PROF.

ARUN PATIL
Unit 1: Introduction to PPE

A] Power Generation

* Indian and global sources:

a] Commercial energy sources: The energy sources that are available in the market and which can be purchased
at a definite price from the producing agency are known as commercial energy. By far the most important and
high grade forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy
forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world.

b] Non-commercial energy sources: The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a
price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources includes fuels such as firewood,
cattle dung and agricultural wastes which are traditionally gathered and not bought at a price used especially in
rural households .

Present status of power generation in INDIA: The electric energy demands in the last 2 decades have increased
at enormous space. In 1947, power generation was only 1360 MW.

Types of PP 1991 1997 8th plan 2002 9th plan 2007 10th plan Total
Thermal 45000 28000 32000 58000 163000
Hydro 18443 8680 26000 23000 76123
Nuclear 1500 1320 2880 ---- 5700
Additional ---- 38000 60880 81000 ----
Total 64943 102943 163823 244823 244823

Power generation in INDIA as on June 2011:

Thermal Capacity Percentage

Coal 96743 MW 115649 65.34
Gas 17706 MW
Oil 1199 MW
Hydro 38106 21.53
Nuclear 4780 2.7
Renewable 18454 10.43
Total 176990 100

Central = 55572.6 MW 31.4 %

State = 82596.5 MW 46.67 %

Private = 38821.4 MW 21.93 %

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Total = 176990.5 MW 100%

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Present status of power generation In Maharashtra: PROF.ARUN PATIL

Installed capacity of power generation in Maharashtra 2005 was 10223 MW which has increased to coal and
gas based capacity to 26838 MW as on 31st August, 2012. Maharashtra still has 22 % peak demand deficity.

Renewable energy potential In Maharashtra is estimated to be 7852 MW. It has achieved about 32.1 % of
renewable energy addition. Another 535 MW capacity plant based on wind, biomass, industrial waste, solar and
solar PV based plants are expected to be installed by the year 2015-16.

Role and participation of private companies in power sector:

Gov. of INDIA had realized the importance of private sector participation to developed infrastructure and meet
the power requirement for present short fall.

Electricity act 2003,

1. Removed the need for license for power generation projects

2. Encouraged competition through international competitive bidding
3. Benefit of tax
4. Allowed 100 % FDI

Upto 2011, 13761 MW was added by the private sector as compared to planned capacity of 17588 MW

e.g. Reliance energy, TATA power, Adani Power, LANCO, Jindal power.

Role of importance of government organization in power sector

1. National thermal power corporation (NTPC)

NTPC ltd. Was established in 1975 which is a premier public sector enterprises. It’s role is to develop
power for India’s growth with increasing global presence. NTPC has an installed capacity of 27904 MW
through 26 power station.
It has power station producing power which are coal, oil and gas based. Also it has it’s presence in
hydro-power, coal mining, oil and gas exploration, power distribution and trading.
2. Rural electrification corporation (REC)
It’s function is to promote and finance rural electrification projects in the country.

3 Nuclear power corporation (NPC)

It was setup in 1987 for development of nuclear power in our country. It has set a target of 2000 MW
power generation capacity upto 2025.

4 National hydro power corporation (NHPC)

It is responsible for planning execution and operation of hydro-electric project with development of
transmission lines.

5 Power grid corporation of India ltd.

It is responsible for development and operation of electrical high voltage transmission system in our
country.
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6 State electricity board PROF.ARUN PATIL

This boards in 18 states are responsible for gen., transmission and distribution of power in their res.
States. In north eastern states the power projects are developed by north eastern power corporation.

Load Shedding:

During the period of shortage, some dispensable appliance are switched off expect the essential services like
water supply and street lightening. The appliances are such that their switching of causes only minor
inconvenience to consumers. Load shedding can also be done on the entire system simultaneously or on
different parts of the network in the city in rotation i.e. turn by turn

In case of industrial load shedding one method is to have a circuit breaker at the consumers premises. In case of
reduction in load is needed, the supply of power to non essential loads is switched off except for those systems
which are required to run continuously.

Carbon credits:

Burning of fossil fuel is a major source of green house gasses emission. Main source of green house emissions
are from the industries especially for power, steel, cement, textile and fertilizer industries which are based on
fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas.

The concept of carbon credits came into existence as a result of increasing awareness of the need for controlling
emission and save the earth from global warming.

Kyoto protocol-170 countries signed a Kyoto protocol in 2004 to cap the emissions by each country.

Definition:

One carbon credits is equal to on tons of CO2 and it’s called CO2e (CO2 equivalent) Plans to reduce CO2

1 Fuel usage by cut by efficient use of technologies

2 Forest can be left to stand since they absorb CO2

3 Plantation of new trees

4 Use of latest technologies to absorb CO2 emission

5 Use of alternative source of energies like solar and wind etc

Conclusion: By Kyoto mechanism, the environmental restriction and carbon credits activities have been
imposed on industries and organization of various countries to save the earth from global warming by overall
effectiveness of emission control system.

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Cascade efficiency: PROF.ARUN PATIL

A cascade can be defined as something arranged or occurring in series in succession, so that each stage derives
from or acts upon the products of the proceeding. Cascade energy provides the energy utility industries to
realize their energy efficiency potential by reducing energy consumption and cost.

It relates to the concept of heat exchanger at various stages between high and low temperature heat exchanger
circuits for optimum heat exchanger. This not only increase the energy efficiency but also results in energy
savings, it results into reduced energy consumption in a system.

It also relates to resources efficiency by cascading use of raw material e.g. wood and paper can be recycled by
reuse or for energy needs, creates job, adds the value to economy. Thus, overall it is more efficient way of
energy resource and it’s utilization.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

B) Thermal Power Plant

Introduction
Steam power plants are producing about half of the total power requirement in India. In a steam
Power plant, thermal energy is used to raise steam that is used to run steam turbines to produce
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy in a generator.
Steam power plants are suitable for large scale production of electrical power.

Layout of a Steam Power Plant

Essential components and systems of a steam power plant-
 Turbine Generator
 Furnace Boiler
 Fuel Handling System
 Ash Handling System
 Draught System
 Condensing System
 Water Cooling System
 Lubrication System
1. Turbine Generator: This is the central power system where electrical energy is generated.
In the turbine velocity and pressure energy of the steam is converted into kinetic energy,
turbines are directly coupled to the generators which develop electrical energy.The steam
turbines used may be either impulse or reaction turbines based on the requirements of power
generation.The turbines are equipped with governing systems to control the power output of the
plant.

2. Furnace-Boiler: This is the unit of the plant where steam is generated by burning fuels. The
type of fuel used may be solid, liquid, gaseous or pulverized based on the availability of fuel and
design of furnace. A combination of fuels is also possible. Water used to raise steam must be free
from any suspended or dissolved impurities. The impure water may lead to scale formation and
corrosion of the boiler plate or may cause foaming which all hamper the boiler operation. The
type of boiler used depends upon the pressure and quantity of steam required.

3. Fuel handling system: Steam power plants generally use coal or pulverized coal as the
fuel. The fuel is required in large quantities, which necessitates a fuel handling system. Usually,
belt conveyors or bucket elevator are used for handling the fuel.

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4. Ash handling System: The ash produced in a steam power plant amounts to about 10-20
percent of the fuel burnt. This should be removed from the furnace and disposed. This is done
by a proper ash handling system. The system used may be mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic
or steam jet type. This selection is based on the quantity of ash to be handled and the type of
boiler used.

5. Draught System: This system is essential to supply required quantity of air for
combustion of the fuel, to force the flue gases through the furnace boiler system and finally to
discharge the gases to the atmosphere through a chimney. The draught system may be either
natural or mechanical type.

6. Condensing System: The used steam is pure having a higher temperature which can be
condensed and fed to the boiler. This increases the efficiency of the plant. Generally water to
steam type of condensers are used with necessary pumping arrangements.

7. Water Cooling System: The quantity of water used in condensing the steam is very high
and should be reused in the condenser. This water gets heated up after condensing the steam
and this water is to be cooled for recirculation. This is achieved by cooling towers, where water is
pumped to a high altitude and allowed to flow over baffles. During this the water gets cooled
which is pumped back to the condensing unit.
8. Lubrication System: The turbines and generators are run at high speeds (3000 rpm). A
proper lubrication system is essential to keep the system running continuously. The lubrication
system not only avoids wear and tear but also provides a little cooling effect for the bearings of
the system.

9. Other Accessories: In addition to the above systems a steam power plant, is also equipped
with accessories like economizer, super heater, de super heater, air pre heater, soot
blowers and furnace cleaning units.

Layout of thermal plant can be easily understood by dividing the plant components
into four circuits.
 Coal and ash circuit.
 Air and gas circuit.
 Feed water and steam circuit.
 Cooling water circuit

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Coal and Ash Circuit:

This includes coal delivery, preparation, coal handling, boiler furnace, ash handling and ash
storage. The coal from coal mines is delivered by ships, rail or by trucks to the power station.
This coal is sized by crushers, breakers etc. The sized coal is then stored in coal storage (stock
yard). From the stock yard, the coal is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of conveyors,
elevators etc.
The coal is burnt in the boiler furnace and ash is formed by burning of coal, Ash coming out of
the furnace will be too hot, dusty and accompanied by some poisonous gases. The ash is
transferred to ash storage. Usually, the ash is quenched to reduced temperature.
There are different methods employed for the disposal of ash. They are hydraulic system, water
jetting, ash sluice ways, pneumatic system etc. In large power plants hydraulic system is used. In
this system, ash falls from furnace grate into high velocity water stream. It is then carried to the
slumps.

Air and Gas Circuit:

It consists of forced draught fan, air pre heater, boiler furnace, super heater, economizer, dust
collector, induced draught fan, chimney etc. Air is taken from the atmosphere by the action of a
forced draught fan. It is passed through an air pre-heater. The air is pre-heated by the flue gases
in the preheater. This pre-heated air is supplied to the furnace to aid the combustion of fuel. Due
to combustion of fuel, hot gases (flue gases) are formed.
The flue gases from the furnace pass over boiler tubes and super heater tubes. (In boiler, wet
steam is generated and in super heater the wet steam is super heated by the flue gases.) Then the
flue gases pass through economizer to heat the feed water. After that, it passes through the air
pre-heater to pre-heat the incoming air. It is then passed through a dust catching device (dust
collector). Finally, it is exhausted to the atmosphere through chimney.

Feed Water and Steam Circuit:

It consists of feed pump, economizer, boiler drum, super heater, turbine condenser etc. Feed
water is pumped to the economizer from the hot well. This water is preheated by the flue gases
in the economizer. This preheated water is then supplied to the boiler drum. Heat is transferred
to the water by the burning of coal. Due to this, water is converted into steam.
The steam raised in boiler is passed through a super heater. It is superheated by the flue gases.
The superheated steam is then expanded in a turbine to do work. The turbine drives a generator
to produce electric power. The expanded (exhaust) steam is then passed through the condenser.
In the condenser, the steam is condensed into water and re-circulated.
Cooling Water Circuit:
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The circuit includes a pump, condenser, cooling tower etc. the exhaust steam from the turbine is
condensed in condenser. In the condenser, cold water is circulated to condense the steam into
water. The steam is condensed by losing its latent heat to the circulating cold water.

Thus the circulating water is heated. This hot water is then taken to a cooling tower, In cooling
tower, the water is sprayed in the form of droplets through nozzles. The atmospheric air enters
the cooling tower from the openings provided at the bottom of the tower. This air removes heat
from water. Cooled water is collected in a pond (known as cooling pond). This cold water is
again circulated through the pump, condenser and cooling tower. Thus the cycle is repeated
again and again. Some amount of water may be lost during the circulation due to vaporization
etc. Hence, make up water is added to the pond by means of a pump. This water is obtained
from a river or lake.

Fig. shows a schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station. Coal received in
coal storage yard of power station is transferred in the furnace by coal handling unit. Heat
produced due to burning of coal is utilized in converting water contained in boiler drum into
steam at suitable pressure and temperature. The steam generated is passed through the super
heater.

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Superheated steam then flows through the turbine. After doing work in the turbine die pressure
of steam is reduced. Steam leaving the turbine passes through the condenser which maintains
the low pressure of steam at the exhaust of turbine.

Steam pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and temperature of cooling water and
on effectiveness of air removal equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be
taken from the various sources such as river, lake or sea. If sufficient quantity of water is not
available the hot water coming out of the condenser may be cooled in cooling towers and
circulated again through the condenser. Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable extraction
points is sent to low pressure and high pressure water heaters. Air taken from the atmosphere is
first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes
through the furnace. The flue gases after passing over boiler and super heater tubes, flow
through the dust collector and then through economizer, air pre-heater and finally they are
exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.

Selection of site for steam power plants

There are many factors that are to be considered while selecting site for a hydel power plant. The
important factors are as follows:
 Availability of fuel
 Transportation
 Availability of water
 Ash Disposal
 Nature of land
 Space Area

1. Availability of fuel: The site selected should have abundant sources of fuel (generally coal,
petroleum or natural gas). A steam power plant using Coal as fuel needs about 1,500 tones of
coal for every 100 MW of power produced.

2. Transportation: Though having a plant at the fuel source does not require transportation
for fuel, it may be away from the place of use.This leads to high transmission costs and loss of
power, hence possible to locate a site for economical power transmission and fuel transmission.
Rope-ways or railway are the better choices of transportation at the interior places. Sea
transportation is economical for plants and fuel source near sea shores.

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3. Availability of water: A steam power plant requires high volumes of water for use as
feed water, ash handling and mainly for condensing. About 50 to 60 thousand tones of water
per houris required for every 100 MW of power developed, as cooling water and makeup
water for the feed. A good quality of drinking water is also essential for the use of employees.

4. Ash Disposal: Generally the steam power plants produce ash about 20 to 30% of fuel
burnt. The ash to be disposed may be several thousand tones a day. Hence the site selected
should have provision for proper disposal of ash.

5. Nature of land: The soil of the site selected should have a good bearing capacity as it
has to support huge structures and dynamic forces in operating conditions.A bearing capacity
of 10 kgf/cm2is essential to set up a steam power plant.

6. Space Area: Steam power plants need the maximum space area all other power
plants.They require larger space areas for coal yards, buildings, machinery & equipment, cooling
towers, ash disposal and for residential purpose. About 500 acres of land is necessary for every
100 MW of power produced.
FUELS FOR STEAM GENARATION
Steam power plant uses fossil fuels to generate steam. The fuel may be in different form such as
solid, liquid, pulverized or gaseous. The selection of the type of fuel depends on the availability
of fuels and economical conditions.

Types of Fuels
The important fuels are as follows-
 Solid fuels
 Liquid fuels
 Gaseous fuels

1) Solid fuels: Coal is the major fuel used for thermal power plants to generate steam. Coal
occurs in nature, which was formed by the decay of vegetable matters buried under the earth
millions of years ago under pressure and heat.
The chemical substances in the coal are
 carbon, -50-95%
 hydrogen, 1-5.5%
 nitrogen, 0.5-7%

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 oxygen , 2-40%
 Sulphur, 0.5-3%
TYPES OF COALS:
 Peat
 Lignite
 Sub-Bituminous coal
 Bituminous coal

 Anthracite coal
Peat Starting stage of coal formation and is not useful in power plants.

Lignite is the youngest form of coal. It is soft and ranges in color from black to shades of
brown. As a result, it‘s sometimes caled brown coal. Lignite is mainly used for power generation
and accounts for 17 percent of the world‘s coal reserves.

Sub-bituminous coal: After millions of years, continued pressure and temperature convert
lignite into sub-bituminous coal. It burns more cleanly than other types of coal due to its low
sulfur content. Sub-bituminous coal has applications in power generation and also in industrial
processes. This type of coal makes up 30 percent of the world‘s coal reserves.

Bituminous coal is harder and blacker than lignite and sub-bituminous coal, and can be
divided into two types: thermal and metal urgical. Together, they make up 52 percent of the
world‘s coal reserves. Thermal coal is mostly used for power generation, cement manufacturing
and other industrial purposes, while metallurgical coal is used primarily for manufacturing iron
and steel.
Anthracite is the most mature coal and thus has the highest carbon content of any type of coal.
It is frequently used for home heating and, accounting for about 1 percent of the world‘s total
coal reserves, represents a very small portion of the overall market. Anthracite coal can be used
as a smokeless fuel in domestic and industrial contexts.

2) Liquid Fuels: All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-
products. The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-15% hydrogen, and
varying percentages of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium.The fractions
from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and finally heavy fuel oil. The
heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam.

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The use of liquid fuels in thermal power plants has many advantages over the use of solid fuels.
Some important advantages are as follows:
 The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier than solid and gaseous fuels.
 Excess air required for the complete combustion of liquid fuels is less, as compared to
the solid fuels
 Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met easily and quickly.
 There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.
 The system is very clean, and hence the labour required is relatively less compared to the
operation with solid fuels.

3) Gaseous Fuels: For the generation of steam in gas fired thermal plants, either natural gas
or manufactured gaseous fuels are used. However, manufactured gases are costlier than the
natural gas. Generally, natural gas is used for power plants as it is available in abundance. The
natural gas is generally obtained from gas wells and petroleum wells.
The major constituent in natural gas is methane, about 60-65%, and also contains small
amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane, naphthene and aromatics, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.
The natural gas is transported from the source to the place of use through pipes, for distances to
several hundred kilometers. The natural gas is colourless, odourlessand non-toxic. Its
calorific value ranges from 25,000 to 50,000.KJ/m3,
The artificial gases are producer gas, water gas coke-oven gas; and the Blast furnace
gas. Generally, power plants fired with artificial gases are not found. The gaseous fuels have
advantages similar to those of liquid fuels, except for the storage problems. The major
disadvantage of power plant using natural gas is that it should be setup near the source;
otherwise the transportation losses are too high.
FUEL AND HANDLING EQUIPMENTS:
The various stages are involved in the fuel handling system from coal delivery to furnace in the
steam plant
 Coal delivery
 Unloading
 Preparation
 Transfer
 Storage
 In plant handling
 Weighing
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 Feeding the coal into Furnace.

(i) Coal Delivery. The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power stations
situated near to sea or river whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the power stations
which are situated away from sea or river. The transportation of coal by trucks is used if the
railway facilities are not available.
(ii) Unloading. The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at the power
station depends on how coal is received at the power station. If coal is delivered by trucks, there
is no need of unloading device as the trucks may dump the coal to the outdoor storage. Coal is
easily handled if the lift trucks with scoop are used. In case the coal is brought by railway
wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may be done by car shakes, rotary car dumpers, cranes,
grab buckets and coal accelerators. Rotary car dumpers although costly are quite efficient for
unloading closed wagons.

(iii) Preparation. When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper
size, the preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers, driers and
magnetic separators.

(iv) Transfer. After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the
following systems :
 Belt conveyors.
 Screw conveyors.
 Bucket elevators.
 Grab bucket elevators.
 Skip hoists.
 Flight conveyor.
1. Belt conveyor.
Fig.1.4 shows a belt conveyor. It consists of an endless belt. Moving over a pair of end drums
(rollers). At some distance a supporting roller is provided at the center. The belt is made, up of
rubber or canvas. Belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long distances. It is used
in medium and large power plants. The initial cost of
the system is not high and power consumption is
also low. The inclination at which coal can be
successfully elevated by belt conveyor is about 20.

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Average speed of belt conveyors varies between 200-300 r.p.m. This conveyor is preferred than
other types.
Advantages of belt conveyor:
1. Its operation is smooth and clean.
2. It requires less power as compared to other types of systems.
3. Large quantities of coal can be discharged quickly and continuously.
4. Material can be transported on moderates inclines.

2. Screw conveyor:
It consists of an endless helicoids screw fitted to a
shaft.The screw while rotating in a trough transfers the
coal from feeding end to the discharge end. This system
is suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter
distance and space limitations exist. The initial cost of
the system is low. It suffers from the drawbacks that the
power consumption is high and there is considerable wear of screw. Rotation of screw varies
between 75-125 r.p.m.

3. Bucket elevator. It consists of buckets fixed to a chain. The chain moves over two wheels.
The coal is carried by the buckets from bottom and discharged at the top.

4. Grab bucket elevator. It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or track from one point to
the other. The coal lifted by grab buckets is transferred to overhead bunker or storage. This
system requires less power for operation and requires minimum maintenance. The grab bucket
conveyor can be used with crane or tower as shown. Although the initial cost of this system is
high but operating cost is less.

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Grab bucket elevators Bucket elevators Skip hoists

5. Skip hoist. It consists of a vertical or inclined hoist way a bucket or a car guided by a frame
and a cable for hoisting the bucket. The bucket is held in upright position. It is simple and
compact method of elevating coal or ash. Fig.1.8 shows a skip hoist.

6. Flight conveyor. It consists of one or two strands of

chain to which steel scraper or flights are attached‘which
scrap the coal through a trough having identical shape.
This coal is discharged in the bottom of trough. It is low
in first cost but has large energy consumption. There is
considerable wear.
Skip hoist and bucket elevators lift the coal vertically while Belts and flight conveyors move the
coal horizontally or on inclines.
Advantages.
 They can be used to transfer coal as well as ash.
 The speed of conveyor can be regulated easily.
 They have a rugged construction.
 They need little operational care.
Disadvantages.
 There is more wear due to dragging action.
 Power consumption is more.
 Maintenance cost is high.
 Due to abrasive nature of material handled the speed of conveyors is low.

COAL STORAGE
It is desirable that sufficient quantity of coal should be stored. Storage of coal gives protection
against the interruption of coal supplies when there is delay in transportation of coal or due to
strikes in coal mines. Also when the prices are low, the coal can be purchased and stored for
future use. The amount of coal to be stored depends on the availability of space for storage,
transportation facilities, the amount of coal that will whether away and nearness to coal mines
of the power station. Usually coal required for one month operation of power plant is stored in
case of power stations situated at longer distance from the collieries whereas coal need for about
15 days is stored in case of power station situated near to collieries. Storage of coal for longer

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periods is not advantageous because it blocks the capital and results in deterioration of the
quality of coal.
The coal received at the power station is stored in dead storage in the form of piles laid directly
on the ground. The coal stored has the tendency to whether (to combine with oxygen of air) and
during this process coal loss some of its heating value and ignition quality. Due to low oxidation
the coal may ignite spontaneously. This is avoided by storing coal in the form of piles which
consist of thick and compact layers of coal so that air cannot pass through the coal piles. This
will minimize the reaction between coal and oxygen. The other alternative is to allow the air to
pass through layers of coal so that air may remove the heat of reaction and avoid burning. In
case the coal is to be stored for longer periods the outer surface of piles may be sealed with
asphalt or fine coal.

The coal is stored by the following methods:

(i) Stocking the coal in heaps. The coal is piled on the ground up to 10-12 m height. The
pile top should be given a slope in the direction in which the rain may be drained off. The sealing
of stored pile is desirable in order to avoid the oxidation of coal after packing an air tight layer of
coal. Asphalt, fine coal dust and bituminous coating are the materials commonly used for this
purpose.

(ii) Under water storage. The possibility of slow oxidation and spontaneous combustion can
be completely eliminated by storing the coal under water. Coal should be stored at a site located
on solid ground, well drained, free of standing water preferably on high ground not subjected to
flooding
Fuel Feeding & Firing Systems
In India, steam power plants use coal as the fuel, since coal is the major source and also it is
available in abundance. Power plants with smaller outputs are using liquid fuels like diesel oil
and heavy fuel oils. All major steam power plants are run by burning coal. Coal is generally
referred to as fuel, which is used either in solid or powdered form. The coal in powdered form is
termed the pulverized coal.
The different firing methods are:
 Solid fuel
 Hand firing
 Mechanical stoker firing
 Pulverized fuel
 Unit system,

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 Bin or central system

Hand Firing:
Though hand firing is simple and cheaper it is not generally used, because of the following
reasons:
 It has low combustion efficiency.
 Slow response to the load fluctuations.
 Combustion control is difficult.
 Suitable only for small power plants.
Mechanical Stoker Firing:
Even though it is costlier, generally they are used to feed the solid fuels in small and medium
size power plants, because of the following reasons:
 Combustion is more efficient.
 Fuel handling is automatic and combustion control is easier.
 Faster response to load fluctuations.
 Low quality fuels can be successfully burnt. 5) Suitable for small to high capacity plants.
Principle of Stokers
The different types of stokers work on the following principles.
a)Principle of overfeed stokers b)Principle of under feed stoker
Overfeed stokers
A fully built up overfeed stoker will have the beds of green coal (raw coal), incandescent coke
and ash over the grate. In this the primary air enters the grate from the bottom, which cools the
grate while moving up and gets heated as it passes through hot ash bed.
The hot air then passes through the bed of incandescent
coke, where oxygen reacts with the carbon in the coke to
form carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Part
of carbon dioxide formed reacts with carbon in the fuel to
form carbon monoxide. The gases leaving the bed of
incandescent coke consist of nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, hydrogen and water.To these gases, then
an additional air termed the secondary air is supplied from the sides to burn the combustible
gases like the carbon monoxide, hydrogen and other volatile matters. The burnt hot gases
entering the boiler consist of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and water. It may also contain
carbon monoxide, if the combustion is incomplete. The primary and secondary air to the stoker
is supplied under pressure with the help of blowers.
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Under feed stoker

In this the coal is charged from the bottom, and the
primary air under pressure also moves from the bottom
through the holes in the grate. This stoker has the layers of
ash, incandescent coke bed and raw coal, in the reverse
direction as compared to that of the overfeed stoker. In
operation the primary air entering from the bottom
through the grate holes comes in contact with the coal and
then passes through the bed of incandescent coke. In operation the primary air entering from
the bottom through the grate holes comes in contact with the green coal and then passes
through the bed of incandescent coke. Initially, air reacts with carbon in the coke
to form carbon dioxide, and the moisture in the air reacts to release carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. While these gases pass over the ash bed, secondary air is supplied for
their complete combustion. This method is most suitable for semi-bituminous and bituminous
coals which have high volatile-matter.
Types of Stokers
Different types of stokers are
 Over feed stokers
 Conveyer stoker
 Chain grate stoker
 Traveling grate stoker
 Spreader stoker
 Under feed stokers
 Single retort stoker
 Multi-retort stoker
1. Chain & traveling grate stokers:
A chain grate stoker consists of an endless chain
which forms the support for the fuel bed. The chain
is made of cast iron links connected by pins. The
chain is held over two sprockets as shown figure,
and travels from one end of the furnace to the
other end. The sprocket at the front end is driven
by an electric motor. The coal is fed at the front
end through a hopper which is carried by the chain
to the other end, hence into the furnace. The air necessary for the combustion of the fuel is

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supplied through the air inlets below the traveling grate. The secondary air is supplied through
the openings in the top roof as shown in figure.
The rate of fuel supplied to the grate and hence the heat to the boiler can be controlled by two
means. The first means is to control the depth of the coal bed on the grate by controlling the feed
to the hopper. In the second method, the speed of the chain grate can be adjusted to meet the
boiler operation requirements. The chain grate stokers are widely used for burning non-caking
(that does not form a solid mass while burning), free burning, volatile and high ash content
coals.
Advantages of chain grate stokers
 It is simple in construction and operation.
 Its initial and maintenance costs very low.
 It doesn't have ash cleaning problems.
 Combustion control is simple, by control of feed or chain speed, along with the air
supply.
 Its combustion efficiency is high.

Disadvantages
 It is suitable only for small capacity plants.
 Coal losses are high as the un burnt coal may also move with ash.
 If caking coal is used ash clinker problems may rise.
 In the traveling grate stoker, the chain grate is replaced by grate bars that support
the burning fuel.
 Also the grate is inclined towards the inlet of the furnace.
 The fuel movement is accomplished and controlled by vibration of the grate.
 The air supply similar to the chain grate stoker.
2. Spreader or Sprinkler Stoker
In this type stoker, coal from the hopper is fed on to
a rotating feeder which in turn feeds the, to a
spreader or sprinkler, and feed according to the
requirements. Feeder is a rotating drum fitted with
blades on its periphery. Other type of feeders such as
reciprocations, endless belts or spiral worms can
also be used. The feeder continuously supply the coal
on to the spreader, a fast moving drum with blades,
which in turn distributes and feeds the coal on to the grate as shown in figure. The fuel feed rate

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and the supplied to the boiler can be controlled by controlling the feed to the hopper or by
controlling the spreader speed.
Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of a spreader stoker. In this type stoker, coal from the
hopper is fed on to a rotating feeder which in turn feeds the, to a spreader or sprinkler, and feed
according to the requirements. Feeder is a rotating drum fitted with blades on its periphery.
Other type of feeders such as reciprocating rams, endless belts or spiral worms can also be used.
The feeder continuously supplies the coal on to the spreader, a fast moving drum with blades,
which in turn distributes and feeds the coal on to the grate as shown in figure. The fuel feed rate
and the supplied to the boiler can be controlled by controlling the feed to the hopper are by
controlling the spreader speed.
Advantages of spreader stoker
 Its operation is simple and economical.
 A wide variety of low quality coals can be burnt successfully.
 Preheated air can be used for improving the efficiency of operation.
 The fuel burns rapidly and hence the caking tendency is very low, even with the use of
caking coals.
 It can responds quickly to load variations
Disadvantages
 It is not possible to burn varying sizes of coal and only crushed, sized coal can be used.
 A part of the charge is burnt in suspension and hence fly ash is discharged with flue
gases. This necessitates a suitable dust (or fly ash) collector system.
 Un burnt carbon particles may escape through the flues and reduce the combustion
efficiency
3. Single Retort Stoker
The principle of construction of a single retort stoker is illustrated in Fig. In this stoker, fuel is
burnt on a retort. The fuel is fed through a hopper and pushed on to the retort by a piston ram
movement. With the feeding from the bottom, gradually the burning coat rises up. Above the
green coal an incandescent coke layer is formed, and above which the ash layer is formed. With
the continuous feeding of green coal, the ash level rises that is removed by ash raker.
4. Multi Retort Stoker

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It contains of a series of retorts (5 to 20) with tuyers and pushers. It also consists of a fuel
hopper and a coal pusher at the hopper end as shown in figure. The coal fed through the hopper
is pushed by the main pusher driven by a ram. The distributing pushers in the retorts push the
coal and distribute it to all the retorts. The movement of the fuel bed by the pushers helps in
minimizing the clinker formation. The primary air enters the wind box below the retorts, and
flows through the retorts. An air damper is provided at the air inlet in the wind box to control

the airflow to the furnace. The airflow to the

extension grate at its entry is further controlled by another damper, since the extension grate
requires small quantity of air with less fuel burning on it. The ash formed from all the retorts
falls into the ash pit.

Advantages of multi retort stoker

 Since the combustion rate is high, such a stoker is most suitable for high capacity power
plants. 2) The combustion efficiency of this stoker is very high.
 As the fuel is pushed off by the pushers, they perform the cleaning action as well.
 Automatic combustion control can be adopted in this stoker.
 This stoker can respond quickly to variations in demand.
Disadvantages
 The operation and maintenance is expensive.
 The initial investment is high.
 Ash clinker problems may arise.
 It needs a larger area for installation and operation.
 Low grade, high ash fuels cannot be burnt successfully

Pulverized Coal Firing

In pulverised fuel firing system, the coal is powdered and then charged into the combustion
chamber with the help of hot air current. The main purpose of pulverizing coal is to increase
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the surface area of exposure to the combustion process, which results in faster and efficient
combustion.In burning the pulverized coal, the secondary air required for the complete
combustion of fuel is supplied separately to the combustion chamber. The resulting turbulence
in the combustion chamber helps for uniform mixing of fuel and air. The air required to carry
the pulverized coal and dry it before entering the combustion chamber is termed the
Priming Air, and the air supplied separately for complete combustion is termed the Secondary
Air. Pulverized coal firing systems are universally adopted far large scale power plants.
The choice of pulverized fuel firing system depends upon the size of the boiler unit, type of
coal available, cost of coal, type of load (i.e., fluctuating or constant), the load
factor and availability of trained personnel. Generally such systems are not economical
for small capacity thermal power plants
Advantages of using pulverised coal
1. A wide variety of low grade fuels (coal) can be used and burnt easily.

2. Greater surface area is exposed for combustion and hence combustion is faster and
efficient.
3. The system is free from clinker and slagging troubles.
4. Combustion control is easy, and hence the system gives fast response to load changes.
5. Preheated secondary air (up to 350°C) can be used, resulting in rapid flame propagation
and faster heat supply to the boiler.
6. The pulverizing system can be maintained or repaired without affecting the combustion
process.
7. It has a very high rate of heat release.
8. Banking losses (un burnt fuel with ash) are lower, as compared to stoker firing.
9. The boilers can be started from cold very rapidly.
10. Usually combustion will be smokeless.
Disadvantages of Pulverised system
1. The capital investment of the system is high as it requires additional equipments (for
pulverizing, and handling).
2. Its operation and maintenance costs are very high.
3. It produces fly-ash/fine dust and needs costly fly-ash removal equipments like
electrostatic precipitators.
4. The chances of explosion are high as coal burns like a gas.
5. The storage of powdered coal requires special attention as it has possibilities of fire
hazards.
6. Skilled workers are required for safe-operation and maintenance.
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7. Air pollution takes place by the emission of fine particles of grit and dirt.
8. The removal of liquid slag formed from low fusion temperature ash requires special
handling equipments.

Pulverised Fuel Burning System

There are two common methods of pulverized fuel burning systems-
1. Unit system
2. Central or Bin system
1. Unit System
In this system, each burner and a pulveriser constitute a unit. It consists of a raw coal bunker, a
feeder, pulverizing mill, separator, and the burner.
In operation, the raw coal is supplied to the
bunker, where it is crushed to the required sizes,
the crushed coal is then fed to the pulverizing mill
through the feeder at the required rate, depending
upon the combustion requirements. Hot gases are
passed through the feeder to dry the coal. The dried coal is pulverised in the mill and it is carried
to the burner. An induced draft fan is used at the pulverizer to carry the powdered coal to the
burner. A separator is provided to separate the grains of bigger size from the powder and
returned to the pulveriser for further crushing.
Advantages
 It is simple in operation and economical than the central system.
 Combustion is controlled directly after pulveriser.
 Maintenance cost is low.
 Fuel supply to the burner can be controlled easily.
Disadvantages
 The performance of the pulverizing mill is poor as the system operates at variable
loads.
 The total capacity of mills must be higher than the central system.
 The unit system of fuel burning is less flexible.
 Whenever any of the auxiliaries fails the burner has to be put-off.
 Wear and tear of the fan blades is more since it handles hot air and coal particles.
 Strict maintenance of pulverizing mill is a must for perfect operation of the system.
2. Central or Bin System

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Fig. shows schematic arrangement and the principle of operation of a central, or bin system for
burning pulverised coal. The crushed raw coal is dried
using hot air or flue gases and fed to the pulveriser.
The pulverised coal from the pulverizing mill is passed
to the cyclone separator where over-sized
particles are separated and fed back to the mill.
The pulverised coal is then transferred from the
separator to the central bunker (bin) through a
conveyer system. The pressurized air from the forced draft fan, supplies the stored coal to the
burner. This air not only carries the fuel, but also acts as the primary air for the combustion of
the fuel. Secondary air is supplied to the burner separately to assist in the complete combustion.
Advantages of Central system
 Central system is highly flexible and hence can meet any quick changes in the demand.
 Burner operation is independent of coal pulverization.
 The pulverizing mill can be stopped when there is a good stock of pulverised fuel in the
bin.
 The fan wear is less as it handles only natural air.
 Coal size can be controlled efficiently.
Disadvantages
 Central system is expensive, and occupies more space.
 It requires complicated coal handling systems.
 Power consumption in auxiliaries is high.
 Chances of fire hazards are more since the pulverised fuel is stored.
 Operation and maintenance costs are high.
Pulverising Mills.
The various types of mills used for pulverising the coal are listed below :
 Ball mill
 Ball and Race mill,
 Impact or Hammer mill
 Bowl mill.
Ball Mill.The line diagram of the ball mill is shown in Fig. It consists of a large cylinder partly
filled with various sized steel balls (2.5 to 5 cm in diameter). The coal (6 mm) is fed into the
cylinder and mixes with these balls. The cylinder is rotated (130 m/min peripheral velocity) and
pulverization takes place as a result of action between the balls and the coal.
The mill consists of coal feeder, pulveriser, classifier and exhauster. The feeders supply coal to i
classifier and then it is passed to the pulveriser with the help of screw conveyor. A mixture of
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Pulverized Fuel Burning System and its Components:

Coal is pulverized (powdered) to increase its surface exposure thus permitting rapid combustion.
Efficient use of coal depends greatly on the combustion process employed. For large scale generation
of energy the efficient method of burning coal is confined still to pulverized coal combustion. The
pulverized coal is obtained by grinding the raw coal in pulverizing mills.

Fig-1.21- Components of pulversied fuel burning

The various pulverizing mills used are as follows:

(i) Ball mill

(ii) Hammer mill
(iii) Ball and race mill
(iv) Bowl mill.

The essential functions of pulverizing mills are as follows:

(i) Drying of the coal

(ii) Grinding
(iii) Separation of particles of the desired size.

Proper drying of raw coal which may contain moisture is necessary for effective grinding. The
coal pulverizing mills reduce coal to powder form by three actions as follows:

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(i) Impact (ii) Attrition (abrasion) (iii) Crushing.

Most of the mills use all the above mentioned all the three actions in varying degrees. In impact
type mills hammers break the coal into smaller pieces whereas in attrition type the coal pieces
which rub against each other or metal surfaces to disintegrate. In crushing type mills coal caught
between metal rolling surfaces gets broken into pieces. The crushing mills use steel balls in a
container. These balls act as crushing elements.

BALL MILL:

A line diagram of ball mill using two classifiers is shown in Fig. 1.22. It consists of a slowly
rotating drum which is partly filled with steel balls. Raw coal from feeders is supplied to the
classifiers from where it moves to the drum by means of a screw conveyor.

Fig-1.22-Ball Mill

As the drum rotates the coal gets pulverized due to the combined impact between coal and steel
balls. Hot air is introduced into the drum. The powdered coal is picked up by the air and the coal
air mixture enters the classifiers, where sharp changes in the direction of the mixture throw out
the oversized coal particles. The over-sized particles are returned to the drum. The coal air
mixture from the classifier moves to the exhauster fan and then it is supplied to the burners.

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BALL AND RACE MILL

Fig. 1.23 shows a ball and race mill. In this mill the coal passes between the rotating elements
again and again until it has been pulverized to desired degree of fineness. The coal is crushed
between two moving surfaces namely balls and races. The upper stationary race and lower
rotating race driven by a worm and gear hold the balls between them. The raw coal supplied falls
on the inner side of the races. The moving balls and races catch coal between them to crush it to
a powder. The necessary force needed for crushing is applied with the help of springs. The hot
air supplied picks up the coal dust as it flows between the balls and races, and then enters the
classifier. Where oversized coal particles are returned for further grinding, where as the coal
particles of required size are discharged from the top of classifier.

Fig-1.23-Ball and Race Mill

In this mill coal is pulverized by a combination of' crushing, impact and attrition between the grinding
surfaces. The advantages of this mill are as follows:
(i) Lower capital cost (ii) Lower power consumption
(iii) Lower space required (iv) Lower weight.

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However in this mill there is greater wear as compared to other pulverizes. The use of pulverized
coal has now become the standard method of firing in the large boilers. The pulverized coal
burns with some advantages that result in economic and flexible operation of steam boilers.
Preparation of pulverized fuel with an intermediate bunker is shown in Fig. 1.23. The fuel moves
to the automatic balance and then to the feeder and ball mill through which hot air is blown. It
dries the pulverized coal and carries it from the mill to separator.

The air fed to the ball mill is heated in the air heater. In the separator dust (fine pulverized coal)
is separated from large coal particles which are returned to the ball mill for regrinding. The dust
moves to the cyclone. Most of the dust (about 90%) from cyclone moves to bunker. The
remaining dust is mixed with air and fed to the burner.

IMPACT/HAMMER MILL:

In impact mill coal passes through coal feeder and pulverization takes place due to impact.

Fig-1.24-Impact mill

The coal in pulverizer remains in suspension during the entire pulverizing process. All the
grinding elements and the primary air fan are mounted on a single shaft as shown in figure. The
primary air fan induces flow of air through the pulverizer which carries the coal to the primary
stage of grinding where the coal is reduced to fine granular state by impact with a series
hammers and then into final stage where pulverization is completed by attririon. The final stage
of grinding consists of pegs carried on a rotating disc and travelling between stationary pegs.

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BOWL MILL:

This pulverizer consists of stationary rollers and a power driven bowl in which pulverization
takes place as the coal passes between the sides of the bowl and the rollers.

Fig-1.25-Bowl mill

Advantages:

The advantages of using pulverized coal are as follows:

1. It becomes easy to burn wide variety of coal. Low grade coal can be burnt easily.
2. 2. Powdered coal has more heating surface area. They permits rapids and high rates of
combustion.
3. Pulverized coal firing requires low percentage of excess air.
4. By using pulverized coal, rate of combustion can be adjusted easily to meet the varying load.
5. The system is free from clinker troubles.
6. It can utilize highly preheated air (of the order of 700°F) successfully which promotes rapid
flame propagation.
7. As the fuel pulverising equipment is located outside the furnace, therefore it can be repaired
without cooling the unit down.
8. High temperature can be produced in furnace.

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Disadvantages

1. It requires additional equipment to pulverize the coal. The initial and maintenance cost of the
equipment is high.
2. Pulverized coal firing produces fly ash (fine dust) which requires a separate fly ash removal
equipment.
3. The furnace for this type of firing has to be carefully designed to withstand for burning the
pulverized fuel because combustion takes place while the fuel is in suspension.
4. The flame temperatures are high and conventional types of refractory lined furnaces are
inadequate. It is desirable to provide water cooled walls for the safety of the furnaces.
5. There are more chances of explosion as coal burns like a gas.
6. Pulverized fuel fired furnaces designed to burn a particular type of coal cannot be used to any
other type of coal with same efficiency.
7. The size of coal is limited. The particle size of coal used in pulverized coal furnace is limited to
70 to 100 microns.

Pulverized coal firing is done by two systems:

(i) Unit System or Direct System.

(ii) Bin or Central System.

Unit System. In this system (Fig. 1.26) the raw coal from the coal bunker drops on to the feeder.

Hot air is passed through coal in the feeder to dry the coal. The coal is then transferred to the
pulverizing mill where it is pulverized. Primary air is supplied to the mill, by the fan. The mixture
of pulverized coal and primary air then flows to burner where secondary air is added. The unit
system is so called from the fact that each burner or a burner group and pulveriser constitute a unit.

Fig-1.26- Unit System

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Advantages:

(i) The system is simple and cheaper than the central system.
(ii) There is direct control of combustion from the pulverising mill.
(iii) Coal transportation system is simple.

Bin or Central System.

It is shown in Fig. 1.27. Crushed coal from the raw coal bunker is fed by gravity to a dryer where
hot air is passed through the coal to dry it. The dryer may use waste flue gases, preheated air or
bleeder steam as drying agent. The dry coal is then transferred to the pulverizing mill. The
pulverized coal obtained is transferred to the pulverized coal bunker (bin). The transporting air is
separated from the coal in the cyclone separator. The primary air is mixed with the coal at the
feeder and the mixture is supplied to the burner.

Fig-1.27-Central System
Advantages:

1. The pulverising mill grinds the coal at a steady rate irrespective of boiler feed.
2. There is always some coal in reserve. Thus any occasional breakdown in the coal supply
will not effect the coal feed to the burner.
3. For a given boiler capacity pulverising mill of small capacity will be required as
compared to unit system.

Disadvantages

1. The initial cost of the system is high.

2. Coal transportation system is quite complicated.
3. The system requires more space.

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To a large extent the performance of pulverised fuel system depends upon the mill performance.
The pulverised mill should satisfy the following requirements:

 It should deliver the rated tonnage of coal.

 Pulverized coal produced by it should be of satisfactory fineness over a wide range of
capacities.
 It should be quiet in operation.
 Its power consumption should be low.
 Maintenance cost of the mill should be low.

CYCLONE FURNACE:

Cyclone-furnace firing, developed in the 1940s, represents the most significant step in coal firing
since the introduction of pulverized-coal firing in the 1920s. It is now widely used to burn poorer
grades of coal that contain a high ash content with a minimum of 6 percent to as high as 25
percent, and a high volatile matter, more than 15 percent, to obtain the necessary high rates of
combustion. A wide range of moisture is allowable with pre-drying. One limitation is that ash
should not contain a high sulfur content or a high Fe2O3; (CaO + MgO) ratio. Such a coal has a
tendency to form high ash-fusion temperature materials such as iron and iron sulfide in the slag,
which negates the main advantage of cyclone firing.

The main advantage is the removal of much of the ash, about 60 percent, ao molten slag that is
collected on the cyclone walls by centrifugal action and drained off the bottom to a slag-
disintegrating tank below. Thus only 40 percent ash leave, with the flue gases, compared with
about 80 percent for pulverized-coal firing. this materially reduces erosion and fouling of steam-
generator surfaces as well as the size of dust-removal precipitators or bag houses at steam-
generator exit. Other advantages are that only crushed coal is used and no pulverization
equipment is needed and that the boiler size is reduced.Cyclone-furnace firing uses a range of
coal sizes averaging 95 percent passing a 4-mesh screen.

The disadvantages are higher forced-draft fan pressures and therefore higher power
requirements, the inability to use the coals mentioned above, and the formation of relatively
more oxides of nitrogen, NO2 which are air pollutants, in the combustion process. The cyclone is
essentially a water-cooled horizontal cylinder (Fig.1.28) located outside the main boiler furnace,
in which the crushed coal is fed and fired with very high rates of heat release. Combustion of the
coal is completed before the resulting hot gases enter the boiler furnace.

The crushed coal is fed into the cyclone burner at left along with primary air, which is about 20
percent of combustion or secondary air. The primary air enters the burner tangentially, thus
imparting a centrifugal motion to the coal. The secondary air is also admitted tangentially at the
top of the cyclone at high speed, imparting further centrifugal motion. A small quantity of air,
called tertiary air, is admitted at the center.

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Fig-1.28-Cyclone Furnace

The whirling motion of air and coal results in large heat-release-rate volumetric densities,
between 450,000 and 800,000 Btu/(h.ft) (about 4700 to 8300 kW/m3), and high combustion
temperatures, more than 3000°F (1650°C). These high temperatures melt the ash into a liquid
slag that covers the surface of the cyclone and eventually drains through the slag-tap opening to a
slag tank at the bottom of the boiler furnace, where it is solidified and broken for removal. The
slag layer that forms on the walls of the cyclone provides insulation against too much heat loss
through the walls and contributes to the effi ciency of cyclone firing. The high temperatures also
explain the large production of NO, in the gaseous combustion products. These gases leave the
cyclone through the throat at right and enter the main boiler furnace. Thus combustion takes
place in the relatively small cyclone, and the main boiler furnace has the sole function of heat
transfer from the gases to the water-tube walls. Cyclone furnaces are also suitable for fuel-oil and
gaseous-fuel firing. Initial ignition is done by small retractable oil or gas burners in the
secondary air ports.

Like pulverized-coal systems, cyclone firing systems can be of the bin, or storage. or direct-
firing types, though the bin type is more widely used, especially for most bituminous coals, than
in the case of pulverized coal. The cyclone system uses either one-wall, or opposed-wall, firing,
the latter being preferred for large steam generators The size and number of cyclones per boiler
depend upon the boiler size and the desired load response because the usual load range for good
performance of any one cyclone is from 50 to 100 percent of its rated capacity. Cyclones vary in
size from 6 to 10 fv in diameter with heat inputs between 160 to 425 million Btu/h (about 47,000
to 125,Oa_ kW), respectively .

The cyclone component requiring the most maintenance is the burner, which is subjected to
erosion by the high velocity of the coal. Erosion is minimized by the us; of tungsten carbide and
other erosion-resistant materials for the burner liners, which are usually replaced once a year or
so.

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DUST COLLECTORS:

A dust collector is a system used to enhance the quality of air released from industrial and
commercial processes by collecting dust and other impurities from air or gas. Designed to handle high-
volume dust loads, a dust collector system consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system,
and a dust receptacle or dust removal system. It is distinguished from air cleaners, which use
disposable filters to remove dust.

Five main types of industrial dust collectors are:

 Inertial separators
 Fabric filters
 Wet scrubbers
 Unit collectors
 Electrostatic precipitators

Inertial separators separate dust from gas streams using a combination of forces, such as
centrifugal, gravitational, and inertial. These forces move the dust to an area where the forces
exerted by the gas stream are minimal. The separated dust is moved by gravity into a hopper,
where it is temporarily stored.
The three primary types of inertial separators are:
 Settling chambers
 Baffle chambers
 Centrifugal collectors
Neither settling chambers nor baffle chambers are commonly used in the minerals processing
industry. However, their principles of operation are often incorporated into the design of more
efficient dust collectors.

Fabric filters Commonly known as baghouses, fabric collectors use filtration to separate dust
particulates from dusty gases. They are one of the most efficient and cost effective types of dust
collectors available and can achieve a collection efficiency of more than 99% for very fine
particulates.

Fig-1.29- Baghouse

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Dust-laden gases enter the baghouse and pass through fabric bags that act as filters. The bags can
be of woven or felted cotton, synthetic, or glass-fiber material in either a tube or envelope shape.

WET SCRUBBERS:

Dust collectors that use liquid are known as wet scrubbers. In these systems, the scrubbing liquid
(usually water) comes into contact with a gas stream containing dust particles. Greater contact of
the gas and liquid streams yields higher dust removal efficiency.

There is a large variety of wet scrubbers; however, all have one of three basic configurations:

1. Gas-humidification - The gas-humidification process agglomerates fine particles, increasing

the bulk, making collection easier.
2. Gas-liquid contact - This is one of the most important factors affecting collection efficiency.
The particle and droplet come into contact by four primary mechanisms:
a) Inertial impaction - When water droplets placed in the path of a dust-laden gas stream, the
stream separates and flows around them. Due to inertia, the larger dust particles will
continue on in a straight path, hit the droplets, and become encapsulated.
b) Interception - Finer particles moving within a gas stream do not hit droplets directly but brush
against and adhere to them.
c) Diffusion - When liquid droplets are scattered among dust particles, the particles are
deposited on the droplet surfaces by Brownian movement, or diffusion. This is the
principal mechanism in the collection of submicrometre dust particles.
d) Condensation nucleation - If a gas passing through a scrubber is cooled below the dewpoint,
condensation of moisture occurs on the dust particles. This increase in particle size makes
collection easier.

3. Gas-liquid separation - Regardless of the contact mechanism used, as much liquid and dust as
possible must be removed. Once contact is made, dust particulates and water droplets combine to
form agglomerates. As the agglomerates grow larger, they settle into a collector.

The "cleaned" gases are normally passed through a mist eliminator (demister pads) to remove
water droplets from the gas stream. The dirty water from the scrubber system is either cleaned
and discharged or recycled to the scrubber. Dust is removed from the scrubber in a clarification
unit or a drag chain tank. In both systems solid material settles on the bottom of the tank. A drag
chain system removes the sludge and deposits in into a dumpster or stockpile.

UNIT COLLECTORS:

Unlike central collectors, unit collectors control contamination at its source. They are small and self-
contained, consisting of a fan and some form of dust collector. They are suitable for isolated, portable,
or frequently moved dust-producing operations, such as bins and silos or remote belt- conveyor
transfer points. Advantages of unit collectors include small space requirements, the

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return of collected dust to main material flow, and low initial cost. However, their dust-holding
and storage capacities, servicing facilities, and maintenance periods have been sacrificed.

A number of designs are available, with capacities ranging from 200 to 2,000 ft³/min (90 to
900 L/s). There are two main types of unit collectors:
 Fabric collectors, with manual shaking or pulse-jet cleaning - normally used for fine dust
 Cyclone collectors - normally used for coarse dust
Fabric collectors are frequently used in minerals processing operations because they provide high
collection efficiency and uninterrupted exhaust airflow between cleaning cycles. Cyclone
collectors are used when coarser dust is generated, as in woodworking, metal grinding, or
machining.
The following points should be considered when selecting a unit collector:
 Cleaning efficiency must comply with all applicable regulations.
 The unit maintains its rated capacity while accumulating large amounts of dust between
cleanings.
 Simple cleaning operations do not increase the surrounding dust concentration.
 Has the ability to operate unattended for extended periods of time (for example, 8 hours).
 Automatic discharge or sufficient dust storage space to hold at least one week's
accumulation.
 If renewable filters are used, they should not have to be replaced more than once a
month. Durable.
 Quiet.
Use of unit collectors may not be appropriate if the dust-producing operations are located in an area
where central exhaust systems would be practical. Dust removal and servicing requirements are
expensive for many unit collectors and are more likely to be neglected than those for a single, large
collector.

Electrostatic precipitators use electrostatic forces to separate dust particles from exhaust gases.
A number of high-voltage, direct-current discharge electrodes are placed between grounded
collecting electrodes. The contaminated gases flow through the passage formed by the discharge and
collecting electrodes. Electrostatic precipitators operate on the same principle as home "Ionic" air
purifiers.

The airborne particles receive a negative charge as they pass through the ionized field between
the electrodes. These charged particles are then attracted to a grounded or positively charged electrode
and adhere to it.

The collected material on the electrodes is removed by rapping or vibrating the collecting
electrodes either continuously or at a predetermined interval. Cleaning a precipitator can usually
be done without interrupting the airflow.
The four main components of all electrostatic precipitators are:
 Power supply unit, to provide high-voltage DC power
 Ionizing section, to impart a charge to particulates in the gas stream A means of removing the
collected particulates
 A housing to enclose the precipitator zone

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The following factors affect the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators:

 Larger collection-surface areas and lower gas-flow rates increase efficiency because of
the increased time available for electrical activity to treat the dust particles.
 An increase in the dust-particle migration velocity to the collecting electrodes increases
efficiency. The migration velocity can be increased by:
o Decreasing the gas viscosity
o Increasing the gas temperature
o Increasing the voltage field

COOLING TOWERS AND HEAT REJECTION:

Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cooling tower
is to reject heat into the atmosphere.

They represent a relatively inexpensive anddependable means of removing low-grade heat from
cooling water. The make-up water sourceis used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water
from heat exchangers is sent to thecooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent
back to the exchangers or to other units for further cooling. Typical closed loop cooling tower
system is shown in Figure 1.30.

Fig-1.30-Cooling system

The amount of heat that can be rejected from the water to the air is directly tied to the relative
humidity of the air. Air with a lower relative humidity has a greater ability to absorb water
through evaporation than air with a higher relative humidity, simply because there is less water
in the air. As an example, consider cooling towers in two different locations– one in Atlanta,
Georgia, and another in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The ambient air temperature at these two
locations may be similar, but the relative humidity in Albuquerque on average will be much
lower than that of Atlanta‘s. Therefore, the cooling tower in Albuquerque wil be able to extract
more process or building heat and will run at a cooler temperature because the dry desert air has
a greater capacity to absorb the warm water.

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Cooling towers can be split into two distinct categories: open circuit (direct contact) and closed
circuit (indirect) systems.In open circuit systems the recirculating water returns to the tower
after gathering heat and is distributed across the tower where the water is in direct contact with
the atmosphere as it recirculates across the tower structure. Closed circuit systems differ in that
the return fluid (often water, or sometimes water mixed with glycol) circulates through the
tower structure in a coil, while cooling tower water recirculates only in the tower structure itself
(see Figure 1). In this case, the return fluid is not exposed directly to the air.

 The cooling towers types: -

1. Natural Draft cooling tower

2. Mechanical Draught

Natural Draft Towers

Natural draft towers are designed to move air up through the structure naturally without the use
of fans. They use the natural law of differing densities between the ambient air and warm air in
the tower. The warm air will rise within the chimney structure because of its lower density
drawing cool ambient air in the bottom portion. Often times these towers are very tall to induce
adequate air flow, and have a unique shape giving them the name ―hyperbolic‖ towers

Mechanical draught Towers — Uses power-driven fan motors to force or draw air
through the tower.

 Induced draught — A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at the top)
which pulls air up through the tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge.
This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of
recirculation in which discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin
arrangement is also known as draw-through.

 Forced draught — A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake.
The fan forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities.
The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the
air intake, the fan is more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions.

Another disadvantage is that a forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than
an equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability to work
with high static pressure. Such setups can be installed in more-confined spaces and even in some
indoor situations. This fan/fill geometry is also known as blow-through.

 Fan assisted natural draught — A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft
setup, though airflow is assisted by a fan.

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BOILERS
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is
transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired temperature
and pressure.
The steam produced is used for:
 Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam turbine.
 Heating the residential and industrial buildings.
 Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile industries.
Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by the application of heat.
Usually boilers are coal or oil fired.

A boiler should fulfil the following requirements;

 Safety. The boiler should be safe under operating conditions.
 Accessibility. The various parts of the boiler should be accessible for repair and
maintenance.
 Capacity. The boiler should be capable of supplying steam according to the
requirements.
 Efficiency. To permit efficient operation, the boiler should be able to absorb a
maximum amount of heat produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace.
 It should be simple in construction and its maintenance cost should be low.
 Its initial cost should be low.
 The boiler should have no joints exposed to flames.
 The boiler should be capable of quick starting and loading.
The performance of a boiler may be measured in terms of its evaporative capacity also called

power of a boiler. It is defined as the amount of water evaporated or steam produced is in kg

per hour. It may also be expressed in kg per kg of fuel burnt.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

Classification of Boilers
The boilers can be classified according to the following criteria.
According to flow of water and hot gases.
1. Water tube.
2. Fire tube.
In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion
flow over these tubes. In fire tube boiler the hot products of combustion pass through the
tubes, which are surrounded, by water.
Fire tube boilers have low initial cost, and are more compacts. But they are more likely
to explosion, water volume is large and due to poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the
change in steam demand. For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger
than the shell of water-tube boiler. Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for a given
size, are less liable to explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and can response
quickly to change in steam demand.
Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube boilers and due
to smaller size of drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser
floor space. The efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.
According to position of furnace.
(i) Internally fired (ii) Externally fired
In internally fired boilers the grate combustion chamber are enclosed within the boiler shell
whereas in case of extremely fired boilers and furnace and grate are separated from the boiler
shell.
According to the position of principle axis.
(i) Vertical (ii) Horizontal (iii) Inclined.
According to application.
(i) Stationary (ii) Mobile, (Marine, Locomotive).
According to the circulating water.
(i) Natural circulation (ii) Forced circulation.
According to steam pressure.
(i) Low pressure (ii) Medium pressure (iii) Higher pressure.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or
vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications.
In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as
they offer the following advantages. In order to obtain efficient operation and high capacity,
forced circulation of water through boiler tubes is found helpful.
1. The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of steam is
required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.
2. The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the arrangement of
furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange area.
3. The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
4. The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
5. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the
possibility of gas and air leakages.
Superheater operation is similar to that of the coils on an air conditioning unit, although
for a different purpose. The steam piping is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler
furnace. The temperature in this area is typically between 1,300–1,600 degrees Celsius. While
the temperature of the steam in the superheater rises, the pressure of the steam does not. Almost
all the steam superheater systems are designed to remove droplets entrained in the steam to
prevent damage to the turbine blading and associated piping.

LA-MONT BOILER

It is a forced circulation- water tube boiler which was first introduced in 1925 by La
Mont.

The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler) through the
economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing through the
economizer

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler)
through the economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing through
the economizer. A pump circulates the water at a rate 8 to 10 times the mass of steam
evaporated. This water is circulated through the evaporator tubes and the part of the vapour is
separated in the separator drum. The large quantity of water circulated (10 times that of
evaporation) prevents the tubes from being overheated.

The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above
the drum pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the
evaporator. The steam separated in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater.
To secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a
choke is fitted entrance to each circuit. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 tons
of superheated steam at a pressure of 120 bar and temperature of 500°C.

Important Components
1. Steam separating drum – The feed water from the hot well is stored in the drum. The
steam is separated from water in the drum and the steam is usually collected at the top
of the drum. JSPM,BSIOTR
 PROF.ARUN PATIL
2. Circulating pump – Water from the steam separating drum is drawn by a circulating
pump and it circulates water through the evaporator tubes. Pump circulates water at a
rate of 8-10 times the mass of steam evaporated. Forced circulation is necessary to
prevent the overheating of tubes.
3. Distribution header – The distribution header distributes the water through the nozzle
into the evaporator.
4. Radiant evaporator – Water from the drum first enters the radiant evaporator through
the pump and header. The water is heated by the radiation heat from the combustion
chamber. In radiant evaporator, the hot flue gases do not pass over the water tubes.
5. Convective evaporator – The mixture of water and steam coming out from the radiant
evaporator enters the convective evaporator tubes. The hot flue gases passing over the
evaporator tubes transfer a large portion of heat to the water by convection. Thus, water
becomes steam and the steam enters to the steam separating drum.
6. Superheater – The steam from the steam separating drum enters the superheater tubes
where it is superheated by the hot flue gases passing over them. The superheated steam
then enters the steam turbine to develop power.
7. Economiser – The waste hot flue gases pass through the economiser where feed water
is pre-heated. By pre-heating the feed water, the amount of fuel required to convert
water into steam is reduced.
8. Air pre-heater – The hot flue gases then passes through the air pre-heater where the
air required for combustion is pre-heated.

Advantages
1. La-Mont boilers can generate 45 to 50 tons of superheated steam at a pressure of 120
bar and temperature of 500°C.
2. Drum is of small size.
3. Tendency of scale formation is eliminated due to forced circulation of water.
Disadvantages
1. Bubbles are formed on the inside of the water tubes and this bubbles reduce the heat
transfer rate.
2. Initial and operating costs are high.
3. Maintenance costs are very high.
BENSON BOILER (SUPERCRITICAL BOILER)
The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment
of bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce the heat flow
JSPM,BSIOTR
 PROF.ARUN PATIL

and steam generation as it offers higher thermal resistance compared to water film. Benson of
siemens- West Germany in 1922 argued that if the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure
(225 atm.), the steam and water would have the same density and therefore the danger of bubble
formation can be completely removed.

Important Components
1. Economiser – The feed water from the well passes through the economiser where it is
pre-heated by the pre-heat of exhaust hot flue gases.
2. Radiant evaporator – The feed water after circulation through the economiser flows
through the radiant evaporator tubes. Water is heated up by the radiation heat from the
combustion chamber. Here, part of the water is converted to steam directly.
3. Convective evaporator – The mixture of water and steam coming out from the radiant
evaporator enters the convective evaporator tubes. The hot flue gases passing over the
evaporator tubes transfer a large portion of heat to the water by convection. Thus, water
becomes steam in the convective evaporator.
4. Superheater – The steam from the convective evaporator enters the superheater tubes
where it is superheated by the hot flue gases passing over them. The superheated steam
then enters the steam turbine to develop power.
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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

5. Air pre-heater – The hot flue gases then passes through the air pre-heater where the
air required for combustion is pre-heated.

Advantages
1. As there is no drum, the total weight of Benson boiler is 20% less than other boilers.
This reduces the cost of the boiler.
2. Floor space requirements of Benson boiler are very less.
3. Transportation of Benson boiler parts and its erection is very easy as there are no drums.
4. Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints in pipes but the pipes in Benson
boilers are welded.

Disadvantages
1. As the Benson boiler operates at high pressure and temperature, special alloy materials
are required.
2. Maintenance costs are very high.
3. This is more efficient, resulting in slightly less fuel use.

1.10. FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION (FBC)

Burning of pulverised coal has some problems such as particle size of coal used in
pulverized firing is limited to 70-100 microns, the pulverised fuel fired furnances designed to
burn a particular cannot be used other type of coal with same efficiency, the generation of high
temp. about (1650 C)in the furnace creates number of problems like slag formation on super
heater, evaporation of alkali metals in ash and its deposition on heat transfer surfaces, formation
of SO2 and NOX in large amount.
Fluidised Bed combustion system can burn any fuel including low grade coals (even
containing 70% ash), oil, gas or municipal waste. Improved desulphurisation and low NOX
emission are its main characteristics . The fuel and inert material dolomite are fed on a
distribution plate and air is supplied from the bottom of distribution plate. The air is supplied
at high velocity so that solid feed material remains in suspension condition during burning.
The heat produced is used to heat water flowing through the tube and convert water into
steam. During burning SO2 formed is absorbed by the dolomite and thus prevents its escape
with the exhaust gases . The molten slag is tapped from the top surface of the bed. The bed
temperature is nearly 800-9000C which is ideal for sulphur retention addition of limestone or
dolomite to the bed brings down SO2 emission level to about 15% of that in conventional firing
methods. JSPM,BSIOTR
 PROF.ARUN PATIL

Various advantages of FBC system are as follows:

1. FBC system can use any type of low grade fuel including municipal wastes and therefore
is a cheaper method of power generation.
2. It is easier to control the amount of SO2 and NOX, formed during burning. Low emission
of SO2 and NOX will help in controlling the undesirable effects of SO2 and NOX. During
combustion. SO2 emission is nearly 15% of that in conventional firing methods.
3. There is a saving of about 10% in operating cost and 15% in the capital cost of the power
plant.
4. The size of coal used has pronounced effect on the operation and performance of FBC
system . The particle size preferred is 6 to 13 mm but even 50 mm size coal can also be
used in this system.

The major portion of the coal available in India is of low quality, high ash content and
low calorific value. The traditional grate fuel firing systems have got limitations and are techno-
economically unviable to meet the challenges of future. Fluidized bed combustion has emerged
as a viable alternative and has significant advantages over conventional firing system and offers
multiple benefits – compact boiler design , fuel flexibility , higher combustion efficiency and
reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SOx and NOx.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL
STEAM POWER PLANT

Coal needs to be stored at various stages of the preparation process, and

conveyed around the CPP facilities. Coal handling is part of the larger field of bulk
Material handling, and is a complex and vital part of the CPP.

FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM

Coal delivery equipment is one of the major components of plant cost. The various
steps involved in coal handling are as follows:
1. Coal delivery.
2. Unloading
3. Preparation
4. Transfer
5. Outdoor storage
6. Covered storage
7. Implant handling
8. Weighing and measuring
9. Feeding the coal into furnace

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i) Coal delivery
The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power stations situated
near to sea or river whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the power stations which are
situated away from sea or river . The transportation of coal by trucks is used if the railway
facilities are not available.
ii) Unloading
The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at the power station
depends on how coal is received at the power station. If coal delivered by trucks, there is no
need of unloading device as the trucks may dump the coal to the outdoor storage. Coal is easily
handled if the lift trucks with scoop are used. In case the coal is brought by railways wagons,
ships or boats, the unloading may be done by car shakes , rotary car dumpers , cranes, grab
buckets and coal accelerators . Rotary car dumpers although costly are quite efficient for
unloading closed wagons.
(iii) Preparation
When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of
proper size, the preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers,
driers and magnetic separators.

iv)Transfer
After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the following
systems.
1. Belt conveyors
2. Screw conveyors
3. Bucket elevators
4. Grab bucket elevators
5. Skip hoists
6. Flight conveyor

Belt Conveyor

Figure shows a belt conveyor . It consists of an endless belt moving over a pair of end
drums (rollers). At some distance a supporting roller is provided at the centre. The belt is
made up of rubber or canvas . Belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long
distances . It is used in medium and large power plants . The initial cost of system is not
high and power consumption is also low. The inclination at which coal can be successfully
elevated by belt conveyor is about 20 . Average speed preferred than other types.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

2. Screw Conveyor
It consists of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft (figure). The screw while rotating
in a trough transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end.
This system is suitable , where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and
space limitations exist.The initial cost of the consumption is high and there is considerable
wear o screw. Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 r.p.m

3. Bucket elevator

It consists of buckets fixed to a chain (figure). The chain moves over two wheels. The
coal is carried by the bucket from bottom and discharged at the top.

4. Grab bucket elevator

It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or track from one point to the other. The
coal lifted by grab buckets is transferred to overhead bunker or storage . This system
requires less power for operation and requires minimum maintenance.
The grab bucket conveyor can be used with crane or tower as shown in figure .
Although the initial cost of this system is high but operating cost is less.

JSPM,BSIOTR
 PROF.ARUN PATIL

Storage of Coal
It is desirable that sufficient quantity of coal should be stored .Storage of coal
gives protection
against the interruption of coal supplies when there is delay in transportation of coal
or due to strike in coal mines. Also when the prices are low, the coal can be purchased
and stored for future use.
The amount of coal to be stored depends on the availability of space for storage ,
transportation
facilities , the amount of coal that will whether away and nearness to coal mines of the
power station. Usually coal required for one month operation of power plant is stored
in case of power stations is situated at longer distance from the collieries whereas coal
need for about 15 days is stored in case of power station situated near to collieries .
Storage of coal for longer periods is not advantageous because it blocks the capital and
results in deterioration of the quality of coal.

PULVERIZED COAL STORAGE

Periodically a power plant may encounter the situation where coal must be
stored for sometimes in a bunker, for instance during a plant shut down. The bunker,
fires can occur in dormant pulverized coal from spontaneous heating within 6 day
of loading . This time can be extended to 13 days when a blanket of CO2 is piped
into the top of the bunker . The perfect sealing of the bunker from air leakage can
extend the storage time as two months or more. The coal in the bunker can be stored
as long as six months by expelling air from above the coal with the use of CO2 and then
blanketing of all sources of air. A control system used for storing the pulverized fuel in
bunker is shown in figure.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL
Pulverized Fuel Handling System:
Two methods are in general use to feed the pulverized fuel to the combustion chamber of the power
plant. First is ‘Unit System’ and second is ‘Central or Bin System ‘.

In unit system, each burner of the plant is fired by one or more pulverizers connected to the burners,
while in the central system, the fuel is pulverized in the central plant and then disturbed to each furnace
with the help of high pressure air current. Each type of fuel handling system consists of crushers,
magnetic separators, driers, pulverizing mills, storage bins, conveyors and feeders.

Ball Mill
A line diagram of ball mill using two classifiers is shown in figure. It consists of a slowly rotating
drum which is partly filled with steel balls. Raw coal from feeders is supplied to the classifiers from
where it moves to the drum by means of a screw conveyor. As the drum rotates the coal get pulverized
due to the combine impact between coal and steel balls. Hot air is introduced into the drum. The powdered
coal is picked up by the air and the coal air mixture enters the classifiers, where sharp changes in the
direction of the mixture throw out the oversized coal particles. The over-sized particles are returned to the
drum. The coal air mixture from the classifier moves to the exhauster fan and then it is supplied to the
burners.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

2.1.3 Ball And Race Mills

In this mill the coal passes between the rotating elements again and again until it has been
pulverized to desired degree of fineness. The coal is crushed between two moving surfaces, namely,
balls and races. The upper stationary race and lower rotating race driven by a worm and gear hold the balls
between them. The raw coal supplied falls on the inner side of the races. The moving balls and races catch
coal between them to crush it to a powder. The necessary force needed for crushing is applied with the
help of springs. The hot air supplied picks up the coal dust as it flows between the balls and races and then
enters the classifier. Where oversized coal particles are returned for further grinding.

ASH HANDLING SYSTEM:

Boilers burning pulverized coal (PC) have bottom furnaces. The large ash particles are
collected under the furnace in a water-filled ash hopper, Fly ash is collected in dust collectors with either an
electrostatic precipitator or a baghouse. A PC boiler generates approximately 80% fly ash and 20%
bottom ash. Ash must be collected and transported from various points of the plants as shown in figure.
Pyrites, which are the rejects from the pulverizers, are disposed of with the bottom ash system. Three major
factors should be considered for ash disposal systems.
1. Plant site
2. Fuel source
3. Environmental regulation
Needs for water and land are important considerations for many ash handling systems. Ash
quantities to be disposed of depend on the king of fuel source. Ash storage and disposal sites are guided by
environmental regulations.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

2.2.1 Ash Handling Equipment:

Mechanical means are required for the disposal of ash. The handling equipment should perform
the following functions: 1. Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges of the equipment should
be low. 2. It should be able to handle large quantities of ash. 3. Clinkers, shoot, dust etc. create troubles.The
equipment should be able to handle them smoothly.4. The equipment used should remove the ash
from the furnace, load it to the conveying system to deliver the ash to dumping site or storage and
finally it should have means to dispose of the stored ash. 5. The equipment should be corrosion and wear
resistant.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

Hydraulic System
In this system, ash from the furnace grate falls into a system of water possessing high velocity and is
carried to the sumps. It is generally used in large power plants. Hydraulic system is of two types, namely,
low pressure hydraulic system used for intermittent ash disposal figure. Figure shows hydraulic system.

Water-Jetting System
Water jetting of ash is shown in figure. In this method a low pressure jet of water coming out of
quenching nozzle is used to cool the ash. The ash falls into trough and is then removed.

Pneumatic System

In this system ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a crusher where a lager ash particles are
crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a high velocity air or steam to the point of delivery. Air
leaving the ash separator is passed through filter to remove dust etc. So that the exhauster handles clean
air which will protect the blades of the exhauster.

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 PROF.ARUN PATIL

Mechanical system

Figure shows a mechanical ash handling system.

In this system ash cooled by water seal falls on the belt conveyor and is carried out continuously to
the bunker.

JSPM,BSIOTR