MNL 5-2017 PDF

Jim Gammon, Editor
Aviation Fuel Quality Control

Procedures: 5th Edition
ASTM Stock Number: MNL5-5TH
DOI: 10.1520/MNL5-5TH-EB
ASTM International
100 Barr Harbor Drive
PO Box C700
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
www.astm.org
Printed in the U.S.A.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Gammon, Jim, 1953- editor.

Title: Aviation fuel quality control procedures / Jim Gammon, editor.
Description: 5th edition. | West Conshohocken.
PA : ASTM International,
[2016] | “ASTM Stock Number: MNL5-5TH DOI: 10.1520/MNL5-5TH-EB.” |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016048708 | ISBN 9780803170858 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Airplanes–Fuel–Contamination. | Materials handling–Quality
control. | Gasoline industry–Quality control. | Fuel filters.
Classification: LCC TL704.7 .A95 2016 | DDC 629.134/351–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016048708
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Phone: (610) 832-9585 Fax: (610) 832-9555
ISBN 978-0-8031-7085-8
ASTM Stock Number: MNL5-5TH
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ASTM International does not endorse any products represented in this publication.
Printed in Mayfield, PA
January, 2017
iii
Foreword
This publication, Aviation Fuel Quality Control Procedures: 5th Edition, is sponsored
by ASTM Subcommittee J on Aviation Fuels, Committee D02 on Petroleum Products,
Liquid Fuels, and Lubricants. It provides guidance on common procedures used to
assess and protect aviation fuel quality. Even though the manual was not subject to
full Society consensus balloting, a ballot vote by task force members of Subcommittee
J was conducted before publication. The task force members who wrote or reviewed
this manual are listed in the introduction.
v
Contents
Introductionvii
Glossaryix
Section A—GENERAL FUEL HANDLING 1

A.1 Visual Appearance Tests 1
A.2 API Gravity and Metric Density 4
A.3 Sump Sampling 7
A.4 Electrical Conductivity—Portable Meter Method 8
A.5 Flash Point by Small-Scale Closed Cup Tester 9
A.6 Product Identification 10
A.7 Electrostatic Hazards in Mixing Aviation Fuels 12
A.8 Preservice Cleanliness Inspection of Fueling Equipment 12
A.9 Shipment of Aviation Fuel Samples 13
A.10 Field Test for Contamination of Aviation Gasoline with Heavier Fuels 13
A.11 Fuel-Sampling Techniques 15
A.12 Surfactants—Surface Active Agents 18
A.13 Microseparometer 19
A.14 Aviation Fuel Additives 21
A.15 Flushing New Aviation Fueling Hoses 24
Section B—PARTICULATE DETECTION 25

B.1 Filter Membrane Test—Colorimetric 25
B.2 Membrane Filtration—Gravimetric 28
B.3 Membrane Filtration Records 30
Section C—WATER DETECTION 31

C.l Shell Water Detector 31
C.2 Velcon Hydrokit® 31
C.3 Gammon Aqua-Glo® Water Detection Test and the Digital Aqua-Glo®, Hydro-Light Pad Reader 32
C.4 CASRI Water Detector 35
C.5 Aquadis® Water Microdetector 36
C.6 POZ-T Water Detector 36
C.7 YPF Water Detector 37
C.8 Water Detection Paste 37
Section D—FILTRATION EQUIPMENT 39

D.l Filtration Equipment—General 39
D.2 Filter Element Installation Procedure 41
D.3 Filter Accessory Maintenance 43
D.4 Teflon®-Coated Screen (TCS) and Synthetic Separators 44
D.5 Differential Pressure—Delta P or DP45
D.6 Automatic Water Slug Systems 47
D.7 Single-Element Test for Coalescer Elements 51
D.8 Clay Treatment 53
Section E—MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION DETECTION 55

E.1 Laboratory Methods and Field Kits 55
Index 59
vii
Introduction
This manual is sponsored by ASTM International Subcommittee J the reader with as many aspects of aviation fuel handling as pos-
on Aviation Fuels, Committee D02 on Petroleum Products, sible. It is the intent of this publication to provide sufficient
Liquid Fuels, and Lubricants. It was written and reviewed by a task information for fuel handlers to make an informed approach to
force under Section 5 on Fuel Cleanliness. The following task force aviation fuel quality. In particular, this manual should be useful
membership represents a broad spectrum of interests, including to third-party refueling organizations and independent fixed
oil companies, airlines, pipeline companies, third-party refueling base operators.
companies, filter companies, fueling vehicle builders, consultants, Ballot vote by members of ASTM Committee D02,
aviation product distributors, and other aviation-associated Subcommittee J, was required for publication of this manual.
organizations. However, the methods in this manual were not subjected to full
This manual provides guidance material on common proce- Society consensus; therefore, these methods have not been sub-
dures that are used to assess and protect aviation fuel quality. jected to collaborative study (round-robins). Detailed information
Aviation fuel, by its unique use, is one of the most carefully con- can be obtained from the unabridged methods referenced through-
trolled petroleum products, and therefore, it is required to meet out the manual. All methods in the manual will be periodically
exacting fuel-quality standards. In many cases, the field proce- reviewed by the subcommittee.
dure or test method listed herein is a simplified version of the The procedures presented in this manual may involve hazard-
corresponding ASTM method or standard practice. It should ous materials, operations, and equipment. This manual does not
be emphasized that the formal ASTM standard method super- purport to address all of the safety problems associated with its use.
sedes the instructions given in this publication. In other cases, It is the responsibility of the user to consult and establish appropri-
when there is no ASTM procedure, a non-ASTM procedure is ate safety and health practices and to determine the applicability of
included to make this publication as complete a reference as pos- regulatory limitations before its use.
sible. Some of the procedures have resulted from practical experi-
ence in dealing with numerous airport systems. Scope
This document explains a number of ASTM test methods This document is produced to provide both procedures and educa-
used as field tests. For a complete list of methods used to qualify an tional information regarding the handling of aviation fuels at the
aviation fuel, reference should be made to the pertinent ASTM fuel airport. Some elements of this document may also be applied to
specification. fuel handling at terminals and refineries. This document is not a
Obviously, not all field situations can be predicted. However, specification. As a reference, it is not meant to cover any subject in
the purpose of presenting the extra information is to acquaint its entirety.
viii Aviation Fuel Quality Control Procedures: 5th Ed.
Task Force Members (Present) Gammon Technical Products, Inc. Edward Matulevicius
Ubaidallah S. Alghamdi Jim Gammon Consultant
Arabian Fuels Technology Center Gammon Technical Products, Inc. Douglas Mearns
Mark Bordeau Francois Guay NAVAIR, U.S. Navy
Delta Airlines Total Mike Mooney
Haydee Carlton Oren Hadaller EPIC
American Airlines Boeing Chris Papastra
Carl Crosley Greg Hemighaus EMCEE Electronics, Inc.
Consultant Consultant Stan Seto
Edward English Graham Hill Consultant
FQS Services ECHA Microbiology Ltd Greg Sprenger
Mike Farmery Dennis Hoskin Velcon Filters
Jim Franks Exxon Mobil George Tippett
Consultant Charles Laudage Conidia Bioscience
Howard M. Gammon Allied Aviation
Past Contributors C. Hammonds M. Pasion

R. D. Anderson M. Hardy A. E. Peat
R. Ayres J. B. Harkness J. Pollock
F. Barnes W. T. Harper C. Randall
R. A. Becker G. E. Hays C. S. Rapp
J. A. Bert P. J. Hlavac R. Rapp
T. Biddle W. Hoffman D. L. Rhynard
G. A. Boldue A. Holden J. G. Scheltens
T. Boval R. T. Holmes J. Siddons
J. J. Bowlds W. G. Keener R. C. Spillman
J. Boyko K. C. Kenny G. Springer
B. E. Brooks P. Kirklin K. Strauss
P. P. Campbell F. A. Kouhi W. H. Swanger
S. E. Casper M. Kurowski C. Taucher
R. Charanduk D. Lambert H. L. Teel
W. Chartrand O. L. Lipscombe R. D. Tharby
Shell F. Cho M. Lipscombe J. E. Thomas
T. J. Clifford N. J. Makris J. C. Thurston
F. Cole C. R. Martel T. Thompkinson
L. Cole C. J. Martin J. R. Tornatore
F. M. Daneke P. Martin M. H. Trimble
K. W. Diebler R. Mason D. Tropp
J. Donathan R. M. Matsuo W. T. Turso, Jr.
R. A. Emanuelson G. Mazza R. Wait
R. Foster K. McCarley R. Wayman
B. Freeman F. P. Morse L. Weaver
J. Gantzer W. Mortimer E. R. Wialand
K. W. Gardner J. Nicolaou K. Williamson
L. Gaserude R. Organ J. E. Yarber
J. T. Guerin B. Pashley
ix
Glossary
adsorption. A separation method in which certain compo- entrained water. Small droplets of free water in suspension that
nents are concentrated on the surface of a porous solid. may make fuel appear hazy.
Surfactants (surface active agents) are separated from jet fuel filter. Generic term for a device to remove contaminants from
by adsorption on clay. fuel.
ambient temperature. The air temperature surrounding a spe- filter membrane (millipore) test. A standard test in which fuel
cific area. is passed through a fine filter membrane housed in a plastic
API gravity. The U.S. petroleum industry’s scale and method holder. The cleanliness of the fuel can be determined by exam-
of measuring density of petroleum products at a given ining the membrane.
temperature. filter/separator. A mechanical device used to remove entrained
aviation g asoline (avgas). Specially blended gasoline used to particulate contaminants and free water from a fuel.
power reciprocating piston aircraft engines. fixed b ase o perator ( FBO). Common title for aviation fuel
clay treater. A treating unit that uses activated clay (Fuller’s dealer at the airport.
earth) to remove surfactants from turbine fuel. flash p oint. The lowest fuel temperature at which the vapor
coalescence. The property of a filter cartridge to bring about the fuel can be ignited by an outside ignition source.
together fine droplets of free and entrained water to form floating suction. A floating device used in a tank for drawing
large droplets that are heavy enough to fall to the bottom of product from the upper level of the fuel.
the filter/separator vessel. free water. Water in the fuel other than dissolved water. Free
contaminants. Substances, either foreign or native, that may water may be in the form of droplets or haze suspended in the
be present in fuel that detract from its performance. fuel (entrained water), a water layer at the bottom of the con-
cyclone separator. A device that uses the principle of centrifu- tainer holding the fuel, or both. Free water may also exist in
gal force to cause the contaminant in a fuel to settle to the the form of an emulsion that may be so finely dispersed as to
bottom of the vessel without the use of filter media. be invisible to the naked eye.
density. The amount of mass (weight) in a unit volume of a freezing p oint ( fuel). The lowest fuel temperature at which
material at a given temperature. there are no solid phase wax crystals.
diἀerential p ressure ( Delta P ). The measured difference in haze. Undissolved free water dispersed in fuel that is visible to
pressure between any two points, generally at the inlet and out- the eye (usually more than 30 ppm in jet fuel). Fuel appears
let of a filter, monitor, or a filter separator. hazy or cloudy, that is, not clear and bright.
disarming action. As applied to filter/separators, the render- hydrophilic. Water accepting or water wettable.
ing of the elements incapable of performing their designed hydrophobic. Water repelling; lacking affinity for water.
functions; for example, coalescer elements incapable of coa- immiscible. Liquids that are mutually insoluble. (Will not dis-
lescing water and separator elements incapable of separating solve into one another.) This is the opposite of miscible.
water from fuel. influent. Stream of fluid at the inlet of a filter or filter/separator.
dissolved water. Water that is in solution in the fuel. This water This is the opposite of effluent.
is not free water and cannot be removed by conventional metric density. Weight of a liquid measured in kilograms per
means or measured by field equipment. cubic metre at a given temperature.
effluent. Stream of fluid at the outlet of a filter or filter/separator. micron (/µm). A unit of linear measurement. One micron is
This is the opposite of influent. equal to 10–6 m, or 0.00039 in., and approximately 25,400/ttm
emulsion. Liquid dispersed in another, immiscible liquid, usu- equals 1 in. For example, the average human hair is about
ally in the form of droplets. (Two liquids, which will not dis- 100 µm in diameter.
solve completely into one another, mixed so that one appears as miscible. Liquids that are mutually soluble. This is the opposite
fine drops in the other.) of immiscible.
x Aviation Fuel Quality Control Procedures: 5th Ed.
monitor. A device that shows or gives warning of improper sump. A low point in a system for collection and removal of
performance (noun); or to test or check performance on a water and solid contaminants.
continuing basis (verb). surfactants (surface ac tive a gents). Chemical substances that
particulate matter. Solid contaminants (e.g., dirt, rust, scale, make it difficult to separate fuel and water and that disarm
sand, and so forth) sometimes found in fuel. filter/separators.
prefilter. A filter that has a high dirt-holding capacity that is suspended w ater. Undissolved free water that is so finely dis-
installed upstream of other filtration equipment. persed as to be invisible to the naked eye. See haze.
pressure drop. See diἀerential pressure. synthetic separator. Separator made of media that is synthetic
relative density (specific gravity). In fuel, this is the ratio of the mesh material with chemically bonded hydrophobic treatment.
weight of any volume of fuel to the weight of an equal volume of thief (sump) pu mp. A small pump having a suction line that
water. extends to the low point of a tank for the purpose of drawing off
settling time. The time allowed for water or dirt entrained in water that may have accumulated.
the fuel to drop to the bottom of the storage tank. turbine fuel. A group of various kerosine (or more rarely, wide-
slime. Soft, jelly-like substance. cut) fuels used to power aircraft turbine engines.
specific gravity. See relative density. water slug. A large amount of free water.
1
Section A | General Fuel Handling
A.1 Visual Appearance Tests A white paper or light background allows visual detection of
contaminant in the fuel. A paper with black print or a bar chart
A.1.1 Introduction and Purpose (see ASTM Adjunct 12-441761-12) may be used as a back-
The purpose of these field tests (see Secs. A.1.4.2–A.1.4.4 and ground to enhance the detection of water haze.
Sec. A.1.7) is to detect possible water, solid contaminants, micro- b. White Bucket—Using a white (not tinted) porcelain-lined
bial debris, surfactants (surface active agents), or other petroleum (or approved equal) bucket, the fuel is visually observed
products in aviation fuel by visual inspection. These contaminants for proper appearance. The bucket must be of at least 8
may be incidental, generated within the transport or handling sys- quarts (7.5 L) capacity. (Do not use a plastic, epoxy-lined,
tem, or foreign contaminants accidentally introduced because of or painted bucket for color determination.) A coin with
cross-contamination from other products. These tests are not pre- well-defined features is a useful additional tool for further
cision tests; they are considered subjective. Experience is the observing and evaluating a water haze. If a plastic bucket
important element; any condition that varies is a cause for concern. is not equipped with an internal static collector and static
Variations in the results of these tests may reveal contamination, bonding cable, a separate cable must be provided.
which may affect fuel quality relating to ASTM D910, Standard
Speciἀcation f or L eaded A viation G asolines, or ASTM D1655,
A.1.4 Sampling Methods
Standard S peciἀcation f or Aviation Turbine F uels, specifications.
Questionable, unusual, or unsatisfactory results obtained from A.1.4.1 Cautions
these simple tests must be reported to the appropriate authority Use care when opening any pressurized sample drain or tap to
and may require that certain specification tests must be performed prevent splash or spill.
to determine whether the product is indeed on specification or not. Operators should wear sufficient protective equipment to pre-
These are the simplest tests, low cost and easy to run. In this vent contact with fuel, including eye protection, gloves, and appro-
5th edition, more detailed information on the possible causes of priate clothing.
unusual results is given to provide the operator with a greater ability To minimize the risk of fire caused by static electricity (electro-
to understand the situation and possible ramifications. It is impor- static discharge), conductive containers must be properly bonded to
tant to mention that the key to fuel quality control is to look for the equipment from which the sample is being drawn. This bond
change. Any observed change in any test (or even an observed odor) must be maintained for 30 s after the sample is taken if drawn from
may indicate that a serious cross-contamination has occurred. a filter vessel or a sample tap downstream of a filter vessel. When
evaluating color, avoid any brightly colored objects or clothing that
A.1.2 References may affect the appearance of the sample. Staff with color blindness
ASTM D4176-04, Standard T est M ethod f or F ree W ater a nd shall not be tasked with color assessments of fuel samples.
Particulate C ontamination in D istillate F uels ( Visual Inspection
Procedures), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014, A.1.4.2 Procedure for Glass Jar Test (From Sample Tap or
www.astm.org
Sump Drain)
ASTM Distillate Fuel Bar Chart, Adjunct 12-441761-12,
A.1.4.2.1 The jar must be clean and free of water. Any volume in
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, www.astm.org
the drain or sample line should be removed or displaced to ensure
that an accurate sample is taken of the sump’s contents. Fuel in a
A.1.3 Description of Test Types and drain line may be better or worse than fuel flowing in the system.
Equipment Preferably with the system pressurized, draw a sample as quickly as
a. Glass Jar—Using a clear, wide-mouth glass jar or other similar possible from a sump or sample tap. Obtaining the sample under
transparent container a minimum of 3 in. (7.5 cm) in diam- high velocity will flush water and debris from the system better
eter, the fuel is visually observed for proper appearance. than a sample taken at low velocity.
2 Aviation Fuel Quality Control Procedures: 5th Ed.
A.1.4.2.2 Allow air bubbles to rise to the surface for 1 min and sample is fuel; if the colored liquid dissolves into the sample, the
observe (see Sec. A.1.5). Do not allow a significant temperature sample is not fuel but water. This is, of course, a serious concern, and
change to take place. the test results should be reported immediately to an authority to
determine the proper action. Additional sampling will be required
A.1.4.3 Procedure for Glass Jar Test (From Bucket) to remove all water, but in the case of a fuel delivery truck, it may be
determined to simply refuse the load. It is recommended that five
A.1.4.3.1 The jar must be clean and free of water. Immediately
1-gal samples be taken before rejecting a load of fuel. If it takes three
after taking a white bucket sample as described in Sec. A.1.4.2, dip
or more samples to obtain a water-free sample (a volume more than
the jar into the bucket.
usual) from a delivery, notify the authority having jurisdiction.
A.1.4.3.2 Allow any air bubbles to rise to the surface for 1 min A.1.5.6
and observe (see Sec. A.1.5). Water will tend to sink toward the
Observe the color of the sample for any change in appearance from
bottom of the jar.
samples previously taken. Jet fuel should be colorless to a light yel-
A.1.4.4 Procedure for White Bucket Test low (straw), and the color should be consistent with previous tests.
Any other color indicates cross-contamination. Avgas color should
A.1.4.4.1 The bucket must be clean and free of water. When be blue, green, red, or brown (or possibly purple), according to
taking a sample from a transport trailer, wipe off any dirt from the grade. The intensity of the color may vary, but the color itself should not.
connection of the trailer. With system pressurized (except when
A.1.5.7
obtaining a sample from a transport trailer or storage tank) obtain
Use the following tables to determine ratings for the tests and
a sample with the sample valve open as far as possible without
record the results. If a test result is significantly different from pre-
causing a spill. Any volume in the drain or sample line should be
vious samples, report the results immediately to an authority to
removed or displaced to ensure that an accurate sample of what is
determine the proper action.
in the sump is taken. Fill the bucket to a depth of at least 6 in.
(15 cm). A static bonding cable or wire must be connected between
the bucket and the sample valve or associated pipe. A coin with A.1.6 Appearance Descriptions
well-defined features should be dropped into the bucket to assist in The following tables make it easy to report a test result for perma-
observing haze unless a jar sample is also taken. The features of the nent records and when necessary to communicate results to
coin will be clearly visible if there is no haze. others.
A.1.6.1 Particle Appearance Ratings

A.1.5 Evaluation of Sample Rating Guide
Rating (Optional) Description
A.1.5.1 Clear A No visible particles, silt, sediment, dye
The white porcelain (clear glass with titanium dioxide) bucket is (unusual fuel color), rust, or solids
the sole proper means for evaluating product color in the fuel Slight Particulate B–C Some fine to small-size particles
because paints and resins affect color. New coatings may be consid- Particulate Matter D Many small particles either floating or
ered equal to porcelain if properly tested by way of long-term expo- settled on bottom
sure to sunlight and fuel (at least 4 weeks each) to determine that Dirty E–I Discoloration of the sample or many
no color change takes place. The coating must be white. particles, either floating in fuel or settled
on bottom
A.1.5.2
A.1.6.2 Water Contamination Appearance Ratings
If contamination is slight, swirling the sample will cause dirt or
water to collect at the center of the sample container for easier Rating Description
observation. Observe the sample. Bright No water present either as liquid in bottom, drops on jar, or haze.
(Air bubbles may cause a hazy appearance immediately after sample
A.1.5.3 is drawn, but haze caused by air bubbles clears within 1 min.)
Look for water droplets, particles, unusual color, haze, floating Hazy Fine water droplets dispersed through sample. If the sample warms,
these may go away, but they must be reported.
materials, lace-like layers, and anything else that is not clean fuel.
Cloudy Sample appears cloudy, milky.
A.1.5.4 Wet Droplets or a layer of water; droplets may be found on side or
If water is present, notice the color and the appearance of the sur- bottom of container.
face of the water where it contacts the fuel.

A.1.6.3 Other Contaminant Appearance Ratings
A.1.5.5
A.1.6.3.1 Description of Sample Appearance and Possible Causes
Even if the sample does not appear to be cloudy, this does not
ensure that the bucket is not full of water; sometimes it is 100 % Surfactant or Microbial
water. Drop some food coloring or black coffee into the sample. If Slime on bottom of container or at fuel–water interface, appearing
the colored liquid added settles to the bottom as a colored drop, the as dark brown or black scum or lacy material floating in the fuel or
SECTION A: General Fuel Handling 3
at the interface with water. The presence of anaerobic bacteria often b. Microbe particles are typically soft. They usually have a foul
causes a pungent odor, similar to rotten eggs. odor in quantity. They usually will flatten or act as a putty
when handled.
Other Product Cross-Contamination: Unusual c. Hose linings can fail, and the resulting contamination may
Appearance, Color, or Odor Dye Contamination be seen as thin strips of flexible dark film or as dark parti-
Fuel dyes can cause red, green, blue, or any color combination in cles that usually are soft but do not smear or act as a putty.
aviation fuel. d. Tank or pipe-lining epoxy usually are seen as flat, light-
colored chips.
Fuel Aging e. Metal shavings usually indicate a failing pump, swivel,
Darkened, discolored, and possibly more viscous, fuel with abnor- meter, or valve. Check with a magnet to help determine
mal odor. composition.
A final diagnosis should not be based on these descriptions.
Further evaluation is required. A.1.7 Visual Fuel Sampler Vessel (Visijar)
1. In recent years, an additional method of performing the
A.1.6.4 Contamination Experience
“clear and bright” or “white bucket” test has been devel-
These tests have been performed at refineries, terminals, and air-
oped, the closed-circuit sampler, also known as a visual fuel
ports for decades around the world.
sampler or Visijar. A fuel sample is drawn from a sampling
A.1.6.4.1 Haze connection of a refueler or servicer monitor or filter/
a. When fuel cools, it may appear hazy because of dissolved separator vessel (or from a fixed filter/separator or tank
water condensing out in the same way fog, haze, and clouds sump) into a Visijar and observed for water, solids, or indi-
form in air. If the fuel is in a pipe, filter, truck tank, or pipe- cations of surfactants (Fig. 1).
line and the temperature of the fuel has been reduced, a 2. The Visijar equipment is usually a 4-L (1-gal) capacity clear
haze does not indicate that it is necessarily contaminated. glass tube sandwiched between a base and hinged lid as-
b. Fuel can hold approximately 1 part per million (ppm) of sembly. The base incorporates a drain valve and fill port.
dissolved water. This water cannot be removed by filtration The internal surface of the base is conical in profile and
and is not detectable by field equipment. finished in a white epoxy or similar fuel-resistant coating.
c. Filter separators are designed to remove water, so haze in The Visijar can be installed in sample lines from filter/sepa-
a filter sump sample is not unusual. It should, however, rators or monitors, or in sample lines from tank sumps.
mostly separate and clear in a glass jar in 2 minutes. 3. To operate the Visijar, ensure the glass tube is clean. Open
d. A properly working filter separator or monitor made to the fill valve. The fill port is designed to cause the fuel sam-
EI 1581, Speciἀcation and Qualiἀcation Procedures for Aviation
ple to swirl around the sides of the clear glass tube. The
Jet F uel F ilter/Separators, or EI 1583, Laboratory Tests a nd resultant rapid movement of the fuel assists in visual detec-
Minimum Performance Levels for Aviation Fuel Filter Mon- tion of any free water and/or dirt particles or indication of
itors, respectively, should not pass (at its outlet) more than surfactants at the bottom of the Visijar.
5 ppm of free water, which is much less than the minimum a. Let the sample settle for 1 min to remove air bubbles.
the human eye can detect, at approximately 30 ppm. b. Inspect the bottom for water droplets, solid contami-
e. Because of the previous considerations, samples taken nants, hazy/cloudy condition, and/or brown slimes (see
from a flowing system, after flushing the sample valve, are Sec. A.1.5.).
considered to be most informative on water content in the
flowing stream. This is not to say that the first sample taken
FIG. 1 Closed-circuit sampler (Visijar).
from a sump sample is not important; it is very important
to show any changes in water volume the system has seen,
but this does not reflect the overall quality of the fuel.
f. If a nonflowing system has seen a significant decline in tem-
perature (e.g., a filter sump), haze in a sump sample may
simply be condensation. Establish flow, clear the sump, and
take another sample.
A.1.6.4.2 Particles Particles in sump samples may indicate fuel

quality or equipment problems.
a. Rust usually is brown or reddish brown and is seen as either

small flakes or a dust-like coating. All rust particles will react
to a magnet, especially if allowed to fully dry. The size is im-
portant, as individual particles, large enough to be seen by eye,
cannot pass through a filter element suitable for aviation fuel.
c. If fitted with an optional self-sealing valve assembly for A.2.2 References

a chemical water detector test (see Sec. C), draw a fuel ASTM D1250-08(2013)e1, Standard Guide for Use of the Petroleum
sample from the base at this time. Measurement Tables (description only; tables published separately
d. Open the drain valve to drain the glass tube. in 12 volumes), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
4. Refer to Sec. A.1.6 for Cautions and Interpretation of Test 2013, www.astm.org
Results. ASTM D1298-12b, Standard Test Method for Density, Relative
Density, or API Gravity of Crude Petroleum and Liquid Petroleum
Products b y H ydrometer M ethod, ASTM International, West
A.2 Api Gravity and Metric Conshohocken, PA, 2012, www.astm.org
ASTM D287-12b, Standard Test Method for API Gravity of
Density Crude P etroleum a nd P etroleum P roducts ( Hydrometer
A.2.1 Introduction and Purpose Method), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2012,
This procedure describes the means for measuring the gravity or www.astm.org
density of aviation fuel with a hydrometer. A significant change ASTM D4052-15, Standard Test Method for Density, Relative
in gravity or density from what you normally see or from the Density, and API Gravity of Liquids by Digital Density Meter, ASTM
manufacturer or supplier batch report may indicate contamina- International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015 www.astm.org
tion by another liquid product. Hydrometers may be calibrated ASTM E1-14, Standard S peciἀcation f or AS TM L iquid-in-
in metric density, relative density, API gravity, or specific grav- Glass Thermometers, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
ity. In this procedure, only API gravity and metric density will PA, 2014, www.astm.org
be discussed. ASTM E100-15a, Standard S peciἀcation f or A STM
Hydrometers, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
NOTE 2015, www.astm.org
API gravity is the primary measurement of fuel density used in the
United States. Outside the United States, metric density is most A.2.3 Description
commonly used. These two measures differ in several ways: The scale reading at the intersection of the fuel surface on a freely
floating hydrometer and the temperature of the fuel at the time of
1. API gravity is like specific gravity because it is related to the test are observed and recorded. The observed readings then are
the density of water. Finding the weight of a volume of fuel used to correct the gravity or density to the standard temperature
when only API gravity is known requires the use of ASTM applicable for the test.
D1250, Standard Guide for Use of the Petroleum Measurement
Tables, a specially designed calculator, or a specially A.2.4 Equipment
designed computer program. Metric density is simply NOTE
kilograms per cubic meter with no reference to the density ASTM and API have developed new standards to cover nonmer-
of water. Finding the weight of a known volume of fuel at a cury thermometers, but nonmercury thermohydrometers
set temperature when the metric density is known simply (hydrometers with built-in thermometers) have only recently been
requires multiplying the volume times the metric density. covered by ASTM E2995-14 and may not yet be available from all
Higher API gravity values indicate lighter fuels, suppliers.
whereas higher metric density values indicate heavier
fuels. The program or calculator may have the ability to NOTE
revise the weight calculation for a different temperature, Electronic digital meters for measuring density are also available
so all you need to find the weight of a known density fuel and must meet the Energy Institute’s standard IP 559,
going into the aircraft is the temperature. Determination of Density of Middle Distillate Fuels.
2. The standard temperature (defined temperature for com-
paring results from different batches or products) for API 1. ASTM hydrometer and thermometer or thermohydrom-
gravity is 60°F, whereas the standard temperature for met- eters. The old standard ASTM specified hydrometers and
ric density is 15°C (59°F). thermohydrometers do not normally match any specific
3. Fuel weight is not a quality control concern, but it is often a products, so two hydrometers may be needed to cover the
quality control operator’s responsibility to provide this in- range of fuels available. To correct this issue, some suppli-
formation to the pilot. It is important to note that weight ers offer special hydrometer ranges. Note showing “single
changes with temperature. The mass (weight per unit vol- span” indicates that this hydrometer covers the entire range
ume) of the fuel can be calculated accurately only if done of available fuels of this type (jet or avgas) typically found
directly with a hydrometer in the fuel at the temperature in use.
at which it will enter the aircraft or by adjusting a previous 2. ASTM thermohydrometers include both a hydrometer
reading of that fuel to the actual fuel temperature entering and a thermometer in one device. ASTM plain form
the aircraft by using a specifically designed calculator or hydrometers, which do not contain a built-in thermometer,
computer program. may be used with a separate thermometer.
3. Thermometers specified by ASTM E1-14, Standard S pec-

iἀcation f or A STM L iquid-in-Glass Thermometers, are FIG. 2 Hydrometer cylinder and thermohydrometer for
graduated in either °F or °C. The specific thermometers measuring API gravity.
recommended for aviation density measurements are the

ASTM 12F (mercury type, graduated in °F) or the ASTM
12C (mercury type, graduated in °C). Corresponding non
-mercury thermometers are ASTM S 12F and ASTM S
12C.2. Glass, plastic, or metal hydrometer cylinder as shown
in Fig. 2. Clear glass or clear plastic cylinders are preferred,
except in the “spill-over” type design.
API gravity Type Range ASTM Note
Avgas Plain form hydrometer 59–71 7H

Avgas Plain form hydrometer 69–81 8H
Plain form hydrometer 64–76 12H Single
span
Avgas Thermohydrometer 59–71 7HL the sample by touching them with the corner of a clean
Avgas Thermohydrometer 69–81 8HL paper towel.
Thermohydrometer 64–76 258H Single
2. When using a thermohydrometer, gently lower it into the
span sample. When it has settled, depress it about two scale di-
Jet A/A1 Plain form hydrometer 29–41 4H visions into the liquid and then release it. Gently spin the
Jet A/A1 Plain form hydrometer 39–51 5H
hydrometer when releasing it. This will assist in bringing it
to rest, floating freely away from the cylinder walls. When
Plain form hydrometer 37–49 11H Single
span the thermohydrometer has come to rest and the thermom-
eter is showing a steady reading, read (this is best done
Jet A/A1 Thermohydrometer 29–41 54HL
by looking across the underside of the liquid surface) and
record the temperature of the sample to the nearest 0.5°C
Thermohydrometer 37–49 255H Single
or 1°F. Read the hydrometer to the nearest scale division
span
and record the value. The correct hydrometer reading is
Metric density Type Range ASTM Note
that point on the hydrometer scale at which the principal
Avgas Plain form hydrometer 650–700 312H surface of the liquid cuts the scale (Fig. 3).
Avgas Plain form hydrometer 700–750 313H 3. When using a plain form hydrometer, first measure tem-
Avgas No single-span ASTM perature with an approved thermometer. Continuously
hydrometer number stir the sample with the thermometer taking care that
assigned
the mercury or mercury substitute liquid is kept fully
Avgas Thermohydrometer 650–700 301HL
immersed. As soon as a steady reading is obtained, read
Avgas Thermohydrometer 700–750 302HL and record the temperature of the sample to the nearest
Avgas No single-span ASTM 0.5°C or 1°F and then remove the thermometer. To obtain
thermohydrometer number
the hydrometer reading, follow the procedure described
assigned
in paragraphs 2 and 3, substituting a hydrometer for the
Jet A/A1 Plain form hydrometer 750–800 314H
thermohydrometer.
Plain form hydrometer 800–850 315H
4. Correct the observed hydrometer reading to the standard
Plain form hydrometer 775–825 321H Single temperature of (API) 60°F (15.5°C) or (metric) 20°C. See
span
Fig. 4.
5. Determine the corrected gravity measurement using the
Jet A/A1 Thermohydrometer 800–850 304HL ASTM tables or a specifically designed calculator or com-
Thermohydrometer 775–825 345H Single puter program and report the value as API gravity.
spana
a
This thermohydrometer is not for use in very cold or very hot climates; it has a
temperature range of only −10 to +40°C. FIG. 3 Obtaining the observed hydrometer reading.
A.2.5 Procedure
1. Collect the sample in a clean hydrometer cylinder and
place it in a vertical position in a location free from air
currents. Allow 1–2 min for air bubbles to disappear.
Remove any air bubbles that remain on the surface of
FIG. 4 Correction of observed API gravity to standard temperature. (Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute,
Washington, DC, Bulletin 1542.)
NOTE change. Although test results may differ within the method’s
For digital electronic meters follow the manufacturer’s limitations of reproducibility, a change greater than
procedure. ±1.0 °API or 4 kg/M3 should warrant an investigation to
confirm that contamination has not occurred. If test results
A.2.6 Cautions differ with supplier batch data or previous tests on that fuel
1. The hydrometer must float freely to obtain a correct read- by more than is usually seen at this location, but less than
ing. It must not come to rest against the side or bottom of 1.0 API or 4 kg/M3, heightened awareness should be ex-
the cylinder during the test. (Centering devices that cause ercised in evaluating other quality tests, such as the white
no errors resulting from friction are available.) bucket and membrane tests, and warrant notifying the au-
2. The thermometer should not be completely removed from thority having jurisdiction.
the liquid to read the temperature. Evaporation of liquid 2. If a gravity or density reading in one set of units must be
from the thermometer stem and bulb will lower the tem- compared with one that was reported in a different set of
perature and cause an incorrect reading. units, use conversion tables in ASTM D1250. Alternatively,
3. Hydrometers and thermometers must be inspected periodi- the following equations may be used to convert between
cally to ensure that they are not cracked or that there are no °API and relative density (specific gravity) but not metric
separations of the mercury or oil/alcohol column. In addition, density (see Sec. A.2.1):
inspect that the paper scale in a hydrometer has not moved.
Degrees API = (141.5/relative density) −131.5
It is common for a red line to be in the glass, and this should
Relative density = (141.5/°API + 131.5)
align to a “major scale division” near the top of the scale.
4. For weight reading (pounds per gallon or kg/cm2), avoid 3. The procedure presented here is used to help detect pos-
temperature changes that will cause a reading that is inac- sible cross-contamination (by other miscible liquids) of
curate. Fuel weight will change with temperature. a fuel by comparing gravity measurements. It is neces-
sary to correct hydrometer readings to a standard tem-
A.2.7 Interpretation of Results perature.
1. Once a batch of fuel is produced, its gravity, or density, 4. Another use of hydrometers at an airport is to deter-
corrected to a standard temperature does not significantly mine fuel weight at the fueling temperature. In this
case, temperature correction must not be made. This that point of the system will depend on the design and type of
measurement must be taken immediately and reported equipment being sumped.
as “observed.”
5. If a cross-contamination problem is suspected, the odor of A.3.4 Equipment
the sample may also be different. The paper test (see A.10) 1. Clean white bucket (porcelain or approved equal) or stain-
can be used to gain more information. A different drying less steel bucket. The use of plastic (without adequate elec-
characteristic of the fuel sample may indicate a serious trostatic discharge capability) or any galvanized containers
problem. is not permitted.
2. Thief or scavenger pump (for underground tanks and
A.2.8 Calculating Fuel Weight barges).
A.2.8.1 A.3.5 Procedure
Although not a consideration in fuel quality, it is often a responsi- Sampling in all cases should be done in accordance with the
bility of fuel quality personnel. white bucket test method (Sec. A.1.4.4). A sample may be fur-
ther evaluated by the clear and bright test and the odor test
A.2.8.2 methods (Sec. A.1.6). Some systems allow fast flush ability and
Fuel weight changes as the fuel temperature changes. It may be are recommended.
detailed as follows:
Aboveground T anks—Open drain valve quickly and fully
1.
a. Metric Density—reverse the correction in the above to the open to ensure that the settled contaminants at the tank
actual temperature of the fuel being dispensed using a spe- low point (sump) are drawn into the drain line. Sufficient,
cially designed calculator or computer program or take a but not excessive, quantity should be drained to ensure that
new, uncorrected reading. the pipe extending into the tank sump is completely flushed
b. API—Either reverse the correction and convert to pounds (see note after 3. Filter Vessels). Now draw a sample for eval-
per gallon using a special calculator or computer program, uation. Be sure to draw fuel from the system sufficient to
the ASTM tables or a program—or simply use a “pounds remove the debris or water from inside the tank, and do not
per gallon” hydrometer on the fuel being dispensed at that flush before taking the sample, because then you will not
temperature. see that contamination. Very large tanks with large drain
lines may require many gallons of fuel to be drained (to
displace the fuel already in the drain line) before you actu-
A.3 Sump Sampling ally see the contaminants removed from the sump. Special
consideration should be given to open, floating roof tanks
A.3.1 Introduction and Purpose
that require more attention after heavy rain than a covered
The purpose of sump sampling is to check for the presence of
tank. Flat-bottom tank designs present additional problems
water and other contaminants in any fuel-handling system. With
requiring attention. These designs make it impossible to re-
adequate settling time, much of the free water and solid particles,
move all the water from the bottom of the tank, even with
if present, normally will drop to the tank bottom or system low
proper sump draining. Because of these special consider-
point. Removal of these contaminants is accomplished by com-
ations, sump sampling frequency must be tailored for each
pletely drawing off the water through a fully opened sump drain
installation.
valve. This is done to help maintain a clean fuel environment and
Barges and Underground Tanks—These tanks are sumped
2.
show any changes from the appearance of previous samples,
with the use of a thief or scavenger pump. The sumping of
which might indicate a fuel problem or an equipment or filter
these vessels should be accomplished at the lowest point of
failure.
the tank. Sufficient quantity should be pumped to ensure
White buckets are preferred, but in some cases, stainless steel
that the line content plus water and other contaminants
buckets are used. Please note that a white bucket is required in the
have been removed. The sump samples should then be
detection of particulates or fuel color problems.
evaluated (see note after 3. Filter Vessels).
Filter Vessels—Filter vessel sumping should be done under
3.
A.3.2 References pressure to ensure that water and other contaminants in
ASTM D4057-12, Standard P ractice f or Ma nual S ampling o f the sump and its immediate area have been removed from
Petroleum a nd P etroleum P roducts, ASTM International, West the vessel. Depending on use and design of the system, fre-
Conshohocken, PA, 2012, www.astm.org quency of sump sampling should be tailored to each facility.
NOTE
A.3.3 Description For example, 25 ft (7.62 m) of 1-in. (2.54 cm) pipe will
Fuel is drawn off at various locations throughout a system. These hold about 1 gal (3.8 L), whereas the same length of 3-in.
samples usually are taken in a clean white bucket or similar con- (7.62 cm) pipe will hold about 9 gal (34 L). A small drain
tainer. The fuel volume required to effectively flush and evaluate line is preferred.
4. Tank Trucks/Railroad Tank Cars—The vehicle should stand A.4 Electrical Conductivity—

undisturbed as long as practical, but no less than 10 min,
to allow any water or other contaminant that might be Portable Meter Method
present to settle. Sump each compartment and piping low A.4.1 Introduction and Purpose
point before unloading the vehicle. This will ensure that all Conductivity of aviation fuels, while normally very low, can be
water and other contaminants that may have collected at increased with the use of static dissipater additives. By sufficiently
these low points will be removed from the vehicle before increasing the electrical conductivity, the potentially dangerously
unloading into the system. Each sump sample should be high static charges that are generated during normal pumping and
evaluated. filtration operations are readily dissipated and prevented from
5. Aircraft R efueling V ehicles—Vehicle low-point and filter accumulating in a receiving tank. (See Sec. A.14.8, Static Dissipater
sumps should be drained at least daily at all compartment Additive, for additional information.) When these additives are
low-point drains. Allow at least 10 min of settling. Draw off used, fuel conductivity should be within limits specified in the fuel
a sufficient quantity to ensure that the sump and the line specifications, for example, ASTM D1655, Standard S peciἀcation
going to that sump have been drained. The sump sample for Aviation Turbine Fuels.
should be taken at a high flow rate to drain off all water and
other contaminants that may have collected at or around
A.4.2 References
each sump inside the compartment. The sump sample
ASTM D1655-16a, Standard Speciἀcation for Aviation Turbine
should then be evaluated.
Fuels, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016,
6. Pipe S ystem L ow P oints—Hydrant and pipeline delivery
www.astm.org
systems normally have low-point drains that can be used to
ASTM D2624-15, Standard T est M ethods f or E lectrical
remove water or other contaminants. The quantity flushed
Conductivity of Aviation and Distillate Fuels, ASTM International,
from the low-point points shall be 10–50 gal in excess of
West Conshohocken, PA, 2015, www.astm.org
the capacity of the flushing pipework and must be removed
ASTM D4306-15, Standard Practice for Aviation Fuel Sample
to completely flush the low point and its drain line. Low-
Containers f or T ests A ffected b y T race C ontamination, ASTM
point samples should then be evaluated.
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015, www.astm.org
7. In some cases, a sump separator (sample tank) may be
used for visual evaluation of fuel. In such cases, enough
fuel volume should be directed to the sump separator A.4.3 Description
to displace all of the fuel in the inlet line and allow ade- The test probe is immersed in the fuel. The conductivity of the
quate fuel in the sump separator to provide a represen- fuel will be indicated on the meter when the instrument is
tative sample. This should be done at the fastest possible energized.
velocity.
A.4.4 Equipment
Both portable and in-line conductivity meters are offered by
A.3.6 Cautions
Emcee Electronics Inc. and D-2 Inc., as referenced in ASTM
1. All samples should be disposed of or recycled in an ap-
D2624.
proved manner.
2. Equipment should be properly bonded to prevent electro-
static spark discharge. A.4.5 Procedure
Rinse the probe and sample container using the fuel under test.
Calibrate the meter following the manufacturer’s instructions.
A.3.7 Interpretation and Limitation Immerse the probe in the fuel, energize the instrument, wait for
of Results approximately 3 s (see manufacturer’s instructions), and read the
A sump sample that consists of clear and bright fuel is considered conductivity in conductivity units (C.U.):
satisfactory (see NOTE). Any sump sample that is not clear and
C.U. = pS/m = Pico Siemens per m = 10−12 n−1/m
bright indicates a need for additional sumping. If, after reasonable
amounts of fuel have been drained the sample is still not accept-
able, supervision should be notified for further action. If a result is A.4.6 Cautions
different than usually seen, it warrants further investigation. 1. If checking conductivity within a storage tank, wait at least
Records of all sump draining should be maintained and 30 min after pumping into the tank before inserting the
should indicate the condition of the fuel when first evaluated and equipment probe. Just before inserting the probe, bond
the amount and nature of any contaminant found. the meter to the storage tank to prevent static discharge in
case the fuel is charged.
NOTE 2. Do not use the probe in areas where water may be present.
If there is any question whether the sample is fuel or water, refer to If the probe has contacted moisture or wet fuel, follow the
Sec. C, Water Detection. manufacturer’s instructions for proper cleaning.
3. If a sampling container is used, ensure that the container distribution system, from the point of fuel manufacture to the air-
is metallic and properly bonded to the instrument; see craft fuel tank.
ASTM D4306 for recommended containers.
4. Ensure cleanliness of sampling container by flushing with A.5.4 Equipment
some of the test sample. 1. Small-Scale Cl osed C up Tester—The complete instrument
5. The conductivity of fuels (in clear glass containers) that meeting all the requirements of ASTM D3828 is available
contain static dissipater additives is affected by sunlight commercially through laboratory supply houses.
and other strong light sources. 2. Sample Containers—Either clean, screw-cap metal cans or
6. Conductivity is a function of temperature. Typically, clean glass bottles with tight-fitting corks or stoppers must
conductivity will increase or decrease 1–4 C.U. per be used.
degree C or F in temperature. 3. Test Flame Gas Supply—The test flame may be fueled by
7. Immediately after adding the conductivity additive, the either natural gas (at fixed locations) or by a portable,
conductivity reading will not be stable. In cases in which self-contained gas supply, for example, butane or propane
the conductivity additive is injected at the truck rack cylinders.
during loading, it may be prudent to obtain conductivity
readings from the receiving location before making addi- A.5.5 Method A Procedure—
tive injection rate adjustments.
Flash/No Flash Test
1. Obtain a representative sample of the product in question
by filling the sample container to approximately one quar-
A.4.7 Interpretation and Limitation
ter full, capping it, and shaking thoroughly. Discard this
of Results
rinse fluid; this should be done three times. Completely fill
Conductivity of untreated fuel is generally less than 10 C.U.
the rinsed sample container to its maximum safe working
Properly treated fuel ranges between 50 and 600 C.U. These read-
level (usually about 95 % full) and cap it securely.
ings reflect the amount of additive in the fuel and are affected by
2. Connect the tester to the appropriate electrical and gas
temperature and time. Because of the effects that temperature and
services, switch the tester on, and then turn the coarse
time have on treated fuel, discrepancies in repeatability of readings
temperature control knob fully clockwise. Observe the
may occur.
thermometer periodically. When the thermometer is about
5°F (2.75°C) below the target temperature, adjust heat in-
put by turning the coarse control knob counterclockwise.
After a few minutes, the indicator light will slowly cycle
A.5 Flash Point by Small-Scale
on and off. At this point, check the temperature; if this is
Closed Cup Tester not the target temperature, adjust heat input with the fine
A.5.1 Introduction and Purpose (central) control knob to obtain target temperature. When
The small-scale closed test may be used to (1) determine whether the indicator light cycles on and off, the sample cup is at
a kerosine type jet fuel will flash at a specified temperature, target temperature.
(2) determine the actual flash-point temperature of the fuel, 3. Open the sample container in a draft-free location and
and (3) determine the presence of volatile contaminants in the withdraw a 2-mL sample using the present syringe.
fuel. Discharge this sample to waste. Take a second 2-mL sample
Flash point is defined as the lowest temperature of the fuel from the container and transfer it through the filling port
sample at which application of an ignition source causes the vapors orifice without losing any sample. Inject the sample into the
above the sample to ignite under specified test conditions. cup by fully depressing the plunger of the syringe. Remove
the syringe from the filling orifice.
4. Set a 1-min timer by rotating its knob clockwise to its stop.
A.5.2 References Open the gas control valve and light the pilot and test
ASTM D3828-16, Standard Test Methods for Flash Point by Small flames, adjusting the test flame to a 4-mm diameter (the
Scale Closed Cup Tester, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, same size as the test flame gage inscribed on the cup lid).
PA, 2016, www.astm.org After 1 min, apply the test flame by slowly and uniformly
opening the shutter, then closing it over a period of ap-
proximately 2 s. Observe whether there is a flash at the cup
A.5.3 Description opening. The sample has flashed if a large blue flame ap-
The tester is preheated and stabilized at the desired target tempera- pears and spreads over the sample surface. A halo around
ture. A 2-mL sample is injected through a self-sealing filler port the test flame is not a flash and should be ignored.
into the closed sample cup of the tester. After 1 min, the test flame 5. The result is recorded as a “flash at x temperature” or “no
is introduced into the sample cup and the observation of a flash or flash at x temperature.”
no flash is made and recorded for that target temperature. Because 6. After the test, turn off the gas supply, clean the instrument,
it is portable, this test may be used for fuels throughout the entire and allow it to cool off.
A.5.6 Method B Procedure—Actual A.5.8 Interpretation of Test Results

Flash Point Determination The results indicate the possible presence of the following: A flash
1. Obtain a representative sample following Method A. point lower than expected may be caused by contamination by
2. Connect the tester and observe the temperature following small quantities of light end contamination, for example, avgas
Method A. (aviation gasoline) or mogas (motor gasoline) in Jet A or Jet A-1
3. Open the sample container and take a second sample fol- that can arise from poor distribution practices (e.g., 1 gal [3.8 L] of
lowing Method A. avgas in 1,000 gal [3,785 L] of Jet A may lower the flash point of the
4. Set a time and observe the flash following Method A. mix by 5°F [2.75° C] or more). Off-specification product can be
5. Turn off the pilot and test the flame. When the temperature caused by poor quality control in manufacture or transportation.
drops to a safe level, remove the sample and clean the in-
strument. If a flash occurred in the previous test, repeat the
procedure with a new specimen at a temperature 9°F (5°C)
A.6 Product Identification
below that at which the flash was observed. If necessary, A.6.1 Introduction and Purpose
repeat this procedure until no flash is observed. If no flash This section describes general or field techniques used to identify
occurred in the previous test, repeat the procedure with aviation fuels and determine whether product mixing may have
a new specimen at a temperature 9°F (5°C) above that at occurred.
which no flash was observed. If necessary, repeat this pro-
cedure until a flash is observed. A.6.2 References
6. Having established a flash within two temperatures 9°F ASTM D910 -16 , Standard Sp ecification f or L eaded A viation
(5°C) apart, repeat the procedure, with a new specimen for Gasolines, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016,
each test, raising the temperature in 2°F (1.1°C) intervals www.astm.org
from the lower of the two temperatures until a flash is ob- ASTM D1655-16a, Standard S peciἀcation f or A viation
served. Record the temperature on the thermometer as the Turbine F uels, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
flash point at the time the test flame application causes a 2016, www.astm.org
distinct flash in the fuel sample cup. ASTM D6615-15a, Standard Speciἀcation for Jet B W ide-Cut
7. After the test, turn off the gas supply, clean up the instru- Aviation Turbine Fuel, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
ment, and allow it to cool. PA, 2015, www.astm.org
8. If it is desired to correct the observed flash point for the EI 1542, Identiἀcation Markings for Dedicated Aviation Fuel
effect of barometric pressure, refer to ASTM D3828. Manufacturing a nd D istribution F acilities, A irport S torage
and Mobile F uelling E quipment, Energy Institute, London,
www.energyinst.org
A.5.7 Cautions
The operator must take appropriate safety precautions during the A.6.3 Description
preparation and initial application of the test flame to the sample. Chart 1 lists tests that can be performed for determining product
Samples containing low-flash material may give an abnormally identity or contamination of aviation fuel. Gravity and color are
strong flash when the test flame is first applied. the only field tests on this chart commonly used for product
CHART 1 Field tests for determining product identity or contamination.

identification, but some locations may be able to perform flash 2. For Jet B fuels, run API gravity (or relative density) tests
point. Other tests are often done, such as membrane color, but described in Sec. A.2.
these tests are used for fuel quality and not for product identifica- 3. For avgas fuels, run API gravity (or relative density) tests
tion. In cases in which there is still any doubt as to product identity, described in Sec. A.2 and the following color test:
a product sample (1 gal [3.8 L] minimum in an approved sample a. Obtain small sample (pint or quart) of avgas in a clear,
container) should be sent to a fuel-testing laboratory for identifica- glass sample container.
tion (see Sec. A.9, Shipment of Aviation Fuel Samples). b. Observe the color and appearance of the avgas. It should
be clear and bright and the correct color for the specified
A.6.4 Equipment grade (Chart 1) with no cloudiness or indication of con-
Equipment (Chart 2) is described in Sec. A.2.4 for determining API tamination with another color (Sec. A.1).
gravity or metric density. Flash point equipment is described in
Sec. A.5.4. A clear glass sample container is used for observing A.6.6 Cautions
color (e.g., a hydrometer cylinder). Be sure to properly dispose of aviation fuel samples. Safe han-
dling procedures and regulating agency requirements must be
followed.
A.6.5 Procedure
1. For Jet A and Jet A-1 fuels, run API gravity (or relative A.6.7 Interpretation of Test Results
density) tests described in Sec. A.2 and flash-point tests 1. Refer to Sec. A.2 for interpretation of API gravity or metric
described in Sec. A.5. density results.
CHART 2 Airport equipment marking for fuel identification, recommendations

for airport installations. Taken from API/EI Standard 1542, Identification
Markings for Dedicated Aviation Fuel Manufacturing and Distribution
Facilities, Airport Storage, and Mobile Fuelling Equipment, 9th Edition,
August 2002. (Reproduced courtesy of the American Petroleum
Institute.)
2. Refer to Sec. A.5 for interpretation of flash-point results. next fueling operator can be advised if a dissimilar fuel is to be
3. If jet fuel is not clear and bright, or avgas is not clear and loaded.
bright as well as of the proper color, the fuel is suspect and This section is included in this manual to make fueling oper-
a sample should be sent to a fuel-testing laboratory for ators aware of the potential hazard of mixed fuels. ASTM neither
identification. endorses any procedure nor is prepared to write a recommended
procedure that would eliminate hazards associated with electro-
static discharges.
A.7 Electrostatic Hazards in
Mixing Aviation Fuels
A.8 Preservice Cleanliness
Although nonmilitary turbine-powered aircraft usually are fueled
Inspection of Fueling Equipment
with Jet A or Jet A-1 fuels, it is sometimes necessary to refuel them A.8.1 Introduction and Purpose
with lower flash-point fuels, such as JP-4 or Jet B, as approved by The proper inspection of a new, refurbished, or repaired refueler or
the airframe manufacturer or type certificate. (Note: Flash point dispenser, before placing the unit into service, is of the utmost
is not an issue with JP-5 and JP-8 turbine fuels because they have importance to ensure that only quality fuel is to be dispensed.
flash points similar to or greater than Jet A and Jet A-1.) When Refueler tanks and dispensing equipment may contain water,
lower flash-point fuels are used, the vapor space above the mixed solid contaminants, or a mixture of fuels or off-specification fuel
fuels likely is flammable and thus more easily ignited by electro- after being fabricated, repaired, or tested.
static discharges. It is important to notify ground-fueling person-
nel and those responsible for their safety when an aircraft fuel
A.8.2 References
system may contain fuel with a flash point less than 100°F because
There is no known published standard for this inspection. Some
low-flash-point fuels vaporize and can ignite at lower tempera-
aircraft-fueling companies or airlines, however, have established
tures. Note that the use of lower flash-point (wide-cut) fuels (JP-4
procedures.
and Jet B) is being phased out, but they continue to be used partic-
ularly in areas with very low temperatures.
A.8.3 Description of Inspection
A.7.2 References Procedures
No official reference is known to exist for this procedure, but some The commissioning of equipment is basically a visual inspection of
aircraft manufacturers may have individual aircraft fueling the equipment followed by a test of the first fuel to be dispensed by
procedures. the unit. The fuel is tested for particulate matter and water before
the equipment is put into service.
A.7.3 Description
The vapor space in a turbine-powered aircraft tank contains a mix- A.8.4 Equipment
ture of air and fuel vapor. For kerosine-type fuels, this mixture is The required equipment for this procedure includes a white bucket
seldom ignitable because the amount of fuel vapor from these fuels (Sec. A.1.3), field-sampling kit (Secs. B.1–B.2), and water detection
(Jet A and Jet A-1, as well as JP-5 and JP-8) is quite small, making kit (Secs. C.1–C.5).
the fuel-air mixture too lean to burn. When the tank is being (or
has been) contaminated with or serviced with a more volatile fuel,
such as avgas (or, rarely, wide-cut turbine fuel still in use at some A.8.5 Procedure
locations; Jet B or JP-4), the vapor space mixture can fall within the 1. Before filling the refueler, inspect all tank compartments
flammable range. for foreign matter and water. Clean tanks as required.
CAUTION
NOTE
Tank cleaning must be accomplished in accordance with
Aviation gasoline is not recommended for turbine-powered air-
local, state, and national guidelines.
craft by any engine manufacturer.
Flammable conditions also can occur if tanks that previously 2. Drain all sumps and low points. Be sure to close all valves
had been serviced with a wide-cut (Jet B, JP-4, or similar fuel) and reinstall plugs.
product are fueled with a kerosine-type fuel, or when the 3. Ensure the filter elements and filter vessel accessories are
kerosine-type product is serviced to aircraft at ambient tempera- properly installed and operating.
tures above the flash point. The hazard associated with fueling and 4. In the case of refuelers, fill unit approximately three-
defueling under those conditions is the possibility of electrostatic- quarters full with clean product. While filling, check that
induced ignition. there are no leaks and verify tank vents and high-level shut-
off prechecks are functioning. Sample all tank and filter
A.7.4 Cautions sumps (Sec. A.3).
The aircraft flight crew must know the type of fuel introduced 5. Flush the refueler or dispenser piping system with clean
into the aircraft tanks in at least the last two fuelings so that the fuel, taking care at first to ensure that all the air has been
removed from the system. Flush twice the volume of the A.9.1.1 Flushing Sample Cans
fueling circuit into a downgrade fuel receptacle or tank. The sample must be in compliance with any requirements for
Check for leaks while flushing. shipping, such as those of the U.S. Department of Transportation
6. Circulate clean product in the refueler or dispenser for ap- (DOT), International Air Transportation Association (IATA), and
proximately 30 min at maximum obtainable system flow International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The can must
rate (not to exceed the filter rated capacity). be epoxy-lined and meet the requirements of ASTM D4306, Sec. 6,
in regard to not having a negative effect on sample integrity.
CAUTION
It is strongly recommended to soak a full can overnight
Fuel flow in a refueler should be accomplished by means of a
(known as “pickling”) before flushing. Proper flushing requires at
proper recirculation system. Recirculating the fuel through
least three rinsings with the fuel being sampled. Fill the can about
the bottom-loading system may result in fuel circulation in
10–20 % full (less than one-quarter full) and shake vigorously for
the piping only. Flow should be established through the
1 min and drain completely. Discard each rinse.
recirculation system (if so equipped) or through a drop tube
Before filling the sample can, the sample connection and
designed to prevent the free fall or splashing of fuel. A test
hardware must be flushed to make sure the sample is representative
stand is preferable.
of the fuel in the system.
7. After circulation in step 6 is completed, take a sample of the
fuel from each nozzle and filter sump. Also, take a sample A.9.2 General
from the tank sump of the refueler. Evaluate the samples for There are restrictive rules and regulations that govern the ship-
appearance, water, and particulate content (Sec. A.1). Con- ment of hazardous materials. It should be clearly understood that
tinue circulating as necessary until samples are acceptable. all grades and types of jet fuels (both kerosine and naphtha-based),
8. Check nozzle screens, clean as required, and reinstall. aviation gasolines (avgas), and used filter cartridges containing fuel
9. New fuel hose must be properly prepared before use. The residues currently are considered hazardous materials when
process has been historically located in API 1529, but has shipped as cargo by air.
been relocated to Sec. A.15 of this publication. Containers for the transportation of samples by air shall be of
10. If the product quality has deteriorated after the refueler or an ICAO-approved design and shall be transported in accordance
dispenser has been allowed to stand for a period of time, as with the latest edition of the ICAO Technical Instructions for the
mentioned in the new hose preparation procedures (A.15), Safe Transport o f D angerous G ood b y A ir, the IATA Dangerous
continue fuel circulation and recheck fuel quality. Circulate Goods Regulations, or local governing regulation.
until the fuel is of acceptable quality. If the fuel is not of Therefore, each prospective shipper of a hazardous material
acceptable quality, check filters and change if necessary. Re- must contact the carrier of choice, either air, ground, or marine, for
peat test starting with step 6. If fuel has been stored a long specific information necessary to meet their regulations. Sample
time, typically 6 months or more, the oil company or airline containers should conform to the requirements of ASTM D4306.
may require recertification to ASTM D1655 or ASTM D910.
11. Fuel soak and flushing procedures detailed in steps 9 and A.9.3 References
10 may be bypassed only with approval by the appropriate ASTM D4057-12, Standard P ractice f or Ma nual S ampling o f
authority as local operating conditions (equipment avail- Petroleum a nd P etroleum P roducts, ASTM International, West
ability) dictate. Conshohocken, PA, 2012, www.astm.org
12. During the final recirculation step, perform a filter membrane ASTM D4306-15, Standard Practice for Aviation Fuel Sample
test (Secs. B.1–B.2), check fuel for water (Secs. C.1– C.5), and Containers f or T ests A ffected b y T race C ontamination, ASTM
record the differential pressure across the filter (Sec. D.5). International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015, www.astm.org
13. The following additional serviceability checks should be U.S. Department of Transportation, 49 CFR, Parts 100–199,
considered: Transportation, U.S. Government Publishing Office, Washington,
a. primary and secondary pressure controls, DC, 2016, www.ecfr.gov
b. meter calibration, IATA, Dangerous G oods Re gulations, International Air
c. brake and fueling interlocks, and Transportation Association, Quebec, Canada, 2016, www.iata.org
d. other safety features. ICAO, Technical I nstructions f or t he S afe Transportation o f
Dangerous Goods by Air, Doc. 9284, International Civil Aviation
Organization, Montreal, Canada, 2015–2016, www.icao.int
A.9 Shipment of Aviation
Fuel Samples A.10 Field Test for Contamination
A.9.1 Obtaining Samples and Flushing of Aviation Gasoline with Heavier
Sample Cans for Shipment to Laboratory
Fuels
It is important that samples are taken carefully so the fuel tested at
the laboratory is representative of the fuel in the system. In addi- A.10.1 Introduction and Purpose
tion, it is critical that the sample does not contaminate or change Contamination of avgas by small amounts of heavier petroleum
any characteristic of the fuel sample. products, such as jet fuel, kerosine, and diesel fuel, may be difficult
to detect in the field because the fuel dye masks color changes.
When more sophisticated laboratory tests are unavailable, this test FIG. 5 Drop testing of a known good fuel (base standard) and
can provide an indication that a heavy petroleum contaminant is fuel in question (test sample).
present in the fuel in a significant quantity.
A.10.2 References
There is no published standard for this test. A similar procedure
has been distributed by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
(AOPA) Air Safety Foundation, Detecting Jet Fuel Contamination
of Avgas, Safety Bulletin No. 1, Frederick, MD, 1981.
A.10.3 Description
Drops of the sample fuel and a known uncontaminated sample are
each placed on a piece of paper. After the avgas evaporates, the
spots are compared. The presence of a translucent (semitranspar-
ent) ring around the test fuel sample point, after a specified time
interval, is a positive indication of contamination by heavier
products.
A.10.4 Equipment
1. Medicine Droppers and Clean Test Vials. The specific type is 6. As soon as the fuel is evaporated from the base standard
not important, but all droppers must be the same kind and (about 10 s at 90°F [32°C] about 30 s at 50°F [10°C]), apply
size for each test. second drops of base standard to A and A’. Similarly, apply
2. Test Paper. The type of paper is not critical, and any paper that drops of the test sample at B and B’.
will absorb the fuel drops should be satisfactory. Whatman 7. Repeat the application until 5 drops have been added to
No. 1 filter paper or standard notebook paper is acceptable. each dot. After the last fuel drops have evaporated, pick
3. Stop watch or a watch with a second hand. up the paper and look through it toward an indirect light
4. Sample of fuel from source known to be uncontaminated source and observe the four spots. If outside, hold it to-
(base standard). ward a portion of the sky away from the sun. Indoors, use
a window or fluorescent or incandescent light. The inner
NOTE
circle (Y in Fig. 4) will dry rapidly. If there is contamina-
Do not assume fuel upstream of the point of sampling is uncon-
tion, the outer ring (Z in Fig. 4) will be translucent and
taminated. It may be desirable to store a small sample of known
remain visible for a longer period.
good product for use when needed.
A.10.6 Cautions
A.10.5 Procedure
When applying the drops to the test paper, try to add the drops at
1. Although the test can be performed under a variety of con-
the center of the spot each time and keep the drops about the same
ditions, advantage should be taken of any available shade or
size. If more than one drop is added to a spot at the same time or if
shelter.
a spot is flooded in some other manner, discard the spot and begin
2. Make four pencil dots about 2 in. (5 cm) apart on a piece
the test again on another piece of paper.
of test paper as shown in Fig. 5. Label two adjacent dots, A
and A’ for the base standard, and two dots, B and B’ for the
test sample. A.10.7 Interpretation and Limitations
3. Fill a clean medicine dropper with the base standard. Place of Results
the filled dropper in a small empty vial or bottle for sup- If no translucent outer ring (Z) appears or it disappears before 20 s
port. In a like manner, fill a second dropper with the sam- after the base standard, report “no contamination by filter paper
ple to be tested. test.” If the translucent band (Z) of the test sample remains longer
4. With one hand, hold the test paper horizontally and with than 20 s after that of the base standard, report “contamination by
the other hand, pick up the dropper containing the base filter paper test.” If contamination is indicated, the fuel should be
standard. Holding the dropper immediately over point A, quarantined immediately for more intensive testing.
discharge a single drop of gasoline. Move the dropper to A’ If the type of contamination is not known, some information
and repeat the application. Replace the medicine dropper on the contaminating product may be obtained by examining the
in its holder. ring, as follows:
5. Immediately take the dropper containing the test sample
and place single drops at points B and B’ and replace this Width of Ring. The width varies with the boiling point of
1.
dropper. the contaminating fluid. Heavier products leave narrow
distinct rings while lighter products, such as jet fuel, leave should be sought to ensure that the sample is taken properly and in
wider, fuzzier rings. the right container.
Odor. The contaminant may have a distinctive odor that
2.
may be detected after the inner ring dries.
A.11.2 References
Color. Heavy fuel oil will leave a brown deposit near the
3.
ASTM D4057-12, Standard P ractice f or Ma nual S ampling o f
center of the spot.
Petroleum a nd P etroleum P roducts, ASTM International, West
Eἀect of Temperature on Ring. Jet fuel and kerosine evap-
4.
Conshohocken, PA, 2012, www.astm.org
orate at room temperature; heating oil at slightly elevated
ASTM D4306-15, Standard Practice for Aviation Fuel Sample
temperatures; lubricants do not evaporate at all.
Containers f or T ests A ἀected b y T race C ontamination, ASTM
Test Sensitivity. If done properly, the test is capable of de-
5.
tecting as little as 1 % heavy product contamination.
Also see Sec. A.9, Shipment of Aviation Fuel Samples.
A.11 Fuel-Sampling Techniques A.11.3 Description

A.11.1 Introduction and Purpose Table 1 contains a summary of the common types of samples taken
This section outlines techniques for choosing containers and sam- for aviation fuel testing. Type and quantity of samples and sample
pling aviation fuels. Products are sampled for various reasons, such containers must be chosen to ensure that the samples are represen-
as upon receipt, to ensure that the product is on specification; dur- tative of the aviation fuel in question and are satisfactory for the
ing storage, for custody transfer and pricing determination; or purpose intended, that is, testing, visual inspection, and so forth.
during storage and handling, to monitor aviation fuel quality and Certain aviation fuel tests are known to be affected significantly by
condition. trace contaminants that can be introduced by an improper con-
The quality of the fuel is determined by interpreting results of tainer. Table 2 contains a list of recommended sample containers
tests performed on samples of the fuel. Therefore, it is extremely for specific tests.
important that samples accurately represent the fuel being tested Liquid materials in tanks and other bulk containers should
or test results will be invalid. be sampled by the appropriate technique. The sample must be
These instructions for sampling and sample containers do not drawn through an opening that gives direct access to the bulk of
cover all cases. Therefore, judgment must be used to be sure that liquid. This means that samples should not be drawn from non-
samples are representatives of the products to be tested. Also, if the slotted gage-tubes because nonrepresentative samples may
purpose for taking the sample is not clear, additional information result.
Table 1 Types of Samples
Type Description
1. Spot sample A sample taken at a specific location in a tank or other container or from a line at a specific time during a pumping operation.
2. Top sample A spot sample obtained 6 in. (15.24 cm) below the top of the container’s contents.
3. Upper sample A spot sample obtained from the middle of the upper third of the container’s contents.
4. Middle sample A spot sample obtained from the middle of the container’s contents.
5. Lower sample A spot sample obtained from the middle of the lower third of the container’s contents.
6. Bottom sample A sample obtained at the bottom surface of the container at its lowest point.
7. Drain (sump) sample A sample obtained from the water draw-off line or sump.
8. All levels sample A sample obtained by submerging a closed sampler to a point as near as possible to the draw-off level, then opening the
sampler and raising it at a rate such that it is three-quarters full as it emerges from the liquid.
9. Line sample A sample drawn from a small sample connection on a line.
10. Drip sample A “drip” or “continuous” sample is a line sample obtained by either of the following methods to produce a representative
average:
a. The product is allowed to drip or trickle into a container throughout the period of product transit.
b. A pint sample may be drawn at regular intervals during a delivery to fill a gallon container.
11. Hose sample A sample obtained from a refueling vehicle or dispensing cabinet delivery hose.
12. Composite sample A sample consisting of a blend of equal portions of two or more of any of the other types of samples.
13. Multiple tank composite sample A mixture of individual samples from several compartments of ships, barges, and so forth, which contain the same grade of fuel.
The mixture is blended in proportion to the volume of material in each compartment.
14. Running sample A sample taken from a flowing stream over time, intended to provide an average example.
Table 2 Summary of Container Recommendationsa
Type of analysis Microseparometer (MSEP) Electrical Conductivity Lubricity Thermal Stability Trace Metals
Hard borosilicate glass

Immediate use P P S S NR
Storage P P S NE NR
Reuse S P S S NR
Epoxy-lined steel
Immediate use P P S P NR
Storage P P S P NR
Reuse P P S P NR
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Immediate use S NR NR P P
Storage NE NR NR P P
Reuse NE NR NR P P
Tin-plate soldered steel (super clean only)
Immediate Use S S S S NR
Storage NR NR NR NR NR
Reuse NR NR NR NR NR
High-density linear polyethylene
Immediate S NR NR NR P
Storage NR NR NR NR P
Reuse NR NR NR NR P
Note: P = preferred; S = suitable; NR = not recommended; NE = not evaluated but may be suitable.
The containers listed in this summary should not be used without consulting the appropriate paragraphs of ASTM D4306.
a
A.11.4 Equipment 3. Inspect and clean the container according to the proce-

1. Sample containers could be as follows: epoxy-coated metal dures listed in ASTM D4057 and ASTM D4306.
containers, borosilicate (hard) glass bottles (Pyrex® is the 4. Rinse the container three times with the product to be sam-
popular brand name), polytetrafluoroethylene bottles pled, if appropriate.
(Teflon® is the popular brand name), polyethylene bottles, 5. Inspect the sampling apparatus to be sure it is also clean. It
steel cans, and stainless steel beakers. is much simpler to keep the sampling apparatus clean if dif-
2. Closures, caps, lids, and so forth, as required. ferent apparatus is dedicated for different types of products,
3. Sample tags or labels. that is, aviation gasoline and jet fuel.
4. Cleaning reagents, solvents, and reference fluids as 6. Use one of the following typical sampling methods to ob-
required. tain the type of sample desired (Figs. 6-9):
NOTE • Lowering a weighted bottle assembly or a metal bomb
See ASTM D4057 and ASTM D4306 for suggested materials sampling device into the product to the desired level.
and handling precautions for reagents, reference fluids, and • Drawing line samples from a sampling port on a pipeline
solvents. or dock riser.
5. Sampling apparatus and hand tools, as required. CAUTION
Do not disturb product flow while sampling, that is, by clos-
ing valves and so forth.
A.11.5 Procedure
1. Determine for what purpose the sample is required and 7. In addition to the general information listed above, also
what tests are to be run on it. If not sure, get directions include the following specific information on the sample
from the authority having jurisdiction. label:
2. Select sampling container of the appropriate size and • Marine-vessel shipment—product, ship/barge, compart-
type. ment, shipment or voyage number, and date;
FIG. 6 Sampling depths. The outlet location shown applies only FIG. 7 Bottle and beaker sampling apparatus.
to tanks with side outlets. It does not apply when the
outlet comes from the floor of the tank or turns down
into a sump.
• Tank samples—product and tank number, terminal,

pipeline tender or marine vessel number, wheeled vehi-
cle delivery (tank truck) number, if applicable, and date;
• Airport samples—shipping tank number, pipeline
tender number, wheeled vehicle delivery number, prod-
uct source, if known, and date;
• Filter vessel samples—date, name-plate information,
location, type of vessel, and vessel number;
• Aircraft samples—date, aircraft number, tank number,
and flight number; and
• Delivery truck samples—Truck and trailer number,
compartment number, date, and product origin.
8. Clean sampling apparatus before storing it in an appro-
priate location. Samples should be transported to the
testing laboratory as soon as possible or stored in an ap- 2. Cleanliness is absolutely essential for proper sampling. The
propriate cool, dark (unless the container is metal), dry following techniques are recommended:
location. a. The sampler’s hands (or gloves) must be clean.
b. The sampling apparatus and containers must be main-
tained in a clean condition (and environment) and in-
A.11.6 Cautions
spected immediately before use.
1. Fuel sampling involves hazardous materials, operations,
and equipment. This section does not address all of the NOTE
safety problems associated with fuel sampling. It is the re- It is not acceptable to clean containers or sampling appara-
sponsibility of the user to establish appropriate safety and tus with common soaps and detergents because residual
health practices and determine the applicability of regula- quantities of these materials may affect certain test results.
tory limitations before use. Also, common plastics should not be used for sampling any
FIG. 8 Probes for continuous sampling.

clear glass bottles may be used if wrapped in a material

FIG. 9 Thief for sampling tank cars. capable of keeping out the light (aluminum foil is com-
monly used).
NOTE
Any sample that is to be shipped to another location or that
will not be tested in a short time should be protected from
light.
i. About 5 % of the sample container volume should be
left empty to allow for expansion.
j. Add precautionary labels as required by local ordinance
or if shipping sample to another location for testing (re-
view Sec. A.9).
3. The following warning statements are applicable:
a. Flammable Liquid (General)
Warning—Flammable.
Keep away from heat, sparks, and open flame.
Keep container closed.
Use only with adequate ventilation.
Avoid prolonged breathing of vapor or spray mist.
Avoid prolonged or repeated contact with skin.
b. Aviation Gasoline (avgas)
Danger—Extremely flammable.
petroleum fuel. Furthermore, if a hose sample is to be taken, Vapors harmful if inhaled.
the hose must be cleared or flushed of all fuel present before Vapors may cause flash fire.
taking the sample. Harmful if absorbed through skin.
c. Rinse the container (or intermediate containers) and
Keep container closed. Use with adequate ventilation.
sampling apparatus three times with the fuel to be sam-
Avoid buildup of vapors and eliminate all sources of igni-
pled prior to taking the sample.
tion, especially nonexplosion-proof electrical apparatus
d. All flushed fuel must be either recovered or disposed of
and heaters.
in an approved manner.
Avoid prolonged breathing of vapor or spray mist.
NOTE Avoid prolonged or repeated contact with skin.
If taking a sump sample, no flushing is required. c. Aviation Turbine Fuels (Jet A or Jet A-1)
Caution—Combustible.
e. Seal containers immediately after filling, using the
Vapor harmful.
proper closures. (Review Sec. A.9 if sample is to be
shipped to another location.)
Keep container closed.
f. Label container immediately after filling, using the
Use with adequate ventilation.
proper label or waterproof marker.
Avoid breathing vapor or spray mist.
g. The label should contain as much information as
Avoid prolonged or repeated contact with skin.
required to tell the person receiving it what is re-
4. All flushed fuel must be either recovered or disposed of in
quired from the sample. For example, the following
an approved manner.
information may be included on the label: name,
volume, and grade of product; geographic location
(terminal, airport, pipeline, and so forth); date and
time sample taken; name of sampler; tank number,
A.12 Surfactants—Surface
container, or vehicle, including lot number where Active Agents
applicable, as well as point from which sample is
taken; type of sample (composite, all level, bottom,
The purpose of this section is to provide basic information on sur-
and so forth); identification number of sample; and
factants and the need for the detection and prevention of these
tests requested.
materials in aviation fuel systems.
h. If the sample is sensitive to light (e.g., leaded avgas)
and the testing includes determination of color, tetra-
ethyl lead, inhibitors, stability tests, and so forth, then A.12.2 References
the sample must be protected from light. Cans are ASTM D3948-14, Standard Test M ethods f or D etermining Water
preferred, but brown bottles sometimes are used, or Separation C haracteristics o f A viation Turbine F uels b y P ortable
Separometer, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014, appropriate container. If it is hazy, allow the sample to settle for
www.astm.org about 3 min. If the haze has disappeared and water does not accu-
ASTM D4306-15, Standard Practice for Aviation Fuel Sample mulate at the sample container bottom, the haze most likely was
Containers f or T ests A ffected b y T race C ontamination, ASTM caused by entrained air. Within 3 min, if water appears as the haze
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015, www.astm.org clears up, surfactant should not be suspected. If the haze fails to
clear up in this time, the presence of surfactants should be sus-
A.12.3 Description pected and further investigation should be made.
Surfactants are “surface-active agents,” which are materials that The white bucket test (Sec. A.1.4.3 and A.1.4.4) is particularly
collect at liquid-liquid or liquid-solid interfaces and cause specific helpful in detecting the presence of surfactants in fuel systems.
things to happen. One of the best-known examples of surfactants Microbiological growths have many of the visual characteristics of
might be dish detergent, which acts at the interface between oil and surfactants and only laboratory tests can determine the type of
water to disperse the oil or grease into the water. contamination found. Fuel samples taken for laboratory evalua-
Surfactants in hydrocarbon fuels can be the result of naph- tion should include the fuel-water interface, and the sample should
thenate or sulfonate carried over from a refinery; can result from be obtained in a clean, epoxy-coated sample can.
cross-contamination with other fuels; or can be in the form of
additives, such as corrosion inhibitors, dispersants, and static dis- A.12.5 Prevention
sipaters. Surfactants can cause jet fuel-handling problems because The best methods for the prevention of surfactant contamination
of their tendency to form fuel-water hazes and their ability to are proper manufacturing, transportation, filtration, and good
degrade the performance of filter/separators. For these reasons, housekeeping. If surfactants are a continuing problem, clay treat-
fuel-manufacturing procedures and handling practices are closely ment should be considered to adsorb and thus remove the
controlled and monitored. surfactants.
Some additives are injected by the refineries for the protection
of manufacturing and transportation facilities. Other approved
additives may be introduced at intermediate distribution plants or A.13 Microseparometer
at the point of aircraft fueling. Approved surfactant-type additives
are tested and usually do not have adverse effects on properly
This test provides a rapid means to rate the ability of jet fuel to
designed filtration systems of ground storage and dispensing
release entrained or emulsified water when passed through fiber-
equipment. In high enough concentrations, however, and espe-
glass coalescing material.
cially when mixed with other components not usually present in
This test commonly is used to evaluate the performance of
jet fuel, they can disarm the filter/separators of ground-fueling
clay treating vessels (Secs. A.12 and D.8) that remove surfactants
equipment that could allow free water to be pumped into aircraft
from jet fuel and to identify jet fuels that may contain significant
fuel systems.
levels of surfactant that would disarm coalescer cartridges.
A.12.4 Detection
A.13.2 References
Normally, evidence of surfactants is after-the-fact, that is, after
ASTM D3948-14, Standard Test M ethod f or D etermining W ater
gross contamination has occurred and a sudsy-like liquid appears
Separation C haracteristics o f A viation Turbine F uels b y P ortable
in tank or filter sump drains. Following are some symptoms of
Separometer, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014,
possible surfactant contamination:
www.astm.org
1. Excess dirt or free water detected downstream of the filtra- ASTM D4306-15, Standard Practice for Aviation Fuel Sample
tion system. Containers for Tests Affected by Trace Contamination, ASTM
2. Hazy fuel samples. International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015, www.astm.org
3. Brownish-colored water in tank or filter sump drainings. Kirklin, P., Edmondson, F., Dukek, W., and Morse, F.,
4. A lace-like material at the fuel-water interface of tank or Development of the Portable Water Separometer for the WSIM Test,
filter/separator sump drainings. SAE Technical Paper 851870, 1985, http://papers.sae.org/851870/
5. In aircraft, erratic operation of the fuel quantity gages is an
indicator of possible surfactant or microbiological growth A.13.3 Description
buildup on the fuel quantity gauge probes. A fuel sample is processed semiautomatically through the
6. Single-element test shows the coalescer to be disarmed (see microseparometer instrument. Using a portion of the fuel sample,
Sec. D.7). a reference level of 100 is established. Another portion of the fuel
7. Tests for water separation characteristics (microseparom- sample is then mixed with water and forced through a fiberglass
eter [MSEP]) of the fuel yield unsatisfactory results (see coalescing media using a sequence of timed events controlled by
Sec. A.13). the instrument. This portion then is compared with the 100 refer-
ence level established by the first portion. The resultant numerical
Following is a simple test that will alert an operator to the value, termed the “MSEP rating,” indicates the relative ease of coa-
possibility of surfactant contamination: Take a sample in an lescing water from the fuel. The test takes about 5 min to run.
NOTE 8. Remove the vial from the instrument well and discard the
The correct terminology for water separation characteristics fuel sample but retain the vial.
obtained using the microseparometer is MSEP rating. In the field, 9. The syringe drive mechanism will activate, forcing the wa-
people tend to refer to all water separation ratings as the water sep- ter-fuel emulsion through the Alumicel® coalescer. Using
aration index modified (WSIM) number. Technically, the WSIM the retained vial, collect the last 15 mL of processed fuel
number should be applied only to ratings that were obtained from sample from the Alumicel® coalescer and place the vial in
the water separometer, which was described in the now-obsolete the instrument well, aligning the marks.
ASTM D2550 method superseded by the microseparometer 10. After 56 s, preceded by a steady tone, the display will ac-
(ASTM D3948). tivate. After an additional 5 s or when another 1 s tone
sounds, read and record the displayed value as the MSEP
A.13.4 Equipment rating.
Equipment is manufactured by EMCEE Electronics, Inc., 520
Cypress Avenue, Venice, FL 34285. The equipment consists of the A.13.6 Cautions
following: 1. Do not reuse the consumable items. Subsequent tests using
these items could cause erroneous results.
1. Microseparometer instrument 2. The outside of the vials must be kept clean and free of ex-
2. Reusable items that initially are furnished with the mi- ternal surface contamination (such as fingerprints) by wip-
croseparometer and used for each test, including ing with a lint-free material. Because the clarity of the fuel
a. 50/microlitres (μl) pipette, and sample determines the MSEP rating, any surface contami-
b. catch pan. nation would result in a lower reading.
3. Consumable items are available in kit form from the man- 3. The fuel sample temperature should be kept between
ufacturer, including 65 and 85°F (18 and 29°C) and should not vary more than
a. Alumicel® coalescer, 5°F (2.75°C) during the entire test cycle.
b. syringe, 4. If the fuel sample is not clear and bright between these tem-
c. syringe plug, peratures, do not run the test.
d. plastic tip for the 50/microlitres (μl) pipette, 5. The alignment of the fuel sample vial in the instrument
e. double distilled water, and well must be the same during the adjustment period when
f. lint-free wipes. the 100 reference level is attained in Sec. A.13.5, step 5 and
when the final MSEP Rating is read in Sec. A.13.5, step 10.
A.13.5 Procedure This is accomplished by orienting the label on the vial in
Detailed instructions are contained in ASTM D3948 and in the the same direction during both steps.
manufacturer’s operating instructions furnished with each
microseparometer instrument. In general terms, the procedure is A.13.7 Cleanliness Guidelines for
as follows: Downstream MSEP Testing
1. Condition the syringe and mixer shaft by adding a portion of A.13.7.1 Introduction
fuel sample to the syringe and placing the syringe in the mixer. The cleanliness of aviation turbine fuel is an essential performance
After mixing stops, discard the fuel but retain the syringe. requirement. A key element in preventing dirt and water contami-
NOTE nation is to minimize or eliminate surfactants. ASTM D1655,
This operation is performed twice. Standard Speciἀcation for Aviation Turbine Fuels, Table 1, contains
the ASTM D3948 MSEP requirement to prevent surfactant con-
2. Fill the syringe with 50 mL of fresh fuel sample, add tamination at the point of manufacture, and ASTM D1655,
50/microlitres (μl) of distilled water, and place the syringe Appendix X1.13.2.2, includes the requirement for the prevention of
in the mixer. downstream surfactant contamination.
3. Fill the vial halfway with fuel sample and insert into the
instrument well. Align the white mark on the vial to the A.13.7.2 General Surfactant Cleanliness Guidelines
black mark in front of the well. 1. Cleanliness requires the relative absence of free water
4. Activate the mixer to create the water-fuel emulsion. and solid particulates. Water or dirt contamination in
5. Adjust the meter to a 100 reference level using the fuel sam- fuel onboard an aircraft represents a potential threat to
ple in the vial placed in the instrument well in step 3. flight safety and can cause long-term problems in areas
6. When the mixer stops, remove the syringe from the mixer, such as wear, corrosion, and plugging of filters and other
insert the plunger into the barrel to the 50-mL mark, re- narrow-tolerance parts. The cleanliness of aviation tur-
place the syringe plug with an Alumicel® coalescer, and bine fuel is protected in part by allowing time for dirt and
place the syringe assembly in the syringe drive. water to settle during fuel distribution and by the routine
7. The meter will activate for 10 s during which time, if neces- use of effective filtration that removes both dirt and water.
sary, the meter can be adjusted to the 100 reference level. Generally, the fuel-handling system filters the fuel several
times between manufacture and use, with the final filtra- and their uses must meet the requirements of the appropriate
tion occurring as the fuel is loaded onto an aircraft. ASTM aviation fuel specification.
2. A key element in aviation turbine fuel quality is to mini- The purpose of using an additive is to either add a feature
mize surfactant contamination, which can compromise the (such as identifying specific avgas grades) or to improve a specific
ability of fuel-handling systems to remove dirt and water. quality or performance parameter or fuel characteristic over that
Surfactants tend to increase the settling time of suspended achieved by refining and blending (such as fuel anti-icing or static
solids and water droplets, decrease particulate filter effec- conductivity).
tiveness, and adsorb on the surfaces of filter/coalescers,
thereby interfering with water removal. Surfactants also A.14.1.1 Storage and Handling
can lift rust and dirt from surfaces, increasing the solids Additives should be stored and handled appropriately as indicated
level in the fuel. by the applicable material safety data sheet (MSDS). Premixing of
3. Unlike most other fuel properties, fuel cleanliness is dy- additives together into a “cocktail” is not recommended because
namic, constantly changing during transportation and dis- reactions can take place between the additives, reducing their
tribution. Jet fuel should be transported in a manner that effectiveness or causing other problems.
minimizes contamination from water, dirt, and surfactants
as much as possible while in the distribution system. Fuel
cleanliness reduces filtration costs and reduces the poten- A.14.2 References
tial failure of filtration components that could lead to an ASTM D910-16, Standard S peciἀcation f or L eaded A viation
unsafe condition. Filtration systems and airport quality Gasolines, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016,
control programs should be designed to ensure that solid www.astm.org
particulates, surfactants, and free water are adequately re- ASTM D1655-16a, Standard Speciἀcation for Aviation Turbine
moved before loading the fuel into aircraft. To determine Fuels, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016,
the level of surfactant contamination in the fuel, ASTM www.astm.org
D3948 MSEP testing should be used at appropriate points ASTM D5006-11(2016), Standard Test Method for Measurement
through the distribution system and as part of the airport of Fuel System Icing Inhibitors (Ether Type) in Aviation Fuels, ASTM
quality control program. International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016, http://www.astm.org
4. Results of ASTM D3948 testing are not to be used as the ASTM D6227-14, Standard Speciἀcation for Unleaded Aviation
sole reason for rejection of fuel; however, they can indi- Gasoline Containing a Nonhydrocarbon Component, ASTM
cate a mandatory need for further diligent investigation International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014, www.astm.org
or remedial action, such as passing the fuel through a
clay adsorption unit to remove surfactants. The fuel NOTE
may be rejected in the absence of satisfactory ASTM 82UL Avgas is not a direct replacement for Avgas 80.
D3948 test results, however, if no documented evidence ASTM D6469-14, Standard Guide for Microbial Contamination
is presented that a detailed investigation was carried in Fuels and Fuel Systems, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
out demonstrating that the fuel was free of excess water PA, 2014, www.astm.org
and dirt and can be delivered into aircraft in a clean ASTM D6615-15a, Standard Speciἀcation for Jet B W ide-Cut
condition. Aviation Turbine Fuel, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
5. Because distribution systems can be complex and employ PA, 2015, www.astm.org
a variety of methods of transporting the fuel, sampling IATA, Guidelines on M icrobiological C ontamination i n
points and methodologies should be established as a Aircraft F uel T anks, Issue 1, International Air Transportation
result of a technical assessment designed to ensure that Association, Quebec, Canada, November 2003, www.iata.org
fuel cleanliness is maintained throughout the system to Salvatore, R., Signiἀcance o f T ests f or P etroleum P roducts,
the point of delivery into the aircraft. Because transport MNL1-8th, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010,
systems vary in their basic nature (e.g., water-borne trans- http://dx.doi.org/10.1520/MNL1-8TH-EB
port versus a multiproduct pipeline versus a dedicated
pipeline) and also in their detailed operating conditions, Additives that Typically Are Injected into the Fuel at or
the parties assuming custody of the fuel should evalu- Downstream of the Reἀnery
ate their particular systems and establish suitable testing
requirements.
A.14.3 Tetraethyl Lead (TEL)
A.14.3.1 Purpose
A.14 Aviation Fuel Additives
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is an antiknock compound used in most
A.14.1 Introduction and Purpose aviation gasolines (avgas) to improve the antiknock characteristics
A number of additives may be present in aviation fuels for various of the avgas, resulting in higher octane and performance numbers.
reasons. The purpose of this section is to briefly acquaint the reader The newest grade, 82UL, does not contain lead, and some other
with the different additives and why they may be present. Additives grades of avgas may not contain TEL.
A.14.3.2 Precautions a. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety

a. TEL antiknock compound is classified as very toxic. Care- precautions.
ful controls are required during its storage, handling,
and use, which are available in the TEL suppliers, MSDS A.14.7 Corrosion Inhibitor
documentation.
b. The concentration of TEL in aviation gasoline is controlled A.14.7.1 Purpose
by the specifications (ASTM D910). At these levels, the Corrosion inhibitor/lubricity improver (CI/LI) additive is used to
hazardous classification of the gasoline is unaffected by minimize corrosion of pipelines, tanks, and other parts in contact
the presence of TEL. Tanks used for the storage of leaded with fuels in which trace amounts of water may be present. CI/LI
aviation gasoline, however, after extended use, may pose additive also provides improvements in the lubricating properties
risks related to the presence of TEL or derivatives (chemi- (“lubricity”) of jet fuels. In general, military fuels require the addi-
cals formed by degradation of these compounds) in depos- tion of an approved CI/LI additive. Civilian jet fuels normally do
its. Precautions therefore should be taken when entering, not contain CI/LI additive, but the use of specific additives is per-
cleaning, repairing, or disposing of leaded gasoline tanks mitted by both ASTM D1655 and ASTM D910.
or piping. Details are available from TEL suppliers.
a. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety
A.14.4 Color Dyes precautions.
A.14.4.1 Purpose Additives that Typically Are Injected into the Fuel Downstream
Dyes are added to avgas for two reasons: to differentiate between of the Reἀnery
avgas grades (see Sec. A.6) and because dye is required in any fuel
containing lead.
A.14.8 Static Dissipater Additive (SDA)
Dyes are not allowed in jet fuel.
SDA also is known as antistatic additive or conductivity improver
A.14.4.2 Precautions additive.
If jet fuel or avgas appears to be different in color than the normal NOTE
color seen (see Sec. A.6), there may have been an inadvertent mix- Static electrical charges can cause dangerous sparks, which can
ing with another product. For example, jet fuel with a reddish lead to ignition of fuel vapors. The important action is to bond all
appearance may have been contaminated with some amount of components in the system so that no difference in electrical charge
red-dyed diesel fuel (or other red liquid). (Note: U.S. off-road potential exists. For example, the overwing nozzle must be
untaxed diesel is dyed red.) Avgas with a color different from the mechanically and electrically bonded to the aircraft. Static conduc-
usual color may have been mixed with a different grade of avgas or tive hose is not used to accomplish overwing nozzle bonding
another product. because it does not constitute a reliable and auditable means of
ensuring that there is no difference in electrical potential between
a. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety the nozzle and the aircraft.
precautions.
A.14.8.1 Purpose
A.14.5 Antioxidant Because static electrical charges can build up in fuels moving
through fuel systems, particularly through filters, SDA can be
A.14.5.1 Purpose added to jet fuels to increase the electrical conductivity of the fuel
Antioxidant is added to some aviation gasolines and some jet fuels. to reduce the time that it takes for electrical charge to dissipate.
In aviation gasolines, antioxidant prevents the formation of gum
and the precipitation of lead compounds. In some jet fuels, antiox- A.14.8.2 Precautions
idant is added to prevent the formation of peroxides, which can If the fuel is treated with static dissipater additive, the additive level
adversely affect thermal stability and storage stability and degrade or the effectiveness of the additive in the fuel can be reduced as the
elastomers (seals). additive moves through the distribution system. The electrical
conductivity level of the additized fuel is measured at various loca-
a. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety tions, with a handheld meter, or with an in-line conductivity meter.
precautions. If the conductivity level drops below the customer’s prescribed
limits, readditizing within approved specification limits is
A.14.6 Metal Deactivator necessary.
A.14.6.1 Purpose a. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety

Metal deactivator may be used in jet fuels to prevent certain metal- precautions.
lic materials (such as copper) from accelerating the degradation of b. Immediately after adding the conductivity additive, the
thermal stability. conductivity readings may not be stable. In cases in which
the conductivity additive is injected at the truck rack dur- c. As free water drops out of FSII-treated fuels FSII concen-
ing loading, it may be prudent to obtain feedback on the trates in the water (up to about 60 % FSII/40 % water). This
conductivity reading from the receiving location before mixture has the solvency of paint remover and can damage
making additive injection rate adjustments. filter separators and tank linings and can accelerate pipe
and tank corrosion. (The use of FSII is incompatible with
A.14.9 Fuel System Icing inhibitor (FSII) water-absorbing elements because FSII-water mixtures can
dissolve water-absorbing media forming a viscous material
A.14.9.1 Purpose known in the aviation industry as “APPL” or “apple” jelly
In cold climate operations, or as aircraft ascend to altitude even in or media migration.) The resulting FSII concentration in
tropical latitudes, the temperature of fuel in wing tanks and other the fuel is decreased. Concentration of DiEGME-type FSII
tanks can drop well below freezing (0°C, 32°F). As fuel cools, can be determined by ASTM D5006, but no simple field
roughly one part per million of dissolved water comes out of solu- test has been developed to measure isopropanol-type FSII
tion as free water for every 1°F of temperature drop. Certain air- concentration in avgas.
craft without fuel system heaters require that FSII be properly d. It is important to prevent water and moist air from en-
blended into the fuel to prevent the free water from freezing in the tering the FSII additive tank because water dissolves
fuel system, which could cause blockage of filters and fine passages readily into the additive, which becomes FSII-saturated
by the formation of ice crystals. free water in the FSII-additized fuel with the same issues
described previously. A desiccant vent device should
NOTE be used in the air vent, or dry nitrogen can be added to
The following information on basic care in the handling and injec- prevent entrance of moist air to the FSII additive storage
tion of FSII applies to both DiEGME (diethylene glycol monomethyl tank.
ether) additive and isopropanol (alcohol-type) additive, because e. FSII, either by itself or mixed with water, can be corrosive
they both are chemically aggressive and sensitive to water. This to aluminum and degrade fiberglass tanks and epoxy-type
applies whether the additive is injected at the airport or at an tank linings. It should not be allowed to remain in tank bot-
off-airport fuel terminal. toms, low points, or filter/separator sumps. In FSII-treated
fuel, the water in the tank bottoms and sumps should be
NOTE drained daily.
DiEGME and isopropanol are both permitted in avgas. f. FSII should be stored in stainless steel or Teflon®-coated
tanks because of its corrosive nature. Because laboratory
A.14.9.2 Precautions
testing shows that the long-term stability of DiEGME is
a. DiEGME dissolves into fuel, but with difficulty. It must be
questionable even in sealed containers, it is recommended
finely dispersed into the fuel flow proportionally as fine
that DiEGME stocks be rotated as frequently as possible.
droplets to get sufficient surface area to promote rapid dis-
DiEGME should be fully retested for quality conformance
solving of the additive into the fuel before droplets settle to
at least annually.
the bottom. Injection should not be immediately upstream
g. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety
of any filter vessel. To prevent additive loss or filter dam-
precautions.
age, it is best to inject DiEGME upstream of some form of
h. Water bottoms drained from tanks in cases in which the
high-shear device (such as a control valve) or through an
fuel contains FSII may be regarded as hazardous material
atomizing nozzle. FSII additive does not fully dissolve into
and treated as such during water-bottom disposal.
fuel containing free water because part of it dissolves in the
free water, so it is best to additize downstream of a filter
separator or water-absorbing filter. A.14.10 Biocide
b. As stated, DiEGME does not fully dissolve in “wet fuel”
A.14.10.1 Purpose
(i.e., fuel containing free water) even with proper addi-
tive injection equipment. In fuel containing free water, the A biocide may be added to jet fuel in aircraft fuel tanks only on an
DiEGME will preferentially dissolve in the water, resulting as-needed basis to treat microbiological growth (commonly
in a lower than expected concentration of DiEGME in the referred to as “bugs” or microbial growth). Biocides typically are
fuel and water bottoms containing high DiEGME con- used in cases in which aircraft tanks have been infested with
centrations. Free water should be minimized upstream of microbiological growth. The only biocidal additives presently
DiEGME injection in the fuel system. approved for use in aviation fuels are Biobor® JF and KATHON™
FP 1.5.
NOTE Treatment of fuel in storage tanks requires approval by the oil
The following instruction in basic care of handling FSII company and any airlines serviced.
applies to both the DiEGME additive used in turbine
fuel and the alcohol-type additives used in avgas fuels A.14.10.2 Precautions
because they are both chemically aggressive and sensi- a. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety
tive to water. precautions.
b. In cases in which such an additive is used in the fuel, the A.14.12 Leak Detection Additive
approval status of the biocide and associated conditions must (Tracer “A”)
be checked for the specific aircraft and engine to be operated.
c. After treatment with a biocide, debris or “slime” may A.14.12.1 Purpose
be released into the fuel system, possibly plugging filter Leak detection additive is added on a one-time basis to fuel pipe-
elements. lines, storage, distribution, and aircraft-refueling hydrant systems
d. Biocides can partition between fuel and water. Appropriate to check for possible fuel leaks. Tracer “A” is a gaseous compound
care should be taken in disposing of any water drains from that rapidly dissolves into the fuel and vapor space of the tank. It
a biocide-treated system. has no effect on aviation fuel characteristics.
e. Refer to the IATA Guidance M aterial o n M icrobiological
Contamination in Aircraft Fuel Tanks. a. Refer to the manufacturer’s MSDS information for safety
precautions as well as environmental regulations regarding
A.14.11 +100 Additive (JP-8 + 100) (Presently
use of the additive.
being discontinued BY THE USAF)
Several additives of this type are approved by different oil com-
panies and aircraft and engine manufacturers, including GE Betz
A.15 Flushing New Aviation
SPEC-AID 8Q462, AeroShell Performance Additive 101, and Fueling Hoses
Turboline® FS100C. When placing a new hose in service, or putting a hose back in ser-
vice after a period of time out of service, it is important to properly
A.14.11.1 Purpose
clean and flush the hose to prevent contamination and to prevent
The +100 additive is added to JP-8 fuel to produce the JP-8 + 100-
manufacturing materials from reaching the aircraft.
grade jet fuel (NATO F-37 jet fuel). The +100 additive increases the
high-temperature performance of the jet fuel with the result that
some high-performance engines run much cleaner and require A.15.1 Procedure
significantly less maintenance than with JP-8. Benefits with +100 The hose should be filled completely and then soaked in fuel for
additive also are found with Jet A in certain helicopters in civilian a minimum of 1 h, then fully drained. This fuel should be
application. inspected visually for any color change or visible contamination.
This additive is not yet fully approved for general usage in This procedure should be conducted at least two times and
commercial aircraft. The additive is not compatible with some fil- should be continued until a clean, clear sample is obtained.
tration because it can impact water coalescence. Dispose of soak fuel. Do not return soak fuel to the fuel system.
After a successful soak, 500 gal of fuel should be recirculated to
A.14.11.2 Precautions storage through the hose, and the nozzle strainer should be
Fuel containing the +100 additive must be segregated from filtra- checked for signs of contamination or hose deterioration before
tion systems designed to handle untreated fuel. fueling. Refer to El-1529.
25
Section B | Particulate Detection
B.1 Filter Membrane Test— and field monitors are Gammon Technical Products, Inc.
(Manasquan, NJ) and Millipore Corp. (Bedford, MA).
Colorimetric The following equipment is required: field-sampling kit (Fig. 1);
B.1.1 Introduction and Purpose field monitors each containing one 37-mm diameter, 0.8-microm-
Particulate content is not included in the ASTM aviation fuel spec- eter (micron) membrane backed by a 34-mm-diameter support
ifications. Rather it is expected to be part of any into-plane require- pad; electrically bondable receiving container (graduated or
ment. However, most equipment and airframe companies desire a known/proven capacity); and a color-rating booklet (ASTM D2276,
particulate content of less than 0.5 mg/l at the skin of the aircraft. Appendix X, and Fig. 2). Optional equipment includes the SGTP-
Filters remove the particulate contamination to below the desired 3940 Color and Particle Assessment Rating Guide, available from
limit. Gammon Technical Products, Inc.
Particulate contamination of aviation fuels may be indicated
by passing a measured volume of fuel through a standard white B.1.5 Cautions
filter membrane and evaluating the color of the membrane against The sampling unit must be properly bonded to both the sampling
a standardized color chart with numbers ranging from 0 for the connection and the measuring container to minimize the hazards
lightest through 10 for the darkest. At the same time, the color can of static-charged fuel in the container and static buildup on the
be evaluated for change with respect to previous tests. This test apparatus. The test requires extreme care in sampling.
provides a standard means for communicating filter membrane
colors. 1. Failure to properly flush the field-sampling kit and the sam-
ple tap before testing can lead to erroneous results.
Color change also can indicate nonparticulate contamination.
2. Do not operate valves in the system during the test.
3. Avoid starting and stopping pumps during the test.
B.1.2 References 4. Do not open the field monitor on-site after the test.
ASTM D2276-06(2014)/API/IP-216, Standard T est M ethod f or 5. Be sure to measure the sample volume through the mem-
Particulate Contaminant in Aviation Fuel by Line Sampling, ASTM brane accurately.
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014, www.astm.org 6. Removal of fuel remaining in the field monitor must be
done with care to avoid damage to the test membranes.
B.1.3 Description Damaged membranes are not acceptable for analysis.
The test is performed by withdrawing a fuel sample at a pressurized 7. Do not exceed 689 kPa (100 psi) unless you are using a spe-
sampling point on a flowing system. The fuel sample is drawn cial high-pressure housing.
through a filter membrane (and paper support pad) having a pore 8. Line flow rate in the main system should not be below 50 %
size rating of 0.8/micron (μm). Fuel contaminate is indicated by of rated capacity.
comparing the color and the intensity of the color of the filter 9. When drying the membrane, locate it away from potential
membrane after fuel passage. It is sometimes desirable to simulta- ignition sources.
neously perform filter membrane tests on the inlet and outlet sam-
pling points of various filtration equipment, storage tanks, or B.1.6 Equipment Preparation
pipeline segments. 1. A permanently installed connection is strongly recom-
mended at the sampling point and will include a quick
B.1.4 Equipment disconnect that will accept the fitting on the inlet of the
Equipment is available from several commercial sources that are field-sampling kit. Components should be made of alumi-
on file with ASTM. In the United States, known suppliers of kits num or stainless steel and the threaded connections sealed
B.1.7 Test Procedure

FIG. 1 Typical test setup of a field-sampling kit. 1. Separate the halves of the field-sampling kit housing.
2. Remove the dust plugs from the field monitor. Retain plugs
in a clean area for reinstallation after test.
3. Place the field monitor in the lower section of the
field-sampling kit with the inlet side up and the outlet
(spoke side) down.
4. Reassemble the halves of the field-sampling kit housing.
Make certain the connection is hand tight; extreme force is
not necessary and is not desirable.
5. Place the three-way valve selector in the oἀ position (or
turn all valves off) and connect the bypass hose and the
outlet hose.
6. Place the outlet hose in the receiving container. Connect
the grounding wire from the field-sampling kit to the sys-
tem piping and to the receiving container.
7. Remove the dust plug from the sampling quick disconnect
on the main piping and connect the field-sampling kit.
8. Fuel should be flowing past the sampling point at a steady
with Teflon® tape. A sampling probe projecting into the fuel rate not less than 50 % of the highest normal flow rate of the
stream will help prevent trapped particles in the pipe from system.
influencing results. A dust plug should be installed in the 9. Open all valves on the sampling connection. Slowly turn
quick disconnect between tests. the valve to the flush position.
2. Check all equipment for contamination and clean as 10. Flush a minimum of 1 gal of fuel through the field-
necessary. sampling kit (unless other means of flushing is provided).
3. Prepare the field monitor by installing a new support pad If the sampling connection is remote from the main system
(with the rounded edge upward) in the recess having the piping (e.g., a smaller sampling line extended some dis-
molded spokes. Place an approved membrane on the sup- tance from the main line), the quantity flushed should be a
port pad. Be sure to use tweezers when handling the pads minimum of ten times the sampling line volume.
to avoid contamination. Press the top half of the monitor 11. Turn the valve to the oἀ position.
into position to clamp the outer edge of the membrane. In- 12. Remove the field-sampling kit outlet hose from the re-
stall a blue dust plug at the inlet port and a red plug at the ceiving container. If the container is not large enough to
outlet port of the monitor until it is to be used. hold the discharged fuel resulting from the following steps
FIG. 2 Color-rating booklet.

SECTION B: Particulate Detection 27
in the test procedure, empty the contents in an approved surfaces being compared. Ratings should be done in a loca-
manner. tion shielded from direct sunlight.
13. Place the field-sampling kit outlet hose into the empty re-
ceiving container.
B.1.8 Test Report
14. Turn the valve to the test position.
1. Report the match by scale letter and rating number, such as
15. Measure and record the exact volume of fuel collected. Unit
B-1, G-3, A-4. If the shade is between two rating numbers,
of measure is the operator’s choice. When possible, collect a
report the lower number. If the membrane color does not
minimum of 3.8 L (1 gal), but to facilitate comparison from
conform to any of the standard scales (A, B, or G), establish
earlier and repetitive tests, the volume should be approxi-
the shade to the nearest rating number and report the color.
mately equal.
2. Report the sample volume used.
16. Turn the valve(s) to the oἀ position.
3. If the sample was not taken under rated flow conditions,
17. To protect against electrostatic discharge, allow all equip-
report the flow conditions and sampling pressures.
ment, including the receiving container and contents, to
4. Report whether the membrane was rated wet or dry.
stand for a minimum of 1 min.
5. Report the test location and position in the system.
18. Disconnect the field-sampling kit inlet hose from the sam-
pling quick disconnect and disconnect the bonding wire
and bypass hose. Replace the dust plug in the sampling B.1.9 Interpretation of Test Results
quick disconnect. The color ratings obtained in this test hold no technical signifi-
19. Turn the valve to the flush position and drain the resid- cance; it is a comparative test. The most valuable use of this test is
ual fuel from the field-sampling kit into the receiving in comparison, based either on long-term experience at a location
container. or on previous test results obtained on the same fuel by the sup-
20. Remove the outlet hose from the receiving container and plier. Specifically, a darker color membrane or a membrane having
empty contents in an approved manner. a color that compares with a different color scale (A, B, or G) than
21. Separate the halves of the field-sampling kit and remove usual are both indicators that contamination may have occurred in
the plastic monitor. the fuel. Comparing these unusual test results with the supplier’s
22. Remove remaining fuel from the plastic monitor using the test results may indicate that this batch of fuel is simply different
suction device supplied with the field-sampling kit. Make from previous batches but is acceptable, or that the fuel has been
certain that suction is applied gently and only to the outlet contaminated somewhere in the transfer. Depending on the
(spoke) side of the monitor to prevent damage to the filter amount of difference, this could warrant additional testing to
membranes. Do not open the plastic field monitor. determine whether other fuel characteristics have been affected,
23. Reinstall colored dust plugs in the field monitor. such as MSEP and thermal stability.
24. Wipe the outside of the field monitor dry of fuel. Mark or In addition, if little or no improvement in dark membrane
segregate as needed for identification. color is seen in tests conducted before and after a filter, this result
25. Wipe the field-sampling kit dry and store all components. indicates that the filter element has failed or is being bypassed, the
26. Open the monitor in a clean environment, remove the dirt is too small for the filter to remove, or the color arises from
membrane, and dry it before rating its color. To raise the color bodies, which are fuel soluble dye-like components.
membrane from its cavity in the outlet half of the field mon- When color bodies are suspected of causing the membrane
itor, gently push upward through the outlet hole against color, this can be tested by placing two membranes “piggyback” in
the support pad using a toothpick or other small diameter the same plastic monitor and performing the test in the standard
probe, enabling the membrane to be grasped with tweezers. manner. If both membranes have the same color after the test, this
27. To dry the membrane for rating, proceed as follows: Re- indicates that color bodies are in the fuel. A darker top membrane
move the membrane from the monitor with tweezers. Dry indicates that filterable contaminant is trapped by the top mem-
the membrane by placing it carefully on an absorbent paper brane. When the bottom membrane is dark, but not as dark as the
on a nonflammable heat source, such as a radiator, or by top membrane, this indicates that both filterable contaminant and
letting it air-dry for 3 h in a clean environment. Dryness color bodies are present.
can be estimated by comparing the white color of the outer Wet color ratings may be of value to a trained observer famil-
portion of the test membrane with a new membrane. iar with local conditions. Only dry ratings should be reported,
however, when color ratings are employed as a communications
CAUTION
tool. Dry membranes appear lighter in color and have a lower color
Keep the drying membrane away from ignition sources.
rating.
28. If it is desired to rate the membrane while it is wet, im- When evaluating a membrane for color, the reading reverts to
mediately rate the membrane after removing it from the the lower number of color. For example, a membrane color between
monitor. an A2 and an A3 is reported as an A2.
29. Select the color that most closely matches the sample. In Report any other change compared with previous tests.
matching, be careful that the viewing angle is nearly per- Such changes may be considered serious problems of cross-
pendicular and that shadows are not cast unevenly on the contamination with other liquid products.
Microscopic inspection of the membrane can provide addi-

tional information on contamination by, for example, rust, flakes, FIG. 4 Matched-weight field monitor (shown disassembled).
or sand.
B.2 Membrane Filtration—
Gravimetric
B.2.1 Introduction and Purpose
The purpose of this test is to determine the weight of particulate
matter in jet fuel.
B.2.2 References
ASTM D2276 - 06(2014)/IP-216, Standard T est M ethod f or
Particulate Contaminant in Aviation Fuel by Line Sampling. ASTM
ASTM D5452-12, Standard T est M ethod f or P articulate
Contamination in Aviation Fuels by Laboratory Filtration, ASTM
B.2.3 Description
Using a field-sampling kit, a measured volume of fuel is passed
through a pair of matched weight filter membranes in a field mon- B.2.5 Equipment Preparation
itor. The field monitor is then removed from the field-sampling kit 1. Check the condition of the field-sampling kit for any con-
and forwarded to a qualified laboratory for weighing. taminants, especially the inlet nipple and inside housing.
If required, connect the sampling kit to a fuel source and
thoroughly flush.
B.2.4 Equipment 2. Check the sampling connection in the system piping at the
Equipment is available from a number of commercial sources that point at which the sample is to be taken. If any visible con-
are on file with ASTM. In the United States, known suppliers are tamination is present, wipe thoroughly with a clean cloth
Gammon Technical Products, Inc., and Millipore Corp. or paper towel.
3. Be sure the field monitor is the correct type and that protec-
1. Field-sampling kit (Fig. 3). tive dust plugs are in place. Do not use if plugs are missing.
2. Field monitor containing two matched weight filter mem- 4. If the field-sampling kit is not equipped with a three-way
branes (37-mm diameter, 0.8/micron [μm]) plus support valve with oἀ, flush, and test positions, connect to the sam-
pad or backup pad (Fig. 4). pling point in the system piping and perform the pretest
3. Receiving container (graduated or known/proven capacity, flushing operation (Sec. B.2.6, step 10).
unless fuel is metered through the field-sampling kit).
B.2.6 Procedure
CAUTION
FIG. 3 Typical test setup of a field-sampling kit. The operating pressure for this test must not exceed 689 kPa
(100 psi), unless the high-pressure housing is used, in which
case the pressure should not exceed 3,103 kPa (450 psi). The
selector valve always should be turned slowly from one position
to another. If the valve were turned rapidly, this could rupture
the filter membrane.
1. Separate the halves of the field-sampling kit housing.

2. Remove dust plugs from the matched-weight field monitor.
Retain in a clean area for reinstallation after the test.
3. Place the matched-weight field monitor in the lower sec-
tion of the field-sampling kit housing with the inlet side up
and the spoke side down.
4. Reassemble the halves of the field-sampling kit housing.
Make certain the connection is hand tight; extreme force is
not necessary and is not desirable.
SECTION B: Particulate Detection 29
5. Place the three-way valve selector in the oἀ position and EXAMPLE

connect the bypass hose and the outlet hose. Date 7/1/16
6. Place the outlet hose in the receiving container. Connect Organization ABC Fueling Company
the bonding wire from the field-sampling kit to the system Facility XYZ Airport
piping and to the receiving container. Location Tank Farm
7. Remove the dust plug from the sampling quick disconnect Sampling point Incoming receipt, Tank 1
and connect the field-sampling kit. Volume collected 1 U.S. gal
8. Fuel should be flowing past the sampling point at a steady
rate not less than 50 % of the highest normal flow rate of the 27. Forward the field monitor with the information in the
system. previous example to a qualified laboratory for weighing
9. Open all valves on the sampling connection. Slowly turn according to ASTM D2276-06/IP216.
the valve to the flush position.
10. Flush a minimum of 2 L (0.5 gal) of fuel through the
field-sampling kit (unless other means of flushing is pro- B.2.7 Cautions
vided). If the sampling connection is remote from the main The test requires extreme care in sampling. Erroneous interpreta-
system piping (e.g., a smaller sampling line extended some tions can result from failing to properly flush the field-sampling kit
distance from the main line), the quantity flushed should and the sample tap before sampling, operating the valves during
be a minimum of ten times the sampling line volume. the test, starting or stopping pumps during the test, opening the
11. Turn the valve to the oἀ position. field monitor on-site, failing to promptly replace dust plugs in the
12. Remove field-sampling kit outlet hose from the receiving field monitor, or failing to accurately measure the sample through-
container and empty the contents in an approved manner put. Removal of residual fuel from the field monitor must be done
if the container is not large enough to hold the discharged with care to avoid damage to the test membranes. Damaged mem-
fuel from the following steps in the test procedure. branes are not acceptable for analysis.
13. Place the field-sampling kit outlet hose into the empty re-
ceiving container.
14. Turn the valve to the test position. B.2.8 Evaluating Test Results
15. Measure and record the exact volume of fuel collected. Unit Results in terms of mg/gal or mg/L will be reported by the qualified
of measure is the operator’s choice. When possible, collect a laboratory. Significance of the results reported depends on where
minimum of 3.8 L (1 gal). the sample was taken. Some guidance material is offered as
16. Turn valve(s) to the oἀ position. follows:
17. To protect against electrostatic discharge, allow all equip-
ment, including the receiving container and contents, to 1. Test results from sampling points in airport storage systems
stand for a minimum of 1 min. may vary depending on facility features. For example, if
18. Disconnect the field-sampling kit inlet hose from the sam- storage tanks and piping are internally coated (e.g., epoxy)
pling quick disconnect and disconnect the bonding wire lower readings can be expected than those obtained from
and bypass hose. Replace the dust plug in the sampling an uncoated system. In either case, test results should be
quick disconnect. compared with previous readings obtained from the same
19. Turn the valve to the flush position and drain residual sampling point. A significant increase over previous read-
fuel from the field-sampling kit into the receiving ings requires investigation.
container. 2. The test can be used to check the effectiveness of filtration
20. Remove the outlet hose from the receiving container and equipment. In this case, samples are taken upstream and
empty contents in an approved manner. downstream of the filter at the same time, and the results
21. Separate the halves of the field-sampling kit and remove should be compared. If the upstream sample result shows
the plastic monitor. a substantial amount of contaminant, the downstream
22. Remove the remaining fuel from the plastic monitor us- sample result should be significantly lower. In this case,
ing the suction device supplied with the field-sampling no reduction in contaminant level indicates possible fail-
kit. Make certain that suction is applied gently and only ure of the filtration equipment. If the upstream sample re-
to the outlet (spoke) side of the monitor to prevent dam- sults show little or no contaminant, no valid conclusions
age to the filter membranes. Do not open the plastic field regarding the effectiveness of the filtration equipment can
monitor. be reached.
23. Reinstall the colored dust plugs in the field monitor. Records of test results should be maintained for
24. Wipe the outside of the field monitor dry of fuel. comparison with those of past and future tests performed
25. Wipe the field-sampling kit dry and store all components. at the same sampling point. Those records are vital to the
26. Prepare an identification label or data sheet containing the operator in observing trends in contaminant level
following information: date, organization, facility, location, (Sec. B.3).
sampling point, and volume collected. 3. Also see Sec. B.1.9.
B.3 Membrane Filtration Records point, (2) date of test, (3) sample volume, and (4) dry color rating
(or weight).
B.3.1 Introduction and Purpose The membrane records also may include the following fuel
Establishing and maintaining a record of membrane filtration system information, as applicable: (1) wet color rating, (2) length of
tests provides a history of normal and abnormal filter and fuel sampling time, (3) line pressure, (4) differential pressure across
conditions. the filter and the type of filter, (5) f low rate, (6) throughput,
and (7) element change date.
B.3.2 References Filing membrane records may be by individual sampling
ASTM D2276 - 06(2014)/IP/EI-216, Standard T est M ethod f or points or any other convenient, orderly method.
Particulate Contaminant in Aviation Fuel by Line Sampling, ASTM
B.3.4 Cautions
B.3.3 Description Filter membranes should be filed in protective transparent plas-
Filter membranes used for color ratings or records of membrane tic bags or sheets to prevent color changes resulting from dust or
weights should be retained in local files for at least 1 year. Membrane mishandling. Prolonged exposure to strong light can cause color
records should indicate, at a minimum, the following: (1) sampling fading.
31
Section C | Water Detection
C.1 Shell Water Detector 5. Examine the paper disk in the capsule for any difference
in color between the inner wetted portion and the outer
C.1.1 Introduction and Use portion that is protected by the plastic molding.
The Shell water detector determines low levels of suspended
(undissolved) water in jet fuels.
C.1.6 Cautions
1. The response of Shell water detector capsules to sus-
C.1.2 References pended water tends to deteriorate after approximately
There is no known published test standard on this subject. 9 months. Thus, allowing for shipping time, it is sug-
gested that only a 6-month supply be ordered at any
C.1.3 Description time. The expiration date (month/year) is marked on the
A sample of jet fuel is drawn by syringe through a capsule fitted bottom of each tube of capsules and also on one end of
with a disk of water-sensitive paper. The paper changes color if each box of the tubes.
suspended water is present. 2. It is important that the capsule container be closed and
sealed immediately after removal of the test capsule to pre-
vent discoloration of the remaining capsules resulting from
C.1.4 Equipment
moisture in the air. Unused capsules should not be carried
1. A standard calibrated polyethylene or nylon syringe of
outside of the container.
5-mL capacity, with a record-type (thin blunt tube) end fit-
3. Capsules shall be used only once.
ting. A 10-mL sample may be taken to obtain a more sensi-
tive reading.
2. A disposable Shell water detector capsule containing a C.1.7 Interpretation of Test Results
disk of filter paper treated with water-sensitive chemicals. The presence of suspended water is indicated by a change in color
The detector capsules are available, in the United States, of the inner wetted portion of the paper disk. The resulting color
from Gammon Technical Products, Inc., PO Box 400, Ma- change becomes progressively more evident with increasing sus-
nasquan, NJ, 08736 (Tel: 908-223-4600) and their distrib- pended water content until at approximately 30 ppm (or 20 ppm for
utors in the United Kingdom, A. Searle & Company, 24 a 10-mL sample) a distinct green color is obtained. At low water
Bourne Industrial Park, Bourne Rd., Crayford, UK, DA1 contamination levels, a yellow-green color is obtained, changing to
4B2 (Tel: +44(6)1322 5919). blue-green and finally blue-black at very high water contamination
3. Clean, dry sample container, for example, 100-mL levels.
beaker.
C.2 Velcon Hydrokit®
C.1.5 Procedure (Fig. 1)
1. Collect a fuel sample in the sample container. C.2.1 Introduction and Purpose
2. Examine the detector capsule to confirm that the paper is a The Velcon Hydrokit® is a simple test for suspended water in com-
uniform yellow color. If not, the capsule should be replaced mercial jet fuel. It indicates the presence of more than 15 or 30 ppm
from a fresh supply. by volume of suspended water (two sensitivity levels are available)
3. Fit the capsule to a clean syringe and immerse it into the by a change in color of water sensitive powder in a sample tube. It is
fuel sample. used principally as a final water check at the aircraft refueling
4. Slowly withdraw the syringe plunger until the fuel sample point. It may be used for quick checks of suspended water any-
reaches the 5-mL mark. where in the delivery system.
needle, forcing the needle through the stopper. Hold the

FIG. 1 A 5-mL syringe and detector capsule. (Reprinted tube until the fuel flow stops. When the tube is held ver-
courtesy of Shell International Trading Co., London, tically with the stopper on top, fuel should reach a point
England.)
above the black line on the tube.
5. Remove the tube from the needle assembly. Shake vigor-
ously for 15 s. Allow to settle 2 min and compare the pow-
der color to the color standard.
C.2.6 Cautions
If the fuel does not enter the tube or if the fuel level in the tube does
not reach the level noted in procedures, the tube has leaked (lost
vacuum) and should be discarded. Repeat the test on a new fuel
sample with a new Hydrokit® tube.
Do not use tubes beyond the expiration time stamped on the
box.
C.2.7 Interpretation and Limitations

of Results
Compare the Hydrokit® powder with the color standard immedi-
ately after the 2-min settling time. A pink color as dark or darker
than the “fail” standard indicates more than 15/30 ppm suspended
water in the fuel. Delivery of fuel should be stopped to determine
the source of the excess suspended water. If the Hydrokit® powder
is lighter than the “fail” color standard, the fuel has less than
15/30 ppm suspended water. The results showing less than 15 ppm
or less than 30 ppm of water depend on which Hydrokit® is being used
The comparison with the color standard must be made at
C.2.2 References 2 min after shaking the sample. Powder in the fuel gradually will
There is no known published standard for this test. darken with time; thus, color comparison after extended time is
not valid. If the result is doubtful, repeat with a new tube and fuel
sample.
C.2.3 Description
The sample of jet fuel is drawn by vacuum into a stoppered test tube
where the fuel contacts the Hydrokit® powder. The color change of C.3 Gammon Aqua-Glo® Water
the powder is compared with a standard color card for a pass or fail
decision—that is, whether the sample contains more or less than
Detection Test and the Digital
15/30 ppm of suspended water. Aqua-Glo®, Hydro-Light Pad
Reader
C.2.4 Equipment
C.3.1 Introduction and Purpose
Hydrokit® consists of a small evacuated test tube containing suffi-
The undissolved water content (in ppm) of turbine fuel can be mea-
cient water-sensitive powder to react with 10 mL of fuel. Both a
sured accurately using the Gammon Aqua-Glo® Water Detection
reusable fuel sample bottle and needle assembly (to puncture the
Test and Digital Aqua-Glo® Hydro-Light Pad Reader. One of its
rubber stopper) are included to obtain the fuel sample.
primary uses is to monitor the performance of devices designed to
For availability of Hydrokit®, address inquiries to Velcon
remove water from turbine fuels, for example, filter/separators. It
Filters, Inc., 1210 Garden of the Gods Rd., Colorado Springs, CO
also may be used to measure the undissolved water content of fuel
80907 (Telephone: 719-531-5855) or its distributors.
anywhere in the distribution system.
1. Inspect the sample bottle to ensure that it is clean and dry. C.3.2 References
2. Fill the bottle about half full with fuel directly from the ASTM D3240-15, Standard Test Method for Undissolved Water in
fueling unit (downstream of filter/separator or at fueling Aviation Turbine Fuels, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
nozzle). Make sure no moisture gets into the bottle. PA, 2015, www.astm.org
3. Insert the plastic needle holder into the sample bottle im-
mediately. C.3.3 Description
4. Insert the glass Hydrokit® tube with stopper down into 1. A 500-mL sample of fuel from a flowing fuel line is drawn di-
the needle holder assembly. Press the tube firmly onto the rectly through the detector pad at a quick-disconnect fitting.
SECTION C: Water Detection 33
FIG. 2 Hydrokit® procedure. (Reprinted courtesy of Exxon Mobil.)
2. Undissolved (free) water in the fuel will react with the 2. Sample lines should be as short as possible. Sampling
chemical on the test pad. When the pad is subsequently connections that are so long that temperature differences
illuminated by ultraviolet light, the coating will glow a exist between collected fuel and fuel in the system will
bright yellow-green if any water was in the fuel sample. cause errors. Temperature has a substantial influence on
The brightness increases with larger amounts of free wa- dissolved water in jet fuel. As a rule, 1 ppm of water will
ter in the fuel. The ultraviolet light illuminated pad is come out of solution for every 1°F (0.55°C) reduction in
compared with a known standard, called the fluorescing temperature. Typical jet fuel can hold about 70 ppm of
standard, using a photocell comparator. The free water in water in solution at 70°F (21°C). If the sample of this fuel
the fuel sample is indicated in ppm by volume. The test is cooled to 60°F (15.5°C), the dissolved water content
covers a range from 0 to 12 ppm of water. The upper limit is decreased to 60 ppm and the free water content is in-
can be increased to 60 ppm by decreasing the sample size creased by 10 ppm.
to 100 mL. 3. Do not expose the water detector pad to the atmosphere
until just before use. Humidity or water droplets on the pad
C.3.4 Cautions will cause errors.
1. The fuel sample must be drawn from the flowing fuel 4. Never touch the pad; use tweezers.
system directly through the test pad. Large errors may 5. Never use the fluorescing standard or calibrating standard
result if fuel is first collected in a sample container and from one instrument in another instrument because they
then tested. must be matched at the factory.
C.3.5 Equipment C.3.6 Procedure
1. Aqua-Glo® Series II, III, or V Water Detector Kit, Model 1. Connect the empty pad holder assembly to the sampling
GTP-322 (or GTP-323), the Digital AquaGlo® or the Hydro quick-disconnect and flush at least 1 gal (3.78 L) through
Lite is required for this procedure. There is no difference in the assembly.
the water-measuring components of Series II, III, or V kits. 2. Disconnect and separate the halves of the pad holder.
The Series III has an improved ultraviolet light source, and 3. Carefully tear open the protective envelope and remove the
the Series V has an improved power supply and is more water detector pad with the tweezers supplied in the kit. Do
field repairable. not touch the pad with your ἀnger. If the pad is orange, it is
2. Water Detector Pad (25-mm diameter), Model GTP-25. suitable for the test. If it is yellow, it has spoiled and should
Apparatus is available from Gammon Technical Products, not be used because an excessively high water content will
Inc., PO Box 400, Manasquan, NJ 08736. be indicated.
C.3.5.1 Equipment Preparation NOTE

1. Check the condition of the water detector pad holder, es- Do not remove the test pad from the hermetically sealed
pecially the inlet nipple and inside of holder, for any dirt or package until ready for use. Do not allow any water droplets
water. If required, connect the assembly to a fuel source and to come into contact with the pad (from rain, sneezing,
thoroughly flush (Fig. 3). coughing, and so forth). Exposure of the test pad to the
2. Check the sampling connection in the system piping atmosphere, especially on humid days, will ruin the pad in a
where the sample is to be taken. If any visible dirt or wa- matter of minutes.
ter is present, wipe thoroughly with a clean cloth or pa- 4. Place the water detector pad (orange side up) in the
per towel. recess of the outlet half of the pad holder. Use the thumb-
3. Calibrate the analog Aqua-Glo® instrument (digital instru- nail of the other hand to hold it in place as the tweezers
ments do not require separate calibration). The calibrating are released (Fig. 4).
standard that corresponds to a given undissolved water 5. Reassemble the pad holder; hand tighten to prevent
content is placed in the test-pad window. Turn on the lamp. bypassing.
The ultraviolet light can be checked by moving the light- 6. Turn the toggle valve to the closed position.
adjusting lever from one extreme to another. The photocell 7. Connect the pad holder assembly to the sampling
comparator meter needle should swing widely when this is quick-disconnect.
done. Null the photocell comparator by slowly moving the 8. Place outlet hose in the calibrated bottle that is provided in
light-adjusting lever until there is a steady reading at zero. the kit.
Always move the light-adjusting lever in the s ame direction 9. Open the toggle valve and any in-line valves.
when zeroing the photocell comparator during calibration or 10. Collect 500 mL of fuel in the calibrated bottle and close the
testing to eliminate errors caused by play in the lever mecha- toggle valve. Dispose of this fuel in an approved manner.
nism. If the reading obtained does not agree with the cal-
ibrating standard rating, adjust the photocell comparator. NOTE
Remove the plug screw on the side of the comparator at the A flow rate of 600–800 mL/min is recommended for great-
45° bend. Insert a small screwdriver and adjust as necessary. est accuracy (about 45 s for 500 mL). To prevent higher flow
Repeat the previous procedure until the reading obtained rates, a throttling valve should be installed in the sampling
agrees with the calibrating standard rating. The instrument connection.
calibration should be checked frequently enough to ensure 11. Close any in-line valves. Disconnect the pad holder assem-
accuracy (see manufacturer’s instructions). When the cali- bly from the sampling quick-disconnect and separate the
bration check is completed, turn off the lamp. The calibrat- two halves of the pad holder. If the toggle valve is opened
ing standard is matched to each specific Aqua-Glo® instru- and the two halves then are separated, the water detector
ment and should not be used on a different instrument. pad is less likely to stay in the inlet half.
4. If the meter is slow to respond, remove the four screws on 12. Remove the water detector pad with tweezers and press
the battery cover plate located on the instrument pack and between clean dry paper towels to remove excess fuel.
replace the 9V transistor battery.
FIG. 4 Proper placement of the water detector pad in the pad

holder.
FIG. 3 Test setup for a water detector pad holder.
A suitable procedure is to press firmly three or four times C.4.3 Description

using the heel of the hand, moving the pad with tweezers A sample of jet fuel is drawn by syringe through a capsule fitted
each time. with a disk of water-sensitive paper. The paper changes color if
suspended water is present.
NOTE
For maximum accuracy, the test pad should be read
within 3 min. C.4.4 Equipment
1. A standard calibrated polyethylene or nylon syringe of
13. Using tweezers, place the pad under the test-pad flap of the 5-mL capacity, with a record-type (thin blunt tube) end
comparator chamber. The coated side must face the hole in fitting.
the chamber. Turn on the lamp. While pressing the photo- 2. A disposable CASRI water detector capsule containing a
cell button, null the photocell comparator by slowly mov- disk of filter paper treated with water-sensitive chemicals.
ing the light-adjusting lever until there is a steady reading 3. A clean dry sample container, for example, 100-mL beaker.
at zero. Always move the light-adjusting lever in the same
direction when zeroing the photocell comparator to elim-
inate errors caused by play in the lever mechanism. Turn C.4.5 Procedure
off the instrument light immediately after use to conserve 1. Collect a fuel sample in the sample container.
battery power. 2. Examine the detector capsule to confirm that the paper is a
14. Record the ppm as indicated by the lever position on the uniform yellow color. If not, the capsule should be replaced
scale. Also record the sample volume. from a fresh supply.
15. Wipe the test-pad holder dry of fuel and replace it in the 3. Fit the capsule firmly to a clean syringe and immerse it into
carrying case. the fuel sample.
4. Slowly withdraw the syringe plunger until the fuel sample
C.3.6.1 Digital Aqua-Glo® and Hydro-Light Pad Readers reaches the 5-mL mark.
The Hydro-Light Pad can also be read by the Digital Aqua-Glo® or 5. Immediately examine the paper disk in the capsule for any
the Hydro-Light Pad Reader. See the individual manufacturer’s difference in color between the inner wetted portion and
instructions on the operation of the reader. the outer portion that is protected by the plastic molding.
C.3.7 Evaluation of Test Results C.4.6 Cautions

If conditions do not permit collecting 500 mL, or if readings higher 1. It is important that the capsule container be closed and
than 12 ppm are expected, accurate results can be obtained for any sealed immediately after removal of the test capsule to pre-
volume of fuel between 100 and 500 mL by correcting the reading vent discoloration of the remaining capsules by moisture in
using the following equation: the air. Unused capsules should not be carried outside of
Free water, ppm = [(scale reading in ppm) × 500 sample vol- the container.
ume in mL]/reduced test volume size in mL. 2. Capsules shall be used only once.
For example, if it was impossible to “zero” (center) the ana-
log meter using a 500-mL sample, or the digital pad reader’s C.4.7 Interpretation of Test Results
reading is over 12 ppm, repeat the test with a new water detector 1. When the suspended water content ranges from 5 ppm to
pad and a smaller sample volume, such as 100 mL. This results 10 ppm, the color of the center is greenish-yellow or some
in a range of 60 ppm. If the sample volume is 250 mL, the range dispersed greenish-yellow spots appear on the center posi-
is 2–24 ppm. tion.
If the water content exceeds 12 ppm, it will be impossible to 2. When the suspended water content is about 15 ppm, the
zero the analog meter and the digital pad readers will not be accu- color of the center is yellowish-green or many dispersed
rate over 12 ppm because higher volumes of water will not cause a yellowish-green spots appear on the center portion
regular progressive increase in the reaction on the pad. To measure 3. When the suspended water content is about 30 ppm, the
up to 60 ppm, repeat the complete test using a new water detector color of the center changes to green markedly or many dis-
pad, but take a sample volume of only 100 mL, and use the previous persed green spots appear on the center portion.
equation. 4. When the suspended water content is more than 30 ppm,
with increasing water content, the color of the center can
change to blue-green, blue, or blue-black (the color of the
C.4 CASRI Water Detector center portion changes color entirely).
C.4.1 Introduction and Use 5. With increasing water content, the colors of the center can
The CASRI water detector determines low levels of suspended change to greenish-yellow, yellowish-green, green, and
(undissolved) water in jet fuels. blue-green or blue-black. A chart is available from the
manufacturer for reading the range of readings, but
C.4.2 References the amount of color change does not exactly correlate
There is no known published test standard on this subject. to the water content. This test only offers a visual check.
C.5 Aquadis® Water Microdetector C.6.2 References

There is no known published test standard on this subject.
C.5.1 Introduction
The Aquadis® Water Microdetector is a laboratory and field
C.6.3 Description
test device manufactured by Kaveri Baag, Mumbai, India (www.
The method is based on color change of the indicator element when
kaveribaag.com) and used to determine the presence of finely
it is in contact with water emulsion in aviation fuel. The number
dispersed undissolved or suspended water in aviation turbine
appears on a yellow layer of the indicator stamps (from cyan to
fuels in concentrations lower than those normally detectable by
blue) and the staining intensity indicates the water content of the
water-finding paste or by visual examination.
emulsion. The appearance of dark spots on a white layer of the indi-
The use of this equipment enables aviation-fueling personnel
cator and the degree of darkening indicates the presence of other
to determine whether the suspended water content of fuel deliv-
contaminations.
ered to aircraft is below the limit of 15/30 ppm as a go, no-go test.
C.6.4 Equipment
C.5.2 References
1. Sampling holding container—flask of colorless, transparent,
There is no known published test standard on this subject.
thick-walled glass with a wide mouth with a capacity of
500–100 cm3.
C.5.3 Description 2. The POZ-T device consists of a syringe dispenser with an
Consists of a two-piece transparent gelatin capsule containing a indicator showing the open or closed position of the sensor.
grayish-white water-sensitive powder and a clear glass stoppered 3. Quality indicator fuel (IKT) made of two rectangular
sampling tube of 10 mL capacity. pieces of analytical tape stacked in two layers and fastened
together along one edge.
C.5.4 Equipment 4. Detector made with white construction paper and pro-
1. Gelatin capsule and glass jar. tected from contamination with a film.
2. Kaveri Baag Corp., Mumbai, India, +91 22 25 78 29 12, info@
kaveribaag.com, http://www.kaveribaag.com/microdetector- C.6.5 Procedure
suspended-free-water.php 1. The test should be carried out under conditions that
preclude contamination of the sample fuel precipitation
C.5.5 Procedure and dust. Before the test, the device is flushed by pass-
1. Draw 10 mL fuel into glass sampling tube, making sure ing fuel through it containing no water and contamina-
tube is clean and dry. tions, in accordance with the manufacturer’s operating
2. Check that there is no discoloration of the capsule. instructions.
3. Empty the contents of one capsule into the sample, close 2. The POZ-T device is set to the open position with the IKT
stopper, and shake the sampling jar for 5 s. toward the inlet closing the lever.
4. Stand sample for 0.5 min (30 s). 3. A pretest can be done with fuel that is free of water and
contamination by submerging the indicator in fuel and
C.5.6 Cautions within 7–10 s providing suction by drawing back on the
1. Do not allow any cross-contamination or temperature syringe. After fuel passes through, keep the indicator
change to take place between sample taking and testing. submerged in fuel for 2–3 s. At temperatures −0°C, in-
Do the test immediately. Color blind personnel should not crease the duration by 5 s for every 10°C. For example,
evaluate the results. when the fuel temperature is −30°C, the duration should
be 3 s + 15 s = 18 s.
C.5.7 Interpretation of Test Results 4. Taking the POZ-T from the fuel, remove the indicator from
1. White or gray results ensure less than 15 ppm. the sensor. The test fuel is removed from the syringe by
2. Faintly pink results indicate between 10 and 15 ppm, or more. pressing on the piston rod.
3. Bright pink results indicate 30 ppm or more. 5. In the event of a negative result, the analysis can be re-
4. Ensure that the sample contains free water at 15 ppm or peated with a new IKT.
more. The intensity of the pink color increases with the rise 6. Fuel containing visible water, ice, or low-temperature solid
in suspended water content. contaminations is not recommended for evaluation by this
device to avoid contamination of the sensor-calibrated
holes.
C.6 POZ-T Water Detector
C.6.1 Introduction C.6.6 Cautions
The POZ-T Water Detector test is designed to determine the pres- Do not allow any cross-contamination or temperature change to
ence of water in aviation fuel (jet fuel and aviation gasoline) that is take place between sample taking and testing. Do the test
invisible by naked-eye emulsion of water. immediately.
C.6.7 Evaluation and Interpretation of 2. It is important that the capsule container be closed and
Results sealed immediately after removal of the test capsule to
The presence of a reaction water in fuel is determined as follows prevent discoloration of the remaining capsules by mois-
(see manufacturer’s instructions for a chart). ture in the air. Unused capsules should not be carried out-
On the second (yellow) layer of the IKT: side of the container.
3. Capsules shall be used only once.
1. No reaction means no water.
2. One mark is slight water. C.7.7 Interpretation of Test Results
3. Two marks or two blue marks and a third light mark The presence of suspended water is indicated by a change in
is considered a caution level. Three marks is a fail or color of the inner wetted portion of the paper disk. The resulting
rejection. color change becomes progressively more evident with increas-
ing suspended water content until approximately 30 ppm. Blue-
The POZ-T also detects solid contaminants. These will be seen on black indication shows very high water contamination levels.
the first layer of the IKT as dark gray or brown spots.
C.8 Water Detection Paste

C.7 Ypf Water Detector
C.8.1 Introduction and Purpose
C.7.1 Introduction and Use Water detection pastes are used to determine the depth of water at
The YPF water detector determines low levels of suspended (undis- the bottom of a storage tank. Water detection pastes do not respond
solved) water in jet fuels. to suspended or dissolved water in fuels. Many pastes do not detect
water-alcohol mixtures.
C.7.2 References Standard water paste does not detect water if a significant
There is no known published test standard on this subject. amount of DiEGME (an anti-icing additive, such as FSII or
Prist®) is present. Special modified water-finding paste is avail-
able for use in fuels containing this type of additive. Prist® is a
C.7.3 Description
registered trademark of Prist Aerospace Products, Inc., a divi-
A sample of jet fuel is drawn by syringe through a capsule fitted
sion of CSD Inc.
with a disk of water-sensitive paper. The paper changes color if
suspended water is present.
C.8.2 References
API, Chapter 3, Section 1A, “Standard Practice for the Manual
C.7.4 Equipment
Gauging of Petroleum and Petroleum Products,” Manual o f
1. A standard, calibrated polyethylene or nylon syringe of Petroleum Measurement Standards, American Petroleum Institute,
5-mL capacity, with a record-type (thin blunt tube) end Washington, DC, 2002, p. 28.
fitting. A 10-mL sample may be taken to obtain a more
sensitive reading.
2. A disposable YPF water detector capsule containing a disk C.8.3 Description
of filter paper treated with water-sensitive chemicals. A water-reactive paste is applied to a gage tape or stick to determine
3. Clean, dry sample container, for example, 100-mL beaker. the fuel-water interface. The paste will change color if it contacts
water.
1. Collect a fuel sample in the sample container. C.8.4 Equipment
2. Examine the detector capsule to confirm that the paper is a A calibrated stick or gage tape of sufficient length to reach from the
uniform yellow color. If not, the capsule should be replaced gage hatch to the tank bottom, along with water detection paste is
from a fresh supply. required for this procedure.
3. Fit the capsule to a clean syringe and immerse it into the
fuel sample. C.8.5 Procedure
4. Slowly withdraw the syringe plunger until the fuel sample 1. Apply a thin coating of water-detection paste to the gage
reaches the 20-mL mark. several inches above and below the suspected interface
5. Examine the paper disk in the capsule for any dif- level (Fig. 5).
ference in color between the inner wetted portion 2. Carefully lower the gage or stick through the fuel (in a ver-
and the outer portion that is protected by the plastic tical plane) until it lightly touches the tank bottom. Hold
molding. it in this position for a minimum of 10 s at a low point or
sump bottom.
C.7.6 Cautions 3. Remove the gage and observe the color difference in
1. Be sure the capsule is not spoiled or past its expiry date. the paste. The water level will be indicated clearly by
a definite color change where the water contacts the

FIG. 5 Application of water detection paste. paste.
C.8.6 Cautions
1. Avoid rapid lowering of the gage tape through the product
to prevent tilting of the plumb bob that could result in in-
accurate readings.
2. Maintain tape contact with the gage hatch to prevent static
charges.
3. Periodically check the reactivity of the paste.
C.8.7 Interpretation of Test Results

The water depth is indicated by a color change of the paste. The
volume can be calculated using tank or vessel tables.
39
Section D | Filtration Equipment
D.1 Filtration Equipment— (first stage) and separators (second stage). Flow is normally from
inside to outside through the coalescers, and outside to inside
General through the separators. Fig. 1 shows a typical vertical filter/separa-
D.1.1 Introduction and Purpose tor vessel. The arrows show the direction of fuel movement through
This section describes filter vessels and filter element media that the elements.
may be used at aviation fuel-handling facilities. This topic is suffi-
ciently complex that only the highlights can be considered herein. Coalescers. Coalescer elements combine extremely small
a.
Taking inspiration from this ASTM Manual 5, the Energy Institute water droplets into large drops that fall by gravity into the
recently published a new guidance document (EI 1550) to commu- vessel sump. On the outside of each coalescer is a “sock”
nicate to the typical user many of the issues that should be appreci- (knitted cotton or synthetic material) that assists in coa-
ated in using fuel filters for the supply of aviation fuel. lescing the water drops. Solid particles are also filtered from
the fuel by the coalescer. Coalescer elements are usually ei-
ther all fiberglass or are a combination of pleated paper and
D.1.2 References
fiberglass. In the combination fiberglass and pleated paper/
API/IP/EI 1582, Speciἀcation for Similarity for EI 1581, Aviation
microfiberglass coalescers, the pleated section on the inside
Jet Fuel F ilter S eparators, Energy Institute, London, www.
of the element filters solids before the fuel reaches the fiber-
energyinst.org
glass. The pleated section protects the fiberglass so that it
EI 1550, Handbook on Equipment Used for the Maintenance
can coalesce water better because solids entrapment even-
and D elivery o f C lean A viation F uel, Energy Institute, London,
tually will degrade fiberglass coalescing performance.
www.energyinst.org
Separators. Separator elements are made from water repel-
b.
EI 1581, Speciἀcation a nd Q ualiἀcation P rocedures f or
lent (hydrophobic) media that allow fuel to pass but that
Aviation Jet Fuel Filter Separators, Energy Institute, London, www.
block the passage of previously coalesced water drops.
energyinst.org
Separators normally are made with a Teflon®-coated screen
EI 1583, Speciἀcations a nd Q ualiἀcation P rocedures f or
(TCS), a synthetic screen or silicone-treated paper in
Aviation Fuel Filter Monitors with Absorbent Type Elements Energy
pleated or cylindrical form. Following are descriptions of
Institute, London, www.energyinst.org
the various types of separators:
EI 1590, Speciἀcations a nd Q ualiἀcation P rocedures f or
Aviation F uel M icroἀlters, Energy Institute, London, www. • TCS Separators. The element is typically 100 or 200 mesh
energyinst.org
stainless steel or Monel wire screen that is coated with
EI/JIG 1530, Quality A ssurance R equirements f or t he Teflon® material. These separators, with proper handling
Manufacture, Storage and Distribution of Aviation Fuel to Airports, and cleaning, can be reused (see Sec. D.4).
Energy Institute, London, www.energyinst.org • Synthetic Separators. The media in these elements is syn-
MIL-PRF-81380E, Performance Speciἀcation: Filter/Monitor, thetic mesh material with chemically bonded hydropho-
Contamination, A viation F uel D ispensing S ystem, Military bic treatment. These separators, with proper handling
Performance Specification, 2005. and cleaning like the TCS separators, can be reused (see
Sec. D.4).
D.1.3 Description
D.1.3.2 Particulate Filter Vessels
D.1.3.1 Filter/Separator Vessels Particulate filters (sometimes called micronic filters or prefilters)
Filter/separators are used to remove solids and water from fuel. remove solid particles from the fuel. These vessels are not designed
In the simplest case, they contain two types of elements: coalescers to remove water. Typical elements for these units are the pleated
be done by interfacial tension (IFT) or through MSEP. Differential

FIG. 1 Vertical filter/separator vessel. pressure is really not a good method for determining the service
life of clay.
Refer to EI 1550, Annex F.
D.1.3.4 Dehydrator Vessels

Dehydrators (commonly referred to as hay packs) remove large
particulate matter and bulk water from the fuel before all other
filtration. They are effective in protecting clay elements from water.
The media used in dehydrators is a special excelsior or other com-
bination of media that promotes coalescence and dirt removal. The
media is packed into the vessel and held in place by special contain-
ment devices.
D.1.3.5 Monitor Vessels

NOTE
Because of the changing nature of the EI/IP standards in regard to
this form of filtration, refer to the latest standard (IP 1583), which
FIG. 2 Filter/separator vessel with shrouds.
may be more current than this document.
NOTE
Water-absorbing elements should not be used in fuel containing an
anti-icing additive, also known as DiEGME, FSII, or Prist®. Prist® is
a registered trademark of Prist Aerospace Products, a division of
CSD, Inc.
A filter monitor is a vessel containing absorbent filter ele-
ments. A filter monitor is intended to continuously remove dirt
and water from aviation fuel to a level acceptable for fueling mod-
ern aircraft. It also is intended to restrict the flow of fuel if the level
of dirt or water is unacceptable.
Filter monitor elements have short service life with wet fuel so
they usually are used downstream of coalescer/separator systems.
paper type and are designated in terms of micron rating. The They often include the last filtration of jet fuel before it is placed on
micron ratings indicate that a vast majority of particles larger than an aircraft.
the rating will be removed. Micron ratings of filter elements are not Filter monitors are generally effective for removing dirt and
determined by all manufacturers based on the same criteria. water contamination from aviation fuel but must not, by them-
For this reason, EI 1590 was developed to provide a consistent basis selves, be viewed as fail-safe devices. Because the water absorption
for measuring and specifying the micron ratings of aviation fuel performance of filter monitor elements can degrade in service, a
particulate filters. Several micron ratings are available, but the typ- filter monitor must be regarded as no more than one component in
ical elements used for aviation fuel are 5/micron (μm) or less. a comprehensive system to control aviation fuel contamination.
Pleated paper provides more surface area in the elements for longer Monitors, usually located downstream of filter or filter/
service life. Particulate filters function primarily to extend the ser- separator vessels, are “insurance” vessels. These elements are
vice life of coalescers in filter/separators installed downstream of changed out when the differential pressure reaches a certain level;
the particulate filters. the manufacturer normally recommends a 15–25 psi differential
(103–167 kPa).
D.1.3.3 Clay Treatment Vessels
Clay treaters are used to remove surfactants from the fuel, which D.1.3.6 Strainers
otherwise could “disarm” filter/separator elements located down- Strainers are screens installed before nozzles, valves, pumps, and
stream of the clay vessel. The clay (Fullers’s earth or attapulgus other mechanical equipment to remove coarse particulate matter.
clay) can be in bulk or packed in elements (bags or canisters). The They do not provide the filtration and water removal functions of
clay usually is 60- to 90-mesh grain size and is designated as a low the other equipment in this section.
volatile material (LVM). LVM treatment of the clay makes it more
resistant to “disarming” by water. Water has a detrimental effect on D.1.3.7 Suggested Vessel Sequence
clay performance by blocking off flow. Clay removes surfactants by At a jet fuel–receiving station downstream of a pipeline where rel-
adsorption not by filtration. Excessive flow rates are undesirable. atively large amounts of water, particulate matter, and surfactants
The service life of clay is determined by comparing surfactant lev- might be present in jet fuel, the suggested sequence of vessels is as
els upstream and downstream of the clay treatment vessel. This can follows:
Section D: Filtration Equipment 41
NOTE been reached, the elements become disarmed (see Sec. D.7), or
The following sequence may be altered to suit local conditions. For there is reason to suspect that the elements need changing (possible
example, in high-dirt/low-water locations, reversing the order of rupture, bypass, unacceptable filter membrane rating, and so
the prefilter and dehydrator and using an oversized prefilter may forth).
be advantageous. If water is not considered to be a likely problem,
the dehydrator may be eliminated.
D.2.4 Equipment
First—Coarse coalescer, or dehydrator (hay pack) vessel, to
A new set of the correct elements and a new cover gasket should be
remove most of the bulk water. This protects the downstream clay
available before the vessel is opened. A supply of clean cloth is
(water blocks flow through clay when it makes contact, causing the
needed to wipe foreign matter from the vessel interior. Use proper
fuel velocity in the remaining clay to be increased and greatly
personal protective equipment (PPE) when removing and install-
reducing the ability of the clay to remove surfactants). Dehydrators
ing filter elements.
(hay packs) are used primarily at locations where severe water con-
tamination may be expected.
Second—Particulate filter (micronic or prefilter) vessel to D.2.5 Procedure
remove dirt and so forth and to protect the clay vessel from becom- Following are the general steps for replacing micronic filter ele-
ing plugged with particulate matter. ments, clay elements, and coalescer and separator elements.
Specific comments on coalescer and separator elements follow
NOTE
these general steps.
Oversizing the dehydrator and particulate filter vessels is recom-
mended to improve efficiencies of water and particulate removal
1. Shut off the pump.
and to increase the time between media change outs.
2. Turn off power to the electric sump or drain the heater if
Third—Clay treatment vessel to remove surfactants, thereby
the vessel is so equipped.
protecting the downstream filter/separator vessel. Clay vessels also
3. Close the inlet and outlet valves.
may be oversized if advisable because of the level of surfactants
4. Open the top vent and drain the housing through the bot-
expected.
tom drain. Drain the inlet compartment also if so equipped.
Fourth—Filter/separator vessel with acceptable water defense
protection to remove any remaining water and particulate matter, NOTE
getting the fuel to the cleanliness level required at the airport. The Dispose of drained fuel in accordance with proper hazard-
filter/separator vessel will remove any clay fines that might migrate ous material protocols.
from the clay vessel.
CAUTION
NOTE Because of differing vessel designs, it is important to identify
If local conditions indicate that a monitor vessel should be included and open the proper drain valves.
in this sequence, it should be positioned last.
5. When drained completely, open the cover, and before dis-
EI 1550 is available to provide more detail concerning the
turbing elements, allow 10 min for relaxation of accumu-
various options typically used for aviation fuel filtration.
lated static electricity charges.
6. Remove the spider, if installed, and then remove all of the
elements.
D.2 Filter Element Installation
7. Inspect the interior of the dome cover for evidence of soot
Procedure or contamination (see Sec. D.3).
D.2.1 Introduction and Purpose 8. Inspect the elements as you remove them. Look for dam-
The purpose of this procedure is to ensure that filter elements (that aged gaskets and media. Visible particles may be sand, mi-
include coalescer, separator, micronic, and clay treatment ele- crobes, or rust. Rubber or metal from failing valves, pumps,
ments) are installed correctly to prevent bypassing or malfunction- or meters also may be present and indicate other fuel sys-
ing of the elements. tem problems.
9. Wipe off or wash down any foreign matter from the vessel
interior and the cover with clean cloth soaked in product or
D.2.2 References clean water.
There is no known published test standard on this subject. Most
manufacturers include element installation instructions in their CAUTION
equipment operating manuals, and instruction sheets usually are Do not use soap or detergents to clean the inside of the ves-
included in the element shipping cartons. sel. Remove all cleaning material.
10. Before installing the new elements, the vessel should be
D.2.3 Description inspected or tested in accordance with Sec. D.3.
New filter elements are installed in filter vessels just before start-up. 11. Install elements with clean hardware (spacers, end caps, and
Elements are replaced when the differential pressure reaches the so forth) as per the manufacturer’s or conversion kit instruc-
recommended change-out point, the recommended service life has tions. Note the following five types of element instructions.
CAUTION to keep the fabric end discs flat to avoid bypassing

Do not touch the outer surface of an element with your bare through creases. Do not drop the elements in place, but
hands or any greasy materials. When installing elements, use a firm downward motion to promote settling and
open the plastic bags at the open ends of the elements and stabilization of the clay. If the stack is too high to install
slide the bags back a few inches. Leave the bags on the ele- the cap, raise and then firmly lower the elements a few
ments for handling purposes during installation. After the inches to promote further settling. Type A elements
elements have been installed, remove the plastic bags slowly must be installed with the porous tube in place. Type B
to prevent static discharge. elements are installed by lowering the element over the
perforated support tube. The fiber tube will be forced
• Threaded Base Coalescers. Thread the coalescers by hand
upward out of the element. Install the spring-loaded top
onto the adapters, which are installed in the vessel, until
cap in accordance with the manufacturer’s instruction.
you feel the gaskets seal on the adapter knife edges. Turn
each element with both hands, gripping the end cap only, CAUTION
until it is hand tight and then remove the plastic bag. If Never remove the fiber tube from the type B element before
the end of the coalesce has a square fitting, use the proper installing it. Do not remove type B elements from the vessel
adapter and wrench to tighten it to the manufacturer’s and expect to reinstall them because the fiber tubes cannot
recommended torque value. be reinserted in the bags.
• Open-End Coalescers. Install elements carefully so they Never attempt to install bag-type elements in a vessel
seal around the pilot guides on the inlet holes. Remove that was designed for canister elements unless special
plastic bags and install cover plates or spacers as needed bag-holding hardware is used.
on the tie rods. Install rubber gasket, flat washer, lock Spring cap “hang-up” is a common problem. This is
washer, and nut on the tie rod. Hand tighten the nut and caused by the I.D. liner fabric catching on the top end of the
then use a wrench to tighten it to manufacturer’s recom- porous tube of type B elements. The I.D. of the spring-loaded
mended torque value, or until the lock washer is flattened cap then wedges against this fabric, resulting in the entire
and the rubber washer begins to curl up around the outer cap being “hung-up” so that it cannot follow the clay down-
edge. Do not over torque. ward as it settles. The same problem can occur with type A
• Separator E lements. Separator elements are normally elements with the fabric catching on the top of the perfo-
TCS type or synthetic screen. TCS or synthetic separa- rated support tube assembly. To avoid this problem, the
tors may be removed, inspected, cleaned (and repaired fabric of the top element must be pushed downward by hand
as required), and tested each time the coalescer elements until it is clear of the edge of the support tube before the
are changed, depending on manufacturer’s instructions. spring cap is installed.
Synthetic separators may need to be discarded. Also see 12. Install the spider over the tie rods or end bolts. Then tighten
Sec. D.4 for maintenance procedures. Elements that do nuts on the tie rods (end bolts) to help hold the elements
not test satisfactorily should be replaced. securely in place.
CAUTION 13. Install a new cover gasket.
Do not touch the separator media with bare hands. It is rec- 14. Check cover gasket for proper alignment. Replace cover
ommended that separators be handled only at the end caps. and secure tightly using a cross-pattern process. Stencil or
otherwise mark the date of the element change on the out-
• Clay Canisters and Micronic Elements. Tighten nuts on side of the vessel.
tie rods to manufacturer’s recommended torque value. 15. Close the manual drain valve.
Do not over torque. 16. Open the manual air eliminator valve if so equipped.
17. Leave the inlet and outlet valves closed.
CAUTION
18. Preferably, gravity fill the vessel; if this is not feasible, start
A careful inspection of the hardware that supports and seals
the system pump (perform steps 18 and 19 together).
the elements is recommended. If a small portion of the fuel
19. Slightly open the inlet valve allowing the vessel to slowly fill
can bypass the clay, the overall effectiveness of the treatment
with fuel (the slower the better) to avoid static electricity
is reduced substantially.
charging of the fuel or fuel misting, either of which could
Some hardware that is designed to hold bag elements is
lead to an internal fire or explosion.
only marginally effective in sealing canister elements. If the
20. If the vessel has a manual air eliminator valve, leave the valve
hardware was designed to hold canisters, it is probably
open until the fuel flows from the opening; then close it quickly.
totally ineffective for bag-type elements.
If the vessel has an automatic air eliminator, the vessel is full
• Bag-Type Clay Elements. The inside liner (ID) of a bag when the eliminator stops discharging air. Check for fuel leaks.
element is a fabric that may be permanently supported by 21. When the vessel is filled with fuel, fully open the inlet valve
a porous plastic tube (type A element) or temporarily by and slowly open the outlet valve. Then turn the power on
a heavy fiber tube (type B element). Install elements in to the sump or drain heater of the filter/separator (if so
stacks with as many layers as required using special care equipped).
22. If the vessel is the final stage of filtration before refueling probes, shutoff valves, air eliminators, pressure relief valves,
aircraft, then fuel should be recirculated through the vessel drain and sample valves, sump heaters, and sight gage glasses
at normal flow for at least 15 min to help clear the system (Fig. 3).
of possible contaminants.
23. When flow has been established, record a differential
pressure reading. If there is no differential pressure or it D.3.2 References
is lower than expected, the system should be shut down There is no known standard method for performing this mainte-
and the vessel should be inspected for broken seals, nance. This section should be read in conjunction with Secs. D.2,
ruptured or charred elements, omitted elements, or im- D.5, and D.6 that detail procedures for checking filter element
properly installed elements. If the differential pressure is replacement, differential pressure, and automatic water slug
higher than expected, contact the element manufacturer systems.
or representative.
24. A good practice is to perform a filter membrane test down-
stream of the vessel in accordance with Sec. B.1. D.3.3 Accessory Maintenance
1. Differential Pressure Gage
a. Periodically check that gage lines and valves in lines are
D.3 Filter Accessory Maintenance not air-bound, plugged, or restricted.
b. Some direct reading gages have small filters in their
D.3.1 Introduction and Purpose inlets. They must be clean to ensure proper gage
The proper operation of the accessory equipment on a filter ves- operation and avoid sluggish response. Replace as
sel is a key factor in obtaining reliable performance from the fil- necessary.
ter. This section outlines the periodic normal maintenance c. Where three-way valves are used, be sure that the var-
requirements and procedures for filter vessel accessories. Among ious positions are correctly marked and verify that the
these accessories are differential pressure gages, sump floats and valve handle shows the correct valve position.
FIG. 3 Typical vertical two-stage filter/separator, per EI 1581, showing some accessory equipment.
d. Periodically, or if gage readings are suspect, remove the When the vessel is opened, note whether a stain ring or
gage and test it against a known reference; replace or soot shows on the internal upper wall or top cover. This
repair as required. could indicate the air eliminator is not working properly.
e. If a piston-type direct reading gage shows evidence Air is being trapped in the vessel or bleeding back through
of internal contamination or sluggish operation, the air eliminator and its outlet check valve if the vessel hap-
the gage should be disassembled and cleaned. Be pens to be at the high point in the system. Air trapped in the
sure that the manufacturer’s repair instructions are vessel can lead to an explosion if sufficient static charge is
followed. generated to cause an internal spark.
NOTE Pressure R elief V alve—The valve should be removed

5.
EI 1581 requires that a three-way test valve be present on periodically and tested to see that it operates at the set
the outlet (lower) fitting of piston-type differential pres- pressure.
sure gages. This allows the incoming (filter outlet) pressure CAUTION
to be shut off and the area under the piston to be vented to The set pressure must never be higher than the filter’s design
atmospheric pressure by way of a proper catch system to or maximum working pressure.
prevent a spill of the fuel. The piston then will be driven
down by system pressure to the bottom of its travel, and Drain and Sample Valves—These valves should be repaired
6.
this can be observed to ensure that no damage or debris or replaced when leakage or operation difficulty is noted.
inhibits the smooth operation of the piston or spring The use of ball valves is desirable because they permit rapid
assembly. If the piston does not move smoothly, the piston opening to full flow, enable rapid closing, and have less ten-
and glass tube can be cleaned in accordance with the man- dency to trap rust and dirt.
ufacturer’s recommendation. Sump Heaters—In areas where the temperature goes below
7.
The next test is to return the valve to the operating freezing, electrical jacketing or immersion heaters may
position and stop all flow in the system. The piston should be necessary to prevent water from freezing in the sump
return to the zero position. If not, either cleaning, as noted, and water drain-off lines. Heaters should be activated and
or replacement of the spring may be required. checked according to the manufacturer’s instructions be-
fore the onset of cold weather and periodically during the
Sump Float or Probe—See Sec. D.6 for instructions on the
2. winter.
periodic testing of this equipment.
A float or probe is installed in the sump of the vessel to CAUTION
detect a buildup of water in the sump. At a predetermined Before the vessel is taken out of service for maintenance, be
water level, the float or probe will actuate (close) the flow sure to turn off and lock out electrical power.
control (slug) valve or shut down the flow. Sight Glasses—Sight glasses sometimes are installed on fil-
8.
Flow Control (Slug) Valve—See Sec. D.6 for instructions on
3. ters to show when water is building up in the bottom of the
the periodic testing of this equipment. vessel. They must be periodically flushed or disassembled
The flow control valve at the outlet of the filter vessel to clean the glass so that the water-fuel interface can be
will automatically shut down the system if the float/probe readily seen.
signals that an excessive amount of water has accumulated
in the sump.
Air E liminator—The ability to remove air can be checked
4. D.4 Teflon®-Coated Screen (Tcs)
when a filter vessel is being filled after maintenance, or in
some cases when the pump is first started up, by noting that
and Synthetic Separators
air is being expelled from the air eliminator outlet piping. D.4.1 Introduction and Purpose
Only a relatively small amount of liquid should be expelled The purpose of this procedure is to evaluate Teflon®-coated screen
with the air, and there should be no leakage of liquid after (TCS) and synthetic material separators for serviceability.
the air is expelled. In cases in which the air eliminator is Procedures are described for cleaning and repairing Teflon® sepa-
piped to a closed system, a sight gage should be installed rators, which typically can be cleaned and reused multiples times.
in the line to determine whether liquid product is leaking See the manufacturer’s instructions.
through the air eliminator.
The air eliminator also should be removed, the unit
D.4.2 References
should be inspected, and the float action should be checked
There is no known published test standard on this subject. Cleaning
according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
procedures are published by some filter element manufacturers.
CAUTION
It is recommended that a check valve be installed on the D.4.3 Description
outlet side of the eliminator to prevent air from reentering When coalescer elements are changed in accordance with
the vessel. Procedure D.2.5, and at other times when the performance of TCS
or synthetic elements is in question or it is desirable to verify the epoxy into the hole and the immediate surrounding mesh.
proper condition of the separator elements. This verification is Ensure that the proper PPE is used when cleaning and re-
done by visually inspecting; testing with running water; and, if pairing separators.
necessary, cleaning and repairing the elements. 2. After the repair has been made and the epoxy has fully
cured, the element must be tested in accordance with the
D.4.4 Equipment water-testing procedure.
The following equipment is required for this procedure: container
D.4.5.4 Water-Testing Procedure
of clean jet fuel, clean cloth or soft fiber brush, tap water, and two-
1. Be sure that the separator is fuel-wetted before performing
part epoxy, if necessary.
this test by completely immersing the separator in clean
fuel. Hold the element by the end cap at an approximate
D.4.5 Procedure 45° angle and gradually pour clean water over the entire
screen surface while slowly rotating the element.
D.4.5.1 General
1. If the filter/separator vessel is not open, follow the proce- CAUTION
dure outlined in Sec. D.2.5, steps 1–7. Do not spray the water and do not let it fall more than 3 in.
2. Remove spiders, if installed, and carefully remove the sepa- (7.62 cm) before contacting the separator because the
rator elements. splashing will make interpretation of the results difficult.
CAUTION 2. Examine the screen as the water flows over it. It should
In removing the separator elements, care must be taken to bead and roll off the surface without wetting the surface.
avoid touching the surface of the screen. Skin oils may dis- This beading is similar to water drops on a waxed automo-
arm the separator elements. A clean cloth or nitrile gloves bile finish. If the water “wets” the surface and penetrates
should be used while holding the elements to facilitate their into the screen, the surface must be cleaned again.
removal. 3. If the element successfully passes this test, it may be rein-
stalled in the filter vessel after a final rinse in clean fuel to
3. Visually examine each element. It should appear clean, remove any water traces. Care should again be exercised
without any collection of dirt, particulate matter, “slime,” to prevent touching the screen with anything other than a
or “foam.” No cuts, tears, abrasions, or deformations should clean cloth or nitrile gloves.
be visible. 4. If the element fails the water-testing procedure, washing
4. If any dirt or other matter is present, the cleaning proce- with hot water may be attempted. Using pressurized hot
dure should be followed. water, not steam, spray the area that has not passed the wa-
5. If any cuts, tears, and so forth are present, the repairing ter test. It may be necessary to also rescrub the area with
procedure should be followed after cleaning. a clean cloth or soft fiber brush. Allow the element to dry
thoroughly and then repeat the water-testing procedure,
D.4.5.2 Cleaning Procedure
after fuel-wetting the separator.
1. Submerge the element in a container of clean jet fuel and
5. If the element cannot pass this test, it must be discarded
gently scrub the entire surface with a soft fiber brush or
and replaced with an acceptable element.
lint-free cloth.
2. If foreign material is present, it may be necessary to change
the fuel to ensure that clean, uncontaminated fuel is used as
a final rinse.
D.5 Differential Pressure—
3. Inspect the element to ensure that it is clean. If any for- Delta P or Dp
eign matter is noted, repeat steps 1 and 2. If any cuts, tears,
D.5.1 Introduction and Use
nicks, and so forth are noted on the surface, proceed with
The purpose of observing differential pressure across a filter vessel
the repairing procedure; otherwise, proceed with the wa-
is to monitor the changing condition of the elements. Establishing
ter-testing procedure.
and maintaining a record of differential pressure readings across
D.4.5.3 Repairing Procedure filters provides a history, so that element change times can be
determined and abnormal conditions detected.
NOTE
If the screen surface shows a cut, nick, tear, and so forth, larger
than 0.125 in., the element should not be repaired. D.5.2 References
ATA Specification 103, Standard f or J et F uel Q uality C ontrol a t
1. If the hole in the separator is small, coating the damaged Airports, Sections 2-4.3,2-7.2, and 2-8.3.3 and Form 103.06, Air
area with two-part epoxy may repair it. First clean the area Transport Association of America, 2015, https://publications.
around the cut with isopropyl alcohol. Epoxy will not stick airlines.org
to Teflon®, so the epoxy must be worked into the screen to EI 1550, Handbook on Equipment Used for the Maintenance
provide a mechanical lock. A tool must be used to force the and Delivery of Clean Aviation Fuel, Chapter 19.
EI 1581, Speciἀcation a nd Q ualiἀcation P rocedures f or

Aviation Jet Fuel Filter Separators, paragraphs 3.1.4.2 and 3.2.4.2, FIG. 4 Filter/water separator record sheet. (Courtesy of A4A,
Energy Institute, London, www.energyinst.org Washington, DC.)
D.5.3 Description
1. Whenever fuel passes through a filter, a drop in pressure
occurs across the element. (At any fixed flow rate, the ab-
solute pressure upstream of the element is higher than the
absolute pressure downstream of the element.) This may
be quite minimal with new filter elements, normally rang-
ing from less than 1 to 7 psi (7–48 kPa) at rated flow. As
the elements collect solids or contaminant from the fuel,
the drop in pressure across them gradually increases. The
difference in pressure between inlet and outlet of the fil-
ter vessel should be monitored daily and recorded no less
than weekly (more often on filters in critical applications).
This differential pressure is one of the more apparent indi-
cations of filter element plugging. If the differential pres-
sure increases suddenly, it could indicate plugging of the
elements and unusual contaminant levels, which can in-
dicate that a serious contamination level is present. If the
differential pressure decreases suddenly, it could indicate
an element rupture or bypassing, which is cause for im-
mediate system shutdown and investigation. Maximum
allowable differential pressure is specified by the element
manufacturer, usually 15–25 psi (103–172 kPa), at which
point the filter elements should be replaced in accordance
with Sec. D.2.
2. Differential pressure readings across filters should be
recorded, either as a column of figures or, preferably, as a
line graph with information on fuel source, batch tank, and
so forth. This record provides an immediate indication of
abnormal filter differential pressure. It also may help iden-
tify shipments or receipts of contaminated fuel or storage
tank contamination. It alerts fuel handlers to impending
element failure, thereby allowing corrective action to be
scheduled before actual failure. transducers. Differential pressure monitoring equipment is avail-
3. Throughput should be recorded at the time of any filter able that will correct for variable flow and adjust the reading to
inspection or element change (also may be recorded as a show differential pressure corrected to rated flow conditions. These
running usage) to establish normal and abnormal filter ele- devices have available options for connections to control systems
ment life. to alarm or shut down systems if there is an elevation or sudden
4. Fig. 4 is a suggested form for recording differential pres- decrease in differential pressure.
sure, throughput, and filter element data. Some users may
additionally plot volume throughput on the horizontal D.5.5 Procedure
axis. Establish steady flow through the filter vessel at the normally used
flow rate. If a valve arrangement to a common gage is used, read the
D.5.4 Equipment inlet pressure. Next, read the outlet pressure. Subtract the outlet
Each filter vessel should be equipped with pressure taps on the inlet pressure from the inlet pressure.
and outlet sides of the filter. These taps may supply pressure sensing This is the differential pressure that should be recorded. If a
to a common gage by means of a three-way valve (off-inlet-outlet), direct reading gage is used, read the differential pressure directly
or to a direct reading differential pressure gage accurate to ±1 psi from the gage and record it. Observed differential pressure at other
(±7 kPa). Some operators prefer two separate pressure gages for than normal full-system flow rates should be converted to the nor-
reading inlet and outlet pressure, but this is not recommended as mal flow rate differential pressure by means of a graph, spread-
multiple readings may add confusion. sheet, or mathematical formulas supplied by the filter manufacturer
Differential pressure also can be monitored electronically or through the use of corrected differential devices described in
through connections to a differential pressure gage or pressure Sec. D.5.4.
D.5.6 Cautions CAUTION
1. Differential pressure varies with flow rate. Always record On some older systems, an additional function was provided that
differential pressure at a common flow rate close to the automatically would open a drain on the filtration unit to drain
maximum normally used. any accumulated water. For many reasons, including environmen-
2. Industry operating standards require DP to be corrected to tal concerns, this additional function is not r ecommended and
maximum achievable flow rate. should be removed.
3. Differential pressure across some filter elements will remain
fairly constant until they begin to become plugged and then Float-Operated S ystem—This system is actuated by a sig-
1.
will rise at a fast rate. When an abnormal rise in differen- nal from a float with a sealed air and fluid chamber, which,
tial pressure occurs, that filter should be monitored on a when properly balanced, will sink in fuel and float in water.
more frequent basis until the elements are changed or the The float remains in the downward position, permitting
situation has been rectified. Zero differential pressure or a fuel flow until enough water accumulates in the sump to
sudden decrease in DP is not normal and always should be raise the float. As the float rises to its maximum level, it
investigated because it may indicate that a filter element has repositions a pilot valve that closes the fuel discharge (slug)
burst, collapsed, or come loose from its mounting. valve or operates an electrical switch to stop fuel flow. To
4. Differential pressure readings that remain at a constant restart fuel flow, the operator must manually drain the ac-
level over an abnormal period of time may indicate im- cumulated water from the sump, allowing the float to re-
proper element installation, a faulty gage, blocked or return to the downward position.
stricted pressure-sensing lines, blocked or dirty internal Electric Exposed or Sealed-Probe-Operated System—This sys-
2.
gage filter elements, and so forth. tem consists of an electric probe installed in the filter/separa-
5. The handles on some three-way valves do not accurately tor sump that actuates a relay system to stop fuel flow when
indicate the actual operating position of the valve. Care sufficient water accumulates. Water must be drained off man-
must be taken to ensure that readings made are dynamic ually before fuel flow can resume. The internal contacts of
pressure and not blocked pressure in the lines. these units also may be used to activate audio or visual alarms
6. Operation of filter vessels above the manufacturer’s recom- in addition to or instead of the previously noted action.
mended maximum differential pressure, usually 15–25 psi
(103–172 kPa), can result in element rupture, collapse, or The different applications and uses of these automatic water slug
bypass. systems are summarized in Table 1.
D.6.4 Testing Equipment
D.6 Automatic Water Slug Equipment required may vary depending on the type of water slug
Systems system being tested but may include the following:
D.6.1 Introduction and Purpose 1. A special pump with sufficient output pressure to overcome
This section describes the equipment, operation, and testing proce- static head pressure to inject water into the water sump of
dures for automatic water slug systems. the filter/separator through the water drain valve.
2. A hose of sufficient pressure rating to connect the above
D.6.2 Reference pump to the water drain valve.
There is no known published standard on this procedure. 3. A container of approximately 3 gal (11.4 L) volume, cali-
brated to show at least gallon markings, to hold water used
D.6.3 Description for injection into the filter/separator water sump.
A fuel discharge valve (or slug valve) is installed in a system to stop 4. A test bulb to inject water into the test cavity of an electrical
fuel flow when water reaches a predetermined level in the filter/ water detection probe.
separator vessel. 5. An ohmmeter or multimeter to measure electrical continuity.
Table 1 Control System Summary
Type Power signal Usual application Action
A. Float Compressed air Mobile Closes fuel discharge (slug) valve

B. Float Electrical Mobile/stationary Closes fuel discharge (slug) valve and/or stops pump and/or provides alarm signals
C. Float Hydraulic Stationary Closes fuel discharge (slug) valve
D. Probe Electrical control of air deadman Mobile Closes fuel discharge (slug)/valve and/or provides alarm signals
E. Probe Electrical control ofelectric deadman Mobile Closes fuel discharge (slug) valve and/or provides alarm signals
F. Probe Electrical Stationary Closes fuel discharge (slug) valve and/or stops pump and/or provides alarm signals
b. Connect equipment noted in Secs. D.6.4, items 1 and 2,

FIG. 5 Example of a float buoyancy test. to the manual drain valve to inject a measured amount
of clean fresh water.
c. The following assumes that the sump volume of a filter/
coalescer and separator system is less than 1 gal (4 L).
Testing of systems with significantly different sump vol-
ume should be scaled as appropriate. While maintaining
system pressure, slowly inject 3 qt (3 L) of water through
the manual drain valve. Close the drain valve and de-
press the deadman control to test system operation. If
the system activates, stop flow at once. Inject another
qt (1 L) of water and attempt to restart flow. The sys-
tem should not operate. Do n ot inject more than
1 gal (4 L) of water. The system is considered unac-
6. A test container for checking the proper buoyancy of float ceptable if fuel flow resumes after injecting 1 gal (4 L)
mechanism (Fig. 5). of water. Further investigation is required by qualified
repair personnel, and the system should be retested and
D.6.5 General Precautions accepted before returning the unit to service.
1. Good housekeeping procedures prescribe complete re- d. If flow does not restart after the injection of the wa-
moval of sump water to prevent microbiological growth. ter, then this portion of the operation is considered
The unit should be drained through the manual water acceptable.
drain valve at least daily. It should be emphasized that the e. Drain, collect, and measure (by volume) all the water
automatic systems previously described do not operate un- injected. Depress the deadman control to test that the
til there is a substantial quantity of water in the sump of system flow activates. The system is considered unac-
the unit. Therefore, they do not replace the requirement for ceptable if fuel flow does not resume when test water is
manually draining all the water from these sumps. removed. Further investigation is required by qualified
2. Ensure that the pilot valve (float control valve) is installed repair personnel, and the system should be retested and
with the correct side facing up. If it is mounted upside down, accepted before returning the unit to service.
the fuel discharge (slug) valve will operate improperly. f. Remove the specialized test equipment. Drain an addi-
3. Proper actions must be taken to ensure that any fuel or tional 1 gal (4 L) of product to ensure that all water is
fuel-water mixture is properly collected and disposed of in removed, and then stop the flow of product and return
accordance with applicable federal, state, and local envi- the system to normal operation. Dispose of the water
ronmental regulations. and any fuel collected in accordance with applicable en-
vironmental regulations.
D.6.6 Procedures CAUTION
After testing the float and pilot assembly, ensure that all
D.6.6.1 Mobile Units
ports are free of water before reassembly.
All mobile systems should be tested while the fuel system is pres-
surized and flowing on a test stand (not while fueling an aircraft) NOTE
using the following procedures: Some floats, when manufactured, are carefully weighted (to
have the correct buoyancy) with an internal liquid, oil, or
Float Operated Systems—See Table 1, types A and B.
1. water. Do not remove the oil or water from the inside of
CAUTION these floats.
When performing these, or similar, float system tests never When testing mobile float systems, always inject a
connect the test equipment directly to any city, public, or measured amount of water and never more than 1 gal (4 L).
other domestic water supply system. The fuel pressure can The same amount of water should be recovered after test
be greater than the water system pressure, and fuel could be completion.
forced into the water supply, contaminating it. Additionally,
Mechanical Test Procedure
3.
there is no positive means to verify how much water has
a. Recirculate fuel within the system or, if a hydrant ser-
actually been put into the sump and therefore no way to be
vicer, through a test connection or into a refueler at the
sure to remove the same amount.
desired flow rate.
Water Injection Procedure
2. b. Operate the mechanical override device (test mecha-
a. Flush product through the manual drain line and valve nism) in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions
from the filter/separator to ensure all dirt and foreign until the product flow control system operates to stop
material has been removed. the recirculating flow. (This may be through means of
pneumatic or electrical solenoids or a combination of

such solenoids or operators.) FIG. 6 Setup for testing the sealed electrical probe.
c. If the recirculating flow through the system does not
stop when the test mechanism is operated, the auto-
matic system is malfunctioning and further checking
must be made by qualified repair personnel.
d. If the recirculating flow has stopped, slowly return the
test mechanism to its original position. The fuel flow
should resume. If flow does not resume, the system is
malfunctioning and further investigation is required by
qualified repair personnel before the system can be re-
turned to service.
e. Stop the pump or release the deadman control as re-
quired to stop all flow through the system and return all
system valves to normal operational positions.
CAUTION which water may be injected inside the probe (Fig. 6). The
The manual test mechanism on the float pilot valve only process to test them follows:
checks the operation of the pilot valve assembly. It does a. Fill a test bulb noted in Sec. D.6.4.3 with about 2 cups of
not check whether the float is buoyant in water. (Ballast water.
types of float valves do check the buoyancy of the float. b. Attach the discharge end of the test bulb to the inlet
The manual override device on this type of unit lifts the petcock.
ballast from the float, which allows it to float in fuel. c. While recirculating fuel at the desired flow rate, open
Releasing the ballast back to the float causes it to sink in the inlet and outlet petcocks and slowly squeeze water
fuel but float in water.) into the probe through the lower petcock. When the
f. The next time the filter/separator is opened, the float water reaches the internal surface of the probe, the fuel
assembly should be removed and its buoyancy checked flow should stop.
by verifying that it will rise in water and sink in jet fuel. The system is malfunctioning if the flow of fuel has
This may be accomplished by removing the float assem- not stopped before water exiting from the upper petcock.
bly from the filter/separator and testing in a container, Drain all water injected and stop the flow of fuel in the
as shown in Fig. 5. system. Further investigation is required by qualified
repair personnel before the system can be returned to
NOTE service.
As an alternative to the previous instructions, when the unit d. If the system has stopped the fuel flow, remove the test
is out of service and open, the sump may be filled with jet bulb and completely drain the probe of all water. The
fuel until the float is covered with jet fuel, and then water system fuel flow should resume. Stop the flow of prod-
slowly may be added to the sump. The float should sink in uct and return the system to normal operation, remov-
fuel but float on water. If the float does not float on water, the ing all test equipment connected and closing both pet-
float or its mechanism is malfunctioning and further inves- cocks.
tigation is required by qualified repair personnel before the
CAUTIONS
system can be returned to service.
The electrical power circuits to the probe must be shut off
and tagged out by qualified personnel to ensure that they are
D.6.6.2 Electrical Probe Systems
not energized during the removal and cleaning of the probe.
Several types of water probes are available and different test proce-
After reinstallation of the probe, the electrical continu-
dures are used for each one. Basically, they constitute three types:
ity between the probe and the case of the filter/separator
units in which water is injected into a nonpressurized internal
should be verified with an ohmmeter.
chamber to simulate water contact, units with a built-in water
pump that displaces a small amount of water into the actual e. The next time the filter/separator is drained or
fuel-wetted surfaces under pressure, and units that are mounted opened, the probe assembly should be removed and
into a drain-line assembly to allow the probe to be isolated from the cleaned with fine steel wool or abrasive cloth (e.g.,
pressurized system while water is added (not under pressure) to Scotchbrite™ 3M) to ensure that all electrical surfaces
test the actual fuel-wetted surfaces. are conductive.
Water Injection Procedure: Units with Built-in Test Pump
2.
Water Injection Procedure: Units with Sealed Internal Non-
1. a. Remove the cover and remove the test pump by rotating
pressurized Test Chambers—Sealed electrical probe systems the pump one quarter-turn and pulling out. Handle the
normally are fitted with 0.25 in. (6.3 mm) petcocks through test pump by only the large diameter when removing.
b. Unscrew the plunger from the pump and fill with clean
fresh water, holding and using a finger to cover the FIG. 7 Operating the float control manual test mechanism.
small hole on the outlet on the end. Replace the plunger Observe the fuel discharge valve position indicator.
and turn the pump in two full turns. Never unscrew the
plunger while it is installed.
c. Reinstall the pump and turn the plunger inward to in-
ject the water.
After testing, it may be necessary to flush the water
from the pump in cold climates. To do so, simply repeat
the process with fuel instead of water.
Water Injection Procedure: Units in Drain Lines with Isola-
3.
tion Valves
a. Turn off the isolation valve. This valve isolates the drain
assembly from the filter vessel.
b. Open the drain valve and the upper filling valve and thus restoring flow. If flow is not restored, the system
drain all fuel. Close the drain valve. is malfunctioning and further investigation is required
c. Pour water into the upper fill valve. by qualified repair personnel before the system can be
d. After testing, drain all water, close open valves, and re- returned to service.
open the isolation valve. e. Turn off the pump to stop all flow through the system
and return all system valves to normal operational
D.6.6.3 Stationary Units positions.
Because of the volume of water required, as well as flow rates and
CAUTION
pressures encountered, stationary units should not be tested by
The manual test mechanism on the float pilot valve only
injecting water into the filter vessel sump. Most float-operated
checks the operation of the pilot valve assembly. It does not
systems of type C (Table 1) are equipped with an external test
check whether or not the float will rise in water. (Newer
mechanism. This test mechanism will physically raise the float
types of float valves, ballast type, will check the capability of
(or ballast in newer type floats) inside the unit to enable verifica-
the float to rise. The manual override device on this type of
tion of the correct operation of the automatic system. The follow-
unit lifts the ballast from the float, which then allows the
ing procedure should be followed in testing this type system.
float to rise in fuel. Releasing the ballast back to the float will
allow the float to rise only in water.)
Normal Procedure
1.
a. Start the pump to pressurize the system and establish f. The next time the filter/separator is opened, the float
normal flow rate. assembly should be removed and its buoyancy checked
in accordance with Sec. D.6.6.1 (“2. Water Injection
CAUTION
Procedure”).
Be sure the vent port from the pilot valve (float control valve)
Procedure f or Systems w ith P robes—If the stationary sys-
2.
is unobstructed. Sometimes this vent is plugged during
tem is equipped with a probe, the procedure used under
shipment to prevent dirt or debris from getting into the pilot
electrical probes on mobile equipment as per Sec. D.6.6.1
valve assembly. If the vent is plugged for any reason,
(“2. Water Injection Procedure”), may be used. This type
improper operation of the fuel discharge valve will occur.
of electrical probe may be connected to perform various
b. Operate the test mechanism, observing the valve posi- operations, such as activating an alarm or a warning light,
tion indicator, if installed, on the fuel discharge (slug) stopping the pump, or closing the discharge (slug) valve.
valve. The discharge valve should close, stopping all The testing of this type of unit is performed in the same
flow (Fig. 7), as the test mechanism raises the float to its manner as that specified under mobile equipment.
raised position.
CAUTIONS
NOTE It must be ensured that the electrical power circuits to the
If no position indicator is installed, pressure on the down- probe are shut off and tagged to ensure they are not ener-
stream system will drop. In addition, the cessation of flow gized during the removal and cleaning of the probe. It may
frequently can be heard, especially as the fuel discharge be necessary for an electrician to disconnect the probe from
(slug) valve closes. the power source.
After reinstallation of the probe, the electrical continu-
c. If flow is not stopped when the test mechanism is oper-
ity between the probe and the case of the filter/separator
ated, the system is malfunctioning and further checking
shall be verified with an ohmmeter.
will be required by qualified repair personnel.
d. While slowly returning the test mechanism to its origi- a. The next time the filter/separator is drained or opened,
nal position, the fuel discharge (slug) valve should open, the probe assembly should be removed and cleaned
with fine steel wool to ensure that all electrical surfaces 1. Gammon Model GTP-359 Single-Element Tester, available
are conductive. from Gammon Technical Products, Inc., PO Box 400, Ma-
nasquan, NJ 08736 (Tel: 732-223-4600).
D.7 Single-Element Test for NOTE

This procedure is based on the only known commercially
Coalescer Elements
available tester: the Gammon Single-Element Tester. It
D.7.1 Introduction and Purpose should be possible to substitute an equivalent tester if
Coalescer elements in filter/separator vessels coalesce undissolved available.
water into large droplets that fall into the sump of a filter vessel by
2. A source of flowing jet fuel. This may be supplied by a re-
gravity. Coalescer elements can become “disarmed” (lose their
fueling truck or any other dedicated source that can deliver
ability to coalesce water) by the adsorption of trace fuel compo-
fuel for at least 10 min at 50 psi (344 kPa) and at the rated
nents or contaminants (surfactants) even when the differential
flow rate of the element to be tested. Ideally, the fuel used
pressure across the element is low. The single-element test was
for this test should be the same fuel as the element handled
developed to observe the coalescing capability of a set of elements
in service.
in a filter/separator system by testing the water coalescence of one
3. One gal (4 L) or more of clean water, such as drinking (po-
of the elements. The continued use of the remaining elements can
table) water contained in a suitable container, such as a
be judged by the results of this test.
bucket that is free of particulates and surfactants.
D.7.2 References 4. A safe and secure site isolated from ignition sources. This
There is no known published test standard on this subject. procedure is based on the only known commercially avail-
able tester: the Gammon Single-Element Tester. It should
be possible to substitute an equivalent tester if available.
D.7.3 Description
A coalescer element is removed from a filter/coalescer and separa- D.7.4.2 Equipment Preparation
tor vessel that was in field service. The element is removed using 1. Arrange the tester in the manner shown in Fig. 8. A ded-
extreme care to avoid damage or contamination (such as bare- icated refueling truck is shown as the source of jet fuel in
hand contact with the outer white sock). The element is installed in Fig. 8, although other arrangements may be made. The
the single-element test apparatus, where its performance is evalu- pump, meter, hose, and refueling nozzle on the truck are
ated when challenged with a controlled emulsion of fuel and water. required to supply fuel at the required flow rate.
D.7.4 Test Equipment NOTE

The pressure control valve on a refueler is normally set so
D.7.4.1 Products and Supplies that the pressure at the refueling nozzle will not exceed
Test equipment, supplies, and other requirements include the 50 psi (344 kPa). This pressure control feature is required
following: to protect the single-element tester.
FIG. 8 Single-element tester connected to a refueler truck.

2. Attach a bonding wire between the tester and the fuel it is used. If the maximum f low rate of the system is
source. 600 gal per min (gpm) (2,300 L/min) and there are ten
3. The fuel flowing from the tester may be recirculated into coalescer elements in the system, then the single-element
the truck tank as shown in Fig. 8, or it may be directed test should be run at 60 gpm (230 L/min). However, if the
to some other receiver, depending on local policy and filter/separator is rated at 600 gallons per minute (gpm)
facilities. (2,300 L/min) but the pumping system is incapable of
4. Install a coalescer element in the tester, being careful to exceeding 400 gpm (1,500 L/min), the test should be run
avoid skin contact with the element. Torque it to the man- at 40 gpm (150 L/min).
ufacturer’s specifications. Elements that have mechanical
11. Before initiating water injection, be sure any preexisting
damage are not suitable for testing.
water has stopped coming from the element media.
NOTE
Adaptors are available from the tester manufacturer to
mount any coalescer element that flows from inside to out- D.7.5 Cautions
side in the single-element tester. 1. Water can wash surfactants out of a coalescer causing it to
recover its ability to coalesce water. Therefore, the visual
5. Place the water supply in a bucket or other suitable con- evaluation of coalescence must be made immediately upon
tainer and secure the water suction tube in the bucket. the introduction of test water.
6. Close the water supply valve and the tester chamber drain 2. The test chamber must be filled slowly to avoid electrostatic
valve. Open the chamber air vent valve. charge buildup. A fill rate of no more than 5 % of element
7. Close the flow control valve by turning the knob in the di- rated flow is recommended.
rection stamped onto the valve body. 3. When water drops are viewed through the wall of a curved
8. When fuel pressure has been established, slowly open the chamber, the true sizes are distorted. A scale located inside
valve on the refueling nozzle. The flow rate is very slow of the chamber near the droplets permits their true size to
while the test chamber is filling because, with the flow be assessed.
control valve closed (see step 7), the only flow is through
a 0.25 in. (6.3 mm) port in the eductor. This slow fill rate is
required to prevent the development of excessive electro- D.7.6 Test Procedure
static charges. 1. Observe the outside of the element in the transparent
9. Close the air vent valve when the chamber is full. chamber and report evidence of water drops and their
color. Also refer to step 4 of these test procedures. Do not
NOTE proceed with water injection until fuel flowing through the
For safety, it is important that all air be vented from the coalesce element is clear and free of any signs of water.
chamber. 2. Record the differential pressure across the element.
10. Check the fuel flow rate by timing the truck (or other) me- 3. Adjust the valve on the water flow meter until the required
ter, as appropriate. Adjust the flow control valve until the injection rate is established.
flow rate is correct for the coalescer being tested.
NOTE
NOTE Fig. 9 has a set of curves that show the water meter reading
The correct flow rate is the maximum flow rate that the that is necessary to obtain various injection rates for various
element can experience at the particular operation where fuel flow rates.
FIG. 9 Water flow injection chart for single-element tester Model GTP-359. Reprinted courtesy of Gammon Technical Products, Inc.,
Manasquan, NJ.
4. Closely observe the test coalescer as water is being injected the time of the single-element test, but they are no longer
to look for the following indications of element failure: reliable.
a. Haze from any part of the element means that fine wa- 3. Any evidence of haze or smoke from the coalescing media
ter droplets are not coalescing, indicating damage to is reason to immediately stop the test and replace all of the
the element or that surfactants are present and caus- coalescers in the filter/separator.
ing a water-fuel emulsion to form. Haze often has the 4. Occasionally, coalescers create clusters of droplets that look
appearance of smoke and the word “smoke” generally like a bunch of grapes (called “graping”). The droplets are
is used to describe a failed condition. actually water films with fuel inside. Elements that have
b. Clusters of water drops that look like a bunch of grapes this problem (all coalescers in the vessel can be assumed to
(called “graping”) are really water films surrounding have the same condition) should be discarded because the
fuel (like a balloon). A coalescer that performs this way water films (droplets) break on contact with the separator
has failed; the water film will shatter into hundreds of elements, generating very fine droplets that pass onward
fine droplets that cannot be removed by the separator. through the separators.
c. Slimes are evidence of surfactant contamination or mi-
croorganism debris. Even if the element coalesces prop-
erly, it must be considered unsatisfactory. D.8 Clay Treatment
d. If an element performs well except that haze or smoke
D.8.1 Introduction and Purpose
appears to come from the end gaskets, recheck the seat-
This section describes the reason for using clay media in certain
ing and torque (to manufacturer’s recommendations)
aviation fuel-handling facilities and recommends the procedure
and repeat the test. If the smoke cannot be eliminated,
for determining when the clay media should be changed out.
then the element should be discarded and a different el-
ement should be tested.
e. If haze appears at the bond between the coalescing me- D.8.2 References
dia and the end cap, the entire set should be rejected. There is no known published test standard on this subject.
Note that droplets are often somewhat smaller very near
the ends of elements than elsewhere. This is not gener- D.8.3 Description
ally a cause for concern as long as the droplets appear as Clay treatment vessels, where used, are located upstream of filter/
discrete droplets and not haze or smoke. separators. The clay removes surfactants from the fuel, thereby
5. In addition to the visual assessment, measure the effluent- protecting the filter/separators. The clay treatment vessels are usu-
free water content 15 s after seeing the first water droplets ally the element-type vessels, containing either clay bags or clay
coming from the coalescer. If the reading is greater than canister elements.
15 ppm, the elements should be replaced. Surface active agents (surfactants, see Sec. A.12) can disarm
6. In the case of failing results, it can be useful to drain a water elements in filter/separator vessels, thereby preventing the filter/
and fuel sample from the single-element tester as soon as separator from efficiently removing water from aviation fuels. The
enough water is available and as soon as it is possible to more common surfactants come from the following sources:
take an IFT reading. A low IFT reading on this sample will
prove that surfactants are present. 1. Naphthenic and sulfonic acids arise from natural compo-
7. Report the results of all observations. nents of crude oil.
8. Close the nozzle valve, stop the pump, open the test cham- 2. Pipelines, transport trucks, ships, and barges can generate
ber drain valve to dispense water and fuel to a suitable con- residuals from motor gasoline and heating oil additives that
tainer, and open the vent valve. Dispose of the water-fuel adsorb on pipe or tank walls. Pipeline corrosion inhibitors,
mixture in an appropriate manner. some of which are approved additives for aviation fuel, are
9. When the fuel level falls below the coalescer, remove it also weak surfactants. Biofuel residuals from transport
from the chamber. trucks or pipelines are also sources of surfactants.
3. Maintenance materials produce soaps, detergents, and
D.7.7 Interpretation of Test Results steam-cleaning residues. Rust preventatives and descaling
1. Generally speaking, if the water droplets average at least chemicals usually are surfactants or combine to form sur-
one-half the size of the droplets from a new element, the re- factants.
maining elements in the filter/separator may be continued
in service. Different models of coalescing elements produce Clay particles are normally 60–90 mesh in size (about 300–
different sizes of water drops when they are working prop- 170/micron). Each particle is made up of hundreds of microscopic
erly, so it is not possible to set absolute droplet size limits. attapulgite crystals that are bound together in a porous cluster by
2. If any slime flushes out of the test element, the entire set kiln treating under carefully controlled temperature conditions.
of elements should be removed from service because this The clay particles remove surfactants from the fuel by adsorp-
indicates that they are grossly contaminated by surfactants tion (adhesion of the surfactant material to the surface of the clay
or microbial growth. Such elements may coalesce water at particles). The longer the fuel is in contact with the clay (residence
time) the more efficient the clay is in removing surfactants. listed are for illustrative purposes only and are not to be in-
Normally, the bags and canisters are flow rated at about 5–7 gpm terpreted as either good, surfactant-free fuel or, conversely,
(19–27 L/min) per element. Reducing the flow rate through each as surfactant-laden fuel.
clay element can, in some cases, significantly increase the life and 2. In addition to using the difference in MSEP ratings as
effectiveness of the clay. In one instance, reducing the flow rate by guidelines for changing clay, the performance of the down-
2 gpm (7 L/m) per element increased the time between change-outs stream filter/separator also should be monitored. If indica-
by a factor of five. tions are that the coalescer elements are disarmed, it would
be wise to assume that the clay elements upstream are in
D.8.4 Equipment need of changing.
The following equipment is required for this procedure: SwIFT Kit 3. Clay elements can be disarmed by large amounts of water.
made by Parker Velcon Filters, Colorado Springs, Colorado. In cases in which this situation could occur, it is a common
practice to place a coarse water separator such as a dehy-
drator (hay pack) upstream of the clay treatment vessel.
D.8.5 Procedure
Various methods are used to predict when clay elements should be
D.8.7 Interpretation of Test Results
changed. Among these are throughput, time, and differential pres-
The downstream MSEP or IFT rating is compared to the upstream
sure increase across the clay vessel and comparison of filter mem-
rating. For example, interpretations of the results might be as
brane tests taken upstream and downstream of the clay vessel.
follows:
None of which are reliable compared with the following preferred
method.
1. If both ratings are high (90 MSEP or above or 35 IFT or
Because clay media is used to remove surfactants, the most
above), draw no conclusions. This indicates relatively
reliable indicator for determining when to change the clay media
surfactant-free fuel entering and leaving the clay treatment
is a reduction in its surfactant removal efficiency. This efficiency
vessel.
is best obtained by periodically taking simultaneous upstream
2. If the upstream rating is low (80 MSEP or below or 25 IFT
and downstream fuel samples from the clay treatment vessel and
or below) and the downstream rating is high (90 MSEP or
then analyzing the two samples for an indication that the surfac-
above or 35 IFT or above), the clay media is still effectively
tant level is less downstream of the clay than upstream. MSEP
removing surfactants and need not be changed.
(see Sec. A.13) has been the most practical method to determine
3. If the upstream rating is low (80 MSEP or below or 25 IFT
clay life, but less costly methods are available. IFT is one method
or below) and the downstream rating is also low (80 or be-
used by the filter manufacturers to determine when clay is spent.
low or 25 IFT or below), the clay media is not removing
Other field tests are available such as the SwiftKit (Parker Velcon,
surfactants and should be changed. Clay media would ide-
Colorado Springs, CO). This test is based on IFT and is a quick
ally be changed before this condition occurs.
and cost-effective method of evaluating clay performance. Clay
4. If an unusual condition occurs, such as high upstream rat-
performance should be evaluated annually at a minimum.
ings but lower downstream ratings, this also can indicate a
possible upset condition. For example, entrained water in
D.8.6 Cautions the influent fuel may be “flushing out” adsorbed surfactants
1. The interpretations are guidelines for helping to predict from the clay media. In such cases, further investigation is
when clay media should be changed. The number ratings required.
55
Section E | Microbial Contamination Detection
E.1 Laboratory Methods and E.1.3 Description

Opportunities for bacteria and fungi (also referred to as “microor-
Field Kits ganisms” or “microbes”) to enter the aviation fuel supply, storage,
E.1.1 Introduction and Purpose and distribution system as well as aircraft generally occur after the
This section describes accepted laboratory test methods as well as refining process. Although microorganisms may have entered a
field test kits that can be used to detect microbial contamination in fuel system, water and fuel are necessary for the microbes to
fuel facilities. Microorganisms can enter the fuel system in many become viable and grow. Without meeting the minimum water
ways and can cause a variety of problems. These problems can requirement, microbes will become dormant (inactive) and move
occur anywhere in the world. The purpose of this section is to with the flow of fuel until a source of water is located or the fuel is
explain the nature of the problem and to define accepted means of consumed. In addition to water, microorganisms require a source
detection. The tests listed herein were chosen because of wide use of energy and carbon for growth and development. Aviation fuel is
in the industry. All possible tests are not shown. Inclusion of a test well suited for this because the hydrocarbon fuel becomes the
in this section does not mean to imply that it is an accepted test by source of energy and the carbon from the fuel is used for cellular
any airline, aircraft manufacturer, or oil company. growth and development. As long as water and aviation fuel are
Some of the test methods discussed within this document available in sufficient quantities, microbes will settle in a safe low-
also can be found discussed in the industry documents listed in flow area and will secrete a biosurfactant to form an emulsion at
Sec. E.1.2., “References” When possible, it is strongly recom- the fuel-water interface for metabolic activities that support the
mended that the user reference the industry document that is growth and development of the microorganisms and biofilm.
applicable to their regions of operation. Treatment of contami- Once established, the impact microbes can have on fuel stor-
nated systems must be done in accordance with environmental age tanks, delivery systems, and aircraft can vary depending on the
law and the aircraft manufacturer’s requirements, airline, and oil severity of the contamination. Problems associated with microbial
company standards. These vary. contamination include dark spots, growth on surfaces (spotting),
clogging and disarming of coalescing filters, dark-colored water
bottoms or smelly “black water,” and in extreme cases, fuel tank
E.1.2 References corrosion. Uplifting microbially contaminated fuel from a fuel
ASTM D6469-14, Standard Guide for Microbial Contamination in farm, refueling truck, or hydrant system can lead to the aircraft
Fuels and Fuel Systems, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, becoming contaminated. Once established in the aircraft fuel sys-
PA, 2014, www.astm.org tem, microorganisms can cause a variety of problems, including
ATA Specification 103, Standard for Jet Fuel Quality Control clogging of engine fuel filters, erratic fuel quantity readings in the
at Airports, Airlines for America (Air Transport Association of flight deck, and corrosion of fuel tank structures and plumbing.
America), 2015, https://publications.airlines.org Microbes that are found in fuel systems are microscopic in
EI/JIG 1530, Quality A ssurance R equirements f or t he size (typically several microns in length) and can be bacteria,
Manufacture, Storage and Distribution of Aviation Fuels to Airports, yeasts, or molds; yeasts and molds are collectively referred to as
Energy Institute, London, https://www.energyinst.org fungi. These microbes are found in nature, but they can form via-
IATA, Guidance Material on Microbiological Contamination ble colonies in fuel tanks and distribution systems. Bacteria are
in A ircraἀ F uel Tanks, 5th ed., International Air Transportation single-cell organisms. Some species of bacteria can survive only in
Association, Quebec, Canada, www.iata.org the presence of oxygen (i.e., aerobic bacteria), whereas other species
Passman, F. J., Fuel a nd F uel S ystem M icrobiology: of bacteria can live only in the absence of oxygen (i.e., anaerobic
Fundamentals, D iagnosis, an d C ontamination C ontrol, MNL47, bacteria). During conditions in which water or energy are inade-
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2003, doi:10.1520/ quate, bacteria have the ability to become inactive (dormant) as a
MNL47-EB natural form of preservation until environmental conditions are
adequate to resume metabolic activity. Fungus (sing.)/fungi (pl.) are ASTM D6974 and IP 385 are used to determine the viable
terms used to describe single-celled microorganisms—yeast—or microbial content in fuel. A fuel sample is filtered through mem-
filamentous microorganisms—mold—that are larger than bacteria brane filters. Viable microbes collected on the membranes are then
and will grow to form fungal mats. Fungi and some bacteria pro- incubated on a growth medium. After the incubation period, the
duce spores that are equivalent to immature and inactive reproduc- colonies are counted and reported in terms of colony forming units
tive cells (seeds) that germinate and grow in the presence of water. (cfu) per litre (L) of fuel or millilitre (mL) of water.
Once a spore germinates in water, fungi grow by using fuel for A number of the field test kits listed in Sec. E.1.4.2 now also
food, along with trace materials in the water and dissolved oxygen. are published as ASTM standard methods that can be used both in
Severe microbial contamination generally can be detected the laboratory and the field. See the following for further details.
without the aid of special test equipment. Characteristics such as
odor or discoloration of water samples or “leopard” spotting of E.1.4.2 Field Test Kits
filter water separator coalescer elements are an indication of a E.1.4.2.1 Products
microbial contamination problem. Field test kits can be used to 1. Product: Microbe Lab
detect microbial contamination long before microbial levels Manufacturer: ECHA Microbiology, UK
become operationally and economically severe. These test kits can Distributor: Eastern Petroleum Supplies Ltd.
be useful in a routine monitoring program that can provide an Tel UK: +44(0)621 773292
early warning sign for fuel systems in cases in which contamina- Fax UK: +44 (0)621 772353
tion from microorganisms is likely. Once microbial contamination Email: [email protected]
has been detected, some test kit(s) can be used to detect the source Website: www.easternsupplies.co.uk
of contamination, which often is upstream of the detection point, For Global Sales Inquiries Contact: Eastern Petroleum
although this may prove elusive. Some of the test kits listed in Supplies, Ltd.
Sec. E.1.4 are useful for trend monitoring. Microbial contamina- 2. Product: MicrobMonitor2® (ASTM D7978)
tion traditionally is measured and reported as colony forming Manufacturer: ECHA Microbiology Ltd., UK
units (cfu) per unit volume of sample (i.e., litre [L] or millilitre Distributors: Santex Corp.
[mL]). A sample is added to a growth medium, which is incubated Tel: +772-360-4117 Fax: +772-882-3057
for a period of several days; visible colonies of growth are allowed Email: [email protected]
to develop and then are counted. In addition to the more tradi- Website: www.santexdirect.com
tional methods, rapid techniques have been developed that mea- Fuel Quality Services, Inc.
sure other indicators of microbial contamination. Tel USA: 800-827-9790
Although microbes are nearly always present in the fuel sys- Fax USA: 770-967-9982
tem, if the amount of water present is low or minimized, these Email: [email protected]
microbes will not proliferate and will not cause operational prob- Website: www.fqsinc.com
lems. Aviation fuel systems should be designed to facilitate the For Global Sales Inquiries Contact: ECHA Microbiology
draining of all free water. Regular water draining and good house- Ltd.
keeping in conjunction with a well-designed scavenge system are Tel UK: +44(0)2920 365930
the most practical means to minimize microbial contamination. Fax UK: +44(0)2920361195
In systems in which water is present, however, microbial prolifera- Website: www.echamicrobiology.com
tion is likely, and this can lead to operational problems and unac- 3. Product: EasiCult® TTC Dip Slide (Bacterial) and M Dip
ceptable levels of contamination in fuel. Slide (Fungi)
Laboratory test methods and field test kits described in the Manufacturer: Orion Diagnostica Finland
remainder of this section may assist in the detection of active Distributor: Life Sign, LLC
microbes. A brief description of each test is given. Refer to the sup- Tel USA: 800-526-2125
pliers for more detailed information. Fax USA: 732-246-0570
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.lifesignmed.com
E.1.4 Procedures and Equipment For Global Sales Inquiries Contact: Orion Diagnostica Oy
E.1.4.1 Laboratory Test Methods Tel: +358-10-4262390
1. ASTM D6974-16, Standard Practice for Enumeration of Viable Fax: +358-10-426 2794
Bacteria a nd F ungi i n L iquid F uels—Filtration a nd C ulture Email: [email protected]
Procedures, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016, www.astm.org Website: www.oriondiagnostica.fi
2. IP 385-99, “Determination of the Viable Aerobic Micro- 4. Product: FuelStat® Resinae Plus
bial Content of Fuels and Fuel Components Boiling Below Manufacturer: Conidia Bioscience, Ltd.
390°C—Filtration and Culture Method,” F uel an d F uel Distributor: SATAIRUSA, Inc.
System Microbiology: Fundamentals, Diagnosis, and Con- Tel USA: 404-675-6333
tamination Control, MNL47, F. J. Passman, Ed., West Con- Fax USA: 404-675-6311
shohocken, PA, 2003, www.astm.org Email: [email protected]
SECTION E: Microbial Contamination Detection 57
Website: www.conidia.com sulfide spoilage of fuel. The test method consists of a

For Global Sales Inquiries Contact: glass tube containing a measured volume of nutrient
Conidia Bioscience, Ltd. growth gel selective for specific anaerobic microorgan-
Tel UK: +44(0)1491 829102 isms. The test is performed by adding a measured vol-
Fax UK: +44(0)2076 919523 ume of a sample to the glass tube and incubating the
Website: www.conidia.com glass tube. The speed and extent of the gel turning black
5. Product: HY-LiTE® Jet A-1 indicates the severity of SRB contamination.
Manufacturer: Merck KGaA, 64271 Darmstadt, Germany d. The Sig® Rapid WB is a semiquantitative test used to de-
(Bitte Darmstadt und PLZ hinzufügen) tect the presence of moderate to heavy microbial con-
Distributor: Fuel Quality Services, Inc. tamination from aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, yeast,
Tel USA: 800-827-9790 and mold in fuel tank water bottoms. The test method
Fax USA: 770-967-9982 consists of a glass tube containing a reagent tablet spe-
Email: [email protected] cific for a microbial enzyme. The test is performed by
Website: www.fqsinc.com adding a known volume of sample to the glass tube and
For Global Sales Inquiries Contact: incubating the tube for 1 h. At the end of the 1-h incu-
Merck KGaA, 64271 Darmstadt, Germany bation period, a color developer is added to the glass
Fax: +49(0)615172 60 80 tube and a color reading is obtained by comparison to a
Email: [email protected] calibration chart.
Website: www.merckmillipore.com/microbiology 2. The MicrobMonitor2® is recommended by IATA and
6. Product: Hum Bug Detector® Kit enables testing in accordance with standard test methods
Hammonds Technical Services, Inc. ASTM D7978 and IP 613. It is a quantitative test used to
Tel USA: 281-999-2900 detect aerobic microorganisms in fuel and water associated
Fax USA: 281-847-1857 with fuel. The test consists of a clear nutrient gel in a rectan-
Email: [email protected] gular glass bottle that contains an indicator that enhances
Website: www.hammondscos.com the development of microbial colonies and makes them
For Global Sales Inquiries Contact: easier to count. The test is performed by adding a known
Hammonds Technical Services, Inc. volume of sample to the test bottle, shaking the bottle to
Tel: USA: 281-999-2900, liquefy the gel, and incubating the sample. The test bottle is
Fax USA: 281-847-1857 then examined regularly during the recommended incuba-
Email: [email protected] tion period for microbial colonies. The number of colonies
Website: www.hammondscos.com are counted or estimated by comparison to a chart. Con-
tact the manufacturer or your local sales representative for
E.1.4.2.2 Discussion more detailed product information.
1. The Microbe Lab is a portable microbial testing laboratory 3. The EasiCult® TTC and EasiCult® M dip slides are two types
that contains a series of four tests, sterile sample bottles, of semiquantitative tests used only for water samples to de-
training information, and literature to test fuel and water termine the level of microbial contamination from aero-
samples in the field. Contact the manufacturer or your local bic bacteria and fungi, respectively. Any fuel that comes
sale representative for more detailed product information. in contact with the growth media will invalidate the test.
Following are the tests included in the Microbe Lab: The test consists of a rectangular plastic slide that has a
a. The MicrobMonitor2®, which can be used to test fuels nutrient agar affixed on each side specific to the growth of
and water associated with fuel. A description of the bacteria (the TTC dip slide) and fungi (the M dip slide).
product is provided in number 2 of this section. Both the M and TTC slides should be used to test each
b. The dip slide is a semiquantitative test used only with sample. The test is performed by inoculating the dip slide
water samples to determine the level of microbial con- with a water sample, incubating the dip slide in the clear
tamination from aerobic bacteria and fungi. The test sterile tube provided, and examining the sample regularly
consists of a rectangular plastic slide that has a nutrient during the recommended incubation period for microbial
agar affixed to each side specific to the growth of bacte- colonies. The numbers of colonies are determined by com-
ria and fungi. The test is performed by inoculating the paring the growth on the agar to a colony density chart
dip slide with a water sample, incubating the dip slide in provided. Contact the manufacturer or your local sale rep-
the clear sterile tube provided, and examining regularly resentative for more detailed product information.
during the recommended incubation period for micro- 4. The FuelStat® resinae PLUS is a semiquantitative immunoas-
bial colonies. The numbers of colonies are estimated by say test that is specifically designed to detect the presence
comparing the dip slide to a chart. of Hormoconis resinae (H. resinae), bacteria, and other
c. The Sig® Sulphide is a semiquantitative test used to de- fungi that commonly contaminate aviation fuel and water
tect anaerobic microorganisms, such as sulfate-reducing associated with aviation fuel. The test is recommended by
bacteria (SRB), which can cause sulfide corrosion or IATA. The test consists of a paddle with three pairs of lateral
flow devices (LFD), which together produce a combination because microorganisms live in the water layer. Samples
of lines when in contact with cell material and metabolites taken from the fuel-water interface should contain the
from H. resinae, bacteria, and other fungi. The test is per- highest level of microbes.
formed by preparing the fuel or water sample as directed, 2. Accidental contamination from outside sources during
introducing the prepared sample onto the “low” and “high” sampling and testing may give a false positive indication
LFDs, allowing the test to undergo a reaction for 10 min and for the presence of microbial contamination. To protect
then reading the results within 30 min. The combination of against accidental contamination, sampling and testing
lines indicates a negligible, moderate, or high positive re- conditions should be as close to sterile as possible and sam-
sult. Contact the manufacturer or your local sales represen- ple containers should be new and preferably sterile. Glass
tative for more detailed product information. or high-density polyethylene containers are satisfactory
5. The HY-LiTE® Jet A-1 Fuel Test is recommended by IATA for this purpose. For further information, please refer to
and enables testing in accordance with standard test ASTM D6469 or ASTM Manual 47.
method ASTM D7463, Standard Test Method for Adenosine 3. Each of the test methods discussed in Sec. E.1.4 has per-
Triphosphate (ATP) Content of Microorganisms in Fuel, Fuel/ formance advantages and limitations that should be taken
Water Mixtures, and Fuel Associated Water. It is a quantita- into consideration during discussion with the test manu-
tive rapid ATP bioluminescence assay that determines the facturer, review of product technical literature, or discus-
presence and intensity of metabolically active microorgan- sion with a qualified microbiologist. Results obtained using
isms present in fuel system samples by the number of rela- different test methods are not directly comparable. For ex-
tive light units (RLU) produced by the amount of ATP in ample, a rapid assay method may not correlate directly with
the sample. ATP is a unique biochemical that is responsible a colony forming unit test.
for energy metabolism and is present in all living organisms.
The test is performed by preparing the sample as directed E.1.6 Interpretation of Test Results
and then transferring a small volume of the sample to a test 1. The test methods and the field test kits listed in Sec. E.1.4
pen that combines the microbial ATP with other chemicals use different technologies to detect microbial contamina-
associated with the pen to activate the test pen to produce tion. Always refer to the test instructions to interpret the
light. The activated test pen is then inserted into an analyzer results. A positive result does not necessarily indicate that
that quantifies and reports the light produced by the sample. microbial contamination will cause operational problems.
The test is completed in less than 10 min and the results are A single positive test result always should be confirmed
directly proportional to the quantity of microbial ATP pres- by a second test before any corrective actions are initi-
ent in the sample. Contact the manufacturer or your local ated. A second test will validate the test results and will
sales representative for more detailed product information. indicate the risk of microbial contamination to equipment
6. The Hum Bug Detector® Kit is a qualitative test designed and downstream users.
to indicate the presence or absence of microorganisms that 2. Microorganisms are always present in an aviation fuel
directly utilize hydrocarbons in fuels. The test consists of a system. This generally does not pose an operational prob-
sterile sampling syringe and bottle containing a hydrocar- lem unless gross contamination is present. Many tests
bon phase, growth nutrient, and an indicator dye. The test will indicate the presence of microorganisms at levels that
is performed by injecting a sample by sterile hypodermic can be considered normal. It is important to establish a
syringe through the rubber septum into the test bottle. The baseline and track the changes in microbial contamination.
test bottle is incubated and monitored for a recommended The value of detecting early stages of growth is that reme-
period. If microorganisms are present, the indicator dye dial measures can be taken before an operational prob-
will turn the solution in the test bottle pink. If microorgan- lem occurs. A sudden increase in microbial contamination
isms are absent, the solution in the test bottle will remain can indicate a problem and a risk to the downstream users.
clear. Contact the manufacturer or your local sale represen- 3. Trend monitoring of test data always provides more use-
tative for more detailed product information. ful information than occasional spot-checks. By regularly
monitoring fuel systems and trending the test results, the
E.1.5 Cautions user can proactively observe an increase in contamination
1. Sec. A.1.1 should be consulted to ensure that representative that deviates from normal baseline data, indicating the
samples are obtained. Water drain samples may give an in- potential for increasing operational problems. A trend-
dication of microbial growth. However, sump samples that monitoring program can provide valuable information
do not contain free water may not show contamination regarding storage tanks and hydrant fuel systems.
Abstract
Manual 5, Aviation Fuel Quality Control Procedures: 5th Edition is an educational publication for entry-level fuel handling personnel. Fuel-
handling jobs are not considered skilled labor, require no college, and there are no educational programs available. Some seminars address
aspects of aviation fuel handling, but it is not a true “trade.” The book is also meant to educate more advanced readers, who are, for example,
skilled laboratory workers, but who have no knowledge of aviation fuel handling. Section A is dedicated to field tests and field sampling tech-
niques. Section B addresses the determination of solid particulate contamination. Section C is dedicated to water detection in fuel. Section D
covers aviation fuel filtration, including the correct choice of filters, and the use, inspection, and maintenance of vessels and controls. Section
E is dedicated to the problem of microbes that grow in fuel systems, which feed on fuel or one another.
Keywords
density, gravity, sump, sampling, testing, jar, bucket, hydrometer, thermohydrometer, flash point, conductivity, visual, appearance, API, IP, EI,
electrostatic, Microsep, WSIM, Msep, contamination, cans, shipment, surfactants, FSII, Prist, microseparometer, CI/LI, CI, refueling, mem-
brane, gravimeteric, colormetric, Millipore, weight, solids, particulate, rust, Aqua-Dis, Aquadis, shell, hydrokit, Velcon, Aquaglo, Aqua-Glo,
Casri, POZ-T, IKT, YPF, hydro-light, Gammon, D2, TCS, synthetic, teflow separator, coalescer, separator, clay treater, prefilter, slug valve, DP,
delta P, Gammon Gauge, differential, differential pressure, pressure relief, air eliminator, synthetic, disarm, microbe, microbial, fungus,
microbiology, fqs, echa, microbMonitor2, easiculy, fuelstat, biobor, kathon, hy-lite, srb, sulphide, atp, resinae, biocontamination
59
Index
A Color change, 2, 24
Additives, 21–24 color metric filter membrane test, 25–28
antioxidants, 22 water detection tests, 35–38
biocide, 23–24 Color dyes, 22
color dyes, 22 Color rating booklet, 25–26
corrosion inhibitor/lubricity improver, 22 Conductivity, 8–9
fuel system icing inhibitor, 23 Contaminants, ix, 2–3
leak detection additive, 24 dye contamination, 3
metal deactivator, 22 field test for contamination with heavier fuels, 13–15
+100 additive, 24 microbial contamination, 2–3, 55–58
static dissipater additive, 22–23 particulate contamination, 3, 25–30
tetraethyl lead, 21–22 Corrosion inhibitor/lubricity improver (CI/LI), 22
Adsorption, ix Cyclone separator, ix
Air eliminators, 44
Alumicel® coalescers, 20 D
Ambient temperature, ix Dehydrator (hay pack) vessels, 40–41
Antioxidants, 22 Delta P (differential pressure), ix, 45–47
API gravity, ix, 4–7 Density, ix
Aquadis® Water Microdetector, 36 metric density, ix, 4–7
Aqua-Glo® Water Detection Test and Hydro-Light Pad Reader, relative density, x, 6, 11
32–35 Differential pressure (Delta P), ix, 45–47
ASTM D910, 1, 13 Differential pressure gages, 43–44
ASTM D1250, 4, 6 Disarming action, ix
ASTM D1655, 1, 8, 13, 20 Dissolved water, ix, 3, 23, 33, 37
ASTM D2276, 25, 29 Drain valves, 44
ASTM D2550, 20 Dye
ASTM D2624, 8 color dyes, 22
ASTM D3828, 9–10 contamination, 3
ASTM D3948, 20–21
ASTM D4306, 9, 13 E
ASTM D6974, 56 EasiCult® TTC Dip Slide (bacterial) and M Dip Slide (fungi),
ASTM D7978, 56 56–57
ASTM E1-14, 5 Effluent, ix
ASTM E2995-14, 4 Electrical conductivity, 8–9
Attapulgite crystals, 53 Electrostatic hazards (in mixing aviation fuels), 12
Attapulgus clay, 40 Emulsion, ix
Automatic water slug systems, 47–51 Entrained water, ix, 19, 54
Aviation fuel additives. See Additives
Aviation gasoline (avgas), ix
F
field test for contamination with heavier fuels, 13–15
FBO (fixed base operator), ix
product identification, 11–12
Field test for contamination with heavier fuels, 13–15
Filter element installation procedure, 41–43
B Filter membrane (millipore) test, ix
Bacteria, 3, 55–58 colorimetric, 25–28
Biocide, 23–24 gravimetric, 28–29
test records, 30
C Filters, ix
CASRI water detector, 35 Filter/separator vessels, ix, 19, 39–40
CI/LI (corrosion inhibitor/lubricity improver), 22 Filtration equipment, 39–54
Clay bags, 53 accessory maintenance, 43–44
Clay canisters, 42, 53 automatic water slug systems, 47–51
Clay treatment, 53–54 clay treatment, 53–54
Clay treatment vessels, ix, 40 clay treatment vessels, 40
Clear and bright test, 3, 7–8 dehydrator vessels, 40
Cloudy, 2 differential pressure, 45–47
Coalescence, ix element installation procedure, 41–43
Coalescers, 20, 39 filter/separator vessels, 39–40
single-element test for, 51–53 monitor vessels, 40
60 Index
particulate filter vessels, 39–40 MicrobMonitor2®, 56–57

single-element test for coalescer elements, 51–53 Micron (/µm), ix
strainers, 40 Micronic (particulate) filter vessels, 39–40
suggested vessel sequence, 40–41 Micronic elements, 42
Teflon®-Coated Screen, 44–45 Microseparometers, 19–21
Fixed base operator (FBO), ix Millipore test. See Filter membrane (millipore) test
Flash point, ix, 9–10 Miscible, ix
actual flash point determination, 10 Mixed fuels, 12
flash/no flash test, 9 Monitor, x
Floating suction, ix Monitor vessels, 40
Float-operated system, 47–48, 50 MSEP ratings, 19–21, 54
Flow control (slug) valves, 44, 52
Flushing sample cans, 13 N
Free water, ix Naphthenates, 19
Freezing point (of fuel), ix Naphthenic acid, 53
Fuel aging, 3
Fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII), 23, 37, 40 O
Fuel weight, calculating, 7 Odor, 3, 7, 15, 56
FuelStat® Resinae Plus, 56–58
Fuller’s earth, 40
Fungus, 55–58 P
Pad holder, 34–35
Particulate (micronic) filter vessels, 39–40
G Particulate detection, 25–30
Gammon Aqua-Glo® Water Detection Test, 32–35 colorimetric, 25–28
Glass jar test, 1–2 gravimetric, 28–29
Glossary, ix–x test records, 30
Gravity Particulate matter, x, 3
API gravity, x Pastes (for water detection), 37
specific gravity, x, 4–7, 11 +100 additive (JP-8 + 100), 24
Portable meter method (for electrical conductivity), 8–9
H POZ-T Water Detector, 36–37
Hay pack (dehydrator) vessels, 40–41 Prefilters, x, 39–40
Haze, ix, 2–3, 13 Preservice cleanliness inspection (of fueling equipment), 12–13
Hum Bug Detector® Kit, 57–58 Pressure drop (differential pressure), ix, 45–47
Hydrokit®, 31–32 Pressure relief valves, 44
Hydrometers, 4–6 Probes, 44
Hydrophilic, ix Product identification, 10–11
Hydrophobic, ix airport equipment marking for, 11
HY-LiTE® Jet A-1, 57–58 field tests for determining, 10
I R
IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations, 13 Refuelers, 12–13, 51
ICAO Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Relative density (specific gravity), x, 6, 11
Good by Air, 13
Icing inhibitor, 23, 37, 40 S
Immiscible, ix Sample shipment, 13
Influent, ix Sample valves, 44
IP 216, 29 Sampling techniques, 15–18
IP 385, 56 SDA (static dissipater additive), 22–23
IP 599, 4 Separators
filter/separator vessels, ix, 19, 39–40
J synthetic separators, x, 39, 44–45
JP-8 + 100 (+100 additive), 24 Settling time, x, 7, 21, 32
Shell water detector, 31
L Shipment of samples, 13
Lace-like material, 2, 19 Sight glasses, 44
Leak detection additive (tracer “A”), 24 Single-element test (for coalescer elements), 51–53
Low volatile material (LVM), 40 Slimes, x, 2–3, 24, 45, 53
Slug (flow control) valves, 44, 52
M Small-scale closed cup tester (for flash point), 9–10
Membrane filtration. See Filter membrane (millipore) test Smoke, 53
Metal deactivator, 22 Socks, 39, 51
Metric density, ix, 4–7 Specific gravity (relative density), x, 6, 11
Microbe Lab, 56–57 Static dissipater additive (SDA), 22–23
Microbial contamination, 2–3 Strainers, 40
detection of, 55–58 Sulfonic acid, 53
Index 61
Sump, x evaluation of sample, 2

Sump (thief) pumps, x, 7 sampling methods, 1–2
Sump floats/probes, 44 test types and equipment, 1
Sump heaters, 44 visual fuel sampler vessel, 3–4
Sump sampling, 7–8 Visual fuel sampler vessel (Visijar), 3–4
Surfactants (surface active agents), x, 2–3, 18–19
Suspended water, x, 31–32, 35–37 W
Synthetic separators, x, 39, 44–45 Water detection, 31–37
Syringes, 9, 20, 31–32, 35–37, 58 Aquadis® Water Microdetector, 36
CASRI water detector, 35
T Gammon Aqua-Glo® Water Detection Test,
Teflon®-Coated Screen (TCS) separators, 39, 44–45 32–35
Tetraethyl lead (TEL), 21–22 POZ-T Water Detector, 36–37
Thermohydrometers, 4–5 Shell water detector, 31
Thief (sump) pumps, x, 7 Velcon Hydrokit®, 31–32
Tracer “A” (leak detection additive), 24 water detection pastes, 37
Translucent (semitransparent) ring, 14 YPF water detector, 37
Turbine fuel, x Water separation index modified (WSIM) number, 20
Water slug, x, 47–51
V White bucket test, 1–2
Vapor space, 12, 24 Widecut fuels, x
Velcon Hydrokit®, 31–32 WSIM (water separation index modified) number, 20
Visijar (visual fuel sampler vessel), 3–4
Visual appearance tests, 1–4 Y
appearance descriptions, 2–3 YPF water detector, 37

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Jim Gammon, Editor

Aviation Fuel Quality Control

Printed in the U.S.A.

Names: Gammon, Jim, 1953- editor.

Section A—GENERAL FUEL HANDLING 1

Section B—PARTICULATE DETECTION 25

Section C—WATER DETECTION 31

Section D—FILTRATION EQUIPMENT 39

Section E—MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION DETECTION 55

Past Contributors C. Hammonds M. Pasion

Section A | General Fuel Handling

A.1.6.1 Particle Appearance Ratings

face of the water where it contacts the fuel.

A.1.6.4.2 Particles Particles in sump samples may indicate fuel

a. Rust usually is brown or reddish brown and is seen as either

c. If fitted with an optional self-sealing valve assembly for A.2.2 References

3. Thermometers specified by ASTM E1-14, Standard S pec-

recommended for aviation density measurements are the

API gravity Type Range ASTM Note

Avgas Plain form hydrometer 59–71 7H

4. Tank Trucks/Railroad Tank Cars—The vehicle should stand A.4 Electrical Conductivity—

A.5.6 Method B Procedure—Actual A.5.8 Interpretation of Test Results

CHART 1 Field tests for determining product identity or contamination.

CHART 2 Airport equipment marking for fuel identification, recommendations

present in the fuel in a significant quantity.

A.11 Fuel-Sampling Techniques A.11.3 Description

Table 1 Types of Samples

Table 2 Summary of Container Recommendationsa

Hard borosilicate glass

A.11.4 Equipment 3. Inspect and clean the container according to the proce-

• Tank samples—product and tank number, terminal,

FIG. 8 Probes for continuous sampling.

clear glass bottles may be used if wrapped in a material

A.14.3.2 Precautions a. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety

A.14.6.1 Purpose a. Refer to the manufacturers’ MSDS information for safety

Section B | Particulate Detection

B.1.7 Test Procedure

FIG. 2 Color-rating booklet.

Microscopic inspection of the membrane can provide addi-

1. Separate the halves of the field-sampling kit housing.

5. Place the three-way valve selector in the oἀ position and EXAMPLE

Section C | Water Detection

needle, forcing the needle through the stopper. Hold the

C.2.7 Interpretation and Limitations

FIG. 2 Hydrokit® procedure. (Reprinted courtesy of Exxon Mobil.)

C.3.5.1 Equipment Preparation NOTE

FIG. 4 Proper placement of the water detector pad in the pad

A suitable procedure is to press firmly three or four times C.4.3 Description

C.3.7 Evaluation of Test Results C.4.6 Cautions

C.5 Aquadis® Water Microdetector C.6.2 References

C.8 Water Detection Paste

a definite color change where the water contacts the

C.8.7 Interpretation of Test Results

Section D | Filtration Equipment

be done by interfacial tension (IFT) or through MSEP. Differential

D.1.3.4 Dehydrator Vessels

D.1.3.5 Monitor Vessels

CAUTION to keep the fabric end discs flat to avoid bypassing

NOTE Pressure R elief V alve—The valve should be removed

EI 1581, Speciἀcation a nd Q ualiἀcation P rocedures f or

Table 1 Control System Summary

Type Power signal Usual application Action

A. Float Compressed air Mobile Closes fuel discharge (slug) valve

Section A—GENERAL FUEL HANDLING 1

Section B—PARTICULATE DETECTION 25

Section C—WATER DETECTION 31

Section D—FILTRATION EQUIPMENT 39

Section E—MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION DETECTION 55

CHART 1 Field tests for determining product identity or contamination.

CHART 2 Airport equipment marking for fuel identification, recommendations

FIG. 4 Proper placement of the water detector pad in the pad