Definition of Characterization

Characterization is the act of creating and describing characters in literature. Characterization includes both descriptions
of a character’s physical attributes as well as the character’s personality. The way that characters act, think, and speak
also adds to their characterization. There are two subsets of the definition of characterization: direct and indirect
characterization. We explore this distinction in more depth below.

Direct Versus Indirect Characterization

Direct characterization, also known as explicit characterization, consists of the author telling the audience what a
character is like. A narrator may give this information, or a character in the story may do it. Examples of direct
characterization would be:

 “Bill was short and fat, and his bald spot was widening with every passing year.”
 “‘Jane is a cruel person,’ she said.’”
 “I looked in the mirror and saw how dark the circles under my green eyes had become.”

Indirect characterization, on the other hand, consists of the author showing the audience what kind of person a
character is through the character’s thoughts, words, and deeds. This requires the audience to make inferences about
why a character would say or do those things. This type of characterization is also known as implicit characterization.
While it takes more time to develop a character through indirect characterization, it often leaves a deeper impression on
the reader than direct statements about what a character is like. Here are examples of indirect characterization:

 “Bill sighed as he looked at the offer of a gym membership. He really should join. But just thinking about it made
beads of sweat collect at the top of his bald spot.”
 “As Jane walked past the box labeled ‘Free Puppies,’ she furtively glanced around her, then gave the box a swift
kick.”
 “I yawned, trying to keep my eyes open in the meeting. I reached for my coffee cup and was disappointed to
realize it was empty.”

Examples of Characterization in Literature

Example #1

Cathy was chewing a piece of meat, chewing with her front teeth. Samuel had never seen anyone chew that way before.
And when she had swallowed, her little tongue flicked around her lips. Samuel’s mind repeated, “Something—
something—can’t find what it is. Something wrong,” and the silence hung on the table.

(East of Eden by John Steinbeck)

In John Steinbeck’s East of Eden, Cathy is a truly evil character. Steinbeck says this directly many times over and in many
different ways. However, in this example of characterization, Steinbeck instead opts for a more chilling image. Cathy
seems to eat meat much as a snake would. The indirect characterization forces the reader to understand this passage as
an allusion to the serpent in the Garden of Eden, thereby inferring Cathy’s deep-rooted sinfulness.

Example #2

“First of all,” he said, “if you can learn a simple trick, Scout, you’ll get along a lot better with all kinds of folks. You never
really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view […] until you climb into his skin and walk
around in it.”

(To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee)

This quote from Atticus Finch in Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird is another example of indirect characterization.
Atticus is a very compassionate character who is able to extend his empathy to every member of the community. We
learn about the true nobility of his character through his actions, in defending a man no one else will believe is innocent,
and through the strength of his words. This quote quite famously captures his facility for empathy.

Example #3

My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun;

Coral is far more red than her lips’ red;
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.

(“Sonnet 130” by William Shakespeare)

Shakespeare has fun with characterization in his famous “Sonnet 130,” going against all expectations. Since this poem is
about his mistress, one might expect that it would be full of praise. Instead, he describes her only in the most
unappealing ways and compares her to lovely things only to show that she is the opposite. This is an example of direct
characterization.

Sample Drills:

1. Change all the underlined words in the paragraph to achieve the characterization in focus:

Characterization of the following: arrogant, strict, cheater, happy, politician, teacher

He was a rich man: banker, merchant, manufacturer, and what not. A big, loud man, with a stare, and a metallic laugh. A
man made out of coarse material, which seemed to have been stretched to make so much of him… A man who was
always proclaiming, through that brassy speaking-trumpet of a voice of his, his old ignorance and his old poverty. A man
who was the Bully of humility.

(Dickens, “Hard Times”)

2. Expand the kernel sentence by answering the questions provided.

Kernel Sentence: She smiled.

To whom?
When?
Where?
Why?
How?
Evaluation:

Think of your favorite character in a story. Imagine what he/she says, does, and thinks. Using the patterned
writing approach, write a paragraph/paragraphs describing this character. Use either direct or indirect characterization
or the combination of both.
Point of View

Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or feelings of the individuals
involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration that an author employs to let the
readers “hear” and “see” what takes place in a story, poem, or essay.

Function of Point of View

Point of view is an integral tool of description in the author’s hands to portray personal emotions or characters’
feelings about an experience or situation. Writers use a point of view to express effectively what they want to
convey to their readers.

Point of view is a reflection of the opinion an individual from real life or fiction has. Examples of point of view
belong to one of these three major kinds:

1. First person point of view involves the use of either of the two pronouns “I” or “we.”

 “I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and disgrace.”

2. Second person point of view employs the pronoun “you.”

 “Sometimes you cannot clearly discern between anger and frustration.”

3. Third person point of view uses pronouns like “he,” “she,” “it,” “they,” or a name.

 “ Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book and never lets you deceive him easily.”

Three Kinds pf Third Person POV

1. Third-person objective: The facts of a narrative are reported by a seemingly neutral, impersonal
observer or recorder. For an example, see "The Rise of Pancho Villa" by John Reed.
2. Third-person omniscient: An all-knowing narrator not only reports the facts but may also
interpret events and relate the thoughts and feelings of any character. The novels "Middlemarch"
by George Eliot and "Charlotte's Web" by E.B. White employ the third-person-omniscient point
of view.
3. Third-person limited: A narrator reports the facts and interprets events from the perspective of a
single character. For an example, see Katherine Mansfield's short story "Miss Brill."

Examples of Point of View in Literature

Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)

Hamlet, the protagonist, explains the feeling of melancholy that afflicts him after his father’s death:

“I have of late, — but wherefore I know not, — lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises; and indeed,
it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory.”

This is one of the best first-person point of view examples in literature. The use of first-person point of view
gives us a glimpse into the real inner feelings of frustration of the character. The writer has utilized the first-
person point of view to expose Hamlet’s feelings in a detailed way.

Example #2: Daffodils (By William Wordsworth)

“I gazed – and gazed – but little thought

What wealth the show to me had brought.”

Notice how William Wordsworth uses the first-person point of view to express his subjective feelings about the
scene of daffodils in his famous poem. The use of the pronoun “I” gives a special quality to the feelings
expressed in these lines. The reader can see that the poet has employed first-person point of view to share with
us his own personal emotions.
Example #3: The Sun also Rises (By Ernest Hemingway)

Ernest Hemingway, in The Sun also Rises, employs the first-person point of view which is peculiar to his style.

“I could picture it. I have a habit of imagining the conversations between my friends. We went out to the Cafe
Napolitain to have an aperitif and watch the evening crowd on the Boulevard.”

The use of two first person pronouns, “I” and “we,” gives these lines the quality of having a first person point of
view. The reader can feel like he or she is hearing the dialogue directly from the characters.

Example #4: Bright Lights, Big City (By Jay Mclnemey)

“You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning. But here you are, and
you cannot say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details are fuzzy.”

Here, the writer illustrates the use of second-person point of view with the use of the pronoun “you.” This
technique may be less common, but it has its own strength of hooking the reader right from the start.

Sample Drills:

The paragraph is in the first person POV. Change it into a third person omniscient POV and then to third person
limited POV.

It’s this detail, the untucked blouse forming a ducktail, that brings me back to myself.

“Prim!” The strangled cry comes out of my throat, and my muscles begin to move again. “Prim!”

I don’t need to shove through the crowd. The other kids make way immediately allowing me a straight path
to the stage. I reach her just as she is about to mount the steps. With one sweep of my arm, I push her behind
me.

“I volunteer!” I gasp. “I volunteer as tribute!”

From: Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins

Evaluation:

Choosing your own point of view (first, second, third person), write a scene on your favourite story. It
could be from movies you watched or from books you read.

Plot
Plot is a literary term used to describe the events that make up a story, or the main part of a story. These events relate to
each other in a pattern or a sequence. The structure of a novel depends on the organization of events in the plot of the
story.

Plot is known as the foundation of a novel or story, around which the characters and settings are built. It is meant to
organize information and events in a logical manner. When writing the plot of a piece of literature, the author has to be
careful that it does not dominate the other parts of the story.

Primary Elements of a Plot

There are five main elements in a plot.

1. Exposition or Introduction--This is the beginning of the story, where characters and setting are established. The
conflict or main problem is introduced as well.

2. Rising Action--Rising action which occurs when a series of events build up to the conflict. The main characters
are established by the time the rising action of a plot occurs, and at the same time, events begin to get
complicated. It is during this part of a story that excitement, tension, or crisis is encountered.

3. Climax--In the climax, or the main point of the plot, there is a turning point of the story. This is meant to be the
moment of highest interest and emotion, leaving the reader wondering what is going to happen next.

4. Falling Action--Falling action, or the winding up of the story, occurs when events and complications begin to
resolve. The result of the actions of the main characters are put forward.

5. Resolution--Resolution, or the conclusion, is the end of a story, which may occur with either a happy or a tragic
ending.

Examples of Plot in Literature

Example #1: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (By J. K. Rowling)

Among the examples of plot in modern literature, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone is probably the most familiar to
both readers and moviegoers. The plot of the story begins when Harry learns that Professor Snape is after the Sorcerer’s
Stone. The Professor lets loose a troll, who nearly kills Harry and his friends. In addition, Harry finds out that Hagrid let
out the secret of the giant dog to a stranger in return for a dragon, which means that Snape can now reach the Sorcerer’s
Stone.

Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)

A very good plot example in romantic fiction appears in the book Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. The plot of the
story begins when Lizzie’s sister, Jane, falls in love with Darcy’s friend named Mr. Bingley. Lizzie develops and interest
in Mr. Wickham, who accuses Darcy of destroying him financially.

When Lizzie goes to meet her friend, she runs into Mr. Darcy, who proposes, and Lizzie rejects. She then writes him a
letter telling him why she dislikes him. He writes back, clearing up all misunderstandings and accusations. Jane runs away
with Mr. Wickham, and Lizzie realizes that Mr. Darcy is not as bad a man as she had thought him to be.

Function of Plot

A plot is one of the most important parts of a story, and has many different purposes. Firstly, the plot focuses attention on
the important characters and their roles in the story. It motivates the characters to affect the story, and connects the events
in an orderly manner. The plot creates a desire for the reader to go on reading by absorbing them in the middle of the
story, ensuring they want to know what happens next.

The plot is what forms a memory in readers’ minds, allowing them to think about the book and even making them want to
read it again. By identifying and understanding the plot, the reader is able to understand the message being conveyed by
the author, and the explicit or implicit moral of the story.

Linear and Non-linear Plots: What's the Difference?

A linear plot consist of a series of events that have a clear beginning, middle and end. The story unfolds in a
chronological order, which means they are told in the order they happened.

Linear and Non Linear Plot Structure: What's the Difference?

Non-linear plot structures present the events of a story in a non-chronological order. Authors will use non-linear plots to
more closely mimic the way human memory works.

Nonlinear Plot Elements

Suspense, Flashback, Foreshadowing, Parallel Plot, Sub Plot

Note: If flashback begins the story, it's considered part of a linear plot, because it presents the events of a story in
chronological order. If it occurs after the story begins, it disrupts the chronological events of the story, which creates a
non-linear plot.

Parallel Plot
Two or more plots that occur at the same time, and intersect throughout, particularly at the climax. The plots usually take
place within the same time frame. In a story with a parallel plot structure, each plot is essential to the story.

For example, the ironic and tragic ending of "Romeo and Juliet" relies on the audience's knowledge of what is going on
with both Romeo and Juliet throughout the story.
Sub-plot
A secondary story in a narrative. A subplot may serve as a motivating or complicating force for the main plot of the work,
or it may provide emphasis for, or relief from, the main plot. It is different than a parallel plot, in that it may have its own
climax that is unrelated to the climax of the main story.

Example:
In To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout feels like she has to defend her father when the kids at her school start to attack him for
his choice to represent Tom Robinson. This is not directly related to the main plot of the story, but it provides
opportunities for Atticus and Scout to discuss their beliefs about what is right, which lets the reader see what these
characters are all about.
Suspense is the lack of certainty the author creates, leaving the reader to wonder what will happen. It draws the reader
into the story and creates a sense of momentum to the plot.

Foreshadowing is a literary device in which a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come later in the story.
Foreshadowing often appears at the beginning of a story or a chapter and helps the reader develop expectations about the
coming events in a story.

Sample Drills: Create a new story by changing the underlined parts.

“Once upon a time, there were three bears. There was a Daddy Bear, who was very big, a Mama
Bear, who was middle-sized, and a Baby Bear, who was very small. They all lived together in a little
cottage in the middle of the woods. Their favorite breakfast was porridge. One morning, after they
made their porridge, Daddy Bear said, ‘Let’s go for walk in the woods until it cools.’ Mama Bear and
Baby Bear liked the idea, so off they went. While they were away, a little girl named Goldilocks came
walking through the forest and smelled the porridge…”
The Three Little Bears (By Robert Southey)

Evaluation: Plot your own story (15 points)

Session 3: Start your own story by creating the exposition part. Remember this is the part where
characters and setting are established. The conflict or main problem is introduced as well.

Conflict
In literature, conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces, usually a
protagonist and an antagonist.

Internal and External Conflicts

Careful examination of some conflict examples will help us realize that they may be internal or external. 

An internal or psychological conflict arises as soon as a character experiences two opposite emotions or desires
– usually virtue and vice, or good and evil – inside him. This disagreement causes the character to suffer mental
agony, and it develops a unique tension in a storyline, marked by a lack of action. 

External conflict, on the other hand, is marked by a characteristic involvement of an action wherein a character
finds himself in struggle with those outside forces that hamper his progress. The most common type of external
conflict is where a protagonist fights back against the antagonist’s tactics that impede his or her advancement.

Examples of Conflict in Literature

Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)

Hamlet’s internal conflict is the main driver in William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet.”  It decides his tragic
downfall. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play:

“To be, or not to be – that is the question:

Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep…”

The conflict here is that Hamlet wants to kill his father’s murderer, Claudius, but he also looks for proof to
justify his action. This ultimately ruins his life, and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict,
Hamlet spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia (Hamlet’s love interest) into such a state of
despair that she commits suicide.

Hamlet’s indecisiveness almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution came when he killed
Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked for any justification. In the same play, we
find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with his uncle Claudius.

Example #2: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)

Another example of an internal conflict is found in the character of Doctor Faustus in Marlowe’s Doctor
Faustus. Faustus has an ambitious nature. In spite of being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by
signing a contract with his blood, in order to achieve ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world. He
learns the art of black magic, and defies Christianity.

After the aforementioned action, we see Faustus suffering from an internal conflict where he thinks honestly
about repenting, acting upon the advice of “the good angel,” but “the bad angel” or the evil inside him distracts
him by saying it is all too late. In conclusion, the resolution comes when devils take his soul away to Hell, and
he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition.

Example #3: The Lord of the Flies Farm (By William Golding)

The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a story struggles against another
character physically. In William Golding’s novel The Lord of the Flies, for example, Ralph (the leader of the
“good guys”) steadily comes into conflict with Jack – a bully who later forms a “tribe” of hunters. Jack and his
tribe give in to their savage instinct, and make attempts to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys led by Ralph.

Example #4: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee)

Another kind of external conflict sets a character against the evil that dominates a society. In this case, a
character may confront a dominant group with opposing priorities. For instance, in Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a
Mockingbird, an honest lawyer, Atticus Finch, goes up against the racist society in which he lives. Atticus has
the courage to defend a black man, Tom Robinson, who has been falsely accused of a rape. Though Atticus has
the support of a few like-minded people, most of the townspeople express their disapproval of his defense of a
black man.

Function of Conflict

Both internal and external conflicts are essential elements of a storyline. It is essential for a writer to introduce
and develop them, whether internal, external, or both, in his storyline in order to achieve the story’s goal.
Resolution of the conflict entertains the readers.

Irony

Definition of Irony

As a literary device, irony is a contrast or incongruity between expectations for a situation and what is reality.
This can be a difference between the surface meaning of something that is said and the underlying meaning. It
can also be a difference between what might be expected to happen and what actually occurs. The definition of
irony can further be divided into three main types: verbal, dramatic, and situational. We describe these types in
detail below.

The word “irony” comes from the Greek character Eiron, who was an underdog and used his wit to overcome a
stronger character. The Greek word eironeía derived from this character and came to mean “dissimulation” or
“purposely affected ignorance.” The word then entered Latin as ironia, and eventually became common as a
figure of speech in English in the 16th century.

Irony is sometimes confused with events that are just unfortunate coincidences. For example, Alanis
Morrissette’s song “Ironic” contains many events that are not ironic in any sense. She cites “rain on your
wedding day” and “a traffic jam when you’re already late” as ironic situations, yet these are merely bad luck.

Types of Irony

Verbal Irony

Verbal irony takes place when the speaker says something in sharp contrast to his or her actual meaning. The
speaker often makes a statement that seems very direct, yet indicates that the opposite is in fact true, or what the
speaker really means. Looking at Alanis Morrissette’s “Ironic” again, the one true instance of irony comes when
the man whose plane is going down says, “Well, isn’t this nice.” Clearly, the plane crash is anything but nice,
and thus this utterance conveys the opposite of the man’s true feelings. Unlike dramatic and situational irony,
verbal irony is always intentional on the part of the speaker.

Verbal irony can also consist of “ironic similes”, which are comparisons in which the two things are not alike at
all. For example, “as soft as sandpaper” or “as warm as ice.” These similes mean that the thing in question is
actually not soft or warm at all. The author Daniel Handler (who writes with the pen name Lemony Snicket)
takes ironic similes to an extreme by qualifying them so they actually become real comparisons. For example:
“Today was a very cold and bitter day, as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate, if the cup of hot chocolate
had vinegar added to it and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours.”

Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony occurs when the audience has more information than one or more characters in a work of
literature. This literary device originated in Greek tragedy and often leads to tragic outcomes. For example, in
Shakespeare’s Othello, the audience is aware that Othello’s best friend Iago is villainous and attempting to
bring Othello down. The audience is also aware that Desdemona has been faithful, though Othello doesn’t know
this. The audience can foresee the imminent disaster.

There are three stages of dramatic irony: installation, exploitation, and resolution. In the case of Othello, the
installation is when Iago persuades Othello to suspect that Desdemona is having an affair with a man named
Cassio. Iago then exploits the situation by planting Desdemona’s handkerchief, a gift from Othello, in Cassio’s
room. The resolution is only after Othello has murdered Desdemona when her friend Emilia reveals Iago’s
scheme.

Situational Irony
Situational irony consists of a situation in which the outcome is very different from what was expected. There
are contradictions and contrasts present in cases of situational irony. For example, in The Wonderful Wizard of
Oz, the citizens of the Emerald City assume that Oz is great and all-powerful, yet the man behind the curtain is
revealed to be an old man with no special powers.

Other types of irony:

 Cosmic Irony: Cosmic irony, also known as “irony of fate”, is present in stories that contain gods who
have different agendas than humans. These gods, or the Fates, may play with the lives of humans for
their own amusement. The irony lies in contrast between what the humans expect and what actually
happens. Though this is most common in Greek legends, it is also present in Thomas Hardy’s Tess of
the d’Urbervilles where the immortals play with Tess’s life.
 Historical Irony: Historical irony relates to real events that happened that, when seen in retrospect, had
vastly different outcomes than predicted at the time. For example, Chinese alchemists discovered
gunpowder when looking for a way to create immortality. The result of their discovery was the opposite
of what they were looking for.
 Socratic Irony: The philosopher Socrates would pretend to be ignorant about the topic under debate to
draw out the nonsensical arguments of his opponent. This is particularly evident in the Platonic
dialogues. This technique is an example of dramatic irony because Socrates pretended to have less
information than he really did.

Sample Drills:
Change the underlined part of the sentence to create your own irony.

1. The doctor is as kind hearted as a wolf.

2. He took a much-needed vacation, backpacking in the mountains. Unfortunately, he came back
dead tired.
3. His friend’s hand was as soft as a rock.
4. The desert was as cool as a bed of burning coals.
5. The student was given ‘excellent’ on getting zero in the exam.
6. The roasted chicken was as tender as a leather boot.
7. He was in such a hurried state that he drove the entire way at 20 miles per hour.
8. He enjoyed his job about as much as a root canal.
9. My friend’s kids get along like cats and dogs.
10.Their new boss was as civilized as a shark.

Evaluation: (15 points)

Session 9. Situation: A rich girl who is an honor student, a beauty queen, envied by many, one day,
ran away from home. Using the conventions of creative writing, elaborate on the situation given by
using situational irony.

Evaluation: (15 points)

Session 10. Situation: You are always on time for your class. But this time you are late. Imagine
what will happen. Write a one or two paragraph scenario of what will happen. Employ verbal irony on
your work and use the conventions of creative writing.

Evaluation: (15 points)

Session 11. Situation: A grade 12 student cannot pursue college due to financial problem. But she
doesn’t know this. What she knows is her family is very stable.
Now, applying the conventions of creative writing, elaborate on the situation achieving dramatic
irony.
Theme

Definition of Theme

Theme is defined as a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work, which may be stated directly or
indirectly.

Major and Minor Themes

Major and minor themes are two types of themes that appear in literary works. A major theme is an idea that a
writer repeats in his literary work, making it the most significant idea in the work. A minor theme, on the other
hand, refers to an idea that appears in a work briefly, giving way to another minor theme. Examples of theme in
Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” are matrimony, love, friendship, and affection. The whole narrative
revolves around the major theme of matrimony. Its minor themes are love, friendship, affectation etc.

Difference Between a Theme and a Subject

It is important not to confuse a theme of a literary work with its subject. Subject is a topic that acts as a
foundation for a literary work, while a theme is an opinion expressed on the subject. For example, a writer may
choose a subject of war for his story, and the theme may be his personal opinion that war is a curse for
humanity. Usually, it is up to the readers to explore the theme of a literary work by analyzing characters, plot,
and other literary devices.

Presentation of Themes

A writer presents themes in a literary work through several means. A writer may express a theme through the
feelings of his main character about the subject he has chosen to write about. Similarly, themes are presented
through thoughts and conversations of different characters. Moreover, the experiences of the main character in
the course of a literary work give us an idea about its theme. Finally, the actions and events taking place in a
narrative are consequential in determining its theme.

Short Examples of Theme

Following are sentences with corresponding themes in parentheses.

1. When the astronaut landed on the moon, he felt loneliness. Thinking there was no one else, he became a
little forlorned, though the view of Earth was stunningly beautiful.
(lonesomeness)
2. The space travelers were travelling to the moon, when their spaceship suddenly ran out of fuel. They
were all frightened to learn that they wouldn’t be able to return to Earth, and could only land on the
moon.
(fear)
3. The bus was travelling at a great speed when it was stopped by a gang of robbers. The passengers were
ordered to get out, leaving their precious belongings in the bus.
(fear)
4. Their marriage ceremony was taking place in a grand hotel. All the eminent people of the city were
invited, the reason that the celebration was excellent.
(happiness)
5. All the family members were dressed in black, with somber faces. They were participating in the funeral
ceremony of their deceased relative.
(gloom)
6. The cricket match was reaching a highpoint, the fans of both teams screaming their support. It was an
excellent game.
(cheerfulness)
7. The teacher said that she hoped all of her students would pass with good grades.
(optimism))
8. The immigrant looked around to talk to somebody, but could find no one who spoke his language. He
felt claustrophobic and desolate.
(hopelessness)
9. Only the laborers were working on Labor Day.
(irony)
 10. The politician was delivering a speech on the need for peace between two neighboring states. He said
through peace they could achieve what not possible through war.
(peace)
11. The general commanded his troops to open fire at the enemy, and to kill each and every soldier of the
combatants.
(war)

Function of Theme

Theme is an element of a story that binds together various essential elements of a narrative. It is often a truth
that exhibits universality, and stands true for people of all cultures. Theme gives readers better understanding of
the main character’s conflicts, experiences, discoveries, and emotions as they are derived from them. Through
themes, a writer tries to give his readers an insight into how the world works, or how he or she views human
life.

What is Foreshadowing?
Foreshadowing definition: Foreshadowing is a literary term that occurs when an author provides hints or clues
for future plot events.

Foreshadowing Examples:

Here is a brief example of foreshadowing through dialogue:

 John: “I don’t think we should go in there, Luke.”

 Luke: “Why not, John? Are you afraid?”
 John: “It’s not that I’m afraid, it’s just that I don’t think it’s a good idea.”
 Luke: “What could possibly happen?”

In this exchange, John expresses a concern that Luke ignores. If John is correct and something bad does happen
later in the text, this is an author’s use of foreshadowing.

Modern Examples of Foreshadowing

Modern foreshadowing example: In the Harry Potter series, author J.K. Rowling frequently foreshadows
future plot events.

Throughout the series Rowling plants small clues to upcoming plot points.

A specific example occurs when Ollivander the wand-maker reveals that Harry’s wand and Voldemort’s wand
are invariably linked because they are made of the same core.

This event foreshadows that Harry Potter and Voldemort share a sincere connection. The specific connection is
not revealed until a later novel when the audience learns that Harry Potter is a horcrux for Voldemort.

Purpose of Foreshadowing: Writers use foreshadowing to bait the reader and to help him put together the
story like a puzzle piece.

Sometimes readers do not recognize foreshadowing until the later event actually occurs. This is that “ah-ha”
moment that seems to make a plot come full circle.

The author puts events in a specific order to unfold his plot and the reader experiences this as the author
intended.

A writer will use foreshadowing to provide clues to events but not to reveal specifics of those events.

How to Create Foreshadowing

A writer will create foreshadowing through setting, narration, or dialogue. Foreshadowing is used purposefully
and sparingly—a writer does not want to reveal every detail of his plot before the events actually occur.

Similarly, foreshadowing should not reveal the specifics of the future events but should give clues to keep the
reader guessing.

Revealing all future events would be pointless. The point is to keep the reader interested while he is “putting
together a puzzle” with the text.

Foreshadowing in setting:

“The last graveyard flowers were blooming, and their smell drifted through our house, speaking softly the
names of our dead.”

This example occurs in the opening line of the text. Hurst uses the setting to create a dark mood that
foreshadows the death at the end of the story.

Foreshadowing in narration:
“They named him William Armstrong, which is like tying a big tail on a small kite. Such a name sounds good
only on a tombstone.”

This example directly foreshadows Doodle’s (William Armstrong’s) death. It is, in fact, that name which ends
up on a tombstone.

Foreshadowing in dialogue:

Roughly halfway through the text, Brother shows Doodle his coffin and forces him to touch it. Doodle
responds,

“’Don’t leave me. Don’t leave me.”

This dialogue foreshadows Doodle’s death because Doodle says the lines again at the text’s conclusion. Doodle
repeats these lines when he dies after Brother leaves him in the storm.

Symbolism

Definition of Symbolism
Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are
different from their literal sense.

Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing another, to give an entirely different
meaning that is much deeper and more significant. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken
by someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, “smile” is a symbol of friendship. Similarly, the action of
someone smiling at you may stand as a symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you.

Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. “A chain,” for example, may stand
for “union” as well as “imprisonment”. Thus, symbolic meaning of an object or an action is understood by
when, where, and how it is used. It also depends on who reads the work.

Common Examples of Symbolism in Everyday Life

In our daily life, we can easily identify objects that can be taken as examples of symbolism, such as the
following:

 The dove is a symbol of peace.

 A red rose, or the color red, stands for love or romance.
 Black is a symbol that represents evil or death.
 A ladder may stand as a symbol for a connection between heaven and earth.
 A broken mirror may symbolize separation.

Short Examples of Symbolism in Sentences

1. Ching Chua gave his wife a red rose. (In Chinese culture, the color red symbolizes property and
happiness.)
2. David stopped his car at the red signal. (In other cultures, the color red is symbol of blood, passion, and
danger.)
3. Rebels raised a white flag to negotiate. (During war, the color white symbolizes making peace with the
enemy. Otherwise, it represents purity and life.)
4. The Red Cross is working around the world. (The symbol of the cross represents Christianity, and the
red cross in particular represents aid in times of need.)
5. The Muslim forces raised their flag with a crescent on it. (The crescent moon represents Islam.)
6. He turned green when found a wallet. (Green color is often associated with greed, jealousy, and
monetary affairs.)
7. They dressed in black to the funeral of their friend. (The color black is associated with death.)
8. The yellow boat turned into the channel, to make the tourists happy. The color yellow color is the
symbol of deterioration and infidelity, as well as the symbol of freshness and happiness.)
9. He was disappointed when the mirror broke. (Broken mirror is an symbol of separation.)
 10. He gave a red rose to his wife on Valentine Day. (Red rose is a symbol for love.)
11. He, after a long time, saw a silver lining in the shape of the arrival of his brother. (Silver edge/lining of
clouds symbolize hope and optimism.)
12. You have a sixth sense like an owl. (Owl symbolizes wisdom.)
13. You work like an ox. (The ox symbolizes hard work and stamina.)
14. When he saw a bat in dream, he grew white with fear. (Bats are the symbol of death.)

Examples of Symbolism in Literature

To develop symbolism in his work, a writer utilizes other figures of speech, like metaphors, similes, and
allegory, as tools. Some symbolism examples in literature are listed below with brief analysis:

Example #1: As you Like It (By William Shakespeare)

We find symbolic value in Shakespeare’s famous monologue in his play As you Like It:

“All the world’s a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;
they have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,”

These lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in the course of their lives, perform different roles.
“A stage” here symbolizes the world, and “players” is a symbol for human beings.

Example #2: Ah Sunflower (By William Blake)

William Blake goes symbolic in his poem Ah Sunflower. He says:

“Ah Sunflower, weary of time,

Who countest the steps of the sun;
Seeking after that sweet golden clime
Where the traveler’s journey is done;”

Blake uses a sunflower as a symbol for human beings, and “the sun” symbolizes life. Therefore, these lines
symbolically refer to their life cycle and their yearning for a never-ending life.

Example #3: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte)

Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house, surroundings, and events in a
symbolic perspective. The word “Wuthering,” which means “stormy,” represents the wild nature of inhabitants.
The following lines allow us to look into the symbolic nature of two characters:

“My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I’m well aware, as winter changes the
trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but
necessary.”

The phrase “foliage of leaves” for is a symbol for Linton’s fertile and civilized nature. On the contrary,
Heathcliff is likened to an “eternal rock,” which symbolizes his crude and unbendable nature.

Example #4: Wild Asters (By Sara Teasdale)

Sara Teasdale in her poem Wild Asters develops a number of striking symbols:

“In the spring, I asked the daisies

If his words were true,
And the clever, clear-eyed daisies
Always knew.

Now the fields are brown and barren,

Bitter autumn blows,
And of all the stupid asters
Not one knows.”

In the above lines, “spring” and “daisies” are symbols of youth. “Brown and barren” are symbols of transition
from youth to old age. Moreover, “Bitter autumn” symbolizes death.

Example #5: The Rain (By William H. Davies)

“I hear leaves drinking rain;

I hear rich leaves on top
Giving the poor beneath
Drop after drop;
Tis a sweet noise to hear
These green leaves drinking near.”

In this beautiful poem, William Davies who has used the symbol of rain to show the different classes of society.
He does this by describing the way the upper leaves benefit from the rain first, and then hand down the rest to
the lower leaves. The same way, rich people pass on the leftover benefits to the poor people.

Example #6: My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold (By William Wordsworth)

“My heart leaps up when I behold

A rainbow in the sky:
So was it when my life began;
So is it now I am a man;
So be it when I shall grow old, …”

In this poem, the poet uses rainbow as a symbol of hope and general wellbeing throughout his life.

Example #7: XXIII, Crossing Alone the Nighted Ferry (By A. E. Housman)

“Crossing alone the nighted ferry

With the one coin for fee,
Whom, on the wharf of Lethe waiting,
Count you to find? Not me.”

The poet has used the symbol of a river to represent life and the past memories associated with it.

Mood
Mood Definition
In literature, mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through words and
descriptions.

Usually, mood is referred to as the atmosphere of a literary piece, as it creates an emotional setting that
surrounds the readers. Mood is developed in a literary piece through various methods, including setting, theme,
tone, and diction. Let us see how writers use the afore-mentioned elements in their literary works to create a
particular mood.

Creating Mood through Setting

Setting is the physical location in a piece of literature that provides background in which the events of the
narrative take place. A particular setting not only provides support to the contents of the story, but also sets the
mood of the readers. Let us analyze a few examples of mood developed using a setting:

Example #1: Pickwick Papers (By Charles Dickens)

Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in his novel Pickwick Papers:
“The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on.”

The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and non-violent mood to the readers.

Example #2: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte)

Emily Bronte, in Wuthering Heights, creates two contrasting moods through two contrasting settings. The
events of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses: Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. A
depressing mood is created whenever Wuthering Heights is described. For example, in chapter 12 the narrator
says:

“There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from any house, far or
near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were never visible…”

On the contrary, the description of Thrushcross Grange creates a calm and peaceful mood:

“Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley came soothingly
on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer foliage, which drowned that music
about the Grange when the trees were in leaf.”

The contrast presented in the settings also helps in the development of the different characters. The people from
Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated, while those from Thrushcross Grange are refined.

Creating Mood through Tone

The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is called the tone. The readers always rely on
the writer’s point of view of the events taking place in a story. They observe the story through his eyes. They
feel the way the writer feels about the events taking place and the description provided. Therefore, the attitude
of the writer evokes feelings and emotions in the readers.

Example #3: The Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost)

For instance, see how Robert Frost, in his poem The Road Not Taken, creates a gloomy feeling through his tone:

“I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I,
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.”

Frost informs us about his past with a “sigh” that gives the above lines an unhappy tone and thus evokes an
unhappy mood. An unhappy mood is created because the poet convinces us that he regrets a choice he made in
the past.

Creating Mood through Diction

Diction is the choice of words a writer uses. Diction or choice of words conveys deep feelings, and depicts the
events, places, and characters in a literary work in specific colors, having an effect on the way the readers feel
about them.

Example #4: Gulliver’s Travel (By Jonathon Swift)

The following lines from Jonathon Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels is one of the great mood examples created using
diction:

“And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of cannons, culverins, muskets, carabines,
pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks, undermines, countermines,
bombardments, sea-fights…”
In order to create feelings of disgust in readers, for the destructive consequences of war, the writer chooses
words that are unmelodious, harsh, and jarring. The diction in the above passage corresponds with the subject
matter.