00/ yr + RM 4,685,234.40 / yr

= RM 8,921,114.40 / yr

7.4.2.4. RAW MATERIAL COST (CWM)

Mass flow rate of NH3 = 7059.624 kg/hr

Mass flow rate of CO2 = 9134.984 kg/hr

Convert to kg/hr

NH3 = 6.1842 × 107 kg/yr

CO2 = 8.0022 × 107 kg/yr

Chemical Cost RM/kg

NH3 2
CO2 1.2

Ammonia : CRM = NH3 = 6.1842 × 107 kg/yr × RM 2/kg × 0.94 = RM 116 Million/yr

Carbon dioxide : CRM = CO2 = 8.0022 × 107 kg/yr × RM 1.2/kg × 0.94 = RM 90 Million/yr

With depreciation

77
COM =0.280 FCl+2.73 C OL +1.23(C UT +C WT +C RM )

¿ 0.280 ( RM 7,897,170 ) +2.73 ( RM 226,100 ) +1.23(RM 8,921,114.40+ RM 206,000,000)

¿ RM 267,181,431.30

Without depreciation

COM d =0.180 FCl+2.73 COL + 1.23(CUT + CWT +C RM )

¿ 0.180 ( RM 7,897,170 ) +2.73 ( RM 226,100 ) +1.23(RM 8,921,114.40+ RM 206,000,000)

¿ RM 266,391,714.30

7.4.3. BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS

Total sales
Product Production (kg per day) Selling price (RM per kg) R (RM per year)

Urea 3.3 x 105 6.10 2.013,000.00

Break even = ( fixed cost / contribution ) x Selling price

variable cost ,VC=Raw material cost + Labor cost+ Utlity cost

¿ RM 2,013,000+ RM 226,100+ RM 8,921,114.40

¿ RM 11.2 million

Contribution = Selling price – Variable cost

= RM 2,013,000.00 / yr - RM 11.2 million/yr

= RM 9.15 million

Breakeven Point = ( RM 7897170 / RM 9.15 million) = 0.00537 x RM 2,013,000.00

= RM 173,177.40 / yr

7.4.4. PROFITIBILITY ANALYSIS

Profitability Criteria for Project Evaluation

The profitability is evaluated based on:

i. Time
ii. Cash
iii. Interest Rate

78
Each of those bases, the discounted and non-discounted rate might considered. For non-
discounted technique, the value of time and money is not considered and it is not
recommended for evaluating new, large projects. However, it is still and has been used to
evaluate smaller projects such as process improvement schemes.

Non-discounted Profitability Criteria

There are four criterion of non-discounted profitability which are time criterion, cash criterion
and interest rate criterion.

The term used in time criterion is the payback period (PBP), also known as the payout
period, payoff period and cash recovery period. From the book of Engineering Analysis of
Chemical Processes by Richard Turton/Richard C.Bailie/Wallace B.Whiting/Joseph
A.Shaeiwitz, the definition of payback period is defined as follows:

PBP = time required, after start-up, to recover the fixed capital investment,
FCIL, for the project

As for the cash criterion, there are two types of it which is cumulative cash position (CCP)
and cumulative cash ratio (CCR). CCP is the value of the project at the end of its life.

CCR=
∑ of All Cash Flows
∑ of All Negative Cash Flows
Finally for the interest rate criterion, the term used is rate of return on investment (ROROI).

Average Annual Net Profit

ROROI=
¿ Capital Investment (FCI L )

Discounted Profitability Criteria

The difference between non-discounted profitability and the discounted profitability is that for
the latter we discount the yearly cash flows back to time zero. Then, the resulting is used to
evaluate profitability.

For time criterion the discounted payback period (DPBP) is defined in similar manner to the
non-discounted profitability.

DPBP = time required, after start-up, to recover the fixed capital investment,
FCIL, for the project

The project with the shortest discounted payback period is the most wanted.

As for the cash criterion, the discounted cumulative cash position or most commonly known
as net present value (NPV) or net present worth value (NPW) is defined as

Present Value of All Positive Cash Flows

NPV =
Present Value of All Negative Cash Flows

A present value ratio of unity for a project represents a break-even situation. Values that are
greater than unity shows that the projects is profitable, whereas those that are less than
unity represents the unprofitable projects.

79
Non-discounted cash flow

Cost of land, CL = RM 5 million

Fixed capital investment, FCIL = RM 2,897,170.64

Fixed capital investment, FCIL year 1 = RM 1,448,585.32

Fixed capital investment, FCIL year 2 = RM 1,448,585.32

Plant start-up at end of year 2

Working capital = 15% x FCIL

= 0.15 × RM 2,897,170.64

= RM 434,575.60

The sales revenue and costs of manufacturing are given below

Yearly sales revenue (after start-up), R = Selling price x production

= RM 270,000,000

Cost of manufacturing excluding depreciation allowance (after start-up),

COMd = RM 266,391,714.30/yr

Depreciation, D = 10% × FCI

= 0.10 × RM 7,897,170.64

= RM 789,717.06

Taxation rate, t = 45%

Assume a project life of 10 years.

Salvage value of plant, S = FCIL – D

= RM 2,897,170.64 – RM 789,717.06

= RM 2,107,453.58

80
81
 NONDISCOUNTED CASH FLOW

End of (R-COMd- Cumulative

Investment dk FCIL-∑dk R COMd Cash Flow
year (k) dk)×(1-t)+dk Cash Flow
0 -5000000.00 2897170.64 -5000000.00 -5000000.00
1 -1448585.32 2897170.64 -1448585.32 -6448585.32
2 -1883160.92 2897170.64 -1883160.92 -8331746.24
3 579434.13 7317736.51 270000000 266391714.3 2245302.49 2245302.49 -6086443.75
4 1463547.30 6433623.34 270000000 266391714.3 2643153.42 2643153.42 -3443290.33
5 1286724.668 6610445.97 270000000 266391714.3 2563583.24 2563583.24 -879707.09
6 1322089.194 6575081.45 270000000 266391714.3 2579497.27 2579497.27 1699790.18
7 1315016.289 6582154.35 270000000 266391714.3 2576314.47 2576314.47 4276104.65
8 1316430.87 6580739.77 270000000 266391714.3 2576951.03 2576951.03 6853055.67
9 1316147.954 6581022.69 270000000 266391714.3 2576823.71 2576823.71 9429879.39
10 1316204.537 6580966.10 270000000 266391714.3 2576849.18 2576849.18 12006728.56
11 1316193.221 6580977.42 270000000 266391714.3 2576844.08 2576844.08 14583572.65
12 6184575.60 1316195.484 6580975.16 272107453.6 266391714.3 3735944.58 5843398.16 20426970.81

Land + Working Capital 5000000 + 434575.60 5434575.6

Payback period (PBP) (-3443290.33-5434575.6)/(5434575.6+879707.09)=(4-x)/(x-5) x=2.4081
Cumulative Cash Position (CCP) 20426970.81
Cumulative Cash Ratio (CCR) -3.451703427
ROROI 0.779898615 77.99%

82
 Cumulative Cash Flow Diagram for Nondiscounted
30000000.00

20000000.00
Cumulative Cash Flow

10000000.00

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

-10000000.00

Time after project Start (years)

83
 DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW

End of Discounted Cash Flow Cumulative Discounted Discounted Cash Flow Cumulative Discounted
Nondiscounted Cash Flow
year (k) (i=0.1) Cash Flow (i=0.1) (i=0.15) Cash Flow (i=0.15)
0 -5000000.00 -5000000.00 -5000000.00 -5000000.00 -5000000.00
1 -1448585.32 -1316895.75 -6316895.75 -1259639.41 -6259639.41
2 -1883160.92 -1556331.34 -7873227.08 -1423940.20 -7683579.61
3 2245302.49 1686928.99 -6186298.09 1476322.83 -6207256.78
4 2643153.42 1805309.35 -4380988.74 1511231.55 -4696025.23
5 2563583.24 1591783.50 -2789205.24 1274553.95 -3421471.29
6 2579497.27 1456058.96 -1333146.28 1115187.85 -2306283.43
7 2576314.47 1322056.69 -11089.60 968532.04 -1337751.40
8 2576951.03 1202166.67 1191077.08 842409.86 -495341.53
9 2576823.71 1092824.80 2283901.88 732494.12 237152.59
10 2576849.18 993486.91 3277388.79 636957.71 874110.30
11 2576844.08 903168.13 4180556.91 553875.17 1427985.47
12 5843398.16 1861886.73 6042443.65 1092172.90 2520158.36

Discounted land + working capital 5000000+434575.60/1.1^2 = 5359153.39

Discounted Payback period (DPBP) (3.65-2)=1.65 yr
NPV 6042443.65
PVR -1.767467213

84
Interest or Discount Rate NPV
0% 20426970.81
10% 6042443.65
15% 2520158.36

85
UREA FROM
AMMONIA AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

8.0 PINCH ANALYSIS

8.0 PINCH ANALYSIS
STREAM CONDITION Tin (oC) Tout (oC) ṁCp (kW/ oC) Q (kW)
1 Cold 86.92 180 4.042 -376.23
2 Cold 180 185 9.671 -48.355
3 Hot 185 170 2.878 43.170

Step 1 : Temperature interval ,ΔTm = 5 oC

Step 2 : Temperature interval diagram

Stream 3 1 2 ∑ ṁCpΔT

ṁCp 2.878 4.042 9.671

190 oC 185 oC

A -48.355

185 oC 180 oC

B -17.461

170 oC 165 oC

C -315.599

91.92 oC 86.92 oC

-381.415

87
Step 3 : Cascade Diagram
C
H A O
Q = -381.415
O -48.355 L
T
D
B

U -17.461
U
T
T
I
C I
L
-315.599 L
I
I
T
T

Step 4 : Minimum Number of Heat Exchanger

ABOVE PINCH

HU

48.355

-48.355

Minimum number of heat exchanger = 1

88
BELOW PINCH

3 HU

43.170 333.059

-376.229

Minimum number of heat exchanger = 2

Step 5 : Design the Heat Exchanger Network

ABOVE PINCH

ṁCp hot < ṁCp cold

Stream 3 1 2

ṁCp 2.878 4.042 9.671

190 oC 185 oC

185 oC 180 oC

1
o
185 C

Q1= 48.355

180 oC 1

89
BELOW PINCH

Stream 3 1 2

ṁCp 2.878 4.042 9.671

185 oC 180 oC

170 oC 165 oC

91.92 oC 86.92 oC

180 oC

Q3= 333.059

185 oC 2 2 Q2= 43.170

170 oC 86.92 oC

Step 6: Minimum utility and minimum number of exchanger

MUMNE

185 oC
3

180 oC
1 2
185 oC

3 2 1
180 oC 86.92 oC

170 oC

90
UREA FROM
AMMONIA AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

9.0 ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSIDERATION

91
9.0 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION

Emission to
land, air and
water

Environmental
Waste
friendliness of
management
the product

Environmental
Consideratios

Visual
impact Smells

Noise

9.1. EMISSION IN LAND

Under the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI), three ways can be accomplish to emit the product
to the land:

 Discharges of substances to sewer or tailings dam.

 Deposit of substances to landfill.
 Removal of substances from a facility for destruction, treatment, recycling, reprocessing,
recovery, or purification.

Emissions of substances to land on-site include solid wastes, slurries, and sediments.
Emissions arising from spills, leaks, and storage and distribution of materials containing listed
substances may also occur to land. These emission sources can be broadly categorized as:

92
  surface impoundments of liquids and slurries
 Unintentional leaks and spills.
9.2. EMISSION IN AIR

There are two categories of air emission which is either fugitive or point source emissions. The
fugitive type of emission do not released through a vent or stack. Examples of fugitive emissions
include dust from stockpiles, volatilization of vapour from vats, open vessels, or spills and
materials handling. Emissions emanating from ridgeline roof-vents, louvres, and open doors of a
building as well as equipment leaks, leaks from valves and flanges is one of fugitive emission.
While for point source emission is emissions that exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted
through a single point source into the atmosphere.

In production of urea, when ammonia is mixed with oxygen, it burns with a pale yellowish-green
flame. Ammonia is decomposed into its constituent element at high pressure and with the
presence of catalyst. The process where chlorine is passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and
hydrogen chloride caused the ignition to occur. The highly explosive nitrogen trichloride (NCl 3) is
formed if there is excess chlorine present.

In the absence of a catalyst (such as platinum gauze), the combustion of ammonia is quite
difficult as the temperature of the flame is usually lower than the ignition temperature of the
ammonia-air mixture. The flammable range of ammonia in air is 16–25%.

9.3. EMISSION IN WATER

Ammonia is miscible with water. In a basic aqueous solution of ammonia, it can be expelled by

boiling. The maximum concentration of ammonia in saturated water solution has a density of
0.880 g/cm3 and is often known as '.880 ammonia'. Ammonia does not burn readily or sustain
combustion except under narrow fuel-to-air mixtures of 15–25% air.
Emissions of substances to water can be categorized as discharges to:
 Surface waters such as lakes, rivers, dams, and estuaries
 Coastal or marine waters
 Stormwater.
9.4. WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management is the process of collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing

and monitoring of waste materials. It is usually relates to materials produced by human activity,
and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, environment or
aesthetics. Waste management is a distinct practice from resource recovery which focuses on
delaying the rate of consumption of natural resources. The waste materials whether solid, liquid,
gaseous or radioactive are fall within the remit of waste management.

The practices of waste management can be differed for develop and developing nations, for
urban and rural areas and for residential and industrial producers. Management of non-
hazardous waste residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the
responsibility of local government authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial

93
and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator subject to local, national or
international authorities.
9.5. SMELL

Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell.

9.6. NOISE

Noise pollution is the disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of
human or animal life. There are two types in describing noise which is indoor and outdoor noise.
The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines and transportation
systems, motor vehicles, aircraft, and trains. While for Indoor noise is caused by machines,
building activities, music performances, and especially in some workplaces.
In our designed plant, the noise pollution involve comes from pump, heater, cooler, liquid-liquid
extraction, absorber, separator, conversion reactor and distillation column. Increases in plant
size and the advent of a single stream plant have inevitably led to equipment size being
increased and this, together with the use of higher fluid velocities aimed at minimizing capital
cost, has produced noise problems of a scale not seen on older plant designed to more
conservative criteria. Therefore, much more attention has had to pay to noise control in recent
years both in remedying plant problems and avoiding them by good design.

The impacts of noise are permanent hearing loss, a rise in blood pressure, and increases in
stress and also can cause death to human and also to animal.

9.7. VISUAL IMPACT

There are three step that play the main role in this aspect that’s are

 Reduction
 Remediation
Compensation

It is to demonstrate how significant environmental effects have been avoided, reduced or

remediated. That means landscape must be an integral part of the project design process, with
the plant extent, form and design emerging from locality of that plant development area.

9.7.1. Matching the local landscape

Restoration design should also be considered at the earliest stage. There are an enormous
variety of options which can be considered as part of a restoration scheme, which will be agreed
between the operator, the mineral product association (MPA) and the local communities and
interest groups. It will need to fit in with other development plans as part of the overall Spatial
Plan. For example there may be a need for residential housing or an industrial estate.
Restoration to include some aspect of public amenity is possible, and most schemes now
contain elements of habitat conservation or creation, to enable Local Authorities to fulfill some of

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the objectives in their Biodiversity Action Plans. In rural setting the most successful restoration
schemes are those that look to be part of the local landscape

9.7.2. Mitigation Strategies

Landscape measures that may be used under a number of different strategies are outlined
below

9.7.3. Screening

The area that being develop, is a new area, it will be estimate that the residence area will
increase, especially in the radius of plant area. This is because of the job opportunities offered.
Beside that their might other plant will be develop.

9.8. THE ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLINESS OF THE PRODUCT

Refer to the air pollution Index (API) scale between 0-50 is good. 51-100 is moderate. 101-200
in scale is unhealthy meaning that human being should be prevented from going outside if not
an emergency case. Scale 201-300 is very unhealthy. This situation should be prevented by
staying at home and drinks a lot of water. Scale 301 and above hazardous. If this situation
happens, emergency degree should be applied throughout the country because this could fatal
to human being.

The production of urea will not affect the air quality, due to less waste product dispose to the air.
There are some waste water dispose but the quantity is small, and the effect on environmental
can be neglect. The effect on environmental friendly is reduced because of the recycle system
is practiced. If there are equipment leak during the reaction, NH 3 and CO2 is not harmful to
environment.

Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as

a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building-block
for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Ammonia also used in many commercial cleaning
products. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. The various control
technologies available to control ammonia emissions include both add-on control devices and
pollution prevention techniques. There are pollution prevention techniques that are
recommended:
 Use natural gas as feedstock for the ammonia plant to minimize air emission if possible.
 To reducing the need for natural gas, use hot process gas from the secondary reformer
to heat to heat the primary reformer tubes.
 Direct hydrogen cyanide (HCN) gas in a fuel oil gasification plant to a combustion unit to
prevent its release.
 Use carbon dioxide removal processes that do not release toxics to the environment.

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AMMONIA AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

10.0 PLANT LAYOUT

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10.0 PLANT LAYOUT
10.1. Plant facilities layout

A facility is regarded as a building or a precinct. A layout of a building is the map that shows the
location of the building around the urea plant such as car park, cafe, mosque and more others.
The most important place workers need to know is fire assembles point .A model facilities layout
should be able to provide an ideal relationship between raw materials, equipment, manpower
and final product at minimal cost under safe and comfortable environment. An efficient and
effective facilities layout can cover the following objectives:

I. To provide optimum space to organize equipment and facilitate movements of goods

II. To operate safe and comfortable work environment
III. To promote safety plant as well as its worker

Figure (1): Plant Facility Layout of Urea Plant

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 Guidelines:

Power Station
Car Park Storage tank for Raw
Materials and Product
Cafe

Main Entrance
Guard House Cooling Tower

Control Room

Fire Assemble Point Mosque

Treatment Plant
Fire station Roads

Main Office
Urea Plant

In the figure (1) shows the location of building around the urea plant, there is power
station which will be supply power to the whole plant so that there will be enough power to
generate the plant. If not enough power is being supply, the plant company will be loss in many
aspect. There are also facilities for workers such as car park, café and also mosque for prayer.
The most important place in this plant is control room since the function of control room is a
room serving as a central space where a large physical facility or physically dispersed service
can be monitored and controlled. Main office is for the management of the plant. Besides that,
there is also treatment plant which functions as to treat the waste from the production of urea.
Moreover, there are also storage tank for raw materials and product and cooling tower to
transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. Most important things for safety of the workers
fire station and also fire assemble point should have. The fire assemble point is the place for the
workers to assemble when there is emergency case such as if there is fire in the plant.

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CARBON DIOXIDE

11.0 SUMMARY AND

CONCLUSION

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11.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
11.1. SUMMARY

The process of production of urea from ammonia and carbon dioxide plant is to be
designed for the production of 300,000 kg/day of urea at elevated temperature and pressure,
using a total-recycle process in which the mixture leaving the reactor is stripped by the carbon
dioxide feed. The feed pure liquid ammonia is at 20oC and 9 bar and pure gaseous carbon
dioxide also 20 oC and atmospheric pressure. This reaction takes place in two stages,in the first,
ammonium carbamate is formed in exothermic and the second the carbamate is dehydrated in
endothermic .Both reaction are reversible and goes to 40 to 70% completion. The waste
produce are water, ammonia and carbon dioxide but ammonia and carbon dioxide are directly
stored into the storage tank to be used as raw material. Only water flows out. The removal of
water is formed to produce granule of urea. The overall equipment used are reactor, separator,
condenser, compressor, dryer, stripper, prilling tower, compressor and storage tank. These flow
processes will produce 0.985 of purity.

11.2. CONCLUSION

For the production of urea at 300 000 kg/day, the raw material need is at least 178347.984
kg/day of ammonia and 230803.272 kg/day of carbon dioxide. This considered the worst
operating condition with only 40% conversion where in real production, the conversion varies up
to 70% where in result higher production can be obtain with given raw material. Because of this,
the ammonia and carbon dioxide removed is stored and will be reuse in batch process. The
fertilizer granules contain 98.5% urea, 0.5% water and 1.0% biuret.

The economic analysis including Capital & manufacturing cost, break even point, cash flow
and profitability analysis has been calculated. Project evaluation criteria are divided into two
types; Nondiscounted Profitability Criteria and Discounted Profitability Criteria together with
plotting of graph for both criteria of Cumulative Cash Flow versus Time after Project Start. For
Nondiscounted Cash Flow, Cumulative Cash Position (CCP) and Cumulative Cash Ratio (CCR)
are 20426970.81 and -3.451703427 respectively with the percent of ROROI of 77.99%. While
for Discounted Cash Flow, the Payback Period (PBP) is 1.65 years. Net Present Value (NPV)
and Present Value Ratio (PVR) are 6042443.65 and -1.767467213 respectively.

The site selection for plant of production of 3 area in Gurun, Bintulu and Prai have been
compared. There are Gurun Industrial Park, Kidurong Light Industrial Estate and Prai Industrial
Complex. The Gurun Industrial Park in Kedah has been selected for plant production of urea
been through with process of selection. Environmental consideration in manufacturing urea is
being considered as stated above. The consideration criteria include emission to land, air and
water, waste management, smells, noise, visual impact and the environmental friendliness of
the product. The strategic Plant layout of this urea production is being organized according
regulation and safety in order to make plant run smoothly without accident and injured occurred.

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12.0 REFERENCES

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12.0 REFERENCES

 Fertilizer Manual, United National Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO),

Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0-7923-5032-4
 H. Scott Fogler, Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering, Fourth Edition.
 Elementary Principle Of Chemical Process, Richard M. Felder, Wiley Publisher,
Third Edition, 2005
 R.G. Compton, C.H. Bamford, C.F.H. Tippert. Kinetics and Chemical
Technology. Volume 23. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
 Chemical and Biochemical Reactor and Process Control, John Metcalfe Coulson,
John Francis Richardson, !994, Page 102
 Ammonia Plant Safety ( And Related Facilities) – Volume 39 – Page 42

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