Mullinz Notes,

Ch. 13-22

(and yes, I know his

name is spelled with an
“s”)

Supreme Lord Matthew O’Hagan

 Chapter 13

 During the Renaissance, southern Europe flourished

o “Renaissance” means “rebirth” – classical culture was revived
 “Bridge” to the modern age
 “Major Arts” – “painting, sculpture, and architecture”
 “Middle Ages” – “the millennium between the ancient world and the Renaissance”
 Economic growth
o “[a]mbitious merchants gained political power”
 Commercial revival (11th century) – northern Italian cities (good geographical locations)
o Venice, Genoa and Milan
 Improvements in shipbuilding (14th century) – ships can “sail all year long”
o More cargo and increased speeds
 Florence
o Where the Renaissance first manifested
o Became wealthy through banking for the papacy
o Economy so strong that even the Black Death couldn’t destroy it (14th century)
 Commune – “sworn associations of free men seeking complete political and economical
independence from local nobles”
o “[b]uilt and mantained city walls, regulated trade, raised taxes, and kept civil
order”
o “Milan, Florence, Genoa, Siena, and Pisa”
 Nobles marry into “rich commercial families”
o Created oligarchies
 Rebellions by “popolo” (commoners) during 13th century
o Established republican governments in “Bologna, Siena, Parma, Florence, Genoa,
and other cities”
o Oligarchies brought in condottieri (military leaders with mercenary armies) to
reassert their power; condottieri took over and created signori
 Signori – cities in which power is handed down from father to son
 Oligarchies created republican façades
 Courts (15th century) – household of a signori or oligarch turned into a palace
 Five powers dominated Italy during 15th century – “Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papal
States, and the kingdom of Naples”
 Papal States become controlled by “important Roman families”
o Pope Alexander VI “reasserted papal authority”
o Cesare Borgia (son) helped to unify the Italian peninsula
 Large city-states controlled small ones
o Italy left behind by norther Europe, which moved “toward centralization and
consolidation”
o Whenever one city-state became too powerful, the others banded together to
oppose it (called a “balance of power”)
 “At end of 15th century Venice, Florence, Milan, and the papacy” were powerful
 o Florence and Naples became allies to “acquire Milanese territories”; “Milan
called on France for support”
 Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) – Dominican friar
o Predicted French invasion
o Gave “fiery sermons between 1491 and 1494”; attacked government (Lorenzo de’
Medici) and Pope Alexander VI
o “[c]ontributed to fall of Medici dynasty”
o Excommunicated and executed
 Charles VIII invaded Italy in 1494
o Italian cities suffered
o Rome was sacked by Charles V (1527)
o Italy was not unified until 1870
 Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) – poet/humanist
o “Dark Ages” – after Germanic invasions of Rome
o Resurrected “classical Latin texts”
o “Humanism” – comes from Latin “humanitas” (used by Cicero to mean “the
literary culture needed by anyone who would be considered educated and
civilized”)
 Medieval scholars read classics from Christian points of view
 Individualism – personality, uniqueness, etc. are important
 14th/15th century humanists considered classical Latin to be superior to medieval Latin
 Ultimately, form outstripped content
 Humanist education
o Taught that one should be active in the world
o Opened schools where pupils studied Latin, Roman history, philosophy, and
rhetoric
o Such schools ultimately became preferred education for a lot of upper-/middle-
class males
o State schools
o Ideas about women
 No rhetoric; instead, religion and morals
 Renaissance women more like their medieval counterparts than men were
for theirs
o Leon Battista Alberti
 Wife’s role is in the house
o Vergerio
 Earliest systematic program for the young
o “The Courtier” (1528)
 Baldassare Castiglione
 How young men become gentlemen
 Dance, music, the arts, riding, math, rhetoric, etc.
 Also some parts about court ladies (largely the same)
 Influenced Renaissance social patterns
 Political thought
o “The Prince” (1513)
 Niccolò Machiavelli
 “The ends justify the means”
 About political power: how rulers gain, maintain, and increase it
 Concludes that humans are selfish and therefore the ruler must use any
means to manipulate the people
 Better to be feared than loved
 As opposed to medieval political theory (more how government should be
than what it actually is), he said that governments should be effective
above all else; morals are less important
 Ultimately, social order reflecting God’s will cannot be established; also,
politics depend on effectiveness, not morality
o Secularism – concern with the material world as opposed to the spiritual one
 Lorenzo Valla – proved that the “Donation of Constantine” was a forgery,
weakening the papacy’s temporal claims
 Papacy was also somewhat concerned with the material world
 Did not question fundamentals of Christianity, however
 Studying texts
 Boccaccio – justified the accumulation of wealth in “The Decameron”
o Christian humanists – northern humanists
 Optimistic
 Interpreted Italian ideas based on Christian ideals
 Fused classical values (calmness, patience, etc.) with Christian ones (love,
faith, hope)
 Stressed use of reason as opposed to dogma
 Believed that humankind could be improved through education
 Thomas More (1478-1535)
 “Nurture over nature”
 Wrote “Utopia” – indicated absolute social equality; suggested that
greed is the root of societal problems
 As opposed to the prevailing view that humans were
fundamentally corrupt, he believed that society/property were
responsible
 Socialist
 Desiderius Erasmus (1466?-1536)
 Believed that the core of education should be the Bible and the
classics
 “[T]he philosophy of Christ” – aligned humanism with Christianity
o The printed word
 While Petrarch’s work had to be copied by hand, those of Erasmus spread
through print, which was much faster
 Developed in Germany in the middle of the 15th century
 Used moveable type and paper brought by the Arabs from China
 By 1480 about 110 cities in Europe possessed printing presses
 Venice had the most (they produced 1/8 of all the texts in Europe)
 Mostly in Holy Roman Empire
  8-20 million books were printed in Europe before 1500
 Impact
 Easier for people to discuss things (everyone owns the same copy
of the same thing)
 Forming of common causes that span countries (people in diverse
places can learn about said causes, not just locals)
 Stimulated the literacy of laypeople
 Read aloud to illiterates – bridged gap between written and oral
cultures
 Art and the artist
o 1400s – quattrocento
o 1500s – cinquecento
o Florence led the way in all the arts, but Rome and Venice were also important, as
well as northern Europe
o Art and power
 Corporate patronage
 Merchants commissioned artists to create art; these works
represented the merchants’ dominant influence in the community
 Art was mainly religious
 In the later 15th century, individuals and oligarchs sponsored art more than
corporate groups did
 Patron – one who supports an artist (so as to glorify oneself and one’s
family)
 A magnificent lifestyle with lots of art showed how powerful one was
 Revealed changing lifestyles; not geared towards war, so can afford art
 Creation of urban palaces as symbols of power and luxury, complete with
private chapels
o Subjects and style
 Renaissance portraits showed human ideals
 Realism (no artificiality/stiffness) and perspective
 People wanted themselves to be immortalized; they included themselves
in their own art
 Masaccio (1401-1428; from Florence) – “the father of modern painting”
 Great realism, narrative power, effective use of light and dark
 Giotto – realism
 Donatello – appreciation of human nature; classical culture
 Michelangelo
 Raphael – “School of Athens” – “learning is good”
 Titian – portrait – individual
 Van Eyck – oil painter; heavy Christian themes (symbolism)
 Van der Weyden
 Düren – synthesizes North and South
 Architects looked to classical sources
 Art in northern Europe (14th/15th centuries) was more religious than that in
Italy
 Architecture not so much influenced by classical sources
  Early 16th century: Rome became the new focus of Italian art
 16th century: Venice became another artistic center
 Mannerism – art style in which figures/musculature/colors are
distorted/exaggerated to increase emotion/drama
o Patronage and creativity
 Leonardo da Vinci – the first “Renaissance man”
 Renaissance society respected the skilled/well-known artist
 Concept of the artist as “genius”; i.e., he creates original work (in the
Middle Ages, it was believed that only God could create)
 However, even great artists usually worked within their patrons’
guidelines
 Artistic “academies” were created, where students copied the works of the
masters to learn their styles
 Women
 Normally only practiced textile-making, needlework, painting on
porcelain, etc. – considered “minor arts”
 Sometimes became famous painters; usually daughters of painters
or of minor noblemen who possessed ties to artistic circles, or were
eldest daughters or had no brothers
 Most painters were at least partially wealthy
 The Renaissance created/expanded the gulf between the learned elite and
illiterate lower classes
 Social hierarchies
o Race – divides people into large groups (18th century)
 Gens/natio – refers to ethnic/religious groups
 “Caucasian” – people supposed to be first humans, from the Caucasus
region (Johann Friedrich Blumenbach)
 Slavery
 Started during Roman times
 By 1530 4-5000 to Portuguese per year
 African slaves in demand (“exotic”; imply wealth)
 Unlike America, no large-scale plantation slavery
 Europeans had almost no concrete knowledge of Africans (mainly
from the Bible)
 Contemporary theology: because of their dark skin, Africans were
believed to be linked to the Devil (thus said entity was represented
that way)
 Color also symbolized asceticism and grief (in a good way), but
outweighed by negative aspects
o Class
 Renaissance social differentiation based primarily on wealth
 Medieval theory: divided into clergy, nobility, everyone else (called
“orders” or “estates)
 Later money became important, too (“social class”) – allowed male
commoners to buy noble titles, and female commoners to marry into noble
families
  Honor played a part, too – certain weapons/battle tactics were
dishonorable, while executioners, etc. were also so (and thus possessed
low status)
 In many cities, merchants/bankers were wealthier than almost all nobility;
often dominated city councils; created sumptuary laws (“urban dress
codes”; differentiated between social groups
 Jews often forced to wear yellow; prostitutes wore red/yellow stripes or
had uncovered hair
o Gender
 “Sex” – anatomical differences
 “Gender” – function in society – culturally constructed differences
 “Debate about women” (“querelle des femmes”) – about women’s
character/nature
 Boccaccio – women are like men
 Pizan – also explored why women have secondary status
 Castiglione – argued both for and against women
 Should women be allowed to rule?
 Machiavelli described bad rulers as “effeminate”
 Medieval kings wanted to be seen as masculine/warrior-ish
 “True man” – married head of household
 Women were not viewed as supporting a household
 Women paid less (only earned ½-2/3 what men did)
 “Proper” relationships had the man in power; having the woman in power
was considered unnatural
 Gender was regarded as the most “natural” way of organizing Renaissance
society, and was therefore the most important to defend
 Politics and the state in the Renaissance
o Key in development of states was strong monarchy
o Beginning in 15th century, rulers started to rebuild their governments
 Reduced violence, curbed unruly nobles, established domestic order
 Emphasized royal majesty/sovereignty; insisted on respect/loyalty from
subjects
o France
 Charles VII (ruled 1422-1461)
 Permanent taxes
 Ruler whom Joan of Arc had seen crowned
 Questionable paternity
 By 1453, French armies had expelled the English everywhere
except Calais
 Reorganized royal council; gave increased influence to middle-
class men
 Gabelle – tax on salt
 Taille – tax on land
 Both remained the Crown’s main sources of income until the
Revolution of 1789
  Created the first permanent royal army
 “Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges” – asserted the superiority of a
general council over the papacy, allowed the Crown to appoint
bishops, deprived the pope of French ecclesiastical revenues
o National church
o Reward nobles with church positions – loyalty
 Also established Gallican (French) liberties; asserted that the
French Crown had rights over the French church
 Expand middle class = expand tax base
 Louis XI (the “Spider King”; treacherous; ruled 1461-1483)
 Promoted new industries
 Welcomed foreign craftsmen
 Made commercial treaties with England, Portugal, and the
Hanseatic league
 Improved army through taxes and above economic activities
 Gained Burgundy when Charles the Bold died
 Gained Anjou, Bar, Maine, and Provence when the house of Anjou
became extinct
 Louis XII (ruled 1498-1515)
 Married Anne of Brittany; added Brittany to France
 Francis I
 “Concordat of Bolgna” (1516; with Leo X) – pope is once again
superior (and recieves 1st year earnings of bishops/abbots), but
French Crown can still select French bishops and abbots; now
controlled the policies of church officials in the kingdom
 Primogeniture – eldest son inherits everything
o England
 Permanent armies – originally bandits, but hired to protect middle-class
trade
 Under Henry IV (ruled 1399-1413), aristocrats dominated government
 Wars of the Roses (1455-1471)
 Between York (white rose) and Lancaster (red rose)
 Hurt trade, agriculture, and domestic industry
 Henry VI (ruled 1422-1461) – absolute bottom of English rule (pious but
mentally disturbed)
 Edward IV (ruled 1461-1483)
 Yorkist
 Began establishing domestic tranquility
 Like brother Richard III (ruled 1483-1485) and Henry VII (ruled
1485-1509), used Machiavellian methods to gain power –
ruthlessness, efficiency, and secrecy
 In order to separate itself from Parliament (nobles; provided money), the
Crown avoided expensive wars (with the exception of Henry VIII)
 Henry VII – Tudor – curb disorder/anarchy
 Middle class – builds up merchant marine
  Royal council – governed at the national level (king’s closest
advisers)
o Very few great lords
 Disbanded armies
 No castle-building unless the King says so
o Regular representatives numbered 12-15
o Represented executive, legislative and judicial branches
 Court of Star Chamber (offshoot of royal council)
o Employed principles of Roman law
o Accused were not allowed to see evidence against them,
sessions were secret, and juries were not called
o Against English law-making precedent, but kept aristocrats
in check
 Justices of the peace
o Influential landowners
o Apprehended/punished criminals, enforced parliamentary
statutes, fixed wages/prices, maintained standards of
weights/measures, and even checked moral behavior
 Brought order, increased treasury, enhanced the power of the
Crown
o Spain
 Cardinal Jiminez
 Clerical education
 Universities
 Inquisition
 Torquemada
 Muslim invasion
 Not as unified as England or France
 Middle of 15th century: Castile and Aragon dominated Navarre, Portugal,
and Granada (still not under Christian control)
 Until about 1700, Spain was still just a loose group of separate kingdoms
 Each had own cortes (parliament), laws, courts, tax systems, and
coinage
 Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile (ruled 1474-1516)
 Machiavellian
 Unity hinges upon church
 Hermandades (“brotherhoods”)
o Vigilante police
o So savage that, by 1498, they could be disbanded
 Restructured royal council; excluded aristocrats and territorial
magnates
 Diplomatic alliance with Spanish pope Alexander VI
o Crown has power to appoint bishops in Spain and territorial
holdings in America
o “Catholic Kings of Spain”
 o Created national church
 Concluded the reconquista
 Jews
 Part of government – high office
 Wealthy (moneylenders)
 Good physicians
 Disliked by general populace; scapegoat for Black Death
 1331, 1355 – acts against Jews
 June 4, 1391 – Jews attacked in Seville; triggered a wave of anti-
Jewish attacks throughout the country
o About 40% of Jews in Spain either killed or forced to
convert to Christianity (called “New Christians”, or
conversos)
o Ultimately expelled – heavy economic damage
 Inquisition
 Authorized by pope Sixtus IV
 Initially intended to root out Jews who hadn’t really converted
 New anti-Semitic theory: Judaism was inheritable – created notion
of “Jewish race”
 “Purity of blood” laws – only those with pure Christian “blood”
could become nobles
 Eventually went after Muslims and Protestants, too
 Joanna (second daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) married the archduke
Philip, who was the heir to the Burgundian Netherlands and the Holy
Roman Empire
 Son (Charles V; ruled 1519-1556) controlled vast amounts of land
 Charles V’s son, Philip II, joined Portugal to Spain in 1580, thus uniting
the entirety of the Iberian peninsula (however, the individual kingdoms
were still administered separately)

Chapter 14 Notes

Reform of Christian church

 Scriptures; “pure” Christianity
 The Early Reformation
o The Christian church in the early 16th century
 Early 16th century – deeply pious; loyal to Roman Catholic church
 Humanists denounced corruption
 “The Praise of Folly” (Erasmus) – condemned superstitions of clergy and
excessive monastic rituals
 Anti-clericalism – opposition to clergy
 Clergy neglects vows
 Low ordination standards
 Pluralism – held multiple benefices (offices) at once, but seldom visited
them (or performed their duties)
  Clergy held special privileges; governments sought to reduce these
o Indulgences – physical money to make up the “spiritual money” taken from the
“treasury of merits” (which was, itself, infinite)
o Penance – assigned religious act like praying or fasting to remove sin
o Purgatory – place where one was cleansed of sins (originally neutral, but
eventually became like Hell)
o Transubstantiation – the belief that the Eucharist physically becomes the Body of
Christ
 Luther agreed
 Zwingli disagreed
o Martin Luther
 German university professor and Augustinian friar
 Received good education (master’s degree, doctorate of theology); cited
said education as justification for his reforms
 Anxious about sin – begins to doubt monastic life (doubts church claims
that monastic life is sure/certain road to salvation)
 John Staupwitz (his confessor) told him to study Saint Paul’s letters in the
New Testament; invented own understanding of Christian doctrine
 “Sola fide, sola gratia, sola Scriptura” (faith alone, grace alone, Scripture
alone) – good works don’t count
 Archbishop Albert of Mainz
 Borrowed money from the Fuggers to allow pluralism
 Granted St. Peter’s indulgence by pope Leo X – allowed to keep a
portion of the revenue collected to pay Fuggers
 Advertising done by Johann Tetzel – “as soon as coin in coffer
rings, the soul from purgatory springs”; even drew up chart with
prices for forgiveness of sins
 “Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences” – to Archbishop Albert
about how indulgences are bad
 Subtract from Scripture and Christian charity
 Called to Rome; denied authority of pope/general council (Council of
Constance)
 Condemned by the church; he simply burned the letter
 Appeared before the Diet of Worms; gave speech
 “Larger Catechism” – brief sermons on main articles of faith
 “Shorter Catechism” – short Q&A about doctrine
 Important
 Ten Commandments
 Apostles’ Creed
 Sacraments of Christianity
o Protestant thought
 Protestant (named after protesting German princes) – originally meant
“Lutheran”, but eventually came to mean “non-Catholic”
 Ulrich Zwingli – only preached from New Testament, and only in order of
books (rejected Masses)
 Protestant beliefs
  Salvation came only through faith in God
 Doctrine must have Scriptural basis
 Church is spiritual “priesthood of believers” (not fixed to any
particular place/person)
 All forms of life are equally holy
o The appeal of Protestant ideas
 Simpler
 Based on faith
 What the humanists wanted
 Made the middle classes feel smart
 Priests and monks became clergy in new Protestant churches (whatever
happened to “priesthood of believers”?)
 Nuns got to reject celibacy
 Katharina von Bora married Luther
 Made cities wealthier (could now tax the clergy)
 Printing press
 Luther had good linguistic skills – translated New Testament into German
(1523)
 “Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation” (1520) –
German rulers should reform the papacy and the church
 “On Secular Government” – all Christians should obey their secular rulers
(who, he believed, were divinely ordained to maintain order)
 Denmark-Norway – officially accepted the Reformation under King
Christian III (ruled 1536-1559)
 Sweden – Protestant ideas spread under Gustavus Vasa (ruled 1523-1560),
although the Swedish church did officially adopt Lutheran theology until
later in the century
 The Radical Reformation
o Both Protestants and Catholics: separation of church and state? No way!
o “Anabaptists” (rebaptizers)
 Most persecuted
 Believed in a literal translation of the Bible
 Only baptized when one was old enough to accept it (no infant
baptization); joining was voluntary act
o Literal interpretation of Gospels
o Different views of Christ
o Pacifists; held no offices (wouldn’t swear oaths)
o Separation of church and state – secularization of society
o Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists, authors of U.S. Constitution – partly trace
origins to radicals
 The German Peasants’ War
o Rising expectations
o Lords seize village commons; bad economic conditions
o 1525
o Triggered by crop failures in 1523/1524
 o Twelve Articles – express grievences
 Condemn lay/ecclesiastical lords
 Claimed that nobles unjustly seized power
 Cited Scripture and Luther
o Luther sided with them
 “An Admonition to Peace” (1525)
 Didn’t want rebellion (not justified by Scripture)
 “Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants” – condemned
rebels; extremely hypocritical
o Rebellions erupted near Swiss frontier
 Swept through Swabia, Thuringia, the Rhineland, and Saxony
o Rebels crushed by nobility
 Death toll: minimum of 75,000
 Strengthened authority of lay rulers
 Reformation lost much of popular appeal after 1525
 Peasants’ economic conditions improved slightly
 The Reformation and Marriage
o Reformists stressed marriage over celibacy
o Wives were supposed to be models of obedience Christian charity
o Men/women were spiritually equal, but not socially
o Marriage intended to be cure for lust
o Women could not hold places of authority in the church
o Catholics viewed marriage as sacramental; could not be dissolved
o Protestants supported divorce and remarriage
o Condemned prostitution, but it was still there
 The Reformation and German Politics
o Holy Roman Empire politically divided/decentralized
o “Golden Bull” – Holy Roman Emperor elected by the archbishops of Mainz,
Trier, and Cologne, the margrave of Brandenburg, the duke of Saxony, the court
palatine of the Rhine, and the king of Bohemia
 The Rise of the Habsburg Dynasty
o Marriage key diplomatic tool
o Frederick III
 Habsburg; ruled Austria
 Married Princess Eleonore of Portugal (1452)
 Maximilian (son) married Mary of Burgundy (1477)
 Charles V (grandson) inherited Spain, the New World, and parts of
Italy, Sicily and Sardinia under Spanish control
 Schmalkaldic League: league of Lutheran princes
 Holy Roman Empire had no common treasury, army, or administration
 The Political Impact of the Protestant Reformation
o Luther created a sense of patriotism by saying “we Germans”
o Some German rulers sincerely attracted to Lutheran ideas, but most had ulterior
motives
 Could confiscate wealthy property
  Taxes
 Power in general
o Switzerland
 Civil war between thirteen “cantons” (late 1520s)
 Zwingli killed on battlefield in 1531
 Treaty made; each canton can determine its own religion
o Augsburg Confession – Lutheran statement of faith
o Imperial Diet (1530)
 Charles V ordered Protestant states to become Catholic again
 Backfired; Protestant states split away
 Charles V could respond militarily; fighting series of wars with France
(Habsburg-Valois Wars)
o Habsburg-Valois Wars
 Pope withdrew troops
 France lent troops and money to the Lutherans
o Peace of Augsburg (1555) – officially recognized Lutheranism as a religion;
legalized it
 States decided own religious orientation
 Still no religious freedom, however; dissidents had to either convert or
leave
 Ended Charles V’s hopes of creating a united empire with a single church
o Charles V abdicated (1556)
 Moved to monastery
 Transferred power over Spanish and Netherlandish holdings to Philip
(son)
 Transferred imperial power to Ferdinand (brother)
The Spread of the Protestant Reformation
 John Calvin
 The Reformation in England and Ireland
o English church in “healthy” state
o King Henry VIII (ruled 1509-1547)
 Broke with Rome over divorce
 Married to Catherine of Aragon
 Sought to annul marriage (through papal dispensation – meant that the
previous pope had made a mistake); Pope Clement VII controlled by
Charles V (nephew of Catherine of Aragon)
 Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533)
 King is highest power in England
 Crown is greatest law in the land – even over the church
 Supremacy Act (1534) – King head of church of England; cut off money
going to Rome
 John Fisher, Thomas More, other dissenters beheaded
 Anne Boleyn – charged with adulterous incest; beheaded (1536)
 Jane Seymour – gave him son (Edward); died in childbirth
 3 more wives
 Died in 1547
  Declared son, then daughters, to be successors
 Dissolved monasteries (1535-1539)
 Thomas Cromwell – further centralization
 Retained Catholic practices, but ostensibly Protestant
 Pilgrimage of Grace – massive multi-class rebellion
 Catholic
 Leaders made a truce but were promptly executed
 Religious conversion was not instantaneous
 Ireland
o Still Catholic
 England only has control of area around Dublin (the “Pale”)
 Underground Catholic clergy acted as national as well as religious leaders
 Archbishop Thomas Cranmer
 Simplified liturgy
 “Book of Common Prayer” (1549)
 Edward VI (ruled 1547-1553) – Protestant
 Mary Tudor (ruled 1553-1558) – Catholic
o “Bloody Mary”
o Married Philip of Spain (cousin)
o Executed several hundred Protestants
o Unpopular
 Puritans
o Wanted to “purify” the church
o No Catholic elements at all
 Elizabeth (ruled 1558-1603)
o Chose the middle road between Catholic and Puritan extremes – no public
disorder
o “Supreme governor of the Church of England”
 Still acknowledges papal supremacy
 “Head” would be considered inappropriate for a woman
o Elizabethan Settlement – outward conformity to the church of England;
uniformity in all ceremonies
o Apart from English masses, fairly traditional
 Calvinism
o John Calvin – what a weirdo!
 Cause of Dutch revolt, French civil war(s), and 30 Years’ War
 Social/economic implications – hard work honors God
 Calvinism/capitalism mutually reinforcing
 Studied law
 Religious crisis in 1533; converted to Protestantism
 Convinced that God selects certain people to do His work – “the calling”
 Assisted in reformation of city of Geneva (1541) – “a city that was a
church”
 “The Institutes of the Christian Religion” – God is omnipotent, humans
are puny; no free will
  Predestination – God has already decided who is save (“the elect”) and
who is damned
 Complete mastery of the Scriptures; exceptional eloquence
 “Genevan Catechism” – set questions and answers; summary of faith and
a guide for daily living
o Genevan Consistory – Calvin’s NSA
 Twelve laymen plus Company of Pastors (Calvin permanent
moderator/presider thereof)
 Watch everyone to make sure they don’t sin
 Made no distinction between crime and simple un-Christian conduct
 Serious crimes and heresy handled by civil authorities
o Michael Servetus
 Unitarian
 Spanish humanist
 Denied Trinity
 Burned at the stake
o Strongest force in Protestantism
 The Establishment of the Church of Scotland
o John Knox (1505?-1572)
 Appealed to Scottish parliament - nobility
 Calvinist
 Abolished Mass
o Presbyterian Church of Scotland – governed by “presbyters” (ministers) as
opposed to bishops
o “Book of Common Order” (1564) – written by Knox; liturgical directory for the
church
 The Reformation in Eastern Europe
o Hussites (Jan Hus)
o Lutheran
o Some areas reconverted during the Catholic Reformation
o Poland-Lithuania
 Big but rural and underpopulated
 “Szlatcha” – Polish nobility; powerful
 Stanislaus Hosius (1505-1579)
 Counter-Reformation
 Clear statement of Roman Catholic faith and morals
 Mohács
 Defeat of Hungarian army by Suleiman the Magnificent
 Great advance in Protestantism
The Catholic Reformation (called such until the Council of Trent; afterwards, it was called the
“Counter-Reformation”)
 The Reformed Papacy
o Pope Paul III (1534-1549)
 Made Rome the center of reform
 Ended pluralism and absenteeism
  Strict control of abuses
 Holy Office – six cardinals with judicial authority over all Catholics
 Power to arrest, imprison, and execute
 Jurisdiction over the Roman Inquisition – used Roman principles
of law
 Vigorously attacked heresy under Cardinal Caraffa
 “Index of Prohibited Books” – catalogue of forbidden reading
 The Council of Trent
o Met intermittently from 1545 to 1563 at Trent
o Supposed to reconcile with Protestants
 Impossible to do so with Lutherans and Calvinists; they only want to talk
about Scripture
 French didn’t want Protestants and Catholics to reconcile (wanted to keep
Germany divided)
o Reaffirmed Seven Sacraments and transubstantiation
o Mandatory to open seminaries to train clergy
o Tradition and Scriptures and both equally valid
o No more indulgences (at least, not for profit)
o Tridentine (from “Tridentum”, Latin word for Trent) decrees
 “Vocations” – genuine callings
 Tametsi – Catholic marriages are only valid if presided over by witnesses
(including the parish priest)
 New Religious Orders
o Ursuline – Angela Merici (1474-1540)
o Jesuits (“Society of Jesus”) – Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
 Took a 4th vow: obedience to the pope
 “Spiritual Exercises” – reform of life, new spiritual piety (over four
weeks)
 “Help souls”
 Like traveling monks
 Adopted modern humanist curricula and methods
 Believed that the ends justified the means; spied
o Teresa of Ávila
 First woman named “Doctor of the Church”
Religious violence
 French Religious Wars
o Ended in 1559 with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis
o Habsburg-Valois Wars cost more than the French government could afford
o King Francis I (ruled 1515-1547)
 As well as increasing taxes and borrowing heavily, sold public offices and
made a treaty with the papacy – Concordat of Bologna (resisted reform as
it effectively made Catholicism the state religion)
o Huguenots (French Calvinists) – eventually made up 10% of French population
o Lords used Calvinism to cloak their antimonarchical views
 o Iconoclasm – Protestant infidels destroyed sacred images; Catholics defended
them
o “Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre” – Catholics attacked Huguenots at wedding
party that was intended to unify them; triggered 15-year civil war
o “Politiques” – small group of moderates of both faiths; believed that only a strong
monarchy could prevent collapse
 Favored accepting Huguenots; however, equal religious toleration did not
develop until the 18th century
 Death of Catherine de’ Medici and assassination of King Henry III (by the
House of Guise) paved the way for the ascension of Henry of Navarre
(Henry IV; the bridegroom at the wedding on the Saint Bartholomew’s
Day massacre)
o Margaret of Valois – daughter of Henry II and Catherine de’ Medici
o House of Guise
 Über-Catholic
o Henry IV (ruled 1589-1610)
 “Paris is worth a Mass”
 One of France’s most successful rulers
 Knelt before the archbishop of Bourges; received into the Roman Catholic
Church
 Sacrificed religious principles for political necessity; saved France
 Edict of Nantes – allowed Huguenots in 150 fortified towns, such as La
Rochelle, to worship
 1st time in European history that two competing religions are
legalized in the same country
 Helped to restore internal peace to France
Religious Violence
 The Netherlands Under Charles V
o Decentralized
o Practically made for Calvinism (emphasis on middle class)
o Emperor Charles V (ruled 1519-1556)
 Inherited Belgium and Netherlands (17 provinces); lands united only by
economy and ruler
 Ferdinand (brother) – Austria and the Holy Roman Emperor
 Philip (son) – Spain, the Low Countries (treated mainly as a source of
revenue), Milan, the kingdom of Sicily, and the Spanish possessions in the
New World
o Wave of iconoclasm; suppressed by Spanish authorities
 “Calvinist fury”; some militant Calvinists even became pirates
o Duke of Alva “pacified” Low Countries
 “Council of Blood”
 “Blanket repression”
 March 3, 1568: 1500 men executed
o Duke of Parma (Alexander Farnese)
 Replaced the Duke of Alva
  More selective with whom he executed
 Union of Arras (ten southern provinces)
o Seven northern provinces formed Union of Utrecht
o North Protestant, south Catholic
o North led by William Nassau, prince of Orange (“William the Silent”; 1533-1584)
 Roman Catholic (!)
 Assassinated with a handgun by a French assassin loyal to Philip
o English intervention
 Motivated by:
 Wool trade (if trade with the Low Countries was to be cut off, the
middle class would suffer)
 Assassination of William the Silent
 Catholic “sweep” (perceived invasion)
o Philip launched attack against England, but the ships were scattered in English
Channel
 The Great European Witch-Hunt
o Biblical basis
o Events with no explanation were dubbed witchcraft
o Witch defined to be one who made a pact with the Devil (did the Devil’s bidding)
o It was claimed that witches were engaged in a grand conspiracy to overthrow
Christianity with a hierarchy parodying the angelic one, as well as fake Masses
o Witches thus became the ultimate heretics – enemies of God
o Witch trials became less common while Catholics and Protestants were fighting,
before picking up again around 1560
o Somewhere between 100,000 and 200,000 people were officially tried; between
40,000 and 60,000 were executed
o Misogyny – hatred of woman (75%-85% of those tried and executed were
women)
 Women associated with nature, disorder, and the body (unholy)
 Believed to be weaker and so more likely to give in to the Devil
o Inquisitions extremely lenient in treatment of witches
 Spanish executed only a handful, Portugal one, and Rome none
 Believed that “witches” were nothing more than superstitious peasants
o Witches tended to be older, single women
 Cursed a lot
 It took a while to build up evidence against them
o Accusers of witches were often women as well (activities viewed as “witchly”
were within women’s public sphere)
o Accusations rapidly grew to create “witch panics”
o Small states saw rooting out witches as a way of demonstrating their piety and
concern for order to their rulers
o After a witch hunt had reached the mass panic phase, legal authorities began to
realize that small children were unlikely to be in league with Satan and the action
died down a bit
o Eventually, skepticism ended witch hunts in Europe
  Prosecutions for witchcraft were ultimately outlawed
 Last official execution for witchcraft in England in 1682; in the Holy
Roman Empire, 1775

Chapter 15

World Contacts Before Columbus

 The Trading World of the Indian Ocean
o Climates determine periods of trade – monsoons, rains, etc.
o Indian Ocean crossroads for commercial and cultural exchange
o European desire for Indonesian goods
o Malacca – great commercial entrepôt (a place where goods were temporarily
stored before being moved somewhere else)
 Received goods such as Chinese silks, sandalwood, Philippine sugar,
Indian cotton, copper weapons, opium, dyes, and incense
 Reputation as a sophisticated city
o Women enjoyed increased power with respect to their European counterparts
 Ran businesses jointly with men
o Tales of Marco Polo fueled interest in the “Orient”
o “New Silk Road” – really just the overland counterpart to the maritime trade
routes (it wasn’t as profitable, mind)
o Control of a series of straits near Indonesia was vital for control over the Spice
Islands themselves
o Straits of Hormuz – provide passage/trade between the Indian Ocean and the
Persian Gulf
o Chinese population about 100,000,000 people
 Nanjing: about 1,000,000
 Beijing: more than 600,000
o Admiral Zheng He
 Between 1405 and 1433, led seven voyages to achieve goals of Emperor
Yongle
 317 ships (the “treasure fleet”; literally tons of valuable stuff)
 Sailed as far west as Egypt
 Muslim (could more easily interact with Muslim merchants)
o “Chinese diaspora” – a vast number of Chinese immigrated to Southeast Asia
after the deaths of the Emperor and his Admiral
o Europe – competitive state system inhibits exploration (separate countries
can’t/won’t work together)
o China – strong centralized monarchy allows for advanced, well-organized
exploration...but only when the Emperor says so
o Macau – Portuguese trading colony in China
o India economic crossroads as well
 Trading posts at Gujarat, Calicut, and Quilon
 Africa
o Mameluke Egyptian empire (1250-16th century)
  Defeated by Ottomans
 Cairo (capital) was center of Islamic learning and religiousness
o Ethiopia
 New dynasty that claimed descent from King Solomon and the Queen of
Sheba (of Bible fame)
o Swahili-speaking city-states
 Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Kilwa
o Mansa Musa
 Pilgrimage to Mecca
 Immensely rich – has ready access to African gold
 Apparently considered exploring the Atlantic Ocean
 Made Timbuktu (capital) a center of learning
 Equal gender roles (families trace descent through female line)
o Malian empire replaced by the Songhay; they themselves fell to Moroccan
invasion at the end of the 16th century
o Portuguese diversion of gold away from the region weakened it; status as center
of Muslim learning declined
o Prester John – a Christian king who supposedly ruled over a kingdom in the
depths of Asia (or perhaps Africa or India)
 The Ottoman and Persian Empires
o Key areas: Cairo, Alexandria, Hormuz, and Baghdad (trading centers, etc.)
o Islam = common culture and commercial law
o After the fall of the Silk Road, a northern overland trading route gained
prominence
o Two southern overland routes carried goods around the Indian Ocean
o Turkish Ottomans
 Janissary corps – Christian youths raised to be Ottoman admin. and
generals
 Captured Constantinople under Sultan Mohammed II (ruled 1451-1481);
renamed it Istanbul (population of 600,000-750,000)
 Suleiman I (1494-1566)
 Captured Syria, Palestine, Egypt, northern Africa, and portions of
Hungary
 He was eventually stopped at the Hapsburg capital of Vienna
 Motivations for expansion:
 Control of trade routes through the Balkans and the Mediterranean
 Access to African gold
 Control of shipping in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf
o Persian Safavids
 To the west of India
 The empire reached its height under Shah Abbas I (ruled 1587-1629)
 Isfahan – Persia’s “show city”; exported silk and carpets
 Important intermediaries in the Afro-Eurasian trading system
 Formed trading diaspora communities as far away as the Indian Ocean
o Ottomans (Sunni) and Safavids (Shi’ite) frequently clashed
  Ottoman-Safavid war (1615-1618)
o However, relied on each other economically
o Considerable toleration of Christian and Jewish inhabitants of Muslim states
o Muslims united only by a common religion
 Genoese and Venetian Middlemen
o Venice and Genoa both rivals; however, both eventually declined
 Spice trade
 Nautical experience benefited Iberian peninsula, however
o Venice
 Initially benefited from the Crusader kingdoms: gained territory and
special trading concessions
 Specialized in expensive luxury goods such as spices, silks, and carpets
 Received profits of around 40% even though they sold relatively little
(“only” 500 tons of spices per year)
 Controlled 70% of the Western trade in spices
 Slaves
 Population grew to 120,000 by 1500
 Controlled a sizeable portion of the Italian peninsula, Crete, Cyprus, and
some colonies on the west coast of the Adriatic, and possessed trading
posts in North Africa, the Levant, and northern Europe
 Power broken by the Dutch, who monopolized the spice trade in the 1600s
o Genoa
 Like Venice, profited from the Crusades
 Attempted to cross the Atlantic to discover “parts of India”
 Shifted aim from the Black Sea to the Western Mediterranean and from
trade to finance
 Aided Iberian monarchs
 Ran many of the sugar plantations (remember, sugar and slavery
are deeply intertwined) on Portuguese-controlled Atlantic islands
 Eventually became an important player in the Atlantic slave trade
o This is really random, but the book seemed to think it was important (they
dedicated half a page to this) – cloves (a kind of spice)
 They were used to disguise bad taste of food (which was itself either
brought on by rot or the preserving methods of the day, which involved
vast quantities of salt); apparently, they also had medical applications
The European Voyages of Discovery
 Europeans driven to explore the Atlantic because they were only minor players in Afro-
Eurasian trade
 Causes of European Expansion
o Needed new sources of precious metals
o Desire to avoid Ottoman interference in trade
o Spices
o Religious fervor
 As the Ottomans were too powerful and organized to be converted, Iberian
monarchs turned their conversion efforts to other non-Christian peoples
 o European discoveries can be viewed as a manifestation of Renaissance curiosity
o European expansion fueled by a curious mixture of religious motivation and
desire for profit
o Prince Henry the Navigator – cause of Portugal’s phenomenal success in the spice
trade
o Ships had terrible living conditions
o Men went to sea to escape poverty at home, to continue a family trade, or simply
to find a better life
o Quasi-scientific fiction concerning the New World was much read
o “General History of the Indies” (1547) – detailed eyewitness account of plants,
animals, and peoples of the region
o A revival of economic activity after the Black Death also prompted European
exploration
 Technological Stimuli to Exploration
o Caravel – small, light, three-masted sailing ship
 Invented by the Portuguese
 Broad-hulled, shallow draft vessel – allowed it to sail up rivers
o Cannon are most effectively used at sea (often as protection for caravels, in fact)
o Ptolemy’s “Geography” was reintroduced to Europeans by the Arabs (however, it
contained significant inaccuracies)
o Magnetic compass – allowed sailors to determine direction and position at sea
o Astrolabe – used to plot latitude
o Gunpowder, the compass, and the sternpost rudder were all Chinese inventions
o Lateen sail (allowed one to tack against the wind) was brought to Europe by the
Arabs
o However, the existence of an empire did not necessitate that of technological
superiority
 The Portuguese Overseas Empire
o Prince Henry “the Navigator” (1394-1460)
 Supported the study of geography and navigation
 Sponsored annual expeditions down the western coast of Africa
o Objectives
 Aristocratic desires for martial glory
 Iberian crusade to Christianize Muslims
 Quest for gold, slaves, a maritime Indian trading route, and Prester John
o Beginning of European exploration marked by Portugal’s conquest of the Arab
city of Ceuta in northern Morocco (1415)
o Under Henry’s direction, Portugal gained control of Madeira (circa 1420) and the
Azores (1427)
o Arguim (in Mauritania) – Portugal’s first African commercial settlement
o King John II (ruled 1481-1495) – established trading posts/forts on the Guinea
coast
o By 1500, Portugal controlled the flow of African gold to Europe
o Bartolomeu Dias – Portuguese explorer; he was the 1st European to reach the
Cape of Good Hope
 o Vasco da Gama – rounded the Cape and reached India (1497)
o King Manuel (ruled 1495-1521)
 Sent 13 ships to establish trading posts in India; only 6 returned, but
Portugal still made money
 Thereafter, a Portuguese convoy set out for India every March
o As the years wore on, navigators/traders cut farther and farther around the Cape
instead of hugging the coastline
 Pedro Álvares Cabral – on one such “swing” around Africa, he sighted the
New World – specifically, the coast of Brazil – and claimed it for Portugal
o Alfonso de Albuquerque
 Opened the Indian ports of Malacca, Calicut, Ormuz, and Goa at gunpoint
(so as to control Indian trade)
o Christopher Columbus
o 1580-1640 – Portugal is part of Spain
 The Problem of Christopher Columbus
o Genoese – embodied long-held Genoese drive to explore
o “Portolans” – written descriptions of the courses along which ships sailed
(including distances between landmarks)
o Used a compass
o Opportunist
o Very skilled seaman (sort of – his estimation of the distance from Portugal to
Japan was less than ¼ of what it actually was)
o Deeply religious
 Believed in Christianity as a missionary religion
 Believed that he was a divine agent
o “Santa Fe capitulations” – Columbus was made viceroy over any territory he
might discover; he also received 1/10th of what he found (material-wise)
o Intended to sail west, pass Japan, and reach the court of the Great Khan in China
o Founded San Salvador and discovered some sparsely populated villages (with
potential Christian converts) on the American mainland; was confident of the
presence of gold in the vicinity
o On his second voyage, he forcibly subjugated the island of Hispaniola
 Due to his ineptitude with respect to governing, a revolt broke out against
him and his brother
 When Spain crushed the revolt, the territories were transferred to royal
control
o Before he came, there were 300,000 Arawaks living in the New
World...afterwards, there were only 30,000
o Even unto death, he never realized that he had reached a continent entirely
unknown to Europe with the exception of the Vikings (he still believed that he
had found Asia)
 Later Explorers
o Columbus’s letter was translated into Latin and published in Rome; it was later
translated into other languages
o Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512)
  Florentine
 “Mundus Novus” (“The New World”) – the first document that held that,
surprise surprise, America wasn’t Asia
o “Treaty of Tordesillas” – treaty between the Spanish and the Portuguese;
mediated by Pope Alexander VI (interestingly, said pope was Spanish...bias,
perhaps?)
 Spanish gets everything to the west of an imaginary line drawn through
the Atlantic, and Portugal everything to the east
 When Portugal discovered Brazil, the Treaty ended up working in its favor
o Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)
 Discovered the Straits of Magellan (passage through the tip of Cape Horn)
 Discovered the Philippines (named after King Philip II of Spain)
 Mission largely an epic fail – Magellan and most of his crew die
 However, this voyage benefited Europe as a whole by enhancing
Europeans’ understanding of the Pacific and the world in general
o The Dutch East (1602; spices, etc.) and West (1650; slave trade) India Companies
encroached upon India and America, respectively
o Sir Francis Drake – British pirate; he preyed on Spanish “treasure ships”
o John Cabot
 Genoese merchant living in London
 Meant to sail to Brazil but instead discovered Newfoundland (1497)
 Next year, returned and sailed perhaps as far south as Delaware
 As these voyages found no gold or spices, Henry VII lost interest in
exploration
o Jacques Cartier
 French
 Made several voyages and explored the St. Lawrence area of Canada
(1534-1541)
 The 1st permanent French settlement was founded at Quebec in 1608
 Northwest Passage – a theoretical way of getting to Asia simply by going over the top of
America (it’s amazing how many people died trying to get through there before the real
route was eventually found)
 New World Conquest
o New World civilizations were vulnerable due to isolation
o Hernando Cortés (1485-1547)
 In 1519, crossed from Hispaniola to mainland Mexico with 600 men, 17
horses, and 10 cannon – apparently, this was actually an illegal voyage
 Landed at Vera Cruz in February 1519
 Entered Tenochtitlán (100,000-120,000 people), the capital of the Aztec
empire, in November 1519
o The Aztecs
 Roads
 No hard metals (they had gold, etc., though)
 No beasts of burden (llamas don’t count)
 Very superstitious
 Über-polytheistic
  Special 260-day calendar just for religious ceremonies
 Used sacrifices to keep the gods away (now that’s something new)
 Economic domination
 Used rare feathers/cocoa beans as money
 Fundamentally a Neolithic peoples – they are literally still stuck in the
Stone Age (!)
 Caste system
 Slaves
 Menial workers
 Craftsmen
 Warriors (most important caste)
o Fall of the Aztecs
 Bizarrely, Aztec legend foretold the coming of Quetzalcoatl (a deity who,
incidentally, was supposed to be white and bearded) during the exact year
that Cortés landed (creepy)
 Weren’t used to actual warfare – engaged primarily in ritualized warfare
wherein the aim was to capture, not kill, your opponents
 Series of natural phenomena/omens seemed to portend disaster: a comet
was seen during the daytime, and two temples were destroyed –
demoralized the Aztecs
 Alienation of newly conquered tribes
 Failure to provide an effective military resistance
 Nature of state religion – sacred cult of Huitzilopochitli – necessitated
constant warfare in order to procure sacrifices
 Problems with tributes incited revolt: certain subject peoples, such as the
Totonacs, greeted the Spaniards as liberators
 Montezuma refrained from attacking the Spaniards – even as they
advanced towards his capital
 When Cortés – in an incredibly bold move – took Montezuma hostage, the
Aztec ruler’s power crumbled (and with it, cohesion)
 Montezuma was ultimately executed by his own nobility (demonstrating
the Aztec internal instability)
 Ultimately, the Spanish won through a combination of factors: Spanish
metallurgy, microbes/diseases, European methods of warfare, psychology,
and just plain luck
o Cortés left Alvarado, his lieutenant, in charge of Tenochtitlán while he settled a
conflict elsewhere
 Harsh ruler; the Aztecs revolted
 Aztecs stupidly allowed Cortés’s returning army to rejoin Alvarado’s
 The entire population of Tenochtitlán attacked, killing many Spaniards; in
retaliation, they executed Montezuma
o The Spaniards subsequently escaped from the city and crushed the Aztec army at
Otumba (near Lake Texcoco) on July 7, 1520
o The Inca(s)
 Ruled by a “god-emperor”, called the “Inca” (like the empire)
 Highly, highly, highly centralized state
  Dead Incas get to keep the land they owned while they were still alive, and
are paid constant tribute – not very good for imperial growth
o Incas defeated in an eerily similar manner – their leader, Atahualpa, was killed by
Spaniards
 Incans drew parallels between their Virocha and the God of Christianity
 Huayna Capac (ruled 1493-1525) ruled the Incan empire as a quote-
unquote benevolent despot
 In 1525, Huascar succeeded his father and was crowned; however, he was
defeated in a civil war by his half-brother Atahualpa
o Francisco Pizarro (circa 1475-1541)
 Met Atahualpa at the town of Cajamarca; Atahualpa ordered his
bodyguards to be “unarmed so as not to give offense” (what a retard)
 As an inevitable consequence, the Spanish captured the newly crowned
emperor; after collecting an enormous ransom in gold, they killed him
o Contrary to popular belief, both the Aztecs and the Incas were already on the way
out when the Spanish showed up
Europe and the World After Columbus
 Massive inflation
 Four districts – New Spain, Granada, La Plata, and Peru
 Council of the Indies (1525) – admin. from Madrid
 Native people become Europeanized
 Spanish Settlement and Indigenous Population Decline
o 16th century: about 200,000 Spanish entities immigrated to the New World
 Carved out vast estates: grazing ground for Spanish cattle, sheep, horses,
etc.
o Sugar – a luxury commodity in Europe – was introduced to the West Indies by
Columbus and to Mexico by Cortés
o Mining cities – silver was discovered at Zacatecas and Guanajuato (in Mexico)
and Potosi (in what is now Bolivia; population of 120,000)
o Encomienda system – effectively legal slavery
o Diseases spread rapidly through the native population
o Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474-1566)
 Recorded that the Spanish maliciously murdered thousands
o Franciscan, Dominican, and Jesuit missionaries all played an important role in
converting the natives to Christianity
o Under pressure from Las Casas, emperor Charles V abolished the encomienda
system in 1531
o Atlantic slave trade spawned by King Ferdinand’s remark that “one black could
do the work of four Indians” (1511) – Amerindians experienced an exceptionally
high death rate
 Sugar and Slavery
o Mediterranean slavery during the Middle Ages: initially, slaves were white;
slavery had nothing to do with race
o Slavery ultimately became inextricably entangled with sugar
 o 1490-1530 – Portuguese traders brought 300-2,000 black slaves to Lisbon every
year
 Constituted 10% of the city’s population
 From there, slaves were spread throughout the Portuguese empire, to the
sugar plantations of Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde islands
o As the Amerindian population declined, African slaves were used to provide
manual labor in the New World
o 1650-1870 – altogether, an estimated 10,000,000 African slaves were brought to
the New World
o Before 1700 – when slavers realized they’d get more money if more slaves
survived – some 20% of slaves perished during the voyage
o 18th century – peak of the Atlantic slave trade
 In the U.S., 757,181 out of 3,929,625 inhabitants were black (1790)
 In Brazil, the ratio approached 2:1 (2,000,000 out of 3,250,000; 1798)
 The Columbian Exchange – an exchange of animals, plants, and disease
o Migrants sought to turn the New World into the Old
 Brought, among others, grapes, olives, wheat, rice, bananas, and –
unintentionally – immigrant grasses (such as Kentucky bluegrass), daisies,
and the common dandelion
 Introduced beasts of burden (and just plain beasts), such as horses, cattle,
sheep, dogs, pigs, chickens, and goats
o In return, the Spanish and Portuguese took back to Europe corn (called “maize” –
the main American cereal), white potatoes, beans, squash, pumpkins, avocados,
and tomatoes (that last one was generally avoided for Europeans for fear of its
supposedly sexually stimulating properties)
 Silver and the Economic Effects of Spain’s Discoveries
o 1545 – the Spanish found a quote-unquote incredible source of silver at Potosí in
what is now Bolivia
 Initially, the place had a population of zero
 By 1600, it was the size of London (about 160,000 inhabitants)
 In the second half of the 16th century, Potosí produced 60% of all the silver
mined in the world
o Because Spain had kicked out so many of its inhabitants, its economy couldn’t
cope with the increased demand that followed the New World discoveries
o The “price revolution”
 1557-1647 – faith in Spanish government was shattered by King Philip
II’s (and his successors’) repudiating of state debt
o 1500-1600 – Spanish inflation practically crippled the European economy
o China drove the world trade in silver, functioning as a “sink” for the precious
metal; massive Chinese purchases kept the market running
 The Birth of the Global Economy
o Three successive trading empires: the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch
 The Portuguese traded slaves, Chinese silks and porcelain, Spanish silver,
horses, copper, hawks and peacocks, and the all-important sugar
  The Spanish, with their possessions in the New World, controlled the
world silver market; they also traded silk, as their Philippine possessions
gave them a foothold in Asia
 The Dutch mainly traded European technology for obscene amounts of
spices, eventually controlling the entire Indonesian archipelago in order to
achieve this goal
 Spain’s Global Empire
o Benefit merchants, aristocrats, and the Roman Catholic church
o Charles V controlled the Burgundian lands (the Low Countries and Flanders), the
Habsburg domains in Austria, and a united Spain; he was also named Holy
Roman Emperor
 After Spain’s conquest of New World territories, Charles V became the
world’s 1st global emperor, ruling the world’s 1st global empire
o Charles V’s son, Philip II, inherited his father’s overseas empire
 Über-Catholic – as in, ÜBER-Catholic
 Morose
 Traveled all over Europe
 After the death of Anna of Austria, his 4th wife, he became more and more
devoted to religion
 Totally inflexible on matters of heresy, etc. – a “man of his times”
(Lutherans and Calvinists held similar views)
 The Battle of Lepanto (1511) – Spain, Venice, and the church unite to
smash the Ottomans off of the coast of Greece
 Eventually became stricken with gout – unable to sign documents, and
could only walk (albeit painfully) with a cane
 Planned a naval invasion of England, with papal backing (Sixtus V) – “la
felícissima armada” (“the most fortunate fleet”), called in modern times
the “Spanish Armada”
 (May 9, 1588) The invasion was a disaster; out of 130 vessels, only
65 returned
 Psychological defeat
 Did not halt the flow of silver from the New World; also prevented
Philip II from religiously uniting western Europe by force
 The borders of 1581 (Netherlands, etc.) tended to become
permanent
o Mary Queen of Scots
 Catholic
 Involved in the Babington Conspiracy – a plot to overthrow Elizabeth I
and place Mary on the English throne
Changing Attitudes and Beliefs
 New Ideas About Race
o Every time slavery is instituted, it must have a justification: thus, slavery spawned
complex notions of racial inferiority – Europeans and Arabs alike believed
Africans, etc. to be mere savages
o European racial ideas were brought to the Americas by settlers – based primarily
upon Christian theological speculation and Arab ideas
 o Slavers’ accounts of Africans in high demand due to popular interest
o Africans believed to be sexually intense, with women possessing a “temper hot
and lascivious” (those crazy Europeans)
o At the time of Columbus’s voyage, Islam was the largest world religion,
demonstrating its capability to spread and thrive in wildly different areas
o Arabs were equally clueless; they believed that sub-Saharan Africans, out of all
the peoples from the Mediterranean to China, possess neither science nor, indeed,
stable states/governments
 Ibn Khaldun alleged that African kings sold people into slavery without
even a pretext of war, etc.; he also claimed that these victims showed no
resentment because they gave no thought to the future and were naturally
inclined to make merry and dance
o Some slavers even went so far as to argue that slavery was beneficial to Africans
on the grounds that it brought them into the light of Christianity
 Michel de Montaigne and Cultural Curiosity
o Believed in a secular world
 Separation of church and state
o Skepticism – the theory (school of thought, specifically) that total knowledge is
impossible to obtain
 More cautious
 Fueled by religious doubt in the wake of decades (centuries?) of Catholic
and Protestant squabbles, as well as the discovery of New World peoples
(the society of which was radically different from that of the Europeans)
o Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)
 On his father’s side, he came from a bourgeois (damn French words)
family whose fortune came from selling salted herring and wine; in 1477,
his family had purchased the title and property of Montaigne in Gascony
 His mother came from a Jewish family that had been forced to flee Spain
 Received a classical education, studied law, and was made a judge
 Humanist – believed that the object of life was to “know thyself”
 Invented the essay (AAAAAAAAAAARRRRGGGGGGGGGGHHHHH)
– from the French word “essayer”, meaning to “test or try”
 Acquired classical values (particularly from Seneca, a Roman Stoic) –
calm, patience, tolerance, and broad-mindedness
 Although he remained a Catholic, he was willing to look at all sides of a
question
 Cultural relativism – all cultures possess merit; if not to you, then at least
when seen through the eyes of the people who belong to them
 “On Cannibals” – rejected the notion that one culture is superior to
another
 Inaugurated an era of doubt (as in, doubt of blindly held beliefs that are
obviously stupid – such as racial superiority)
o Elizabethan and Jacobean Literature
 Jacobean refers to King James (Stuart king)
 Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) – strongly influenced later poetic writing
  Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) – wrote “The Faerie Queen”, which is
apparently a pretty good poem
 Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) – plays that were all poetic and
prettyful
 William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
 A “Renaissance man”
 Psychological-ish plays – “Hamlet” with the big “mortal coil”
speech, for instance
 Wrote dramas/tragedies, including “Macbeth”, “Othello”,
“Hamlet”, and the wildly popular “Titus Andronicus”
 However, also known for his comedies – the jokes of which make
no sense in modern English – and his historical-type plays, which
show a heavy classical influence (“Julius Caesar”, “Pericles”,
“Anthony and Cleopatra”, “Troilus and Cressida” – about the
Trojan War – etc.)
 King James Bible (also called the “Authorized Version”) – despite what
the textbook says, it’s a bloody awful translation (although it is quite
fancy-sounding)
 Created by a group of Puritans in 1604 with the support of King
James; intended to allow more lay people to read the Scriptures
 Consider, for example, the famous speech in Corinthians
concerning love; the King James version has “charity” instead of
“love”, simply because the Latin word “caritas”, meaning “love”,
resembles English “charity”
 Despite this, it quickly displaced all other versions and became the
primary translation in the New World

Chapter 16

Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding

 Religious warfare lasted until about 1660-1670
 The “state” is starting to take shape
 Economic and Demographic Crisis
o In the 17th century, most Europeans lived in the countryside
o The hub of the rural world was the archetypical small peasant village, which itself
was centered on a church and a manor
o Quasi-mobile: could be motivated by war, food shortage, fortune-seeking, and
religious pilgrimage
 At the top of the hierarchy were peasants owned enough land to support
themselves (about 1%)
 They employed the landless poor, rented out livestock and tools, and
served as agents for the noble lord (who would live in the manor)
o Below these entities were small landowners who couldn’t support themselves, as
well as tenant farmers (who worked on other peoples’ lands)
  They sold their best produce just to get food, as well as for paying off rent
and taxes
o Below even them were the rural proletariat with no land at all, who worked as
dependent laborers and servants
o Bread was the primary foodstuff, be the consumer rich or poor
 Rye was the best crop
 Rich people ate white bread (which was more expensive), leaving the
brown – but incidentally more nutritious – bread for the poor
 Peasants paid the local miller for the use of his mill to grind flour, and
(sometimes) to the lord for the use of his oven
 Bread was most often accompanied with a surely disgusting “soup” of
roots, herbs, beans, and perhaps a scrap of salt pork (pig fragments
preserved with an enormous amount of salt)
o One of the biggest festivals in a rural village was the annual killing of the family
pig (the fact that they only get one pig per year should give you an idea of their
economic status); some was eaten, and the rest was preserved
o Peasants lived right on the line
 Constantly threatened by bad harvests, illnesses, and drops in prices,
which resulted in scarcity, famine and ultimately death
o The “little ice age”
 During the 17th century, temperatures dropped and the climate became
wetter, making for a shorter farming season
 Recurrent famines affected European populations; peasants were killed off
by starvation, malnutrition, exhaustion, and even (until the 1720s) bubonic
plague
 Industry also suffered; output of woolen textiles (one of the most
important European products) declined sharply, and wages stagnated
while food prices and unemployment soared
o “Moral economy” – a worldview wherein community needs are superior to profit
 Peasants (often women, as their role as mothers gave them some
protection) invaded bakers’ shops, reselling the bread at a “just price”; this
also happened with grain caravans going to big cities
 Seventeenth-Century State-Building: Common Obstacles and Achievements
o “Absolutist” governments – France, Spain, central Europe, and Russia; basically,
monarchs could do anything their evil little hearts desired
o Constitutionally limited governments – England and the Dutch Republic; the
monarch has to respect laws passed by other institutions (Parliament, etc.)
o Despite their obvious differences, both types of monarch shared common goals
 Protected/expanded their frontiers, raised new taxes, and consolidated
state control
o Obstacles to expansion of the monarchs’ power (possible listing question?)
 Lack of transport
 Difficult to send messages
 Not enough info about their realms (due to limited bureaucracies) – as a
result, it was impossible to police/tax the population effectively
 Some people might speak different languages
  Various powerful groups – especially the nobility
 Also the church, legislative dudes, town councils, guilds, etc.
 Sometimes entire provinces had separate privileges/exemptions
o In the past, it was held that absolutist monarchs were unfettered by such groups,
as opposed to their constitutional counterparts
 However, modern-day scholars have pointed out that various absolutist
monarchs were swayed by these institutions, such as Louis XIV and his
cooperation with/convincing of the nobility
 It was pretty much true, though, that constitutional realms were largely
ruled by nobles and other such entities
o In order to increase the power of a state, more revenue must be generated
 Taxes, taxes, and more taxes (some things just don’t change)
 This resulted in an expansion of the bureaucracy in order to handle
these new taxes; employment of civil servants
 In a very-short-term method, monarchs demanded a large sum from nobles
in return for freedom from future taxation
o Sovereignty – IMPORTANT – when a state, I quote, “possesses a monopoly over
the instruments of justice and the use of force within clearly defined boundaries”
 What the hell is that supposed to mean? Well, no external courts, such as
church tribunals, can challenge state authority (perhaps even exist);
likewise, private armies (such as those of a noble) present no threat to the
state, as said state’s army is still stronger
 Additionally, all people in the country are subject to state law
 Warfare and the Growth of Army Size
o Unlike medieval armies, which were disbanded after they had served their
purpose, armies in the 17th century were maintained by monarchs in both
peacetime and wartime
 French army grew from roughly 125,000 during the Thirty Years’ War
(1630-1648), which – according to the dates – lasted for over a decade less
than what its name would indicate, to 250,000 during the Dutch War
(1672-1678), to 340,000 during the War of the League of Augsburg
(1688-1697)
 This massive growth was due to changes in the style of armies – instead of
a bunch of mercenaries, the monarch (let’s say, Louis XIV) had to train a
massive, professional army to fight on multiple fronts
 That sort of thing takes time, and time was something Louis just didn’t
have during a war
 Additionally, France’s wealth relative to that of other European states
allowed it to create larger armies
 Noble officers (“pay your way to officer-hood”) stupidly – if honorably –
led from the front lines, resulting in enormous death tolls
 It was not until the 1760s that the state actually began to equip its own
troops; previously, they had to buy all of their weapons, etc. themselves
o Other states quickly copied the French system; the British went on to create the
largest navy in the world
 Popular Political Action
 o Popular revolts – armed uprisings; extremely common during the mid-17th century
in England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy
 Catalonia, Portugal, Palermo
o In France, popular revolts were so frequent that they were considered a part of
society – “culture of retribution”
 Major insurrections occurred almost a dozen times in several French cities
 Officials such as tax collectors were disposed of in various unsavory ways
 For example, Louis XIV prompted an uprising in Bordeaux when he
introduced new taxes on legal transactions, tobacco, and pewter ware (I
don’t even know why you’d want that last one; I mean, that pretty blue
color comes from the often lethal concentrations of lead in it)
o Municipal and royal authorities alike were scared of the rebels
o Lack of royal power gave the rebels leverage
o By the end of the 17th century, however, governments were better integrated into
the national structure; dissidents received swift military retribution
Absolutism in France and Spain
 During the Middle Ages, it was held that all law came from God; men merely
“discovered” it
o In the absolutist state, kings expanded this to mean that they were responsible to
God alone
 “Leviathan” (Thomas Hobbes; 1651) – called for absolute monarchical authority; a social
contract between the ruler and the ruled – anything less would lead to paralysis or civil
war
 Bossuet – theologian; asserted that the king was God’s “image” on Earth – thus, he
possessed absolute authority and could do anything he deemed necessary so as to “do
good [and] repress evil” (sounds like someone’s read Machiavelli too much)
 The Foundations of Absolutism: Henry IV, Sully, and Richelieu
o Louis XIV’s grandfather, Henry IV, inherited a broken land
 Civil wars
 Insanely bad harvests
 Commercial activity 1/3 its 1580 level
 “Paulette” – an annual fee that guaranteed heredity in a royal official’s
office
 Loved by the people; inaugurated a remarkable recovery and promised “a
chicken in every pot”
 Assisted by the duke of Sully, his chief minister, he laid the foundations
for the growth of state power
 Edict of Nantes (compromise between Catholics and the Calvinist infidels)
was viewed as too much by some ardent Catholics, who promptly killed
him
o After Henry’s death, Marie de’ Medici (the queen-regent) headed the government
for the king Louis XIII (ruled 1610-1643), who was still a child
 She appointed Cardinal Richelieu to the council of ministers
 Exalted the French monarchy as the embodiment of the French state itself
o Richelieu
  Make the Crown the biggest power in France, make France the biggest
power in Europe
 Got rid of competing power groups, the nobility in particular (these
entities ran the army, controlled considerable amounts of land, sat in royal
councils, and were immune from direct taxation) – in 1624, he reshuffled
the council, eliminating potential power brokers and adversaries to state
sovereignty
 Keep Habsburgs fragmented
 Extended use of “intendants” – one per each of France’s 32 districts,
which were called...um...“généralités” (see, this is why I hate French);
they performed specific tasks, often financial but also judicial and political
 Collected info for Paris and distributed orders to their districts
 Could not be natives of districts they supervised
 Typically recruited from the “noblesse de robe” (judicial nobility)
 Recruited armies, enforced local law, and monitored the nobility
and economy
 Louis XIII decided to kick out the Protestants; disliked the whole “state
within a state” thing they had going on
 La Rochelle, the stronghold of French heres – I mean, Calvinism –
was personally sieged by Louis himself; when the city fell in
October 1628, the Catholic liturgy was reinstated and Richelieu
himself celebrated the 1st Mass
 “Raison d’état” (“reason of state” – justification) – “where the interests of
state are concerned, God absolves action which, if privately committed,
would be a crime”
o His successor for the boy-king Louis XIV (whose regent was the Queen Mother
Anne of Austria) was Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-1661), who was, simply put,
a tard
 The “Fronde” – uprisings from 1648-1653 resulting from his inability to
fund the war with Spain
 The word means “catapult” in French – as in, throwing mud at rich
dudes
 It initially started with the judge of Paris’s high law court (which
was called the “Parlement”) rejecting Anne and Mazarin’s
proposal to increase state cash by cutting judicial salaries –
including, presumably, his own
 Popular riot began with the arrest of several magistrates
 “Noblesse d’épée” (“sword nobility”)
 The Prince de Condé and his buddies practically destroyed civil
order with a declaration of open warfare against the Crown
 The violence eventually ended when Louis XIV ascended to the
throne
 Louis XIV and Absolutism
o The “Sun King”
 o “The divine right of kings” – the doctrine that God had established kings as his
rulers on earth; thus, they answered ultimately to God alone, and could not simply
do as they pleased: they had to obey God’s laws
o Never called a meeting of the Estates General; thus, the nobility had no means of
united expression or action
o Didn’t appoint a 1st minister; free from the threat of a too-powerful Richelieu
o Secret police force to maintain order
o Revoked the Edict of Nantes
 Kicked out/converted the Huguenots; lost many skilled/loyal subjects
 Although he was personally tolerant of religious differences, Louis hated
the division of the realm, considering religion to be a political question
 “One king, one law, one faith”
 Received tremendous praise from nobles, who had long urged him to
crack down on those dastardly Protestants
o Created what appeared to be an absolute monarchy; in actuality, there were
multiple constraints on his power, as well as a need to cooperate with the nobility
 Financial and Economic Management Under Louis XIV: Colbert
o Mercantilism – the book defines it, rather vaguely, as “a collection of
governmental policies for the regulation of economic activities, especially
commercial activities, by and for the state” – basically, it’s the state’s business to
screw with the economy (state-controlled economy)
 The economy should work for the state
 Psychology of limited wealth – there’s only so much cash in the world, so
we should grab the most of it
 In order to accumulate more gold, a state has to sell more products than it
purchases; if France were to be totally self-sufficient, it would lose no
gold, poverty/unemployment would practically vanish, and the nation’s
power would grow alongside its wealth
o Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683)
 Built a merchant marine (ships)
 Financial genius
 Believed that the wealth and economy of France should serve the state
 Formed many guilds
 Reinforced the system of state inspection (for quality control)
 Encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate to France
 Brought more female workers into the labor force
 Abolished many domestic tariffs and create high foreign ones, to prevent
foreign goods from competing with those made in France – self-
sufficiency
 Moved 4,000 French peasants to Quebec in Canada
 The Jesuit Jacques Marquette and merchant Louis Joliet sailed down the
Mississippi River and claimed land as far south as present-day Arkansas
 1684: the French explorer Robert La Salle continued down the river and
claimed more land, including the delta, for Louis XIV (hence “Louisiana”)
 Taxes
  Unlike the English system, wherein a single assembly – Parliament
– controlled taxation, the French system was confounded by the
taille-exempt (taille = land tax) status of nobility, clergy, and some
bourgeois (“borj-shwa”) city dwellers, as well as estates, which
were representative bodies of clergy, nobles and commoners that
could negotiate with the Crown over taxes
 By cracking down on inefficiency and corruption, Colbert
succeeded in significantly raising revenues
 Unfortunately, warfare after his death undid many of his achievements
 The peasants still suffered due to high taxes and bad harvests
 Louis XIV’s Wars
o “The character of a conqueror is regarded as the noblest and highest of titles” –
accordingly, 33 out of the 54 years of his rule were spent fighting
o François le Tellier (later called marquis de Louvois)
 Appointed secretary of state for war in 1666
 Created a professional, standardized army
 The army grew to 340,000 entities at its height
o Louis’s armies invaded the Netherlands, seizing cities and land; when he marched
on the capital at Holland, the Dutch only saved themselves because they broke
their dikes and flooded parts of their own country (that’s epic failure for you)
 At the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678) – he got more stuff; end of story
 The Dutch war lasted for 6 years, eventually involving the Holy Roman
Empire and Spain
o Eventually, however, the natural order was restored: French military fail
reasserted itself, and Louis won no more territories during the 1680s and 1690s
o If you look at a map, you’ll notice that Louis’s expensive wars gained
PRACTICALLY NOTHING
o The French economy practically died because of military overstretch, the
incompetence of Claude Le Peletier (Colbert’s successor), and bad harvests
 1/10th of the French population perished
o The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
 In a nutshell: Louis XIV illegally inherited Spain and all its stuff, thereby
greatly pissing off the other powers that be and leading to a war that ended
in 1713 with the Peace of Utrecht
 Spain’s empire basically died
 Britain’s power grew massively – they got Gibraltar, allowing
them to control Mediterranean trade, and gained a ginormous
foothold in the slave trade with the asiento (treaty with Spain)
 Marked the end of French expansion; France was basically
bankrupt, too
o Louis XIV died on September 1, 1715 – boo hoo
 The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the Seventeenth Century
o Intellectual isolation
o 1609 – Philip III expelled all converted Muslims (Moriscos) from Spain
 300,000
  Lost skilled workers and merchants
o Spanish trade with the colonies was weakened by the Dutch and English edging in
 1610-1650 – Spanish trade with the colonies fell 60%
o Spanish economic fail
 Slaves in South African silver mines all died off
 Mines themselves began to run out
 The Crown canceled its own debt five separate times – no banks will do
business with Spain
 Massive inflation
 The inflation also killed Spain’s industry (as it cost so much to produce
stuff)
 Tiny middle class
 Literally 1,000s entered economically useless jobs; there were said to be
9,000 monasteries in Castile alone
o Gaspar de Guzmán (count-duke of Olivares)
 Philip IV left the management of his several kingdoms to this guy
 Similar to Richelieu
 Olivares successfully developed new sources of revenue; however, due to
his ill-founded belief that Spain would be better off as an empire, he
declared war on both the Dutch and the French, thus entering Spain into
the Thirty Years’ War, one of the most destructive in European history
(good job, Olivares)
o (More) Spanish decline
 The Portuguese gained independence from the Habsburgs (who controlled
Spain at the time) under their king, John IV (ruled 1640-1656)
 1643 – the Spanish got owned by the French (how embarrassing) at Rocroi
in modern-day Belgium
 Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) – Spain surrendered extensive territories to
France; marked the decline of Spain as a great power
 Spain still stuck in dreams of 16th-century glory
 Spain’s most cherished ideals were military glory and Catholicism
 It didn’t have enough money to fund its expensive wars
 Spain ignored the new mercantile ideas and scientific methods
because their inventors were infidels (a.k.a. England and Holland)
 Fatalism
 What just happened?
 Once, after a long debate, a committee decided not to construct a
certain canal on the grounds that “if God had intended the rivers to
be navigable, He would have made them so”
o “Don Quixote” (and that’s “Kee-ho-tee”, not “Quickzote”)
 Written by Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)
 The main character lives in a world of dreams, similar to the Spanish
people, who are still stuck in the past
 Colonial Administración
o In the 16th century, the Crown divided its New World possessions into 4
viceroyalities
  New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata
 At the head of each viceroyality was the viceroy (imperial governor),
followed by the “audencia” (12-15 judges; highest judicial body and the
viceroy’s advisory council) and the intendants (like the French system),
who were introduced to the New World by the Spanish king Charles III
(ruled 1759-1788)
o The “quinto” – 1/5th of all the precious metals mined in South America go to the
Crown
o “Corregidores” – local officials who held judicial and military powers
The Culture of Absolutism
 Frenchitude
o French Academy
o French is language of European elite
o French culture imitated
 Baroque Art and Music
o Comes from the Portuguese for “ugly pearl”
o Intensely exuberant/emotional
o Inverts the Renaissance values of harmony, balance, restraint, etc.
o Sense of drama, motion etc. fueled by the Catholic Reformation; the power and
confidence of the reformed Catholic Church
o However, it grew to be more than just “Catholic art”
o Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) – animated art; influenced by the High
Renaissance masters
o Music
 Palestrina – more methodical church music
 Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) – musician
 Handel
o Rembrandt – painter dude
o 1) Religious
 Caravaggio – shadows, etc.
 Rubens
 Bernini – sculpture
o 2) Royal
 Rubens
 Velasquez
o Dutch
 Vermeer
 Court Culture
o The book dedicates half a page to Versailles, but it can be summarized like this:
 Originally, there was this place called Versailles that was essentially the
dungheap of the real estate world
 Louis XIV turned it into a palace and “trapped” all his nobles there with
craploads of court ceremony/etiquette – a “white-collar jail”
 The end
o Patronage
  Nobles wanted access to the king and his power
 A higher-ranking entity protects a lower-ranking one in return for loyalty,
services, etc.
 How Louis XIV controlled the nobles
 Louvois (the French war dude, remember) gained his position through
family ties, not actual competence
 Women also played a role in this system, establishing their own patronage
relations
 French Classicism
o Based off of Renaissance/Greco-Roman styles/values
o The French Academy – a school, established in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu,
intended to tutor entities in grammar/rhetoric; it still exists today
o Artists/writers of the late 17th century imitated classical style and subject matter,
their work resembled that of Renaissance-era Italy, and their art embodied the
classical values of discipline, balance, and restraint
o Intended as a counter to the Baroque style, which was perceived as ugly
o Helped/supported by Louis XIV
 Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687) – orchestral music
 François Couperin (1668-1733) – harpsichord and organ
 Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1634-1704) – religious music
o Molière (1622-1673; real name “Jean-Baptiste Poquelin”) – wrote brilliant
comedies that satirized contemporary hypocrisies/follies
o Jean Racine (1639-1699) – wrote tragic dramas based off of Greek and Roman
myths, typically centered around the conflict of good and evil
o Impossibly, French became the language of polite society and international
diplomacy, as well as displacing Latin as the language of scholarship and learning
Constitutionalism
 Constitutionalism – the limitation of government by law
 Absolutist Claims in England (1603-1649)
o Queen Elizabeth I refused to marry, as her power would be weakened with a
husband (particularly in the gender-biased time in which she lived)
o She was thus succeeded by James I (James Stuart/VI of Scotland)
 A good ruler, but not very keen on flaunting the power of the monarchy
 When urged to wave at the crowds waiting to greet him, James threatened
to drop his breeches “so they can cheer at my arse”
 Held fast to the theory of the divine right of kings – expressed this in “The
Trew Law of Free Monarchy” (wherein he stated that rebellion is the
worst of political crimes, as the right to rule comes from God)
 “There are no privileges and immunities which can stand against a
divinely appointed King” – Stuart concept of absolutism
 “No bishops, no king” – his answer to the Puritan calls for total
elimination of Catholic elements in the Anglican church
o The House of Commons (a section of Parliament) guarded the state’s cash
 In the years since Henry VIII, the House had improved somewhat; many
people were wealthier and more educated
  Believed that they had a say in how taxes were spent; the Stuarts disagreed
o Charles I (ruled 1625-1649)
 Son of James I
 Attempted to govern without Parliament (and therefore without any cash)
from 1629-1640; instead, he tried to finance his government with
“arbitrary nonparliamentary levies” (effectively extra taxes) that brought
England to a crisis
 Parliament
o House of Lords – eldest sons of aristocracy
o House of Commons – other sons of aristocracy, businessmen
 Religious Divides
o Puritans – NO FUN – über-Protestants who wished to “purify” the Anglican
church of all elements that were even remotely Catholic (even wedding rings –
gee, why don’t you just get rid of Jesus while you’re at it?)
o “Protestant virtues” – Calvinist values of hard work, etc. (poverty was identified
with weakness and moral corruption); they represented the prevailing values of
the members of the House of Commons
o Charles I was greatly disliked, as he ruled without Parliament from 1629-1640
(enacting more taxes in the process, such as resurrecting the “ship tax”) and
appeared to be leading England back to Catholicism, as he married the French
Catholic princess Henrietta Maria (Henry IV’s daughter) and supported William
Laud
o William Laud (1573-1645)
 Archbishop of Canterbury
 Tried to impose elaborate ritual on all churches
 Created the “Court of High Commission” – unified church services
 1637 – attempted to introduce a new prayer book and bishoprics to the
Scots; them being Presbyterian, the latter was firmly rejected
o The “Long Parliament”
 Sat from 1640-1660
 Passed the Triennial Act in 1641 – required the king to summon
Parliament every 3 years
 Impeached Archbishop Laud and abolished the Court of High
Commission
 Charles I accepted these measures, but both sides still constantly
maneuvered to gain the upper hand
o Irish rebellion
 Irish oppressed by English overlords
 After the Reformation, it became a religious war, too, with the Catholic
Irish versus the Protestant English
 The Catholic gentry rebelled in 1641
o Charles I needed money and an army to oppose both the Scots and the Irish –
Parliament gave him neither
 He went north and built an army – and thus the English civil war began
(1642-1649)
  Charles’s chief opponent was Oliver Cromwell, who (along with Sir
Thomas Fairfax) headed Parliament’s “New Model Army” (like an
“armed church”)
 Charles was eventually defeated at the battles of Naseby and Langport
during the summer of 1645; however, he refused to just shut up
 In 1647, Cromwell came along and got rid of the members of Parliament
who disagreed with him; afterwards, the “Rump Parliament” (everyone
who was left) put Charles on trial for high treason and beheaded him on
January 30, 1649
 His death sent shockwaves throughout Europe and severely weakened the
theory of divine-right monarchy
 Puritanical Absolutism in England: Cromwell and the Protectorate
o England was proclaimed to be a “commonwealth” (republican) government
o Oliver Cromwell’s (1653-1658) rule, called the “Protectorate”, amounted to
military dictatorship
o Originally, a document had been drawn up (the “Instrument of Government”, in
1653) that gave power to Cromwell and a council of state
o However, he dispensed with that in favor of martial law, headed by him (much
better that way)
o Taxes tripled under his reign
o Peacetime army
o Tolerated all faiths – even Judaism – with the exception of Catholicism
o Separated England into 12 military districts, each governed by a major general
o Thus also hated the Irish (who were Catholic)
 Drogheda – Cromwell massacred the garrison; justified his actions by
claiming that a strong example was needed to prevent rebellion
 1/3 of Ireland’s population (600,000+ people) died or were exiled as a
result of the civil war
o Navigation Act (1651) – English goods must be transported on English ships;
boosted the English economy
o Welcomed back the Jews due to their skills
o The military government collapsed when Cromwell died; having experienced
what dictatorship felt like, the English were ready for another king
 The Restoration of the English Monarchy
o The Restoration (1660) placed Charles II (ruled 1660-1685) on the throne
o Test Act (1637) – non-Anglicans couldn’t vote, hold public office, preach, teach,
attend university, or even assemble for a meeting
o Charles II was generally on good terms with Parliament (unlike his father Charles
I, who was on mortally bad ones)
o The “Cabal” – a council of five men (Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley-
Cooper, and Lauderdale; note that “Cabal” is really an acronym taken from its
members’ surnames) who were the go-between for the king and Parliament; they
served as a forerunner of the later cabinet system
 Ministerial responsibility: royal ministers must answer to the Commons
 o Because Parliament didn’t give him enough money, Charles made a treaty with
Louis XIV (the Treaty of Dover): he would gradually re-Catholicize England in
return for French cash (£200,000/year)
o James II (ruled 1685-1688) succeeded his brother Charles
 As he was Catholic, he was feared and detested by his subjects
 In violation of the Test Act, he appointed Catholics to government offices
 Granted religious freedom to everyone
o Protestant meddlers replaced James with his daughter Mary and her husband,
William of Orange; he fled to France with his queen and infant son in December
1688 – this was known as the “Glorious Revolution” (there was almost no
bloodshed)
o Battle of the Boyne (July 17, 1690)
 James II tried to reclaim his throne but failed epically
 The Triumph of England’s Parliament: Constitutional Monarchy and Cabinet
Government
o The Glorious Revolution represented the destruction of divine-right monarchy
o William and Mary explicitly acknowledged the supremacy of Parliament
o The Bill of Rights (rights for rich Protestants, that is)
 Law was made by Parliament and could not be overridden by the Crown
 Parliament had to be called at least once every 3 years
 The judiciary became independent (the Crown couldn’t influence them)
 Only Protestants could carry arms
 Parliament oversees foreign affairs
 The English monarch must always be Protestant
o “Second Treatise of Civil Government” (1690)
 Written by John Locke
 Contrast with Thomas Hobbes’s “Leviathan”
 When a government oversteps its role of protecting life, liberty, and
property, it becomes a tyranny
 The people will obviously rebel against a tyranny: thus, the solution is
don’t be a tyranny; people also had to safeguard their liberty
 Locke defended the Glorious Revolution
 He believed that there exist rights (“natural/universal rights”) that are
equally valid for all entities – this was especially appreciated by the
American colonists
o The “Glorious Revolution” was neither glorious nor really a revolution; it was
simply the swapping of a Catholic absolutist monarchy for a Protestant
aristocratic oligarchy – nothing really changed for the common folk
 Other English stuff
o Act of Union (1707) – Scotland now part of the “United Kingdom”
o Robert Walpole
 Financial genius
 1st “prime” minister
 Stay in peace
 Political factions
 o The War of Jenkins’s Ear – so...there was a guy named Jenkins, and the Spanish
cut off his ear; thus, England started a war that lasted for almost a decade
o The Bank of England (1694) – converted royal debt into national debt; easy credit
 The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century
o The 17th century was called the “golden age of the Netherlands” (1600-1650)
o Each province of the Dutch Republic was controlled by an oligarchy of wealthy
merchants called “regents”
o Foreign affairs were managed by the “States General”, a federal assembly
o The States General appointed a representative, the “stadholder”, in each province
(of which there were seven)
o The heads of the provinces met at The Hague in Holland, which was the most
powerful province
o Political power lay with businessmen and wealthy merchants
o The Dutch were fiercely republican
o Took Calvinism deeply to heart (hard work, etc.)
o Religious toleration – IMPORTANT
 Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677) – a descendant of Spanish Jews
o Amsterdam was a center of trade and commerce
o Fishing was the original Dutch economic cornerstone; this was later supplanted
by trade: by a 1650 estimate, the Dutch possessed 16,000 merchant ships
 Transport was the main Dutch moneymaker
 5,000 ships docked around Amsterdam at any one time
o The Dutch East India Company (1602)
 Formed by some regents from Holland
 Joint stock company
 Cut into Portuguese trade in East Asia
 Very successful
o The Dutch West India Company (1621) traded extensively with Latin America
and Africa
o Dutch-ville was the place to be
o Massive granaries virtually eliminated food shortages – everyone ate well
 “An island of plenty in a sea of want”
 Very few food riots
o Founded Cape Town on the southern tip of Africa in 1652
o The War of the Spanish Succession was costly; the peace signed in 1713 signaled
the beginning of Dutch economic decline

Chapter 17

Warfare and Social Change in Central and Eastern Europe

 Origins of Serfdom
o Serfs – effectively legal slaves
o Originally, everything was fine and dandy: Eastern rulers attracted newcomers
with excellent land deals and serfs bargained freely with their landlords
 o This all changed after about 1300, however, when the turmoil brought on by the
Black Death split Europe in two; landlords more heavily oppressed their serfs: in
the West, serfs gradually won better conditions...but in the East, life sucked
 Serfs could no longer leave their lord’s land
 Lords took more of their sla – ah, subjects’ land
 Eventually serfs became little more than forced laborers
 Lords controlled the local judiciary/legal system
o Agricultural incentive in western Europe: higher wages, lower rent
 Landlord control of serfs
o No movement
o More labor
o Manipulating legal system
 ABSOLUTISM ABSOLUTISM ABSOLUTISM
 The Consolidation of Serfdom
o Hereditary subjugation (Prussia, 1653) – serfs are bound to their lords from one
generation to the next
o German and Polish lords squeezed sizeable profits from their serfs
o The poor East fed the wealthier West
o Nobility was much more powerful in the East than in the West
 Often weak kings gave concessions to win noble support
 In fact, the king was often just a glorified noble
o Privileges of towns are undermined
 No sanctuary
 Trade often misses them entirely – discourages urbanization
o Local peasants suffered greatly
 Lords exacted higher labor
 With royal approval, local lords undermined the peasants’ power
 Peasants who ran away were returned to their lords
 Town populations and the importance of the urban middle class decreased
greatly
 Edict of Restitution – all Catholic lands taken by the Protestants all the way back to the
year 1552 (3 years before the Peace of Augsburg) were to be returned to their original
Catholic owners
 The Calvinists weren’t included in the Peace of Augsburg
 The Thirty Years’ War
o The way it shapes up is that you have the Protestant Union (1608), composed of
German Lutheran princes, versus the Catholic League (1609)
o The war kicked off with the “defenestration (literally, “down from a window”) of
Prague”, which resulted from some Protestants – angry at the closing of 2 of their
churches – hurling two officials out of a 70-foot window (they survived)
o Kings still hired mercenaries to create their armies
o The war is traditionally divided into 4 phases
 1) Bohemian phase (1618-1625) – the Protestant horde under the
command of Frederick (the elector of the Palatinate) were defeated by the
 Catholics at the Battle of the White Mountain; within 10 years, the entirety
of Bohemia was made Catholic through conversions and Jesuit work
 2) Danish phase (1625-1629) – Catholic pwnage ensued of Protestants
under the command of king Christian IV of Denmark (ruled 1588-1648);
however, the Catholic leader – Albert of Wallenstein – was more
interested in cash than faith, and Catholic civil war kicked off
 3) Swedish phase (1630-1635) – the Swedish Lutheran king Gustavus
Adolphus appeared on the scene; he won 2 brilliant victories and promptly
died
 4) French/international phase (1635-1648) – the French step in on the side
of...the Lutherans?!
 French foreign policy revolves entirely around keeping Germany
fragmented; thus, the more religions arguing the better
 1635: Cardinal Richelieu declared war on Spain (that was random)
 Germany was ravaged by the 30 years of warfare
o Peace was finally achieved in October 1648
 Consequences of the Thirty Years’ War
o Peace of Westphalia (1648) – ended the war
o Consequences
 Calvinism is recognized
 Pope is out of German affairs
 Sovereignty of 300+ German princes was recognized
 Dutch become independent
 Swedes get some land
 French foreign policy pays off
 Power shift
o Impact on Germany
 1/3 of urban residents and 2/5 of the rural population perished
 Fragmentation
 Lost land, trade, etc.
 The loss of land helped to consolidate serfdom >:-(
The Rise of Austria and Prussia
 The Austrian Habsburgs
o After the 30 Years’ War, the Habsburgs were weak; more than ever, power lay in
the hands of local rulers
o Bohemian Estates – representative body of different estates
o Habsburgs believed that religious division = political division
o After the Battle of the White Mountain (1620; between the Protestant Bohemian
Estates and the Catholic everyone else), Ferdinand II (ruled 1619-1637) reduced
the power of the Bohemian Estates
o Habsburgs took control of Bohemia
 “Robot” – 3 days/week of unpaid labor for peasants → SERFDOM
 Giant step towards absolutism
o Ferdinand III (ruled 1637-1657) centralized the government in the hereditary
German-speaking provinces and created a permanent standing army
 Ottoman revival around 1683
 Austria was not a good place for absolutism – it could only expand to the east, not the
west, causing it to impinge (heh McLinn) upon the Ottomans
 Austrian Rule in Hungary
o After the Battle of Mohács (1526), Hungary was split between the Ottomans
(Transylvania in the east) and the Habsburgs (the west and the north)
o By 1718, the Habsburgs controlled the entirety of Hungary
o Hungarians resisted Habsburg absolutism
o 1703: rebellion under Prince Francis Rákóczy (pronounced like “Rakoshy”)
 The Habsburgs were involved in the War of Spanish Succession at the
time
 Eventually defeated, but Hungarians gained concessions; thus, they were
never fully integrated into the Habsburg state
 Nobles retained local political/economic power
o The standing army ultimately grew to 100,000 men
o Vienna became the political and cultural center of the empire
o Pragmatic Sanction (1713) – created by Charles VI (ruled 1711-1740); ensured
that the Habsburg stuff would never be divided – even if it passed to a woman
(and it did: his daughter Maria Theresa in 1740)
 Prussia in the Seventeenth Century
o The elector of Brandenburg (their top guy) had the right to help choose the Holy
Roman Emperor but otherwise had no real power
 “The sand-box of the Holy Roman Empire” – called such for its cruddy
surrounding terrain
o Prussia was ruled by the elector’s cousin
o Hohenzollerns
 Suddenly appear in the book; my guess is some kind of ruling family
 Absolutist, apparently
o “Junkers” – nobility in Brandenburg and Prussia
 Later became the bureaucracy
o Frederick William (ruled 1640-1688) – the “Great Elector” (IMPORTANT: he’s
known more as the “Great Elector” than as “Frederick William”)
 Determined to unify his 3 provinces: Brandenburg, Prussia, and some bits
along the Rhine
 Beastly army – 30,000 men out of the 1,000,000 in his kingdom
 When the Tatars invaded, nobles saw the need for a strong army (this
increased support for Frederick William)
 Compromised with the Junkers
 Create Louis XIV-style absolutism
 Screwed over the towns/serfs for cash
 Prussia was more like an army with a state than a state with an army
 Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism
o Frederick William I (ruled 1713-1740) – “the Soldiers’ King”
 Grandson of Frederick William
 Cemented absolutist power
  Love of the military – got up early and always wore an army uniform
 Now the book tells us that the Hohenzollerns were actually the elector’s
family (as in, this guy’s family, too)
 Strong centralized bureaucracy; eliminated all traces of parliamentary
estates and local self-government
 He quarreled with the Junkers, but solved his problems by making them
into his officer class/bureaucracy
 Standing army increased from 38,000 to 83,000
 Best army in Europe; however, one of the least used, as Frederick William
hated to “spend” his “blue boys”
 Frederick William’s policies, harsh peasant bondage, and Junker tyranny
laid the foundations for a highly militaristic country
o Important stuff
 1st-rate army
 Honest, fair bureaucracy
 Disciplined Prussian society
 Stayed out of wars
 Ottoman rule of Hungary was (relatively) light-handed
 Battle of Zenta (1699)
o Austrians defeat Turks
o Ended in the Treaty of Karlowitz – cedes Hungary to the Austrians
The Development of Russia and the Ottoman Empire
 The Mongol Yoke and the Rise of Moscow
o Mongol Yoke – the Mongols (called the “Golden Horde”) swept in from the east
all the way up to the plains of Hungary, ruling the eastern Slavs for 200+ years
 Mongol khan was the supreme ruler of the Slavs
 Mongols served by “great princes” – nobles who collected taxes, put down
popular uprisings, etc. (think like Richelieu’s intendants)
o The princes of Moscow were the best at serving the khan; as a reward, the office
was made hereditary
 Eventually, the Muscovite (that means “from Moscow”) princes were able
to get rid of their rivals: Ivan III conquered Kiev (agricultural) and
Novgorod (trading)
o In about 1480, Ivan III kicked out the Mongols; the Muscovite princes declared
themselves “autocrats” (as in, they are the one true source of power) and took
over the Mongol institutions/bureaucracy
 “Tsar” – contraction of “Caesar”; considered themselves to inherit the
Roman title of emperor
 Claimed themselves to be the successors to the Byzantines in religion, too;
Eastern Orthodox Christian; IMPORTANT – external observation as
opposed to doctrine
o Boyars – highest-ranking nobles; landed nobility
o Service nobility – very loyal to the tsars, as their land was only theirs if they
served in the army (hence the name)
o Powerful nobility made the state more decentralized
 Note that “Moscow” might appear as “Muscovy” on the test
 Tsar and People to 1689
o Ivan IV (ruled 1533-1584) – better known as “Ivan the Terrible”
 He was ridiculed at court by the boyars because his mother died (he thus
hated those manipulating bastards)
 Crowned at age 16
 Selected Anastasia of the Romanov family as his queen
 Defeated Kazan and Astrakhan, adding more territory to his empire
 Made no distinction between hereditary boyars and the service nobility;
all nobles had to serve in the army in order to keep their land
 After the death of Anastasia (which he blamed on the boyars) in 1560, he
became increasingly demented, beginning a reign of terror in which he
jailed/executed anyone who he suspected of opposing him
 Broke up the estates of large nobles; he ended up giving about half of this
land to the lower service nobility (the rest he kept)
 His death (1584) and that of his heirless son Theodore (1598) left a power
vacuum – the “Time of Troubles”, wherein Ivan’s family kept killing each
other off
 Taxed urban peoples heavily; bound to land → URBAN SERFS → no
middle class
o Cossacks
 Peasants, fearful of Ivan’s purges and wars, fled east and formed outlaw
armies
o A Cossack uprising, led by former slave Ivan Bolotnikov, marched northwards,
killing nobles/officials and rallying peasants
 The rebellion was stopped at the gates of Moscow
o Michael Romanov (ruled 1613-1645)
 Ivan the Terrible’s grandnephew
 The nobles were forced to elect this dude (1613); let in the Poles and the
Swedes
 Restoration of tsarist autocracy
 Starts the Romanov dynasty
o 1652: Nikon (the patriarch of the Orthodox church, not the camera company)
announced that he would eliminate the “corrupted” Russian practices and align
the Russian church with Greek Orthodoxy
 Perhaps not unexpectedly, he was immediately labeled the Antichrist
 20,000 people set fire to themselves in protest
 After the Great Schism, alienated from the Russian masses, the church had
to depend on the state for support
o 1670-1671: yet another Cossack revolt
 Led by Stenka Razin
 The state was perceived as attempting to depress the Cossacks back to
serfdom (which, of course, they were)
o Under the Romanov tsars, Russia gained considerable territories (Ukraine) from
Poland and conquered Siberia
o As Russian territory expanded, so too did its bureaucracy and army
o After 1649: serfdom’n’stuff → peasant revolts
 o Russian-ness
 “One true religion”
 Autocracy
 Nationality
 The Reforms of Peter the Great (ruled 1682-1725)
o Mullins is very fond of saying that Peter stood at 6′7″
o Looked to the West for how to build his army (IMPORTANT – chief motivation
for his embracement of Western stuff)
o Streltsi – palace guard; they rebel but Peter crushes them
o Explored Europe with an unofficial group of 250 officials/noblemen
 Fascinated with Western culture
o Entered into the Great Northern War with Charles XII (1697-1718), the king of
Sweden
 Pushed back to Moscow
 The war was ultimately ended with the Treaty of Nystadt
o Brought in talented foreigners
o Suffering potential defeat, he instituted numerous reforms
o Required all nobles to serve in the army/civil administration for life
o Created schools and universities to train technical experts for his army
o Decreed that every young nobleman had to spend 5 years being educated away
from home
o Established a 14-rank bureaucracy based on merit (“meritocracy”), not social
status
o Created a regular standing army of 200,000+ peasant soldiers commanded by
noble officers
 Special forces of Cossacks and foreigners numbered 100,000+
o Some (read: many) people disliked his reforms, such as the nobles and the serfs
(effectively everyone)
o Taxes tripled under Peter
o Educated administrative elite
o 80-85% of Peter’s revenue was spent on warfare
o His now much stronger military machine crushed the Swedes at Poltova
o Decked his nobility out in Western fashion
o “Westernized” Russia
 The warrior elite served in the administration
o Serfs get screwed (as always)
 Peter taxes per capita
 Slaves in mines (industrial serfs)
o To make a long story short: Russia becomes part of Western Europe
 German Compound – Germans, etc. have a special section of Moscow
 Autocracy – self-generating monarchy (chooses successor)
 The Growth of St. Petersburg
o Peter created his own capital, named after himself, on a conquered Swedish fort at
the mouth of the Neva River
 o Very modern – the roads were laid out in a Romanesque grid, and building
structure and placement were standardized
o Due to the city’s strategic placement, he was able to build a strong navy
o Built by harshly conscripted serfs
o Nobles were forced to build large houses in the city
o In effect, the city constituted a tax on the wealthy and an enslavement of the poor
o Peter’s daughter, Elizabeth (ruled 1741-1762)
 Hired Bartolomeo Rastrelli as her chief architect; he created a distinctive
St. Petersburg style
o The fact that the tsars created a city from nothing showed their absolutist power
 The Growth of the Ottoman Empire
o Military society – while it grows, it’s strong; when it stops growing, it crumbles
o Ruled by a “sultan”, who owned all agricultural land (peasants therefore had to
pay taxes for the “privilege” of working their butts off farming)
 Thus, no hereditary nobility
o Suleiman the Magnificent (ruled 1520-1566) – ruled the empire at its peak
o Fairly tolerant of other religions
o Fancied themselves the heirs to the Byzantines, as well as Rome’s imperial
outlook
o Open and adaptive
o With their capture of the holy city of Constantinople, they fulfilled an Islamic
dream and severely weakened Christianity
 The city also occupied a strategic location, standing at the maritime link
between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea
 Under the Ottomans, the city (now named “Istanbul”) grew to a population
of 700,000
o Conquered the Mamelukes (Egypt) under Selim I (ruled 1512-1520)
o The infidels were finally stopped at the walls of Vienna; their defeat by the
Christian Holy League at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) ended their European
ambitions
 Religious Diversity in the Ottoman Empire
o The Ottomans recognized Christians and Jews as “peoples of the Book”; that is,
they shared the same Biblical heritage
o “Millet system”
 Created a powerful bond between the Ottoman ruling class and the various
religious leaders
 Each religion had its own “millet” (“nation”), or self-governing
community
o Still an explicitly Islamic state, however

Chapter 18

The Scientific Revolution

 Scientific Thought in 1500
o The “Scientific Revolution”
 o Practitioners of the Scientific Revolution did not consider their field “science” per
se but “natural philosophy” – physics
o Science and religion were not opposed, but integrated
o Aristotle, millennia previously, had invented a geocentric (Earth-centered) view
of the universe that was largely accepted even in the medieval age because it
meshed with religious conceptions of the time (with the planets and stars set in
angel-pushed crystal spheres and Heaven beyond everything)
 The Copernican Hypothesis
o Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
 Postulated that the sun, not the Earth, was at the center of the universe
(“heliocentric”) – still grossly incorrect, of course, but we’re getting there
 Never questioned Aristotle’s ideas, except that he replaced the Earth with
the sun; also never messed with the religious aspect of it
 Published his “On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres” in 1543 (the year
of his death – he was afraid of ridicule)
o Called the “Copernican hypothesis”
 Sharply opposed by Protestants and less so by Catholics
 From Brahe to Galileo
o Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) – Danish noble; established a massive university and
collected much astrological data, but didn’t understand any of it
o Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
 Brahe’s assistant
 GRAVITY
 3 laws of planetary motion
 1) Demonstrated that the orbits of planets are elliptical, not circular
 2) Planets do not move at uniform speeds throughout their orbits
 3) The time it takes for a planet to complete its orbit is related to its
distance from the sun
 Implications
 Earth was no longer the center of the universe
 The universe was much larger than previously thought
o Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
 Created the “experimental method” – conducted controlled experiments
instead of merely speculating
 Described this in his “Two New Sciences”
 Formulated the law of inertia – “the natural state of an object is motion”
 “Siderus Nuncius” (1610) – the moon is imperfect (it sounds like a “well,
duh” moment, but he was seriously one of the first people to consider
this); he looked at the moon through a telescope
 Allowed by Pope Urban VIII to write about as many systems of the
universe as he so desired, as long as he didn’t judge which one was correct
 “Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World” (1632) – openly
attacked the views of Aristotle and Ptolemy while defending those of
Copernicus; he was forced to recant his statements on pain of torture
 Newton’s Synthesis
 o Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
 Fascinated by alchemy
 Intensely religious
 Spent 18 months pondering the universe
 “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (“Principia”)
o The law of universal gravitation – every object in the universe attracts every other
object according to how much matter they have and the distance between them
o His math, with its analysis of trajectories, etc., was naturally attractive to military
entities
 Causes of the Scientific Revolution
o PHILOSOPHY
o Things that led to the development of science/the Scientific Revolution
 1) Universities to provide an outlet for scientific thought
 2) The Renaissance and the patronage associated with it
 3) Navigation
 4) Better instruments
o Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
 Used research instead of mere speculation to prove his theories
 Formalized the empirical (based on experimentation) method laid down by
Brahe and Galileo into “empiricism”
 Particularly in England (where he lived), he emphasized this method
because of its neutrality with respect to religion or philosophy
o René Descartes (1596-1650; “day cart”, not “descarteez”, unfortunately)
 French philosopher
 Discovered analytic geometry – linked algebra with geometry
 Held that it was necessary to doubt everything until it was absolutely
certain that a particular thing was true
 Reduced all substances to either “matter” or “mind” – physical as opposed
to spiritual
 This view, characterized by its division of the world into two fundamental
entities, is known as “Cartesian dualism”
o The modern scientific method began to form during the late 17th century as a
combination of both Bacon and Descartes’s ideas
o For a while, Catholicism was more accepting of scientific advances than
Protestantism or other religions; after 1630-1640, however, the balance switched,
and scientific thought became more active in Protestant nations and less so in
Catholic Italy (but not Catholic France, however)
 Science and Society
o Consequences of modern science
 Scientific community – international social group of scientifically inclined
entities
 As governments became more involved with science – government
support, so too did the scientific community
 The scientific method
o Supposedly “rational” approaches to nature did not affect the imbalance between
the sexes, possibly even worsening it
  New scientific academies did not accept female entities
 Some countries/institutions accepted women; for instance, they could
apply their skills to construction of wax anatomical models, attend
informal scientific gatherings, or even read/write treatises
o The common folk were barely affected, if at all (as usual)
o 1) Expand knowledge
o 2) Government support
o 3) New ways to obtain knowledge (scientific method, etc.)
The Enlightenment – an 18th century worldview based off of...being enlightened, I suppose
 1) Natural science can explain all areas of life – reason
 2) Discover laws of human nature and society
 3) PROGRESS
 “Reason” was the favorite word of the time
 Rationalism – secular, highly critical thought
 Progress – the belief that humans and their societies can improve (as if)
 The Emergence of Enlightenment
o Bernard de Fontanelle (1657-1757)
 French; literate
 “Science fiction”, ha ha – science that’s as fun (LMFAO) as a novel
 “Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds” (1686) – a woman and her
boyfriend are enjoying a romantic moment and suddenly start talking
about astrology
 The original Richard Dawkins – his works, such as “Eulogies of
Scientists” cast brave scientists, such as Copernicus (who was religious,
by the way), against prejudiced priests
o Unlike Medieval/Reformation dudes, who had been primarily concerned with sin
and salvation, or even the Renaissance humanists, who had believed that even
they could never match the accomplishments of the ancients, Fontanelle and other
entities believed that progress – intellectual, at least – was possible
o Religious truth was questioned
o Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)
 French Huguenot; despised Louis XIV
 Fled to the Netherlands
 “Historical and Critical Dictionary” – examined the religious beliefs and
persecutions of his past
 Noting that many beliefs were often wrong, Bayle concluded that absolute
truth can never be attained
 Skepticism – the theory that...uh, see the above point
o Uncertainty was caused by rapidly expanding European knowledge on foreign
lands/cultures – truth/morality began to be viewed in relative, rather than
absolute, terms
o However, as Pontius Pilate would say: what is truth?
o Crisis
 1) Destruction of the Aristotelian system
 2) Religious war
  3) “Culture shock”
 4) This stuff ↓
o John Locke creates more boring treatises
 “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690) – unlike Descartes,
who held that certain ways of thinking are inborn in humans, Locke
asserted that all ideas are derived from experience – the concept of the
“tabula rasa”, or “blank tablet” (nurture over nature)
 Human development is therefore determined by education/social
institutions (someone’s read “Utopia” too much), for good or evil
o Kant – is there something beyond reason – morals?
 Public use of reason
o Huygens – according to Mullins, he invented the pendulum clock
 The Philosophes and the Public
o At about the dawn of the American Revolution, science was embraced by much of
educated European elite; this was due to the group known as the “Philosophes”
o Name comes from the French word for “philosopher”
 1) French was the international language of the educated classes
 2) Religious opposition to science in France was not too strong
 3) They were philosophers who were not content with mere abstract
argument; in typical elitist fashion, they imagined themselves part of the
“republic of letters” theoretically made up of all educated Europeans
o “Marriage of Figaro” (by some French dude named Beaumarchais) – escaped
censorship by being set in another country
o The baron de Montesqueiu (1689-1755)
 Circumvented the fact that overtly inflammatory writings would be burnt
with his “The Persian Letters”, which view European society from an
outsider’s perspective – this allowed Mon-whatever to satirize freely
 Claimed to be motivated not just by the shrinking political power of the
robe nobility but also by genuine interest in the topics at hand
 “The Spirit of Laws” (1748) – applied Enlightenment criticism to
government
 Separation of powers – political power is split between various groups
with unequal rights and privileges
 Believed that the 13 French “parlements” (high courts; determined
whether royal edicts fit with French tradition or not) were the frontline
defense against monarchical despotism – hated tyranny
o François Marie Voltaire (1694-1778)
 “Age of Louis XIV” – biography thingy of Louis XIV
 Equal equality (I could have worded that better) under the law
 Like most of his contemporaries, he was a “deist” (Thomas Paine was
another notable example) – he believed in a nonpersonal sort of
“Clockmaker” god
 Hated religious intolerance in all its forms – believed it led to fanaticism
and other such malign thingies (Richard Dawkins is a case-in-point)
 Stuck to simple religious commandments – “love thy neighbor as thyself”
 o His “companion” (*coughgirlfriendcough*) was Gabrielle-Emilie Le Tonnelier de
Breteuil, marquise du Châtelet (who was, incidentally, already married)
 Translated Newton’s “Principia” into French, but still suffered from the
gender inequality of the day
 Wished to equalize the sexes
o “Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts”
 Edited by Denis Diderot (1713-1784) and Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717-
1783)
 17 volumes; took 15 years to write
 Frequently banned
 Extremely popular
 The Enlightenment Outside of France
o Also took place in 18th-century Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary, and
Russia
o David Hume (1711-1776) – Scottish Enlightenment dude
 “The human mind is a bundle of impressions”
 As Mullins put it, “rationalism on steroids”
 Argued that it’s impossible to know something if it’s also impossible to
prove it
 Strangely, this “rational” line of thought ended up undermining the
Enlightenment’s faith in the power of reason
 Urban Culture and the Public Sphere
o Books helped to spread Enlightenment ideas
o Illegal books were smuggled around
o The reading revolution – whereas before people had actually thought carefully
about every word they read, books during the Enlightenment were many and
mass-produced, leading to a constant sense of skepticism and carelessness
o Salons – private drawing rooms; rich women invited random philosophers over so
that they could talk about Enlightenment crap and all that
 These hostesses were known as “salonnières” – and no, I don’t know how
that’s pronounced
 The women have power
 Restricted mainly to the upper classes
o Rococo – architectural style with a distinct feminine influence
o Some philosophers championed women’s rights, claiming that the level of
equality afforded to female entities showed the degree of civilization in a given
society – in effect, they desired to reduce women to the level of trophies
o Madame Geoffrin – unofficial godmother of the “Encyclopedia”
 Practicing Christian; tolerated no attacks on the church in her house
o Through salons and other institutions such as book clubs, Masonic lodges, and
journals, there came about a new public sphere, focused on open debate by critical
reason
o Other random entities
 Pinel – treated mental illness
 Baruch Spinoza – “pantheism” (constant presence of God)
  Beccari – worked on crime and punishment

o Philosophes, being extremely elitist, believed that it was their job to “Enlighten”,
so to speak, the masses; the common folk were considered stupid/dangerous
 Late Enlightenment
o After about 1770, some thinkers and writers began to attack the Enlightenment’s
faith in reason, progress, and moderation
o Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) – Swiss philosophe dude
 Began to believe that his philosophe friends were plotting against him
 Individual freedom
 Denounced rationalism and civilization as destructive to the individual
 Feeling complemented, not opposed, intellect
 Education – go at your own pace
 Über-sexist – made sexism into immutable natural law
 “The Social Contract” (1762) – based on 2 fundamental concepts; the
“general will” – the needs of the people – and popular sovereignty –
power given to the many (males)
 “Horizontal social contract” – based around everyone in society
o Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – East Prussian professor
 “What Is Enlightenment?” (1784) – people should be allowed to express
all their ideas in print
 He was also a sick racist bastard, as we’ll see later >:-(
 Race and the Enlightenment
o “Racial difference” – classified humans as “races”, like “species” are for animals
o “The System of Nature” (1735; Carl von Linné – McLinn practically worships
that guy) – established a biological hierarchy of species; man was not exempt,
there being several distinct “races”
o “A Natural History” (the Comte de Buffon) – everyone was descended from white
people – biological and geographical distinctions
o “Of Natural Characters” (1748; David Hume) – white people are naturally
superior to all others
o “On the Different Races of Man” (1775; Immanuel Kant) – there were 4 human
races, derived from an original race of “white brunette” people
 According to him, the closest descendants of this original race dwelt in
northern Germany – where he lived, incidentally
o James Beattie and Johann von Herder (“each race and culture is important”) tried
to challenge these racist views, but sadly, they formed the minority
o Even Thomas Jefferson supported the whole “race” thing
o Science was thus degenerated to the point where it was used to create sexist and
racist hierarchies
The Enlightenment and Absolutism
 The philosophes believed (realistically) that benevolent absolutism was the way to go
 Led to “enlightened absolutism”
 Frederick II “the Great” of Prussia (ruled 1740-1786)
o Son of Frederick William I
 o Originally hated his father; in rebellion, wasted his time practicing poetry and
prose in French (a language his old man rightfully detested)
o Eventually reconciled with his father, however
o In direct violation of the Pragmatic Sanction, he invaded the German province of
Silesia upon the ascendance of Maria Theresa (I WANT SILESIA) to the
Habsburg throne, kicking off the European War of the Austrian Succession (1740-
1748)
o Doubled Prussia’s population to 6,000,000
o When Austria allied itself with France and Russia (1765 – diplomatic revolution),
Prussia seemed doomed, but they fought against overwhelming odds and survived
o Saved at the last minute when Peter III, who greatly admired Frederick, became
the new Russian tsar
o Frederick allowed his subjects to do what they wished with respect to religion and
philosophy
o Promoted the advancement of knowledge
o Prussian officials became famous for their hard work and honesty
o Freed the serfs in words but not in actions (not even on his own estates – the
Junkers would have been pissed)
o As always, the Jews got screwed; they were discriminated against and stuffed into
tiny communities called “ghettos”
 Moses Mendelsshon (1729-1786) – urged that Jews be given freedom and
civil rights
o Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) – Prussia vs. Austria, France, and Russia
 Catherine the Great of Russia (ruled 1762-1796)
o German princess from Anhalt-Zerbst
o Adored by the French philosophes
o Peter the Great had abolished the hereditary succession of tsars so that his
successor could preserve his policies; this turned out to be Elizabeth, his youngest
daughter
o Her successor was Peter III, and his wife was Catherine
o Catherine selected (odd word choice, but it’s what the book uses) Grigory Orlov
as her new lover; with his 4 brothers, she overthrew and slew Peter
o Believed firmly in absolutist monarchy
o Supported Enlightenment activities in the West and thus gained a good reputation
there
o Originally claimed to want to eliminate serfdom, but...
 It would have alienated the nobles
 Emelian Pugachev happened
o 1773: a Cossack named Emelian Pugachev sparked a gigantic serf uprising;
claimed himself to be the “true tsar”
 Eventually defeated and executed
 As a result, Catherine gave her nobles complete control of their serfs
(1775)
o 1775: nobles excused from state service
 o Gained territory from the Mongols, Crimean Tatars, Turks, and the Caucasus
region
o In a deal with Prussia and Austria, she partitioned (split) Poland apart, taking 1/3
of the territory for Russia
o Expansion kept the nobility happy and provided Catherine with new land to award
to favorites (she had many, many paramours)
o Goals
 1) Western culture
 Diderot (the Encyclopedia guy)
 Rebuilt the Winter Palace
 2) Domestic reform
 Legislative commission
 Religious toleration
 Improved education
 Strengthened local government
 Law codes
 3) Territorial expansion
 Turks (1768-1772)
 Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji

 Poland
o Decentralized
o Elective monarchy
o Nobility (“szlachta”; multiple spellings) in “diet” (meeting)
o Liberum veto – if even one noble vetos something, it doesn’t happen →
“exploding the diet”
o Partition
 Once in 1772
 The remainder was divided 1793-1795
 The Australian Habsburgers
o Reforms of Maria Theresa
 Limited the power of the papacy
 Strengthened the central bureaucracy and reorganized the tax system
 Improve the common folks’ lot – reduce the power of the lords
o Joseph II (ruled 1780-1790)
 “Edict on Idle Institutions” – basically outlaws monasteries
 Continued the state-building of his mother, Maria Theresa (1740-1780)
 Religious toleration – tolerated Protestants and Jews
 Abolished serfdom (!!!) in 1781 :-)
 1789: decreed that, instead of labor, peasants were obliged to pay – this
was hated by both the lords and the peasants it was designed to help, as
said peasants used a barter system, wherein actual money was largely
absent
 Serfs needed better transportation
 Basically threw the empire into chaos – pissed off everybody
 o Joseph’s brother, Leopold II (ruled 1790-1792), canceled these radical laws;
peasants once again labored under their lords – more frownies >:-( >:-( >:-(
 Evaluating “Enlightened Absolutism”
o In the bad old days, it was widely believed that Catherine, Frederick, and Joseph
stood as the shining heroes of enlightened absolutism
o It’s true: they were “Enlightened” in outlook, being more secular than religious
and proud of their intellectual accomplishments...
o However, their reforms brought only modest improvements, and almost nothing
changed in the conditions of the peasants
o In conclusion, these Eastern absolutists were committed to reform...but
humanitarian stuff was only secondary: instead, they sought to strengthen their
states
o The book has all this soppy stuff about how the beloved monarchs tolerated
religious minorities, simplified laws, promoted education, fused absolutism with
the Enlightenment values of rationalism and critical thinking, etc...but then you
realize that 99% of their subjects (particularly in Catherine’s case) remained
crushed under the thumb of serfdom...and that’s where your precious
Enlightenment gets you
 Hurrah
 Other stuff
o Change from above > change from below
o Modest improvements
o Governments more enlightened (especially Prussia)
o Welfare of state
o State-building with the culture + critical thinking of the Enlightenment
o Limited in social + economic equality...but not so in bureaucracy

Chapter 19

Agriculture and the Land

 The Open-Field System – the land of a village was divided into several large fields,
themselves cut into narrow strips (unbordered by fences)
o This, however, rapidly depleted soil nitrogen, which could only be restored by
either fertilizer (which was relatively rare) or simply by planting nothing
o Thus, crop planting for 1 year alternated with fallow (empty) fields for the next
o Eventually, the farmers planted a year of wheat/rye followed by a year of
oats/beans and then a year of fallow
o Common lands – open meadows where horses, cows and other entities were kept
 The Agricultural Revolution – the elimination of fallow fields to increase yields and thus
the peasants’ living conditions
o Crop rotation – planting different crops in different years
o Enclosure – users of these radical new techniques fenced off their own land
 Opposed by the poor and both small and large landowners alike
 Coexisted with the traditional non-enclosed system for a time
 The Leadership of the Low Countries and England
 o These new methods originated in the Low Countries (Netherlands, etc.)
o The Dutch, having built their capital on a swamp, were skilled at draining areas
o The English were quick to learn from the Dutch agricultural example
o Cornelius Vermuyden – Dutch draining expert who helped to drain the English
fens (swamps)
o Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
 English innovator
 Developed better farming techniques through Enlightenment empirical
research
 Advocated drilling holes to put seed in instead of sowing it by hand
o The ultimate result was that English food production tripled, although the number
of people working the land increased by only 14%
o A tiny percentage of entities controlled all the land; it was worked by a large
number of landless farmers
o Proletarianization – created lots of landless dudes
The Beginning of the Population Explosion
 Limitations on Population Growth
o After about 1500, the birthrate outstripped food supply; food cost more, and living
standards declined
o Thankfully, during the 17th century, enough people died to ensure that the
population didn’t grow too fast (that sounded evil)
 Famine
 Disease
 War
 The New Pattern of the Eighteenth Century
o The disappearance of plague heralded an era of lower mortality rates
o Inoculation (vaccine) against smallpox invented
o Advances in transportation (canal- and road-building)
o Thus, the population grew in the 18th century
Cottage Industry and Urban Guilds – peasants building stuff in sheds
 The “putting-out system”
o Merchant capitalists and rural workers
o Merchants gave raw materials to the workers, who processed it into finished
products
o Common because unemployed labor was so abundant
o Took hold fastest in England, Flanders, and the Netherlands
 The textile industry
o Women were paid much less than men
o Merchants had little control over rural labor
 Urban guilds
o Guild system
o Guild masters stood at the summit of the world of work
o Membership in guilds was highly restricted; as guilds were often the only ones
legally allowed to practice a certain craft, this pissed many people off
 o Women entered the guilds in increasing numbers
o After 1777, all French guilds were officially open to women
o Guilds were abolished in 1791
 The Industrious Revolution – in northwestern Europe, households decreased labor time
and redirected the efforts of women and children towards working for wages
o Consumption relied on mass-produced instead of home-made goods
o In the mid-19th century, the male “breadwinner” was expected to support the
family back home
Random British Stuff
 1) “The 45”
o Jacobites – Scots, Catholics; want to reinstate the Stuart dynasty
o Charles “the Pretender” (grandson of James II) – invaded in 1745 (hence “the
45”)
 Defeated at the Battle of Culloden
 Scotland occupied by British troops
 Highland Scots “suppressed”
 2) George III
o Tries to assume the theoretical powers of the monarch
o “King’s party” – 3rd party in the government; sympathized with George
o Lord Grenville – prime minster
o John Wilkes – criticized the king and the Treaty of Paris in “North Briton #45”
 According to Wikipedia, he was also a pornographer O.o
 Political satirist – found guilty of libel, but no punishment was given
 Not allowed into the House of Commons; this motion was eventually
overturned, which broke down the Crown’s influence slightly
o England → liberal direction
o 3 parties
 King’s party
 Whigs (liberal)
 Tories (conservative)
Building the Global Economy
 Mercantilism and Colonial Wars
o Mercantilism – system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of
the state
o Navigation Acts – British cargo must be carried on British ships
 First enacted by Cromwell, then extended by Charles II
 A form of economic warfare, primarily against the Dutch; coupled with
actual warfare, turned out to be quite effective
o Series of wars, wherein Britain gained territory
 War of the Spanish Succession – Britain gained Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia, and the Hudson Bay, as well as the Spanish asiento and special
trading privileges
 War of the Austrian Succession – developed into a world war (spread as
far as India and North America)
  Seven Years’ War – Maria Theresa tried to crush Prussia because she
WANTED SILESIA; the war also spread to the Americas, where the
British fought the French in Canada
o Treaty of Paris (1763) – France lost all of its stuff in India and North America
o London became the largest and richest city in the Western world
 Land and Labor in British America
o Land in the New World was cheap and easy to come by; farmers generally kept
more of what they produced
o Many African slaves were introduced, eventually forming the majority of the
population
o Tenfold increase in tobacco production between 1700 and 1774
o In just 75 years after 1700, the white population of the mainland colonies
increased tenfold (heh...that makes two tenfolds)
o On the eve of the American Revolution (figure of speech – blame the book if it’s
confusing), white men and women in the mainland British colonies had one of the
highest living standards in the world
 The Atlantic Slave Trade
o ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
o 6.1 million slaves shipped 1701-1800
o Slaves are a cheap and self-reproducing form of labor
o The most significant portion of the worldwide trade in African slaves
o Tremendous numbers of slaves were imported from Africa to the New World to
fuel the rapidly expanding plantation system
o Slaves accounted for more than 80% of all the commodities produced in America
o Originally, slaves were acquired by European agents who tapped into traditional
African slave-trading networks; however, as the trade picked up speed, slaves
were traded by European boats who landed directly on the coast
o Slave trade deeply affected African culture
 Many crimes became punishable by being sold into slavery
 European technology
 Firearms changed African warfare
 Cheap European manufactured goods drove many African
businesses...well, out of business
o The trade never really caught on in Europe (because of cheap labor being readily
available in the form of serfs)
o In Britain, slavery was ultimately abolished by the “Clapham Sect”
 Abolitionists (obviously)
 Wilbur Wilkerforce
o Dahomey (west African country) – slavery = royal monopoly
o Olaudah Equino – slave
 Educated
 Eventually bought his own freedom (“manumission”)
 Became a powerful voice in the British abolitionist movement
 Revival in Colonial Latin America
o Spain’s empire came back from the brink of destruction
 o Philip V (ruled 1700-1746)
o Creoles – entities of Spanish descent, born in the New World; formed something
of an aristocracy
o American trade with Spain was handled by a new class of Creole merchants
o Debt peonage – Amerindians were kept in a perpetual state of debt bondage by
virtue of their planter/rancher providing amenities, food etc. in advance
 A form of serfdom
o Mestizos – offspring of Spanish men and Amerindian women
o About 20% of the population was white, 30% mestizo, and the rest natives or
slaves
 Trade and Empire in Asia
o Venetians → Portuguese → Dutch → English
o The Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602 to capture the extremely
lucrative spice trade from the Portuguese
o Indonesia – important Dutch colony
o Made the port of Jakarta (renamed “Batavia”) in Java the heart of their Indian
efforts
o At first, British efforts in India were limited by the Mughal emperor
o After being granted full trading privileges, the British quickly went on to defeat
their main rival – the French – with the Seven Years’ War and the Treaty of Paris,
which ceded all French territory in India to the British Crown
o Robert Clive defeated the Mughal emperor and became the 1st British governor
general (with complete control) of Bengal, a northern Indian province
 Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism
o Adam Smith (1723-1790) – Enlightenment philosopher; supported “free trade”
 Highly critical of mercantilism; instead advocated the pursuit of self-
interest as a way to regulate the market – an “invisible hand” that uses the
individual to promote the public interest without him even realizing that
he is doing so
 “Laissez-faire” – let the market regulate itself, foo’s
 SUPPLY AND DEMAND
 Held that a government should perform only 3 duties: protect against
invasion, maintain civil order, and sponsor public works that no investor
in their right mind would
 “Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) –
established the basics of modern economics
 Wages should be higher
 No “conspiracy of capitalists”
 Division of labor leads to alienation of workers
 His work eventually became the classic argument for “economic
liberalism”

Chapter 20

Marriage and the Family

  Late Marriage and Nuclear Families
o People married relatively late in their lives
 Couples needed to be able to economically support themselves
 Marriage often had to be approved by the local lord, who might not do so
(it was felt that more marriage = more children = bigger drain on welfare
funds)
o “Nuclear families” refers to ones built around “immediate relatives”, not couples
with radiation sickness
 A “family” consisted of kids and parents, period
 Work Away from Home
o Young entities often served in another family’s household
 Girls were often harassed, mistreated, and/or raped
 The result was that many became prostitutes
 Premarital Sex and Community Controls
o Community controls – villages, seeking to protect their reputations, employed a
form of vigilante justice to prevent (among other things) premarital sex, including
(but not limited to) singing obscenities at night, throwing various vegetable
products, and towing the accused around backwards on a donkey O.o
o The French apparently led the way in contraception with coitus interruptus (it
doesn’t deserve an explanation) and various “sheaths” (ask Mr. Robby Carroll
about that one)
 New Patterns of Marriage and Illegitimacy
o The “illegitimacy explosion” – lots of illegitimate kids (from 1-3% to 10-20% of
children were illegitimate, in fact)
Children and Education
 Child Care and Nursing
o Upper-class women felt breast-feeding to be undignified; thus, they utilized...
o Wet-nursing – a woman hired another woman to breast-feed her infant
 Foundlings and Infanticide
o Infanticide – the killing of infants (well, duh)
 In the context the book uses it in, it refers to getting rid of kids you can’t
afford to keep
o Foundling homes (basically orphanages) were used as an alternative
 Often 50 and sometimes as much as 90% of the “foundlings” in these
homes didn’t survive
 St. Vincent de Paul – foundling hospital
 Attitudes towards children
o Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)
 Hated kids
 Named all his children “Edward” after himself to carry on the family name
o Daniel Defoe (1659-1731)
 Enjoyed watching children suffer in factories
 “Spare the rod and spoil the child”
o Susannah Wesley (1669-1742)
 Parents must “conquer the will” of their children :-(
  Claimed that her babies cried softly for fear of being beaten
o After the Enlightenment, however, attitudes changed, and people started to
actually care about their children
o Rousseau was a hypocrite because he advocated what was for the time a very
radical view about actually taking care of children and stuff...but all 5 of his kids
ended up in foundling homes
 Schools and Popular Literature
o After the Reformation, the literacy rate improved dramatically, prompting a
greater interest in reading
o People read...
 Escapism
 “Chapbooks” – Biblical stories
 Religious stuff in general
 Almanacs – very widely read books that contained information on both
religious and secular subjects, with a side of astrology and jokes (which
were probably terrible nonetheless)
o “Common Sense” (Thomas Paine; 1776) – attacked government
 Class differences
o Reading material
o Childcare
o Diet
Food, Medicine, and New Consumption Habits
 Diets and Nutrition
o The “just price” – a price perceived as “fair”; often conjured up by disgruntled
peasants
o As the population increased from 1500 to 1700, peasants’ standard of living
decreased
o Peasants in England and the Netherlands generally had higher standards of living
than their cousins in other European countries
o The introduction of the potato provided vitamins to those who previously couldn’t
get them (peasants, being 1st-order consumers, normally masticated on members
of kingdom Plantae)
o Peasant’s weren’t allowed to hunt → no red meat
 Toward a Consumer Society
o Consumer society – entities had greater access to finished goods and derived their
self-identity from buying stuff as well as making it
o The consumption of clothing increased dramatically
 Many women entered the textile business
 Shrewd tailors invented “fashion”
 Eventually, women were wearing clothing that was far more flamboyant
than that of their male counterparts; women also tended to buy more of it
than men did
o These advances were largely restricted to the Western elite, however
o Identity from consumption
 Increased supply
  Boutiques (sold specific things)
 Diversified product line
 Entrepreneurs
 Marketing
 Colonial economy (colonies frequently were forced to buy from their
mother countries)
 Cheap copies (of various fashions)
 Primarily females
 Men wear dark, dignified colors :-(
 Medical Practitioners
o Faith healers – healed people by driving out demons and other such entities
o Apothecaries/pharmacists – “doctors” who sold vastly expensive “medicines” that
were supposed to “heal” people
 They provided frequent “purging” of the bowels for good health O.o
o Physicians were like apothecaries, but they experimented a bit more
o Surgeons actually did useful stuff...sort of
 With lots of critically injured dudes on battlefields, they had plenty of
practice
 They invented “cauterization” – effectively burning bits of peoples’ bodies
to save them
 Perhaps understandably, many people still died regardless (and sometimes
the bacteria-infested places where the surgeons worked killed people who
would have otherwise survived)
o Midwives were gradually edged out of the childbirth picture by surgeon-
physicians
 Madame du Coudray – trained thousands of French women to be
midwives
o Smallpox inoculation
 Invented by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
 Smeared her son with pus from a smallpox victim and thereby cured him
(ugh)
 About 1/50 died from the procedure
 Epic failure: someone who was inoculated was also, ironically, infectious
 Edward Jenner (1749-1823) – noticed that cowpox (which is milder)
inoculated against smallpox – ENLIGHTENMENT
 Eventually, after much experimentation, Jenner inoculated a young boy
with “matter” (O.o) taken from a milkmaid with cowpox
o So, to recap: hospital heresy
 Faith healers
 Pharmacists (apothecaries)
 Physicians
 Battlefield surgeons
 Midwives
Religion and Popular Culture
 The Institutional Church
 o The local parish (possible ID/sig) church was a fundamental component of village
life
 People met there for baptisms, etc. and the time after services was used to
socialize
o Catholic monarchs across northern Europe eventually made themselves the heads
of their respective church regions
o As a result, the papacy was weakened
o Regulated church – religion becomes bureaucratic
o The Jesuits, highly effective agents of Rome, were dissolved under pressure from
foreign powers (at least until the French Revolution)
 Enlightenment opposition
o In Austria, monasteries were dissolved (the “Edict on Idle Institutions”) and the
government was deeply in control of the local church, giving it a decidedly
Protestant appearance
 Protestant Revival
o Pietism (another word for the Protestant Revival)
 1) Enthusiasm was key
 2) Stressed the “priesthood of all believers”, bringing the Lutheran clergy
and laity closer together
 3) “Christian rebirth” – converts experience a “rebirth” on account of them
now being true “Christians”
o Sought to eliminate medieval Catholic relics + practices
o Methodism – founded by John Wesley (1703-1791)
 Rejected Calvin’s predestination – everyone could be saved
 Emotional experience → spontaneous
 Positive religion (“we’re all gonna be saved”), as opposed to a negative
one like Calvinism (“we’re all gonna burn”)
 Catholic Piety
o Jansenism – founded by Cornelius Jansen (Flemish theologian; 1585-1638)
 Drive to return to the early Christianity of St. Augustine
 Attracted many Catholics eager for religious renewal, as well as the poor
o Many religious authorities denounced peasant superstition, underlining the divide
between the clergy’s Catholicism and that of the laity
 Villagers see an “inexplicable attack” on their “pagan” customs
 Leisure and Recreation
o Religious processions, ceremonies, etc.
o Carnival – festival preceding the 40 days of Lent, characterized by excessive
merrymaking
 Role reversals also occurred – masters waited on their servants at the
table, and men engaged in cross-dressing
o People drunk a lot, particularly hard liquor
o Blood sports – bears or roosters fighting each other (not bear vs rooster. That
would be unfair)
o The educated elite, which had previously enthusiastically participated in these
festivities, now saw them as vulgar and...and...uh, bad
  IMPORTANT – the 3 horses that Mullins bet on (I don’t think they’ll be on this test, but
he said they’ll be extra credit on the midterm)
o Fairway Phyllis
o Fresno Flyer
o Famous T

Chapter 21

Background to Revolution
 Legal Orders and Social Change
o French society divided into 3 “estates” – the clergy, the nobility...and, you
guessed it, everyone else
 #1: The clergy had important privileges, owned large amounts of land, and
paid little taxes (but taxed everyone else)
 #2: The nobility enjoyed “manorial rights” (privileges of being a noble),
had a monopoly on certain village services, and also paid little taxes
 #3: Everyone else – peasants and their cronies
o Bourgeoisie (“upper middle class”) – wealthy members of the 3rd estate
o The original theory was that the b-dudes led the entire 3rd estate in a massive
uprising, known today as the “French Revolution”...although it should be called
the “French Devolution” because it made France an even cruddier place to live in
than it already was
o However, because historians love to screw around with simple things and make
them more complicated, they came up with 3 reasons why this is wrong:
 1) The nobility wasn’t some kind of super-elite birthright-only club –
many commoners joined, too
 2) The b-dudes were not actually more liberal than the nobility
 3) The nobility and the b-dudes didn’t hate each other
o Now that we’ve spent 2 pages describing how the Revolution didn’t happen, let’s
get down to why it did...
 The Crisis of Political Legitimacy
o After Louis XIV died, his son, Louis XV (ruled 1715-1774) came to power and
proceeded to engage in epic fail
 He basically scrapped all of Louis XIV strong central monarchy stuff in
favor of councils making his decisions for him
 The duke of Orléans (1674-1723) – regent to Louis XV until 1723 (note
that the only thing stopping him ruling for longer was his own death)
 The duke restored the right of the parlements to evaluate royal decrees,
creating a “counterweight to absolute power” – absolutism goes out the
window
o Louis hired René de Maupeou to restore order
 The dude created new parlements loyal to the king, called the “Maupeou
parlements”, and once more taxed the privileged groups
 o Desacralization – Louis’s public image sunk lower and lower; a series of affairs
with ever more low-born women made the king appear to be more of a degenerate
than God’s anointed on Earth
o Louis XV was succeeded by his son, Louis XVI (ruled 1774-1792), who lived
only to please his nobles – useless, in a word
 The Impact of the American Revolution
o The French Revolution was inspired by the American one, which coincided with
the first few years of Louis XVI’s reign
o The Americans declared the sovereignty of the American states and denounced
the tyranny of George III (who ruled 1760-1820, incidentally) in favor of
LIBERTY and all that crap...you know the rest
o The marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834) was one of George Washington’s most
trusted generals...and yes, he was French
o French backing of the Americans meant that France was most affected by the
Revolutionary War
 Financial Crisis
o Because France had no central bank and therefore no way of getting rid of debt
the lazy way (by simply blowing it off), the Crown raised taxes...but this required
a massive reboot of the existing tax infrastructure
o Certain entities convinced the king to call an “Assembly of Notables” to gain
support...and it all went downhill from there
o The “notables” in question – important nobles and some high-ranking clergymen
– demanded that the king give them control over all government spending
o When he refused, they responded by demanding a meeting of the Estates General
(the representative body of all 3 estates) to approve these sweeping reforms...but
there was just one catch...the Estates General hadn’t met for almost 2 centuries!!!
1
o The king dismissed the “notables” and just created the new tax himself; however,
it was immediately opposed by the Parlement of Paris
o When he tried exiling them, the entire country protested; Louis eventually
relented and convened the Estates General
Revolution in Metropole and Colony, 1789-1791
 The Formation of the National Assembly
o The clergy who showed up at the Estates General were dissatisfied with the
church hierarchy
o The nobles were politically divided
o The middle class represented everyone else
o “Doubling the 3rd” – Louis XVI made it so that there were twice as many people
in the 3rd estate as in the other 2, but this didn’t change anything because the votes
were counted by house, not by head
o During negotiations, the 3 estates were deadlocked; eventually, some parish
priests went over to the 3rd estate’s side (called the “National Assembly”)
o The 3rd estate signed the “Oath of the Tennis Court” (so-called because it was
signed in a tennis court), wherein they pledged not to disband until they had
written a new constitution
 o Eventually, Louis XVI dissolved the Estates General by force
 The Revolt of the Poor and Oppressed
o A poor harvest in 1788 triggered an economic depression; 1-in-8 Frenchies was a
pauper with practically nothing
o In response to the king’s armies marching on Paris to quell unrest, the citizens
stormed the “Bastille” (an old medieval fortress) to acquire weaponry
o This small element of resistance saved the National Assembly
o Throughout the countryside, peasants rose against their lords
o The “Great Fear” – fear by peasants of vagabonds and outlaws
o The duke of Aiguillon urged for equality in taxation and the elimination of noble
privileges
o The French peasantry had achieved a tremendous victory
 A Limited Monarchy
o The “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen” – “men are born and
remain free and equal in rights”
 Sovereignty is in the nation, not the monarchy
 Issues remained over the power of the king
o A horde of Parisian women marched to Versailles and broke into the royal
apartments, demanding bread – BEGINNING OF LE REVOLUTION
o The king was forced to live Paris
o The nobility was abolished as a legal order
o Creation of a “constitutional monarchy” – like in England, lawmaking power was
outside of the king’s sphere of control
o Women were still excluded
o The complicated province system was replaced by 83 “departments”
o Lafayette (I think the same one from earlier) – liberal; helped keep the
revolutionaries in line and prevented anarchy from getting too out-of-hand
o Le Chapelier Law – abolished monopolies + guilds
o Jews and Protestants were granted religious freedom
o Emigrees – nobles who left France
o The new government clashed with the church
 Monasteries were abolished
 Civil Constitution of the Clergy – loyalty oath for priests; only ½ signed it,
and only 1 bishop: Talleyrand
 Law of Seizure – helped along by Talleyrand
 Priests were chosen by voters (!!!)
 Revolutionary Aspirations in Saint-Domingue
o Saint-Domingue also had to contend with race issues
o “Free people of color” – free people of African or African-European descent
o The rights of these “free people of color” were gradually restricted by white
landowners
o Slavery was abolished in France, but not in the colonies, because...
o The National Assembly ruled that colonies were free to enact their own legislature
regarding slavery, etc.
 o Vincent Ogé – raised an army in July 1790 with the intent of providing political
rights for all citizens; he was eventually defeated and executed
o In May 1791, the National Assembly granted political rights to “free people of
color” born to 2 free parents who possessed sufficient property
 Even this weak compromise outraged the white elite, prompting civil war
in Saint-Domingue
World War and Republican France, 1791-1799
 Foreign Reactions and the Beginning of War
o Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
 Troubled by overzealous reformatory spirit
 “Reflections on the Revolution in France” – defended the old order;
brilliant defense of European conservatism
o Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
 “A Vindication of the Rights of Man” (1790) – reaction to Burke
 “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman” (1792) – denounced sexual
inequality
o Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793) – Wollstonecraft’s French counterpart
 Problems in France are because of sexual inequality
o Declaration of Pillnitz – after the French royal family tried to sneak out of France,
Austria and Prussia announced that they would intervene if things got really bad
o The National Assembly was succeeded by the Legislative Assembly (the 1st
elected national legislature); many members belonged to the “Jacobin club”, a
club where people discussed political boredom
 “Self-denying ordinance” – no-one in the National Assembly can be in the
Legislative Assembly
o Fueled by patriotic fury, the French stupidly declared war on “tyranny” –
effectively everyone else
o Following a series of unfortunate events involving crazed Frenchmen, the king
was stripped of all his governmental powers – French monarchy was dead
 “Storming of the Tulleries” – Frenchies attack their own palace
o Partition of Poland distracts Austria + Prussia
 The Second Revolution
o The “September Massacres” – many imprisoned members of the 1st and 2nd estates
were slaughtered
o The Jacobin club was divided into competing groups
 The “Girondists” – led by some people from southwestern France
 “The Mountain” – led by Robespierre and Georges Jacques Danton
 Both, however, were eager to waste their lives fighting “tyranny”
o The Mountain was accused of aiming for a bloody dictatorship, while the
Girondists were accused of being too sympathetic with the old ways
o “Sans-culottes” (without breeches) – the laboring poor and petty traders
o The Mountain sided with the sans-culottes’ call for the guarantee of their daily
bread; they engineered a popular uprising and deposed the Girondists
o Ironically, peasant revolts threatened the integrity of the country; France as a
nation seemed doomed...
 Total War and Terror
o Unfortunately, France somehow recovered
o Robespierre and his buddies instituted a “planned economy” – the government
controls everything; they even forced bakers to make a specific kind of bread
o The “Reign of Terror” (1793-1794)
 Robespierre executed 40,000 French citizens (what did they do with all the
heads?)
 Another 300,000 suspects were arrested
o Nationalism – for some reason, French people liked the new France with all those
heads rolling around and patriotically supported it
o The French military stood at 800,000 soldiers – 4x their enemies’ – divided into
14 armies
 Revolution in Saint-Domingue
o Slaves secretly planned a mass insurrection
o “Voodoo” – a religion combining Catholicism and African cults (weird combo)
o The insurrection grew to 10,000 by August 27; the slaves destroyed hundreds of
plantations
o The National Assembly “enfranchised” (emancipated) all free people of color, but
not the slaves, figuring that support from said free people of color was vital to
counter the rebellion
o European divisions soon spread to Saint-Domingue
 Slaves fled to the Spanish half of the island (“Santo Domingo”)
 Toussaint L’Ouverture – freed slave; joined the Spanish army as an officer
(he eventually rejoined France, though)
o The Convention eventually abolished slavery altogether
 The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory, 1794-1799
o Robespierre’s Reign of Terror happened to wipe out all the people who opposed
him (how convenient)
o Many of his buddies – including Danton – eventually had a fatal date with
“Madame Guillotine”...fearing that they would be next, the Convention shouted
him down on 9 Thermidor (normal people call it “July 27, 1794”); he was
executed the following day
o This was called the “Thermidorian reaction”
o After the fall of Robespierre, the National Convention eliminated economic
controls and local political organizations (such as the Jacobins), hitting the sans-
culottes hard
o Massive religious revival, mainly instituted by rural women – people returned to
Catholicism
o The “Directory” – the 5-man executive branch of the government, created by the
Convention
o The Directory eventually became a dictatorship before being ended by Napoleon
Bonaparte
o Abbé (abbot) Sieyes
 “What is the 3rd Estate?” (1789) – EVERYONE!
  By 1799, however, he changed his tune – supported “authority from
above, confidence from below”
o Napoleon Bonaparte is selected as Sieyes’ “front man” because they think he can
be controlled...he can’t
 Young, in the military, etc. – appealing candidate for control of the
government
 “The Consulate” – the 4th French government, headed by Napoleon
 Napoleon! :D
o Napoleon Bonaparte was young, flamboyant, and a military man
o He was born in Corsica, where he absorbed Mediterranean values
o Believed that he was destined for greatness
o “Outsider”
o Attended a military school
 Excellent student
 Uses what he has better (equipment, maps...armies)
o Cynical
 “Men want to be led”
 Rise to power and all that stuff
o Abbe Sieyès and his buddies overthrew the Directory and placed Napoleon on the
(figurative) throne
o He was named “first consul of the republic” (sounds awfully like Augustus
Caesar)
o France kept the appearance of a republic, but a constitution consolidating
Napoleon’s position was overwhelmingly approved by the people
o Civil Code of 1804 – equality of all male citizens before the law and absolute
security of wealth/private property
o Napoleon thus assisted the peasantry and middle class
o He also integrated revolutionaries and émigrés into the new government
o Concordat of 1801 (with Pius VII)
 French Catholics had freedom of religion
 The government nominated bishops, paid the clergy, and held great power
over the Church in France
o Created a Bank of France
o Women were made subordinate to men in the family
o Freedom of speech and of the press were continually violated
o The population was ceaselessly spied upon by Joseph Fouché’s secret police
 Timeline
o Toulon – 1793
o Paris – 1795
o North Italy – 1796-7
o Nile – 1798-9
o Consul – 1799
 Napoleon’s Expansion in Europe
 o Napoleon attempted to make peace with Austria and Great Britain; when he was
rejected, he proceeded to pwn Austria
 Treaty of Lunéville (1801) – Austria gave up its Italian stuff
o Treaty of Amiens (1802) – diplomatic triumph for Napoleon; France got a lot of
stuff
 Peace with Britain
o Restricted British trade
o When he tried to invade Britain directly, his combined French-Spanish fleet was
obliterated at the Battle of Trafalgar by the famously 1-armed Lord Nelson
o After Russia and Austria withdrew, Napoleon rearranged the German states to his
liking, creating the “Confederation of the Rhine”
o The Prussians mobilized but were defeated 3 times in a row (ouch) – the last time
they even had Russian assistance
o Treaties of Tilsit
 Prussia lost half its population
 Russia accepted Napoleon’s reorganization of western/central Europe and
agreed to help him economically blockade Britain
 The War of Haitian Independence
o André Rigaud ruled the southern peninsula of Saint-Domingue
o During a brief civil war-ish event, Toussaint L’Ouverture (remember him?) and
his lieutenant, Jean Jacques Dessalines, invaded and won
o Napoleon sent over his brother-in-law, General Charles-Victor-Emmanuel
Leclerc, to crush the resistance and other such stuff
 L’Ouverture was captured and imprisoned
o Dessalines united the remainder of the resistance under his command and crushed
the French
 Saint-Domingue – now called Haiti – thus became an independent state
 2nd free republic in the western hemisphere
o “1-crop country”
 The Grand Empire and Its End
o “Grand Empire” – Napoleon’s European empire
 1) France
 2) Satellite kingdoms
 3) Austria, Prussia, and Russia (allies)
o Ideals of the Revolution “exported”
o But, this unfortunately also brought along...
 French law
 High taxes
 Men for army
 Nationalism
o In Spain, a guerilla insurrection challenged French power after Napoleon decided
to invade
o Napoleon invaded Russia with a force of 600,000, the largest single army in
human history
 Wanted a decisive battle
 o After lurking in Moscow for a bit, he was forced into a disastrous retreat and fled
back to Paris, fully 95% of his “Grand Army” having perished
 Borodino
o Continental system
 Economic warfare
 No British imports
 Damages trade for France + allies
 British trade actually increased 2x (they traded with Latin America
instead)
o France was crushed by the combined forces of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great
Britain
 The Treaty of Chaumont officially sealed the alliance
 Battle of Leipzig (1813) – Napoleon loses
o Frankfurt proposals – France would keep the borders of 1792
 Napoleon refused
o Napoleon was banished to the island of Elba
 He still kept his title, however, and also received an income of 2 million
francs
o Louis XVIII (ruled 1814-1824) took the throne of France
o However, Napoleon escaped for a famous “Hundred Days”, before being defeated
at the Battle of Waterloo
 He was exiled to the rocky island of St. Helena and there died
 The end!
 Boring stuff (it’ll probably – almost certainly? – be what the essay’s on, though, so look
out D:)
o Bergeron – “Napoleon was an Enlightened absolutist monarch/despot”
 Revolution from above
 Govern how men want to be governed
 Rigid, oppressive – can be seen as source of strength
 Citizens → subjects
o Lyons – “Napoleon was a preserver of the Revolution/modern ruler”
 Secular
 Conscripts army
 Police state
 Professional bureaucracy
 Embodies rights of the people
 Anti-liberal
 Rationalized new “regime”
 Rests on “notables”
 Preserves gains of the Revolution
 Louis XVI and Napoleon “in different spheres”

Napoleon

 Napoleon! :D
 o Napoleon Bonaparte was young, flamboyant, and a military man
o He was born in Corsica, where he absorbed Mediterranean values
o Believed that he was destined for greatness
o “Outsider”
o Attended a military school
 Excellent student
 Uses what he has better (equipment, maps...armies)
o Cynical
 “Men want to be led”
 Rise to power and all that stuff
o Abbe Sieyès and his buddies overthrew the Directory and placed Napoleon on the
(figurative) throne
o He was named “first consul of the republic” (sounds awfully like Augustus
Caesar)
o France kept the appearance of a republic, but a constitution consolidating
Napoleon’s position was overwhelmingly approved by the people
o Civil Code of 1804 – equality of all male citizens before the law and absolute
security of wealth/private property
o Napoleon thus assisted the peasantry and middle class
o He also integrated revolutionaries and émigrés into the new government
o Concordat of 1801 (with Pius VII)
 French Catholics had freedom of religion
 The government nominated bishops, paid the clergy, and held great power
over the Church in France
o Created a Bank of France
o Women were made subordinate to men in the family
o Freedom of speech and of the press were continually violated
o The population was ceaselessly spied upon by Joseph Fouché’s secret police
 Timeline
o Toulon – 1793
o Paris – 1795
o North Italy – 1796-7
o Nile – 1798-9
o Consul – 1799
 Napoleon’s Expansion in Europe
o Napoleon attempted to make peace with Austria and Great Britain; when he was
rejected, he proceeded to pwn Austria
 Treaty of Lunéville (1801) – Austria gave up its Italian stuff
o Treaty of Amiens (1802) – diplomatic triumph for Napoleon; France got a lot of
stuff
 Peace with Britain
o Restricted British trade
o When he tried to invade Britain directly, his combined French-Spanish fleet was
obliterated at the Battle of Trafalgar by the famously 1-armed Lord Nelson
 o After Russia and Austria withdrew, Napoleon rearranged the German states to his
liking, creating the “Confederation of the Rhine”
o The Prussians mobilized but were defeated 3 times in a row (ouch) – the last time
they even had Russian assistance
o Treaties of Tilsit
 Prussia lost half its population
 Russia accepted Napoleon’s reorganization of western/central Europe and
agreed to help him economically blockade Britain
 The War of Haitian Independence
o André Rigaud ruled the southern peninsula of Saint-Domingue
o During a brief civil war-ish event, Toussaint L’Ouverture (remember him?) and
his lieutenant, Jean Jacques Dessalines, invaded and won
o Napoleon sent over his brother-in-law, General Charles-Victor-Emmanuel
Leclerc, to crush the resistance and other such stuff
 L’Ouverture was captured and imprisoned
o Dessalines united the remainder of the resistance under his command and crushed
the French
 Saint-Domingue – now called Haiti – thus became an independent state
 2nd free republic in the western hemisphere
o “1-crop country”
 The Grand Empire and Its End
o “Grand Empire” – Napoleon’s European empire
 1) France
 2) Satellite kingdoms
 3) Austria, Prussia, and Russia (allies)
o Ideals of the Revolution “exported”
o But, this unfortunately also brought along...
 French law
 High taxes
 Men for army
 Nationalism
o In Spain, a guerilla insurrection challenged French power after Napoleon decided
to invade
o Napoleon invaded Russia with a force of 600,000, the largest single army in
human history
 Wanted a decisive battle
o After lurking in Moscow for a bit, he was forced into a disastrous retreat and fled
back to Paris, fully 95% of his “Grand Army” having perished
 Borodino
o Continental system
 Economic warfare
 No British imports
 Damages trade for France + allies
 British trade actually increased 2x (they traded with Latin America
instead)
 o France was crushed by the combined forces of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great
Britain
 The Treaty of Chaumont officially sealed the alliance
 Battle of Leipzig (1813) – Napoleon loses
o Frankfurt proposals – France would keep the borders of 1792
 Napoleon refused
o Napoleon was banished to the island of Elba
 He still kept his title, however, and also received an income of 2 million
francs
o Louis XVIII (ruled 1814-1824) took the throne of France
o However, Napoleon escaped for a famous “Hundred Days”, before being defeated
at the Battle of Waterloo
 He was exiled to the rocky island of St. Helena and there died
 The end!
 Boring stuff (it’ll probably – almost certainly? – be what the essay’s on, though, so look
out D:)
o Bergeron – “Napoleon was an Enlightened absolutist monarch/despot”
 Revolution from above
 Govern how men want to be governed
 Rigid, oppressive – can be seen as source of strength
 Citizens → subjects
o Lyons – “Napoleon was a preserver of the Revolution/modern ruler”
 Secular
 Conscripts army
 Police state
 Professional bureaucracy
 Embodies rights of the people
 Anti-liberal
 Rationalized new “regime”
 Rests on “notables”
 Preserves gains of the Revolution
 Louis XVI and Napoleon “in different spheres”

Chapter 22

The Industrial Revolution in Britain

 Eighteenth-Century Origins
o Domestic economy functions with few controls
o Britain’s colonial empire provided good trading opportunities
o Water for transport was readily available
o Skilled in agriculture
o Central bank
o Stable/predictable government
o Large numbers of hired agricultural laborers
o Industrial Revolution – quickening of technological growth
 The First Factories
o James Hargreaves – invented the cotton spinning jenny (cotton was easier to work
on a machine than wool was)
o Richard Arkwright – invented/stole the water frame (basically a water powered
version of Hargreaves’ machine)
 1st factory!!!1
o Spinning output increased tenfold
o People started actually wearing underwear (“body linen”) O.o
o Foundlings were often “apprenticed” to factory owners
 The Problem of Energy
o Humans had long used the power of their muscles alone to operate machines such
as the plough; obviously, this had its disadvantages
o Wind and water power were often out of reach
o Wood was either burned for heat or processed into charcoal to be used in
ironmaking; when the forests ran out, iron production likewise stagnated
 The Steam Engine Breakthrough
o Eventually, coal extracted from the ground was used in place of charcoal, fueling
the growth of yet another industry: mining
o 2 people named Thomas (Savery and Newcomen) invented the steam engine in
1698 and 1705, respectively
o These engines, which burned coal for fuel, were used in place of manpower in
mines to perform various odd jobs such as pumping out water if it flooded
o James Watt (1736-1819) – made a better steam engine which later became a wild
success
 Precision parts for the machine manufactured by Wilkinson
 Capital provided by Boulton
o Coke – fuel made from coal; replaced charcoal
o In the 1780s, Henry Cort invented the “puddling furnace”, which produced iron
and coke at the same time
 The Coming of the Railroads
o Steam engine that were to replace horse-drawn carriages were considered and
then discarded because of vibration issues
o The whole “railroad tracks” idea was adopted from mine cars
o The true breakthrough came in the form of George Stephenson’s “Rocket” (1825)
– the first train in the world – which went into service in 1830
o Railroads transformed the popular imagination as well as transportation
o Results of railwayification:
 More food/fuel faster + cheaper
 Markets interlocked
 Opened new areas to settlement
 Urbanization
 Jobs
 Standard time (because the trains move so quickly, a standard time had to
be developed to keep track)
 Commonality of information
  Military (movement of troops)
 Class consciousness
 Industry and Population
o Crystal Palace – giant greenhouse-ish structure in London built entirely of iron
and glass (both of which were now readily available)
o By 1860, Britain produced 20% of the entire world’s industrial goods
o The British people as a whole became wealthier
o The population experienced a boom
 “Essay on the Principle of Population” (1798; Thomas Malthus) –
population growth would always exceed food supply
o The “iron law of wages” (David Recardo) – because of population growth, wages
would always be just high enough to prevent everyone from starving :(
Industrialization in Continental Europe
 National Variations
o Other states became industrialized too
o Huzzah
 The Challenge of Industrialization
o Problems in the wake of the French Revolution disrupted growth on the continent;
Britain raced ahead while the rest of Europe was left in the dust
o British tech was just too complicated for the poor Frenchies to understand
o After 1815, though, continental growth got a major boost; in fact, the continent
did have several distinct advantages:
 1) Rich putting-out tradition
 2) Everyone else just leached off of Britain’s tech instead of going through
the hassle of inventing it themselves
 3) Strong, independent governments
 Agents of Industrialization
o William Cockerill
 Lancashire carpenter
 Moved to France-occupied Belgium and set up shop as an industrial baron
 Attracted tons of British n00bs who wanted in on his mechanized
paradise; they brought the latest info on British technological
advancements
o Fritz Harkort
 Built his own steam engines with the help of British mechanics in an
abandoned castle
 Wanted to become the “Watt of Germany”
 Government Support and Corporate Banking
o “Tariff protection” – basically, high taxes on cheap foreign products so that
domestic producers benefit
o In Prussia, the government basically funded railroad construction
o Friedrich List (1789-1846) – German journalist and thinker
 Considered the growth of modern industry to be of the utmost importance
 “National System of Political Economy” (1841) – advocated tariffs and
the building of railroads
 “Need government support for industrialization”
 Feared that the British would eventually take over
 Zollverein (1834) – economic union of German states; stuff could move
between states easier because of lower tariffs
o Economic nationalism – like nationalism, but economic
o Banking took a new, more open direction
 Limited liability – investors don’t have to risk much (attracts both small
and large investors)
 Pereire (did I spell that right?) brothers – credit mobilier
Relations Between Capital and Labor
 The New Class of Factory Owners
o It was difficult for manufacturers to break even due to the cost of their machinery
o New industrialists were smug, rich jerks
o A formal education was much sought-after for the sons of factory owners
o A few capitalists own a lot; vast horde of workers earn very little
o Gender roles became more emphasized
o Some (relatively few) artisans can move up to become factory owners
 The New Factory Workers
o Factories were greatly protested against by...well, everyone
o Luddites – smashed factory machinery
o Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
 Karl Marx’s buddy
 “The Condition of the Working Class in England” – extensively
badmouthed the middle classes, blaming them for virtually everything
o Standards of living increased
 Workers earned more simply because they worked for longer
 No more wars :D
 Conditions of Work
o William Blake – called factories “satanic mills”
o William Wordsworth – upset at the loss of the rural life, various wildlife entities,
etc.
o Work was continuous
o Cottage workers were not used to this heresy; they normally worked long hours,
but in “spurts” (to quote the book)
o The resemblance of factories to particularly noisy poorhouses did not go
unnoticed by the French population
o The whole “family” idea was carried over from the putting-out system; going to
work was like a family outing, except with heavy labor involved
o Factory Act of 1833 – children 9-13 could only work 8 hours/day; 14-18 could
only work 12 hours/day
o Tons of Irish came over to work in Britain
 The Sexual Division of Labor
 o “Separate spheres”
 Man – primary wage earner
 Woman – stuff around the house
o Causes:
 1) Continuous work, as opposed to work that you could suspend whenever
you wanted (a la cottage industry), interfered with child care for women
 2) It really was difficult to run a house
 3) Segregation of jobs by gender was an attempt to control the sexuality of
younger folk
o Mines Act – no underground work for women/boys < 10
 Fear of female sexuality – many women worked topless due to the heat
 The Early Labor Movement in Britain
o Despite the existence of massive factories housing thousands, certain
industries/firms still employed just a handful of skilled artisans
o Industrialization created a pronounced “us vs. them” mentality: the multitude of
poor laborers was set against the handful of rich capitalists
o Anti-capitalist/-industrialist sentiment
o “Combination Acts” – outlawed unions and strikes
 Widely disregarded; ironically, many people went on strike specifically to
counter it
 Eventually repealed
o After Parliament repealed certain laws pertaining to who could work, artisans
found their crafts flooded with hordes of untrained women and children
o Robert Owen – self-made cotton manufacturer and “do-gooder factory owner”
 Organized the “Grand National Consolidated Trades Union”, which failed
because it was simply impossible to unify workers from both ends of the
monetary spectrum
o “Amalgamated Society of Engineers” – skilled machinists; it works because
engineers are difficult to replace, unlike random grunts
o “Chartist” movement
 Demanded that all men be given the right to vote
 Wanted to limit the workday to 10 hours
 Duty-free importation of wheat to secure cheap bread => repeal of import
tariffs => FREE TRADE
o Working-class entities thus played an active role in shaping the new industrial
system
 CLASS SOLIDARITY