HISTORY FORM THREE

TOPIC: ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM

THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

The scramble for and partition of Africa took place in the second half of the 19th century. The
term “scramble” meant a great struggle for colonies on the African continent amongst the
European powers. The term “partition” means the dividing up of the African continent amongst
the scrambling European powers.
The scramble for and partition of Africa was the outcome of the activities of the missionaries,
explorers, traders and the chartered companies in Africa.

REASONS BEHIND THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.

1. Imperialism
Development of capitalism in Europe from industries to monopoly stage in 1870’s this created
the demand of;
Demands for markets
Need for raw materials
Area to invest their capital
Cheap labour
Area to dump unemployed white men
 2. National prestige
The possession of colonies was considered as a symbol of greatness and respect. For example,
Germany and Italy struggled for colonies with the aim of acquiring national prestige.
3. Balance of power
The balance of power was disrupted by Franco- Prussian war of 1870-1871 [was between France
and Germany]. Germany rose to power after defeating France and seizing her provinces like
Alsace for production of coal and Lorraine for iron. There after France began to scramble for
colonies in order to regain its power and compensate for the lost provinces.
4. The growth of European nationalism 
This was union of various small European states which were ruled by princes into bigger
empires. In Germany the unification was made under Otto Von BismarkK . This unification
made their countries to praise their culture and declared a mission to civilize other cultures hence
Germany and Italy rushed to scramble for colonies in Africa.
5. Strategic reason
 Strategic importance of some areas in the African continent, such as :-
Egypt
Was scrambled for by British and France because of the use of the Suez Canal as a short cut and
getaway to the British colony of India and the Indian Ocean where France monopolized sugar
production.
South Africa
Because the British and the Dutch exploit Gold and Diamonds.
  The Congo basin
Scramble for by Belgium, France and also Portugal because of minerals like Gold and Copper.
Navigable Rivers, Fertile soil for production of rubber and High population for creation of
market labor
Niger Valley
European powers, French, British and German scrambled for because of navigation, agriculture
and high population.
6, To spread Legitimate trade
The European claimed that they wanted to spread legitimate trade that deals with raw materials,
and other natural goods.

Humanitarian reason
Has been given by European nation’s historians that, they scrambled for the African continent in
order to civilize African societies.
6. Balance of power; before 1870 there were stable powers for these European nations
especially France and Britain but the balance of power destructed or disturbed by the Franco-
Purssian war of 1870-71 when Germany defeated France and took Alsaceand Lorraine. So
through that Germany became stronger instead of France which immediately began to scramble
for colonies in order to regain its power compensate for the lost provinces.
7. Berlin conference; this conference stimulated the scramble for because each power exerted a
colony proportionally.

Reasons for some areas in Africa to experience more intensive scramble than others
Through this shows that there were different areas which were scrambled for by European
powers, the reasons for some areas in Africa to experience more intensive scramble than others
are as follows:
1. Fertile land
These areas which seemed to have a fertile land like Zimbabwe and some parts of Kenya like the
kikuyu highlands experienced more intensive scramble than other areas.
2. Minerals
Minerals also made some areas in Africa to experience more intensive scramble than others; For
example South Africa, this region was scrambled by the Dutch(Boers) and the British. The Dutch
landed at the cape under the Dutch East India Company in 1962. In 1795 the British conquered
the Dutch East India Company at the Cape. After a while the Dutch-Boers migrated Northwards
during the Great Boers Trek. Eventually they settled in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. The
Orange Free State had diamonds which was discovered in 1867 while Transvaal’s gold was
discovered in 1885.
3. Navigable water
Example Suez Canal and Congo Basin are some areas which experienced more intensive
scramble. For example the Congo Basin was scrambled for by Belgium, Britain, France and
Portugal. And Suez Canal was scrambled for by both the British and the French.
4. Large population
These areas which were having large population also experienced more intensive scramble
example Congo basin had high population for markets.
-Therefore the Europeans only scrambled for areas with those characteristics mentioned above.
And these areas which were scrambled and eventually partitioned by the Europeans, had
economic importance to the European powers.

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE [1884-1885]     

The Berlin conference was the meeting of European powers which was held in Berlin the
capital town of Germany from November 1884 to February 1885 at the invitation of Otto von
Bismarck the chancellor of Germany. The conference was attended by the 14 powers, where
USA and Denmark attended as an observers.
The meeting was called at the time when Europe was at the stage of monopoly
capitalism/imperialism.

The objectives (Goals) of the conference were

To solve the Congo and Niger problems.
Need of Bismarck to diverge France’s interest from France to Africa.
To develop Africa for imperialism.
To discuss views from different European nations on how to abolish the slave trade in the
African territories.

The resolutions [agreements] of the Berlin conference [the principles reached were]:
1. Principle of notification
Each power which claimed any part of African territory was required to inform the other
European power that had signed the treaty in order to avoid crushes among themselves.
2. Principle of effective occupation or control.
European power which claims to any part of Africa would be recognized by the other powers if it
was effectively occupied by such European power lie under this clause. The claimants were
supposed to develop the areas through their missionaries trading companies’ explorers starting
plantations and other economic activities.
3. King Leopold was allowed to rule Congo, but the Congo river was left to be a free zone for
all nations. In this case the basin was an international highway.
4. Freedom of navigation
The conference declared that Congo, the Niger River and other big rivers as free zones for
international navigation i.e. Niger River under the authority of Great Britain and Congo River
under the authority of Belgium.
5. Abolition of slave trade.  Each European power which attended the meeting had to abolish the
slave trade in African territory and should further extend its sphere of influence from the coastal
regions to the internal land and draw political boundaries.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. It resolved the international rivalries that ivoted in areas like Congo, Egypt and Nile.
2. It speeded the partition of Africa under the principle of effective occupation.
3. The Conference highligtened the unity and degree of cooperation among European powers.
4. The Conference opened the interior of African land for colonization.
5. it avoided the possibility of the emperior powers to inter into war during the scramble for
Africa.
 6. It led to the setting of colonial boundaries in African Continent.

EFFECT OF PARTITION OF EAST AFRICA

I. The conflicts erupted between the religious groups such as the CMS (the church missionary
society) the Bangereza or British participants. The white fathers (French Roman Catholics) or
Bafaranca and Swahili traders (coastal Arabs and Kiswahili traders) who were being supported
by the Kabaka and the traditionalists. The CMS entered in Buganda in 1877.
The white fathers in 1879 both needed to spread Protestantism or Catholicism in Buganda. But
they were opposed by the Muslims Arabs who had warned the Kabaka about the dangers of
European missionaries, to respond Kabaka executed three believers of the CMS in 1885
including Bishop Hunnington.

II. In 1886 the government of the Kabaka killed about 30 converts at the court after refusing to
drop their Christian faith as a result the CMS appealed to the British and white
fathers to the French government to penetrate and protect them hence the scramble for Africa.

III. An attempt to establish a Belgium empire from the coast of East Africa to the Congo basin
from 1876 to 1889 by sending expeditions threatened the British and the Germans who were
already in East Africa. In 1876 king Leopard formed the international Africa association trade,
established Christianity civilization and control trade in the Congo region. Britain and Germany
immediately pushed for East Africa to avoid it from falling under the control of king Leopold II
of Belgium.

IV. The need for raw materials and markets by Germany and Britain made them scramble for
colonies in East Africa. Both Germany and Britain were industrialized countries demanding for
raw materials, markets, areas for investments and cheap labour of which could be obtained in
Africa hence the struggle to scramble for.
V. Trade. Both powers needed to occupy Zanzibar and large parts of the interior for trading
interests. Among the commercial companies were such as the Germany with the company and
the British East African association of 1887 these companies competed with each other.

VI. British rule over Zanzibar began in 1890, while in Uganda and Kenya was in 1894 and was
then refered as British East Africa).
VII. Germany took Tanganyika including Dar es Salaam and bought the Coastal 10 strips from
Zanzibar.

VIII. Dar-es-Salaam and Mombasa became important main ports and were linked with railway to
the interior.

IX. Two agreements (Anglo German of 1886 & 1890) eliminated in the prelude to colonialism.

STEPS WHICH WERE TAKEN IN THE PARTITION

The powers signed two agreements or treaties which included;
I. The Anglo – Germany agreement or delimitation treaty of 1886. In this agreement the two
powers agreed on the following matters;
A. They defined the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, Kismay, Brava, Mogadishu and
Warshekh as the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar plus 10mile coastal trip to Witu.
B. The region between the river Tana and river Ruvuma was divided by boundary to the Umba
River to Lake Victoria.
C. The Northern half of (modern Kenya) became a British sphere of influence while the southern
half becomes the Germany sphere of influence.
D. Germany was given Witu the coastline of Kenya up to Kipini river in Kenya.

Anglo-Germany treaty of 1886.

The rivalry between the two powers continued because the western boundaries were not drawn
between Tanganyika and Kenya. The competition for the control of Uganda began due to its
fertility, high population and being the source of river Nile. Britain feared that if Germany
controlled Uganda her stay there would be in danger.
At the same time Karl Peter’s of Germany trade treaties with Kabaka Mwanga and the chief
Nabongo Sekwanga Mumia in western Kenya, therefore the rivalry between them led to another
agreement.

The Anglo-Germany agreement or the Helgoland treaty of 1890.

1. Germany recognized Uganda and Kenya as British spheres of influence.
2. Germany recognized Zanzibar as the British protectorate and the rest of the sultan’s
dominions.
3. Germany lost the Witu which became under British possession in Kenya. In compensation for
Witu Germany was given Helgoland an island off the coast of Germany in the north sea to use it
as a military base.
4. Germany continued to control Tanganyika and she acquired ten miles coastal strip from the
sultan of Zanzibar by buying the area as compensation to the sultan for the possession, then the
German controlled ports of Tanga, Bagamoyo, Dar es salaam, Kilwa and Mikindani and other
parts of Tanganyika.
5. The western boundaries between Tanganyika, Uganda and Kenya were defined. Uganda
became a British protectorate.
The Anglo-Belgian treaty of 1891 defined the south western Uganda. Therefore Germany
controlled Rwanda and Burundi.
Anglo-Germany treaty of 1890

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM COLONIAL CONTROL AND AFRICAN

REACTION
Colonialism is the situation where by one country dominates or rule another country socially,
politically, economically and culturally.
Most African countries were colonized by European countries after the Berlin conference except
Ethiopia and Liberia. African countries lost their independence, sovereignty and control over
their own matters after being colonized.
Therefore during the imposition of colonial rule it was not easy for colonialists to penetrate into
the interior of Africa because;
1. Africans were not ready to be colonized.
2. Africans had their own systems of governance.
3. Africans had their own system of social, political, economic and culture.
4. Africans had a strong leadership and army which strongly protected their state etc.
Therefore during the establishment of colonial rule colonialists used the following methods/
tactics.

METHODS/TACTICS/ WAYS OF ESTABLISHING/IMPOSING COLONIAL RULE.

There are various ways or methods/tactics employed/ used by colonialist to impose/ establish
colonial rule in Africa are as follows;
1. Diplomacy method [signing of treaties]
2. The use of force [military conquest] violence.
3. Alliance or collaboration
4. Administrative technique e.g Direct rule, indirect rule and Assimilation.
5. Ideological methods e.g Introduction of Western Education, Western civilization racism and
introduction of Christianity.
6. The use of infrastructures and communication Media.
7. Economic technique e.g Destruction of Industries, this was done by importing ready
manufactured goods from abroad e.g clothes, beards, wine.
The techniques/tactics / methods or ways mentioned above were applied or used in
imposing/establishing colonialism because; the colonialist find some difficulties since Africans
were not ready to be colonized therefore they applied these tactics as follows;

i. THE DIPLOMACY METHOD [THE SIGNING OF TREATIES

This method was the method of signing bogus treaties done by colonialist with African local
rulers which cheated Africans to accept colonial control.
African local leaders signed those treaties without understanding their meaning because they did
not know how to read and write. After signing the treaties African local leaders would find their
areas colonized. For example; Karl Peters signed many treaties with chief Mangungo of
Msovero, Kilosa, Usangara and Uluguru. Stanley signed treaties with king Lobengula of Ndebele
[Zimbabwe]
The treaties signed by colonialist with African rules were called bogus treaties because
ii. MILITARY CONQUEST/USE OF FORCE
Military conquest was a method/way of imposing /establishing colonial rule where by colonialist
used military force such as army, soldiers, police etc to force Africans to accept colonial rule
when the diplomacy method/way failed.
For example Germany used force /violence/ military conquest to force Mkwawa of the Hehe to
accept colonial control in his territory.

iii. ALLIANCE OR COLLABORATION

This was another technique/ way or method of imposing/establishing colonial rule where by
colonialists united or cooperated with some societies which had enmity by supporting one side to
defeat the other then colonize all together.

AFRICAN REACTION AGAINST IMPOSITION OF COLONIAL RULE

Despite of colonialists to use different rules/ methods/ tactics or techniques or ways to impose
[establish] colonial rule; Still during imposition of colonial rule in Africa, Africans reacted or
opposed colonialism because Africans were not ready to be under colonial control that is why
Africans imposed different reactions against colonialists.

WAYS/ GROUP OF REACTIONS

There were two ways of reaction against imposition of colonial rule and these were;
1. Collaboration [ alliance]
2. Resistance
These two groups of reaction against imposition of colonial rule depended on the following;

THE NATURE OF AFRICAN REACTION AGAINST COLONIAL RULE

1. The military structure and the strength of the society.
2. The nature of leader ship i.e. strong or weak.
3. The nature of the colonialists i.e. aggressive or friendly.
4. The nature of exploitation and oppression made Africans to use collaboration or resistance.
5. The level of interference in social, political and economic interest made Africans to react or
not.
6. The nature of population [African societies] for example the size of the population, unity
among the people etc.

COLLABORATION/ ALLIANCE
Collaboration was a way of reacting against imposition of colonial rule where by African
societies cooperated with Europeans invaders. African societies used the method to oppose
colonial rule by welcoming or making cooperation with the colonialists against indigenous
[fellow] enemies and conducting treaties so as to get support and preserve their interests against
their enemies.
Therefore collaboration simply means, Africans welcomed Europeans in order to get their
support. For example Maasai, Buganda and Lozi collaborated with colonialists as the way to
avoid their control.

THE REASONS WHY SOME AFRICAN SOCIETIES COLLABORATED WITH

COLONIALISTS
i. Poor/weak military power
Some societies had poor military power compared to the colonialists; therefore they decided to
cooperate with them in the opposing manner.
ii. Poor leadership
Some societies in Africa decided to cooperate with colonialists because they had poor or weak
leaders who were not militant confident to fight against colonial rule.
iii. To fight against their fellow Africans.

Some African societies collaborated with colonial rule invaders so as to get assistance to fight
their fellow enemies who were strong militarily. For example Sangu, Bena and Yao collaborated
with the Germany against Mkwawa of the Hehe.
iv. To get military/ weapon support.
African societies collaborated with colonialists because they wanted to get strong military
weapons to defend their territories i.e. Nambongo Mumia of Wanga and Kabaka Mutesa
collaborated with the British to get strong arms.
v. Fear and to promote peace and harmony.
Some societies in Africa decided to cooperate with colonialists due to the desire of maintenance
of peace and harmony and avoiding warfare.
vi. Ignorance.
Ignorance of some Africans especially rulers [leaders] who did not understand the mission
[intention] of colonialists through given gifts, fooled and persuaded them to sign bogus treaties 

For example chief Mangungo of Msovero Kisola signed a bogus treaty with Karl peters. King
Lobengula of shone and Ndebele signed bogus treaties with John Moffat
vii. Natural problems such as calamities/ disaster. Some societies in Africa suffered a lot with
natural calamities such as drought, floods hunger etc which made them weak politically hence
collaborating with the colonialists to get relief or assistance. For example the Maasai, the
Chagga, the Kikuyu etc.
viii. The role of missionaries:-They played a great role to soften the African mind by preaching
them to be humble and obidient to their masters, this lowered the African temper against colonial
rule.

RESISTANCE
Resistance is the situation where by Africans fought in order to oppose European invasion or
colonial rule.
Or is the opposition against colonial rule or control.

FORMS OF RESISTANCE
There are two forms of resistance or reaction against colonial rule employed/ applied by Africans
and these are:
1. Active resistance
2. Passive resistance

ACTIVE RESISTANCE
is the form of resistance where by Africans took arms to fight against colonial rule, or active
resistance is the one which Africans wage war to oppose colonial rule by destructing European
properties like farms, killing Europeans and so on. Eg of African societies which applied active
resistance against colonial systems were: Nyamwezi, under Isike, Hehe under Mkwawa and Yao
under Machemba.

WHY SOME SOCIETIES OF AFRICA SUCCEEDED/WERE ABLE TO APPLY ACTIVE

RESISTANCE?
1. Presence of strong/ good leadership e.g. Samori Toure and Mkwawa.
2. Strong army.
3. Strong unity among the people.
4. Good war techniques.
5. Strong organizations/political systems.
6. Powerful socially and economically.

PASSIVE RESISTANCE
Is the form of resistance where by Africans did not take arms in opposing colonial rule or
cooperating with colonialists.
Or
Passive resistance is unarmed or nonviolence opposition against colonial control by refusing to
pay taxes, production of cash crops, denied to work etc. an example of a society which applied
passive resistance was Pogoro who refused to involve in colonial activities like cotton picking in
southern Tanganyika.

WHY SOME AFRICAN SOCIETIES APPLIED PASSIVE RESISTANCE NOT ACTIVE

RESISTANCE?
1. Poor weapons
2. Absence of strong army; presence of weak army made some African societies to afraid to
fight.
3. Weak leadership.
4. Poor unity among the people.
5. Presence of natural calamities for example floods, droughts.
6. Weak social and political organizations.

REASONS WHY AFRICAN SOCIETIES FOUGHT AGAINST IMPOSITION OF

COLONIAL RULE
Almost many African societies resisted against imposition of colonial rule due to the following
reasons:
1. To defend social and political sovereignty;
Many societies in Africa decided to resist colonial rule because colonialist wanted to interfere
their social and political power. So African chiefs or leaders such as Mkwawa, Samora Toure
and Kaberege etc took army to fight against it.
2. Interference of trade
Africans resisted against imposition of colonial rule because colonialists interfered with African
trade monopolies which made Africans harsh towards colonialists hence resistance.
3. Interference of cultures
African resisted against imposition of colonial rule since colonialists wanted to interfere African
culture such as religion, language etc.
4. Land alienation.
Africans resisted against imposition of colonial rule because colonialists took African’s land as a
result Africans took arms to fight against this.
5. Forced labour
Many African societies imposed to resist once against colonial rule since colonialists forced
them to work by force without payment in colonial activities like farms, construction of BOMAS
etc. Examples of resistances were Majimaji, Nandi resistance, Chimulenga etc.
6. Introduction of taxation
Colonialists introduced different heavy taxes such as head tax, cattle tax, hut taxand matiti tax
where Africans were forced to pay them as a result they resisted against the imposition of
colonial rule.
7. Harsh rule
8. Africans were not ready to be colonized.
Africans resisted against the imposition of colonial rule because they were not ready to be
colonized since they had their own system of governance and administration.
9. Beliefs of political and military strengths.
African societies were believed that they were powerful and strong in political and military as a
result when colonialist came they opposed against them for example chief Machemba of Yao
disobeyed Germany governor WISSMAN because he believed in his military power.
10. Colonial social segregation and discrimination.
Africans resisted against colonialist because Africans were segregated, oppressed and
discriminated by them and treated as inferior in social, political and economic issues as a result
Africans resisted them harshly
11. Alliance / collaboration between traditional enemies with the colonialists.

TYPES OF RESISTANCE
There are two main types of resistance namely:
1. Small scale resistance [ primary resistance]
2. Large scale resistance[secondary resistance]
 

SMALL SCALE RESISTANCE

Small scale resistance is the type of resistance which fought for a short period of time over a
small area or small group of people.
Small scale resistance normally covered a small area fought on the basis of tribal lines occurred
during penetration of colonialists i.e. the Nandi, Hehe, Nyamwezi etc.
Small scale resistance was influenced by local rulers [leaders] who organized their small groups
of people to take army against European invaders to defend their territories.
EXAMPLES OF SMALL SCALE RESISTANCE WHICH WILL BE DISCUSSED ARE
1. The HEHE resistance [1891-1898]
2. The NYAMWEZI resistance [1891-1894]
3. The YAO resistance [1888]
4. The BUNYORO resistance[1893]
5. The MASAI [Kenya resistance 1895]
6. The NANDI resistance
THE HEHE RESISTANCE [1891-1898]
HEHE resistance was a small scale resistance which occurred in 1891-1898 fought against
Germany under the leadership of MKWAWA.
Or
HEHE resistance was a small scale resistance fought between the HEHE tribe against Germany
in 1891-1898 under the leadership of MKWAWA. HEHE resistance was among of the strong
and powerful resistance imposed towards Germany colonial power since it fought for many years
and brought a lot of damages, sufferings and disturbances to Germany because HEHE tribe
under the leadership of MKWAWA had good war techniques inherited from the Ngoni tribe such
as cow horns, short stubbing spears and long hide.
Therefore through good war techniques HEHE under MKWAWA formed a strongest kingdom
and resisted against Germany rule than the rest resistance in East Africa.
CAUSES OR REASONS OF HEHE RESISTANCE
1. Interference of Mkwawa’s leadership, Germany wanted to control Mkwawa and forced him to
accept Germany control due to that Mkwawa disagreed to accept Germany rule.
2. To protect political and economical interests.
3. Interference of culture; Germany interfered Hehe culture such as polygamy belief in many
systems etc which made the Hehe under the Mkwawa harsh hence fight against Germany.
4. Germany harsh rule; Germany ruled Hehe very harsh not respectful to the Hehe, they forced
them to pay tax, to work and took their land as a result the Hehe fought against the Germany.
5. Killing of the Mkwawa’s delegates. Germany killed Mkwawa’s delegates who were sent to
compromise as a result Mkwawa revenged by killing Germany commander known as EMIL
VON ZELEWSKY and 300 African soldiers as a result war started. The name Mkwawa means
conqueror of lands.
6. Germany’s occupation / control several areas in Tanganyika. Hehe under Mkwawa fought
against the Germans because they wanted to control Ugogo, Uluguru, Usagaraand Mpwapwa
which had 410 economic importances to the HEHE.
7. Blocking trade routes; Hehe resistance against Germany occurred following Mkwawa
blocking all Germany caravan routes passed his area which disrupted the Germany trade hence
conflicts started.
Due to the above reasons or causes of the Hehe resistance the war/fighting broke out which took
a long period of time. The Germany attacked Mkwawa in 1891 following the killing of the
Germany commander Emil von Zelewsky at Lugalo.
In 1894 Germany attacked Mkwawa’s capital known as Kalenga but Mkwawa succeeded to run
away [escape] and started to fight the GORRILAS WARFARE until 1898.
In the same year 1898 Mkwawa while he was hiding himself he became sick. The Germans
approached where he was hiding Mkwawa did not accept the shame of surrender to Germany
while he was alive he shot himself in July 1898 and died.
THE NANDI RESISTANCE [1896-1905]
Nandi resistance was a small scale resistance fought between the Nandi tribe in Kenya against
British in 1896-1905 following the British occupation or control over the Nandi’s land.
Or
Nandi resistance was a small scale resistance occurred in 1896-1905 when Nandi tribe in Kenya
resisted against the British control over their land organized by a leader known as KOITALEL
and ORKOLYOT.
The Nandi resistance occurred since the British invaded and occupied [control] the Nandi land
by constructing [build] telegraphic lines and railways along the Nandi rift valley land which were
fertile for crop production and livestock keeping. The Nandi were not happy for the construction
of that railway lines and termed or called ”Iron snake”.
Therefore they started the resistance by attacking the British military position, uprooting and
cutting wires, attacking the British caravan trade, raiding the railway deposits etc.
The Nandi did that because they believed that they had the superior weapons and military to fight
British as they conquered the neighboring territories.
THE REASONS OR CAUSES OF THE NANDI RESISTANCE.
1. Introduction of the railway lines along the Nandi land. Nandi resisted against British because
British constructed a railway line on the Nandi land which they defined on it for farming and
livestock keeping.
2. Land problems or alienation. British took Nandi’s best and fertile land and gave it to the
whites settlements as a result the Nandi fought against them.
3. The Nandi’s pride. The Nandi fought against the British because they believed that they were
superior, strong and powerful socially, economically, politically, militarily and culturally hence
did not want to be controlled.
4. The pressure from Kimnyoles prophecy; the Nandi decided to fight against the British because
of the prophecy of the Kimnyole who foreseen the coming of foreigners on their land which
made the Nandi to fight against the British after they arrived on their land.
5. The killing of the Nandi leader KOITALEL; Nandi’s resisted against the British following the
killing of their leader known as Koitalel when he was called in the meeting of stopping the
resistance.
THE EFFECT OR IMPACT OF NANDI RESISTANCE
1. The death of people. Nandi resistance led to the massive loss of people’s lives including
leaders such as Koitalel, Orkolyot and other warriors.
2. British colonizing the Nandi land. The British defeated the Nandi during resistance as a result
they took the Nandi land and made the Nandi to lost their sovereignty.
3. Destruction or damage of properties. The Nandi resistance led to the destroying of people’s
properties including land, railways, telegraphic lines, killing of livestock, houses etc.
4. Hunger and famine. Nandi resistance led to the occurrence of hunger [food shortage] since
resistance took many years and farms and cattle were killed during the fighting.
5. Migration of people. The Nandi resistance led to the restless of people because during and
after the resistance people run away or migrated to other areas.
6. Land alienation. Nandi resistance led to many Nandi people to remain landless since after the
resistance British took Nandi’s fertile land.
7. Nandi resistance led to the introduction of cheap labour, since those Nandi people had decided
to be employed as cheap labours to the British settle farms.
8. Over grazing of some area. Nandi resistance led to the environmental degradation since the
area which the Nandi pushed or migrated were not enough for cattle grazing.
THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891-1894
Nyamwezi resistance was a small scale resistance against the Germany rule organized by
Nyamwezi under their leader known as chief Isike in 1891-1894. The Nyamwezi resistance
occurred as a result of German’s monopolization over Nyamwezi’s trade and passed through
their land such as Ujiji and Mwanza which broke their first good trade relation.
The Nyamwezi started resistance under their leader chief Isike in 1891 in order to avoid the
Germany control; but due to poor weapons the German attacked Isike’s fort and destroyed it.
Chief Isike decided to blow up [kill himself] together with his family in the gun powder
magazine rather than being captured by Germany.
The influence from Isike leadership. Isike was regarded as strong and powerful leader so he
organized his people to fight against German rule.
The land conflicts. Germany wanted to control the Nyamwezi’s land as they did in other areas in
Tanganyika as a result Nyamwezi resisted against the German control.
REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE
1. Absence of strong army.
2. Poor weapons.
3. Disunity among the people.
4. Poor fighting techniques.
5. Poor war organizations etc.
THE YAO RESISTANCE [1890-1899]
YAO resistance was small scale resistance which fought between the YAO against the Germans
in 1890-1899 under the leadership of Chief MWENE MACHEMBA.
The Yao resistance was an active resistance since Machemba organized his people actively and
was able to defeat three Germany companies sent to him..After machemba to defeat Germany
companies; the German Governor forced Machemba to leave his place but he refused as a result
German took up army against machemba and attacked Machemba’s fort in 1899. Machemba
managed to escape into Mozambique and left his fellow imprisoned as a result the Yao resistance
failed hence Germany took control over the Yao‘s southern region of Tanganyika.
THE CAUSES OF THE YAO RESISTANCE
1. Interference of Yao’s territory. The Germany wanted to control the Yao’s territory which
made Yao under Machemba to fight activity against it.
2. The conflict between Machemba and the Germany. Machemba defeated three German
companies as a result German took up army to fight.
3. Machemba’s rejection to surrender. The Germany forced Machemba to surrender by leaving
his place to the coast as a result Germany waged for the war.
4. Introduction of taxes.
5. Forced labour. The German forced Yao to work without or with low payment as a result
people took up arms against Germany.
ABUSHIRI AND BWANA HERI RESISTANCE 1888-1889
Abushiri and Bwana Heri resistance was a small scale resistance which occurred along the
coastal region of Tanganyika where by rich Arabs and local traders organized to fight against the
British and the German interference on their trade in 1888-1889.
              LARGE SCALE RESISTANCE IN AFRICA.

(a) MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE 1905-1907

It is not possible to recognize any simple pattern in African resistance to European rule. Samori
fought a long defensive battle against the -French. Lobengula saw the futility of military
resistance. People such as Nandi reacted immediately in violent manner to the British advance.
Other groups, having failed to put up much of a resistance at first; were persuaded to rebel
against the European later. Often a rekindling of traditional religious belief was combined with
armed rebellion. An example of such a revolt was the Maji-Maji Rising of 1905-1907 in
Tanzania. 

The Majimaji resistance broke out in the southern Tanganyika against the German control. This
is a large and popular African uprising in Africa. The term “Majimaji” is derived from Swahili
word “Maji” which -means water. Majimaji was magic water drawn from river Rufiji and mixed
up with maize and millet flour after mixing up the water was thrown on the various fighters so as
to protect them from German bullets in war, The leader of the Maji maji uprising was known as
Kinjekitile Ngware, who lived at Ngarambe in Southern Tanganyika. He organized his followers
‘and began to fight in July 1905, the Matumbi of Nandete in Rufiji were the first to take up
arms. 

Majimaji uprising was highly mobilized and its followers possessed courage as well as
determination against the German rule in Tanganyika. It took a wide coverage’ and speeded very
fast from Matumbi of Nandele in Rufiji to other areas like Uluguru, Masasi, the Makonde
plateau, Songea, the Kilombero Valley, North Dar es Salaam and the Mahenge plateau. In these
areas African communities such as Zaramo, Ngoni, Bena, Mwera, Ngindo; Pogoro, Mbunga,
Ndendeule and Luguru united together to fight against German rule. 
Causes of Majimaji Resistance 
(i) The forced cotton growing that was ordered by the German government in 1902. The
Akidas were ordered by the governor to establish cotton plots where African communities of
southern Tanzania had to work with little pay or provide a free labour, they also worked under
inhuman. This situation dissatisfied the people and decided to take up arms against Germans. 
    

(ii) Forced labour was another African grievance. Africans were forced to work on railway
construction as well. as settler farms.: Africans were humiliated by the Germans and friends
while working. Generally, the colonial treatment towards Africans was inhuman. 

(iii) The imposition of heavy taxes and fines on Africans by he Germans. ‘the taxes were
unfair and had to be paid in the form of money. For example, the tax imposed for hut was to be
paid in form of money for about three rupees. But Africans did not have money; the only way of
getting money was through selling labour power to the Germans to earn money to pay different
taxes imposed. The collection of tax aimed at raising the revenue for the colonial administration
but this system was new to the Africans. They were also discontented because the colonialist
used their land for production while at the same time forced them to pay taxes. 

(iv)The Germans disregarded African traditional beliefs .and practices, such as dances and
circumcision. They overlooked the African religious leaders and condemned sacred places as the
areas of African witchcraft. The disruption of traditional practices disappointed the Africans thus
decided to stage resistance against Germans.     

(v) The hostile and harsh treatment of the people by the German appointees, such as the
Akidas. Akidas and their local police treated African people brutally. Their ruthless ruling
system also discredited Africans hence lived like slaves.     
(vi) African people wanted to regain their lost independence. Most of the young men felt that
they had lost their manhood. by submitting to the Germans. The German occupation at the initial
stage involved different ways which resulted into disunity among the Africans. Later Africans
realized the need to unite together so as to-fight against common enemy, that is, German
foreigners. 
(vii) Africans wanted to oppose adultery, rapping and fornication exercised by German
mercenaries and their house boys. These practices were crimes to African communities and the
offenders had to be punished. This was predominant among the Ngindo communities. But the
Germans and their house boys exercised all the practices that were regarded as crimes and
disregarded the Ngindo taboo. The local communities, especially the Ngindo, were discontented
with these events hence took up arms against Germans. 
(viii) The Ngoni people wanted to revenge for the killings of 1898. During the initial stage of
imposing German rule, a large -number of Ngoni people were murdered and their properties
destroyed or taken by German forces. This event created bitterness, hence resulting into taking
up of arms by Ngoni’s against Germans. 
(xi) The influence of Kinjekitile, who was an. effective leader with ability of organizing people,
instilled confidence in the African people by requesting them to unite and take up arms against
the German invaders. The Kinjekitile’s force believed that they would be immune to German
bullets as the water sprinkled on them would turn the bullets into water.  The Majimaji resistance
ended in. 1907 and African forces were defeated by the Germans. Many fighters were killed and
those who survived lost the hope as the ‘magic’ water had failed to protect them from German
bullets. Most of the fighters escaped to Mozambique, many were hanged while others
surrendered to the Germans. 

Causes for African Defeat 

(i) Africans employed poor weapons such as arrows, spears and outdated guns against their
enemies who used superior automatic machines like machine guns. They also lacked fighting
skills and were poorly organized as opposed to their counterpart, the Germans, who were well
trained and organized. 
(ii)The Germans were supported in many ways, such as weapons and mercenary soldiers from
Sudan, Germany, New Guinea, and Somalia. All these reinforced the Germans and led to
emergence of large army, which could attack Africans strongly and effectively. 
(iii)The Africans lacked military communication infrastructures. They failed to
communicate between one ethnic group and another. Every ethnic group fought in isolation in
different areas and their leaders had different motives and grievances. 
(iv)Failure of magic water ‘Majimaji’ to turn German bullets into water and protect the
African fighters. A large number of the warriors were killed during the war hence others lost
faith over their religion. 
(v)The Majimaji uprising covered a small area, hence failing to cooperate a number of
African powerful communities, like the Nyamwezi and Hehe in the interior. These powerful
communities could bring support to African forces. 
(vi)The effect of scorched-earth policy employed by Germans. This policy involved
destruction of African residences and destroying crops and property/ thus famine caused deaths
among –the African fighters since many of them were starving. 
Impacts of Majimaji Resistance 
(i)The Majimaji resistance made Germans ruler to reform their administration so as to
avoid, another uprising in Tanganyika. These reforms were made under Governor Lord
Rothenberg. They also changed their attitudes towards Africans. Governor Rothenberg
introduced some important measures to improve Africa services, like education and health,
farming and communication system. He also rejected extra taxation of Africans and abolished
corporal punishment, The Governor recognized traditional chiefs, stopped forced labour and
began to punish German settlers who mistreated the African workers. 
(ii) It brought together many African communities such as Ngindo,Zaramo, Ngoni and
Matumbi to resist against the European invaders 

(iii) It led to the destruction of properties since the Germans used the scorched-earth policy
which involved burning of villages and crops in all areas with African forces. 

(iv)A large number of Africans lost their lives. It is estimated that between 75, 000 and 120,
000 Africans, including their leaders and soldiers, were killed by the German forces while other
people died of diseases and starvation. A large part of the southern Tanganyika became
depopulated 
(v)The Majimaji resistance led to the emergence of severe famine since the German soldiers
destroyed farms and granaries during the war. This period of famine was known as funga funga
period among the people of south eastern Tanganyika. 
(vi) The majimaji resistance led to the displacement of many African families during the
war. Due to fear and insecurity, many people escaped to different directions to look for other
areas of settlement where they thought to be peaceful. The war also influenced family separation
among the African communities.
(vii) The war laid the foundation for nationalism in Tanganyika, because after the uprising
Africans learnt a lot and adopted a new method of resistance against colonial in Tanganyika and
disregarded their ethnic differences.
REACTION TO FRENCH INVASION IN WEST AFRICA 
(a) Reaction to French Invasion Senegambia 
French military conquests in West Africa, were first directed against Senegambia during the rule
of Mohmadou Lamine, and against Guinea then under Samori Toure. The major aim of the
French was to capture the trading centers of Western Sudan and the strategic area between Upper
Senegal and Niger. They had already built warehouses and fortresses along these rivers to
control trade in palm oil, groundnuts, and gold from the interior. However, the power base of
African ruling classes lay in the control of this trade. This was one of the factors of the conflict
between the French imperialists forces and the African rulers. 
The French employed a number of techniques to conquer the territory One of this was to- utilize
existing local differences, or to initiate new conflicts between African ruling groups. To be able
to conquer Senegambia, the French formed alliances with the empires of Tukulor under Sheikh
Ahmaddu, Bandu Empire under Umar Penda and Khasso under Luku Sambala. In so doing the
French managed to’ conquer and subjugate the weaker states. 
(b) Reaction to French Invasion of Guinea 
Samori Toure of Guinea illustrates for many people the courage and determination of African
resistance to European conquest. Samori Toure was successful for sixteen years in preventing his
own state from being colonized by the French. Although he was ultimately defeated, the duration
of his resistance was in itself a victory, which can only be understood by looking back to the
earlier period of his life. 
Samori Toure was born into a Malinke family, the first child of a -farmer who had strongly
family connections with the Dyula, the trading community of the Malinke people. The Dyula
lived in the great commercial centers on the northern edge of the West African forest belt
separating the inland regions from the Gulf of Guinea. They were also very famous in the
commercial centers along the trans-Sahara trade routes such as Timbuktu, Taghaza and Walata.
Commodities such as cloth, iron tools and salt were carried by the Dyula merchants and
exchanged with forest products such as palm oil, kola nuts, and ivory. Fire arms also occupied a
very important position in-this trade 
At the age of eighteen he asked to be released from his duties on the farm and be allowed to join
the Dyula. For about five years he built, up strong, business and made many contacts throughout
the Western Sudan. This life was interrupted in 1852 when his mother ‘was made captive by’
Soni ‘Birama, the King of Bisandugu.Samori offered his services as a soldier to Soni Birama in
return for his mother’s freedom. 
Samori’s power and leadership attracted many followers and within a few years he found that he
was strong enough to be independent of Soni Birama, He set out to control the whole of Malinke
land and thus to maintain peace, law and order. He was joined by many minor leaders and
supported, by his family. 
By 1879 his territory had stretched from Sierra Leone ‘to the Ivory Coast in the West from
Bamako in the north to the Liberian borders in the south. His authority was based more on his
military power than on his religious leadership. His arm was composed of young captive r,
soldiers trained mostly as foot soldiers-the infantry. His army could have at total of ten or twelve
thousand fully equipped soldiers. 
Samori determined to defend commercial centers and the trade routes, always sought to acquire
and maintain regular supplies of firearms, ammunitions and horses for his army. He was helped
by the Dyula merchants in this endeavour. The merchants obtained the firearms through trade
with European merchants. Samori further maintained a group of skillful craftsmen who repaired
and even made guns. 
In 1882, French forces of occupation started advancing towards Bamako. They demanded that
Samori should keep away from the large Bambara and Mandingo markets. Samori rejected the
demand and managed to keep the French off up to 1890. From 1891 to 1898 Samori conducted
guerrilla warfare. He organized an excellent system of military intelligence to spy on enemy
troop movements. 

Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898) 

(i) The French activities of selling arms to Samori’s enemies, such as Tieba of Sikasso alarmed
Samori Toure. The French’ aimed at weakening the Mandika so as to acquire it smoothly. 
(ii) Samori Toure was shocked by the failure of his plan of playing off the British against the
French. He had signed an agreement with the British on non-interference in each other’s sphere
of influence. Unfortunately, the British refused to support Samori against the French. 
(iii) Samori Toure wanted to protect the independence of his empire. The use of force by the
French in acquiring colonies could not be tolerated by Samori Toure     
(iv)The French wanted to conquer Mandika when Samori’s empire had reached at its peak with
military supremacy and economic prosperity. The French therefore threatened Samori’s
territorial expansion into areas which they claimed belonged to them. 
(v)Samori wanted to safeguard trade. He was determined to, defend commercial centres and the
trade routes and maintain regular supplies of firearms. 
Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so
long?      
(i) Strong army. Samori Toure had established strong army of approximately 12,000 men and
about 90,000 reserves. He had a standby army, trained military men who could be taken in
emergence, cases to help the permanent army. 
(ii) Modern weapons. Samori Toure had ‘excess to modern arms that he had acquired from the
coastal traders’ that he had been friend with them. Samori Toure had established friendship with
the coastal traders for quite some time. lie also had military workshops which supplied him with
weapons and repaired his defected weapons. 
(iii) Samori Toure had a lot of wealth from trade in slaves, gold and colanuts, which was utilized
in rewarding his workers and soldiers for their services. 
(iv) Some of the Samori soldiers had served in the French-army where they had acquired modern
military techniques and so were able to respond effectively to the invaders. These soldiers passed
those skills to the rest of the Army. 
(v) He was determined to maintain and preserve his independence in the eyes of Europeans
advance. This motivated him to resist for a long time. 
(vi) Samori Toure established state control of agriculture -and markets to ensured regular food
supply for the army. Availability of food to the soldiers encouraged them to fight for long time. 
(vii) The use of guerrilla or commando tactics of surprise ambushes and right raids. This’ helped
Samori Toure occasionally to win the war. ‘The French soldiers found the Mandika people too
difficult to control
(viii) He used scorched earth military technique such as burning villages and destroying crops in
order to make the French starve when they reached the area. 
(ix) Samori Toure got support from the Mandika people in national war of defense. This support
helped Samori Toure to resist for a long time. 
Why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated? 
(i) Anglo-French conspiracy. Between 1889 and 1890 Samori had reached an agreement with the
British to supply arms to Samori’s armies up to 1896. But in 1896 the British breached the treaty
by occupying Sierra Leone thus blocking Samori’s access to arms supplies. In the same year
British forces occupied the Gold Coast making it impossible for Samori to form a military
alliance with Ashanti.
(ii) Shortage of military weapons. Surrounded by enemies, Samori doubled efforts to
manufacture arms within his empire. However, these were not sufficient for the’ ever-increasing
war demands. In 1889 the French managed to defeat Samori’s forces. Samori was captured and
exiled to Gabon where he died two years later.     
(iii) Disunity among rulers. The resisters were unable to unite together as their enemy was
common. Samori sought alliance with AImed Seku of Tukola and Tieba of Sikasso with no
success. In fact, these rulers even assisted the French in defeating Samori. 
(iv) A disciplined and well organized army helped to defeat Africans. The colonial armies were
better trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics. Hence the armies led by Samori
Toure did not stand a chance. Thus the Africans were taught a lesson, that those “modern”
societies with institutionalized war and professionalism in modern fighting techniques 
could never be defeated by warfare.     
(v) The Europeans wanted to preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made
them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly. 
(vi)Instability and public misery were also a major factor in defeat. The wars of resistance of
Samori Toure were fought with bitterness which culminated into greater devastation. Villages
were set on fire, farmlands destroyed animals looted. This ended up with loss of property, year
and famine and stirred up local resistances.
Lack of support from communities. The non- Mandika communities and non- Muslims in the
empire did not give him full support because they had been mistreated during his leadership.
Some decided to support the French forces against him.
ZIMBABWE 
The Mashona – Matebele (Chimurenga) Uprising in Zimbabwe (1896-1897) 

The whites created their settlement in Mashonaland in 1890.They thought that the Shona might
thank the whites and were grateful to them since they could protect them against their traditional
rivals, the Ndebele. But the matter was not so. The whites had misconceptions about the
Ndebele, for they thought that with the fall of Lobengula, the son of Mzilikazi, the Ndebele
power was completely dwarfed and could not stage war. As a result, in 1896, the whites were
caught by surprise, for there was a more or less joint uprising between the Shona and Ndebele. In
April 1896, the Matebele started a war that spread like summer fire to the Mashona tribe. In June
of the same year, the war broke out in Mashonaland. The war was motivated by outstanding
political, social, and economic dissatisfactions against the white men. 

The Causes of the Uprising 

Land expropriation: The B.S.A.C. and the whites confiscated and gave the white settlers the
better and more fertile land of the Mashona without consulting the local chiefs, for formerly land
was considered the property of the community and it was the chiefs’ duty to distribute lands. On
the other hand, the Ndebele were pushed into the reserves of the Shangani and Gwani, which had
water shortages and were infested with tsetse flies respectively. Worse still, the Ndebele’s
population was too high to inhabit this barren land. The situation was as the nduna Gambo said
One cause of dissatisfaction and unrest is that after we have lived many years in a spot, we are
told that the white man has purchased it and we have to go” to reserve. That incited the people
to 
resist. 
Forced labour: The prevalent policy of the whites was to compel Africans in both Matebeleland
and Mashonaland to supply labour. The commissioner in each district was given power to
compel chiefs to offer labourers in mineral and farm circles. All able-bodied men had to work
regardless of their former status in the society. This was done against their will. Labourers were
recruited by armed forces or by police who went around into villages to seize people by force. 
Harsh treatment: The 1893 Mashonaland and Matebeleland situation was as Sir Martin Richard
I, the resident commissioner, said: “The system was no better than slavery.” The employers and
native 
commissioners used the Sjambok, a kind of whip, to mistreat the local people. The elderly people
were flogged and killed in public, and the conditions in the mines were deplorable. 
Taxation policies: In 1894, the Hut Tax was introduced. Some of the Shona chiefs and their
subjects refused new laws introduced by the colonial administration as well as the British
technique of collecting taxes. There were also cases of officials’ grabbing cattle, goats, and
grains from the people who could not manage to pay taxes. Tax defaulters were crucified and at
times jailed without trial or inflicted to manual labour; thus, the nature of taxation policies, plus
other discontents, prompted the Chimurenga uprising. 
Low wages: Because the Africans were subjected to forced labour in mines and on white farms,
while they were lowly paid as return for their toil under atrocious conditions, including the
nature of the work and long working hours. Interference in the Shona trade: The desire of the
B.S.A. company to monopolise trade in Mashonaland contributed to the uprising. The Shona had
for a considerable length of time developed a trade relationship with the Portuguese for which
they sold gold-dust, ivory for guns, and other cheap manufactured products. The British,
however, intended to possess that commercial activity by force in which they wanted the Shona
sell and buy from South Africa. Worst still, the company wanted to control gold mining and not
in buying gold from Africans. Since the Shona failed to man the situation, war was the only
option. The Ndebele were also disturbed by the whites’ confiscation of their trade links, however
local and insignificant they were. 
The abolition of induna age regiments among the Matebele: The Matebele were made to
suffer socially and psychologically. Military towns were outlawed and the Ndunas were deprived
their power, importance and position. Above all, it was embarrassing for the British to nominate
the Shona policemen to enforce law and order in Ndebele areas. Such social grievance, coupled
with other factors, helped to excite the Ndebele community into the uprising. 
Favoritism: The colonial government elevated injustices in both the Shona and Ndebele
societies. There was very little justice bestowed on the African people. Most often, the colonial
government gave positions of responsibility to people who were untrained, unsuited, and
unaccepted by the people. The administration even enacted laws that protected the white
population against the Africans. For instance” the whites had fair punishments in comparison to
those of the blacks. The 
traditional chiefs, who had yielded great powers, were saddened when reduced to the lot of
commoners. The foreign police were given the responsibility to ensure observance of law and
order and maltreated the Africans, 
Loss of cattle: Cattle were the backbone of people’s livelihood. It is believed that Lobengula
possessed 250,000 cattle before his death. The Ndebele were only permitted to keep 40,930 out
of the total number, and t many of them were offered to the volunteers or to the B.S.A.C. The
others were dispatched to South Africa. Worse still, there was a render pest outbreak in 1895
killed nearly two million cattle. On a sadder note, it was portrayed that some animals were shot
dead on the 
command of the white man. Due to this grievance and others, war was unavoidable, 
Renderpest calamities in association with the white man’s presence: The Render pest
epidemics and swarm of locusts that invaded had dismantled food crops. Traditional religious
leaders said that the 
Render pest occurred due to the presence of the white men. The word spread that the ancestral
spirits were angered with the presence and activities of the white men. In this process, the local
population was provoked and finally they joined the war of resistance. 
Missionaries disregarded the traditions and customs of the Shona – Ndebele people: It has
been argued “the missionaries failed to understand the attachment the Shona had for their
traditional religion and their own form of government”. In Matebe1eland, the missionaries
wanted the Ndebele to alter their culture, ignoring especially their religion based on the Mwari
cult. That was the reason probably why the mission stations were attacked during the uprising. 
Desire for their lost independence: It encouraged hostility on the part of the Ndebele to
dismantle their monarchy. The Ndebele people resisted in the hope of repossess their lost
independence. None of the Nduna was appointed in any responsibility of administration, and as
regards the Mashonaland, the white men had dominated even the chiefs’ power to chastise the
wrongdoers. Their own discipline was extremely brutal. The uprising therefore wanted to re
attain the pre- colonial administration. 
Jameson’s raid: For long time, dissatisfactions among the Shona – Ndebele people were piling
up accumulating, but hardly ignited the war. The immediate cause of the uprising was the
Jameson’s raid. In December 1895 Dr. L.S. Jameson commanded a party of policemen to capture
and defeat Transvaal for Cecil Rhodes. The Boers however, decisively overpowered him. To
avoid the shame, Jameson was returned to Britain. This was clear sign to the Ndebele that even
the British were weak and could be subdued like other African tribes. Hence, the Shona and
Ndebele adjudged to attack British. After seeing that they were not unbeatable. The uprising
ended in 1897, but with a 
number of repercussions. The Africans who were fighting to repossess their independence
achieved little success. Nevertheless, the Ndunas’ importance was considered after the 1893 war
and they were appointed as officials in colonial administrative structures and were to given
remunerations. 
The Course of the War The Mlimo cult and the medium spirit leaders mobilized the people in the
uprising. The Matebele mobilized the Mkwati and Siginyamotsha, who had been most active.
The Mashonaland, Banda, and Ishiwa grouped the Shona into military regiments. 
The Ndebele chief priests, Ungulu, and Lobengula’s son, Nyamanda, enspirited the Ndebele
uprising. Women, children, men, young and old fight and get rid off the white men from their
land. The African warriors organised the war and took the whites by surprise and it costed the
whites’ lives. By 1897, the whites with the new coordination and tactics and defeated the
Ndebele and finally the Shona. 
Consequences of the Chimurenga Uprising The Chimurenga warriors were taught bitter
lesson and many of them died during the confrontation. 
The BSAC administration incorporated and expropriated more fertile land and cattle as war
indemnity. 
The company administration received much criticizism from the colonial office for
mistreatments of the natives. Then Cecil Rhodes guaranteed to make changes in governing the
Matebeleland. 
The Ndebele were redistributed new lands in the lowlands where they lived happily unperturbed
by the company and European mistreatment. 
The Ndebele indunas were considered and employed in various administrative positions under
the BSAC administration. 
Most of the educated Ndebele were given responsibilities as administrators in Mashonaland.
Mashonaland and Matebeleland were allocated to Most European settlers created their settlement
in the fertile land that formerly belonged to Shona and Ndebele. 
Many Africans adopted Christianity due to the inability of Mwari cult and the Chanimuka
(medium spirit) to defeat the Whiteman. 
Because of the failure in war the Mwari cult leaders could no longer command popularity in the
eyes of a rising number of people abandoning traditional religion and adopting Christianity. 
The confrontations witnessed the unification of traditional foes against the shared enemy, a
cohesion that was exploited well. 
The Ndebele’s claims were recognized and were given worthy treatments from the whites,
because the Ndebele looked for peace while the Shona persisted in war. 
NAMIBIA
The Nama and Herero uprising 1904- 1907 (Namibia) 
The German occupation and imposition of its colonial rule in Namibia met with a limited success
in the 1880s and 1890s. The region was inhabited by three main ethnic groups; the first and
second group comprised Bantu people of Ambo and Herero who engaged in crop cultivation and
livestock keeping. The other group comprised the Nama who were Hottentots and engaged in
Pastoralism. Both groups depended on land for cultivation and pasture, The history of Namibia
in the nineteenth century was characterized by intense conflicts between the Nama and Herero
who angered in Pastoralism and hunting. After the arrival of Europeans, the conflict was
intensified since this foreigner’ s used the. rivalry for their benefit. The Herero welcomed
Germans who offered them a treaty of-protection and proposed to help them against the Nama.
But this German and Herero alliance was opposed by the Nama leader Hedrick Witbooi since he
understood the nature and real aims of Germans. 
Chief Hedrick Witbooi realized that the Herero Chief could become just a mere subordinate chief
under the German government The Nama and Herero rivalry threatened the German
missionaries. Later on, in 1884, the Germans declared a protectorate over Namibia; they also
occupied the region effectively. The German government introduced the settler policy between
1884 and 1904 which affected both the Nama and Herero hence accumulated a lot of grievances
which resulted into uprising. 
Causes of Nama and Herero Uprising 
(i) The imposition of forced labour in 1896: Germans wanted labourers to work in plantations
and in the construction of infrastructures such as roads, railways as well as public buildings. The
African communities, that is, Nama and Herero were not used to the manual labour hence
resisted to. 
work. The German government used a lot of force to obtain labourers Africans were forced to
work in settler farms and mines. This discontented the Africans, thus deciding to take up arms
against Germans. 

(ii) Another reason for Nama and Hereto uprising was the cattle raiding that was done
frequently by the German traders and settlers. But cattle was the most treasured commodity
among the Herero and Nama communities, robbing of cattle threatened the economic interest of
these African commodities     
(iii) Land alienation: This included grabbing much of the best grazing land in the central
plateau of Namibia. The German government reserved the fertile land for settler settlement. The
Nama and Herero depended on this land for cultivation and pasture; they were thrown out of this
fertile land so as to give room for construction of railway and roads. This in turn created hostility
between African communities and Germans.     . 

(iv)Imposition of taxes: the Germans imposed taxes that had to be paid by Africans. They began
to demand taxes in 1896. In order to make effective collection of taxes, Germans used force. But
the African communities like the Eastern Herero and mbanderu, resisted by taking up arms
against Germans. 

(v) The destruction of traditional authority: after they had established their contrlt over
Namibia, Germans did not pay attention to the region. For example, they imposed some policies
without consulting the traditional chiefs from African communities. On the other hand, the
Germans did not recognize the traditional rulers hence considered them as illiterate. Having been
discontented with this situation, the Nama and Herero decided to resist against Germans so as to
restore their traditional practice and their independence.     –

(vi) Harassment to the Herero indebted people by the Germans following the credit ordinance
of 1903 that all debts had to be collected in one year time, after which the debt would be invalid.
Initially, the German trader entered into commercial relationship with Africans, the Germans
gained huge profits while Africans acquired a little profit. Many Africans were in debited by the
Germans traders and were forced to pay back the debts. The Germans also lent some money to
Africans at high interest rates, they also sold commodities to Africans on credit terms, but in
most cases Africans failed to pay the money. The Germans urged the colonial government to
enact laws that would enforce the Africans to payback the money. The law was enacted in 1903
and began to be implemented. Germans took the Africans livestock and land with the aim of
selling them to regain their money. This law disappointed the African rulers and their subjects
hence took up arms to resists against Germans: 

(vii) The outbreak of Rinder pest disease: It. killed about ninety percent (90%) of Nama and
Herero’s cattle in 1903. This affected their economy and many sold their idle land to German
settlers to sustain their life. But the rinder disease was interpreted by the religious leader’s
punishment from God since the Nama and IIerero cooperated with the whites, hence created bad
luck in their communities, thus the people had to resist against the Germans so as to get rid of
these misfortunes. 
 (viii) The German control over the religious beliefs: The Nama believed on their traditional
religions and trusted their religious’ leaders like chief Witbooi. When their beliefs were
threatened by the Germans, Chief Witbooi organized and motivated his subjects to resist against
the Germans since he believed that his army would defeat the Germans. He also promised these
people several benefits after the resistance. The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of
1905 when the Nama Chief, Witbooi, was killed. Since then the Nama unity began to decline
gradually. The Namaleadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also killed. He was
succeeded by Chief Simon cooper who continued the resistance until 1907 though the Germans
reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero
independence was destroyed’ by the Germans forces. They confiscated their cattle. and deposed
all their chiefs, the African commuriities who survived were subordinated, forced to work in
German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up to
the period of the first word war. 

The effects of the Nama Herero Uprising 

After the uprising, the Nama and Herero lost their cattle and land to Germans. They became very
poor and lived in severe life that could not enable to live in a conducive environment and good
life 
The African communities, such as the Hereto lost their life, only 16, 000 Herero survived out of
previous population of 80, 000. Whereas only’ 9800 Nama were alive in 1911, compared to 20,
000 people who survived in 1892: 
The chief township’ in Namibia was officially abolished by the German government. 
There was an increasing number of Germans in Namibia. For example, up to 1903 the number of
Germans was aboutA, 640 but after the war, the number increased up to 14, 840 in 1913. 
Namibia became a German colony and the German administration continued to be strong. For
this reason, the Nama and Herero uprising did not materialize and had Very minimal effect
compared to that of Majimaji in Tanganyika.     . 
After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where African
women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of
them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour. The Nama-Herero uprising
went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama chief Witbooi was killed. Since then the Nama
unity began to decline gradually. The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was
also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper, who continued the resistance until 1907
though the German reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and
Herero independence was destroyed by the German forces. They confiscated their cattle and
deposed all their chiefs. African communities which survived were subordinated, forced to work
in German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up
to the period of the first World’ War. 
CAUSES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE. 
There four major causes of African reaction to the colonial rule; These includes the following
(a) COLONIAL ECONOMY 

Land alienation; whereby Africans arable fertile- land was taken by the colonialists and 
they became landless. The land was the major live hood of African it was grabbed from 

them and distributed to the white settlers and colonial state plantations as to reduce the 

African to mere suppliers of cheap labor to the colonial plantations. 

Imposition of taxation by the colonialists. From the 1898 head tax was levied on all adult 
Africans in the colony of Tanganyika, at least 1 year or its equivalent this amounted to at least a
month’s wage on white-owned mine or two months or more on the white- owned farm. Later
alone other taxes like hut tax, gun tax, Matiti tax, aimed at forcing Africans to provide cheap
labor to the colonialist plantations and social service, and to facilitate colonial administration
expenditure. Such heavy taxation led to mass uprising of the African to oppose colonialism. 
Cattle confiscation so as to break the backbone of African economy and to be forced to integrate
into capitalist economy. The African societies who were pastoralists that depended much on the
cattle for their live hood, people like the Herero, Masai, Sukuma, their cattle were confiscated. 
Forced labor and forced cropping, Africans were forced to produce cash crops and also forced to
provide cheap labor, e.g. Kipande system in Kenya. In places were production, 
did not exist migrate -Labour was carried out, the adult men ere to move in the areas of
production were only substance wage was provided, accommodation was provided for only one
person, the work’s family was there for to remain at home in some far-off rural area and try to
grow enough food to feed themselves.
Provision of low wages of African who worked on European farms mines and office the major
aim was to-break the self-sufficiency African rural economy. It was no longer enough for the
family to feed, clothes, and house itself. And on top of that cash was to be found to pay taxes
regardless of the family’s income.     
(b) POLITICAL CAUSES. 
African local rulers were thrown from their administration and lost control of their
people and independence in general where by the colonialist establish the notorious colonial rule.
Thus resistance to the colonial rule. 
Africans lost their control over their trade that they controlled and benefited from. The 
colonialists established the so called ‘legitimate trade’ which isolated the African traders, 
like Abushir and Bwana Heri who lost control of trade at the coast, Jaja of Opobo, the 
Mandika Sarnori all these resistance as to regain their trade control.
Destruction of African agriculture, which led to the problem-of hunger and famine. The 
colonialists opened cash crop plantations hence resistance. 
(c) COLONIAL INJUSTICE AND OPPRESSION 

Corporal punishment like caning of the lazy Africans

Destruction of African culture and introduction of western culture

Racism and segregation of Africans.

Intimidation and violence to the Africans.

OBJECTIVES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE. 

To regain independence and their sovereignty this had been taken away by colonialists
To maintain peace and order in their society which they had experienced before the coming of
colonialists.
To pursue and maintain African freedom which prevailed before the coming of colonizers.
To retain Africa self sustaining economy which was based on substance agriculture.
To fight and get rid of foreign domination of Europeans to make them go back to their home
countries.
To avoid humiliation and subjugation of by the foreigners.
To fight against land alienation and cattle confiscation.
To establish African trade this had been overthrown by slave trade and the so called legitimate
trade 
QUESTIONS FOR GROUP DISCUSSION
1. “While
some societies resisted the imposition of the colonial rule in Africa others
appeared to collaborate”. Discuss this context giving concrete examples from
East Africa. (NECTA-2000)
2. “African resistances against the
imposition of colonial rule failed due to Africans’ technological
backwardness”. Discuss (NECTA-2003)
3. What brought about the Chimurenga
war in Southern Rhosedia in 1896-1897? (NECTA-2005)
4. With concrete examples show why
the conflict between Africans and the whites during the colonial period was
inevitable. (NECTA-2007)
5. Through their activities the
missionaries become forerunners of colonialism. Justify this statement.
(NECTA-2007)
6. The maji-maji war of 1905-1907 in
Tanganyika remains a symbol of the African struggle against colonial rule.
Justify (NECTA-2008)
7. Account for the Nandi resistance
against their land occupation by the British. (NECTA-2009)
8. With examples from East or west
Africa, show how company rule helped to create European colonization in Africa.
(NECTA-2010)
9. Account for Ethiopia’s successful
resistance against Colonialism. (NECTA-2010)
10. Account for six reasons that led
to the scramble for and partition of Africa in the second half of the 19th
century. (NECTA-2011)
11. With examples, explain six
reasons for African resistances to colonial rule. (NECTA-2013)
12.
Analyse six methods that were used by the imperialist in imposing rule in
Africa. (NECTA-2014)
15.
“Missionaries prepared Africa for European colonization”. Discuss (NECTA-2016)
BACK GROUND OF THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS.

Colonial administrative systems were the ways of controlling and maintaining colonial power
in 

colonies after the establishment of colonialism.

Colonialists including Germany, French, British, Portugal, Belgium etc; after colonizing African
countries they introduced different administrative systems in their colonies depended on the
following:
1. The nature of the people in the colonies, such as being cooperative, military, strong, weak etc.
2. Challenges encountered during acquiring colonies i.e. by strong resistance, collaboration etc.
3. The character of colonial power.for example Germany preferred direct rule while British
preferred indirect rule and French preferred assimilation policy.

REASONS WHY COLONIALISTS INTRODUCED DIFFERENT ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS

AFTER THE ESTABLISHMENT COLONIAL RULE.
1. To change the form or tradition of the African system of administration.
2. To maintain or ensure effective occupation/ control of the colony socially, politically and
economically.
3. Maximization of profit through colonial exploitation by setting up a system of administration
which favored colonialists.
4. To ensure peace and harmony in colonies after faced reactions/ resistances during the
establishment of colonial rule.
5. To prepare the suitable and conducive environment for establishment of colonial economy.
6. To fulfill the agreement reached during the Berlin conference of 1884-1885 on effective
occupation of colonies.
Therefore; the reasons behind the establishment of different colonial administrative system in
Africa after colonialists managed to defeat Africans, was due to many resistances colonialists
faced while they were trying to introduce colonial rule in Africa.
Also colonialists introduced different administrative system due to:
1. Language problems.
2. Lack of enough manpower since they were few in number.
3. Colonialists needed a lot of fund to run their activities.
Therefore different challenges which colonialists faced during the time of establishing colonial
rule led them to apply different forms/types of administrative systems.
 
TYPES/FORMS OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS ADOPTED IN
AFRICA
1. DIRECT RULE
2. INDIRECT RULE
3. ASSIMILATION POLICY
4. ASSOCIATION POLICY

DIRECT RULE
Direct rule was the form/ type of colonial administrative system applied by the Germans where
by Africans were ruled directly without local rulers support. It was applied in Namibia,
Tanganyika, Togo etc.

INDIRECT RULE
Indirect rule was the form of administrative system applied by the British where by Africans
were ruled indirectly through local rulers support. It was applied in Uganda, Nigeria etc

ASSIMILATION POLICY
This was the French administrative system applied in her colonies which turned Africans to be
like French citizens. African who were assimilated [changed/turned] to be French men were
called ASSIMILADORS.

ASSOCIATION POLICY
Was the French administrative system which replaced assimilation policy which did not aim at
turning Africans into French citizens instead it considered African culture.
All the above colonial systems were different from one colonial power [colonialist] to another.
For example British preferred using indirect rule in her colonies such as Nigeria, Ghana and
Sierra Leon.
German used her direct rule in her colonies such as Tanganyika, Congo, Namibia, Angola and
Mozambique. French used assimilation policies in Algeria and Senegal.

INDIRECT RULE
Introduction
Indirect rule was a administrative system applied [adopted] by the British where by African 

 
traditional local rulers were allowed to participate in colonial administration by implementing the
colonial policies.
Indirect rule was British administrative system which used local rulers/ chiefs to implement
British colonial policies.
Within indirect rule African local rulers [chiefs] were given chances or allowed to govern their
fellow Africans through orders and supervision from British colonial government.
British indirect rule adopted in many African countries after being succeed to  implement in the
Northern Nigeria in the 1900-1906 and the whole Nigeria between 1912-1920 by British
governor known as LORD LUGARD.
Therefore indirect rule was first introduced by the British governor Lord Lugard in Nigeria in
1912-1920.
FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIRECT RULE
1. Chiefs who were appointed were required to implement British policies to their fellow
Africans.
2. Indirect rule forced and collected taxes from people.
3. Indirect rule aimed at getting cheap labours.
4. Indirect rule forces British law and ordinances.
5. Indirect rule aimed at maintaining peace and harmony on behalf of the British government.
Therefore the chiefs who were appointed to implement British government policies became a
part of British colonial government hence chiefs were favored and given the following things;
1. Chiefs were given colonial protection.
2. Chiefs were paid salaries.
3. Chiefs were given good accommodation e.g. houses.
4. Chiefs family include sons and daughters were given good social services i.e. education.
5. Chiefs were given gifts.
 

WHY BRITISH USED/ APPLIED INDIRECT RULE?

1. Lack of manpower.
British were few in number hence used indirect rule because it was very difficult to rule large
African population without assistance.
2. Communication problems.
British adopted indirect rule because they had no good information links with the Africans than
African local rulers such as chiefs and kings.

3. To avoid resistance.
The British used indirect rule because they wanted to avoid resistance since there was no direct
contact between Africans and British but Africans with their rulers.
4. The system was economically cheap.
The African chiefs were not directly paid by the colonial governments. Also the African chiefs
could not demand services from the colonial government such as accomodation, transport and
medical services.
5. Number of colonies Britain had many colonies in Africa but had very few officials to dispose
in these colonies. Colonial offices were not enough to dispose from the grass root levels and
above. African natives thought that they were still under their chiefs; orders given by the
colonizers passed through the African chiefs who reduced the impacts of the Africans.
6. The system reduced resistance from Africans. Physical difficulties in Africa forced the British
to use African chiefs. Thick forests, hostile climate and remoteness of the area; the British found
difficult to penetrate the hinterland because of the named problems.
7. Language barrier. Some Africans could not be organized through radio and other means of
communication therefore the use of African chiefs was efficient. The African chiefs would
communicate with their people using their people.
8. The system ensured the collection of tax from the African communities as the chiefs lived
with their people.
9. It was a suitable technique to govern illiterate African.
10. Tropical diseases which killed many British personels. e.g Malaria

APPLICATION OF INDIRECT RULE IN NIGERIA BY LORD FREDRIC LUGARD

Indirect rule was first applied in Nigeria by the British governor known as Sir Fredrick Lugard in
1900-1906.
Indirect rule in Nigeria was applied after British encountered [faced] a lot of challenges from big
tribes which had strong traditional administrative systems like Fulani aristocracy who governed
Sokoto caliphate by using Islamic laws in Northern Nigeria.
Therefore the British by using indirect rule which was required as a role model in the British
colonial administration. Local native leaders in Nigeria continued to rule their traditional land,
collect taxes and implement orders and duties as assigned by the British. So British succeeded to
apply indirect rule in Northern Nigeria despite it was not successful much in Southern Nigeria in
Yomba tribe.

Through indirect rule Lord Lugard was able to control Nigeria by using their local traditional
rulling system and cooperative leaders who performed the following activities;
1. To collect taxes.
2. To implement British laws and policies.
3. To reduce resistance from the people.
4. To reduce the political, economic and military costs.
5. To rule their land under the British control.
Despite the fact that indirect rule succeeded to rule Nigeria especially Northern Nigeria, other
areas in Nigeria like southern Nigeria was unsuccessful due to poor and less cooperation from
YORUBA land chiefs or kings who did not organize and centralize Yoruba people since before.

Therefore the British found the following as the failure of indirect rule in Southern Nigeria;
1. Chiefs /Local rulers of Southern Nigeria were not given respect by the Yoruba people.
2. Local rulers were appointed to implement the British polices but they failed i.e. collection of
taxes.
3. Southern Nigerian societies had strong traditional administrative system such as the use of
chiefs for example Lagos had no chiefdom system.
4. Southern Nigeria was decentralized than Northern Nigeria which was more centralized.
Therefore indirect rule became very difficult to be applied in Southern Nigeria by Lord Lugard
during his six years of administering Nigeria so as to transform it into commercial
[economically] as well as politically and to establish British protectorate by using its local rulers.
WHY LORD FREDRICK LUGARD APPLIED /PREFERED APPLICATION OF INDIRECT 

RULE IN THE BRITISH COLONIES

1. Some of the African societies were centralized hence no need of the new colonial
administrative system. For example sokoto caliphat, Bugando.
2. Some of the African communities were not competent to control themselves with the British
assistance hence used indirect rule.
3. British wanted to spread their superiority complex over Africans.
4. They used indirect rule to avoid administrative costs.
5. British wanted to avoid communication barriers, for example language problems and poor
infrastructures.
6. British were few in number so indirect rule solved the problem of manpower.
7. Lord Lugard preferred indirect rule because it avoided resistance and conflicts from local
rulers and people.

STRUCTURE OF THE BRITISH INDIRECT RULE

Indirect rule administrative system which was applied by the British in her colonies was arranged
in different structures to ensure effective colonial control over colony and good administrative
machinery which will prepare conducive environment for establishment of colonial economy.

The structure of indirect rule was as follows;

1. Colonial secretary stayed in London [UK].
2. Governor appointed in UK and hired in colonies.
3. Provincial commissioner was a British lived in certain regions to represent the governor.
4. District commissioner was a British [white] lived in district level representing provision
commissioner; he lived with people and gave them orders through local rulers.
5. Local chiefs were local rulers appointed by British who were given orders by colonial officers
include provincial commissioners and district commissioners to supervise in the daily activities
and local ordinances.
6. Head men. These were Africans who received orders from local chiefs and implement them to
the people [Africans] by using force once people resisted.

PROBLEMS/ CHALLENGES BRITISH FACED IN IMPLEMENTING THE USE OF INDIRECT

RULE SYSTEM IN NIGERIA.
Despite the British succeeded to rule Africans indirectly through their local rulers, they met a
number of challenges, since British indirect rule introduced different policies and systems. in
Africa which was new and not existed in Africa before such as:
1. Payment of taxes, forced labour, land alienation, introduction of coercive apparatus such as
police, army, court etc.
The following were problems/challenges /difficulties Britain faced during implementing the use
of indirect rule;
1. Absence of centralized administration in North Eastern Nigerian societies, such as Igbo and
Yoruba were not well centralized like the Sokoto caliphate or Buganda kingdom hence made the
application of indirect rule to be very difficult due to lack of cooperation and local rulers’
support.
2. Illiteracy of the masses. Some of the societies in Nigeria such as the Yoruba and the Abeokuta
who became independent in 1893; due to their illiterate they organized people to oppose indirect
rule.
3. Harsh British policies. Some of the indirect rule British policies such as forced labour and
taxation which was introduced to the people were new and unpopular hence reacted by the
people of Nigeria especially Igbo.
4. Opposition / resistance from the local rulers. Some of the local rulers did not support British
indirect rule for example rulers from Yomba and Abeokuta.
5. Creation of British want/puppet chiefs. Indirect rule faced challenges in Nigeria because
British decided to create their own chiefs who were rejected and unpopular hence people
opposed against them.
6. Poor infrastructures. Absence of good infrastructures such as roads, railways, and harbor
phones made the failure to access information.

INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM IN TANGANYIKA

Tanganyika formerly was a German colony from 1886 after Berlin conference. After the end of
the first world war of 1914-1918 Germany lost Tanganyika colony to British who took the
victory of the war.
During German rule in Tanganyika they used direct rule system thus faced a lot of resistances
from Tanganyika societies such as Hehe resistance, Yao and Chagga resistance.
Therefore after the British took control over the Tanganyika colony; they decided to change the
former German direct rule which used Jumbes and Akidas and introduced indirect rule.
The first British governor in Tanganyika who was known as Sir Donald Cameroon initiated and
introduced indirect rule in Tanganyika. Sir Donald Cameroon decided to introduce indirect rule
in Tanganyika due to the influence and motivation from governor Lord Fredrick Lugard who
succeeded to control Nigeria through indirect rule so sir Donald Cameroon wanted to copy that
system of indirect rule and apply it in Tanganyika hence he met the following challenges:

THE CHALLENGES /DIFFICULTIES SIR DONALD CAMEROON FACED WHEN HE

INTRODUCED INDIRECT RULE IN TANGANYIKA
Absence of traditional administrative system. Germany removed all local rulers’ administration
during their rule in Tanganyika, so it was difficult for Sir Donald Cameroon to introduce them
again.
Illiteracy and ignorance of the masses over indirect rule. Tanganyika was controlled and ruled by
the German power for a very long time directly so indirect rule was a new system which was not
known.
Poor organization of permanent chiefs. Few tribes in Tanganyika recognized their chiefs and
they had status and power, less executive, financially and judiciary for example the Chagga.
Poor infrastructure. Indirect rule got a lot of challenges in Tanganyika since the country was big
while there was poor network and communication links to reach and coordinate local chiefs.
Absence of local authorities in Tanganyika societies such as; coastal tribes which had no
traditional local authorities since Arabs’ domination which introduced Islamic law. Due to this
Sir Donald Cameroon get no support of local rulers in his administration.
Despite the fact that Sir Donald Cameroon met a lot of challenges /problems in the introduction
of indirect rule in Tanganyika as we have seen above, he preferred and forced to introduce
indirect rule through;
1. The native authority ordinance of 1926 and the coast ordinance of 1919.
These two laws [ordinances] aimed at creating a solid foundation for the indirect rule
administration and local authorities.
Through these two laws [ordinance] local chiefs were required and given the following tasks and
duties;
Tax collection such as hut tax and poll tax.
Chiefs were responsible for enforcing British laws and orders.
Chiefs were given judiciary power to enforce their decisions according to customary laws.
Chiefs were responsible to implement British policies, law, ordinances and orders to their people.

THE EFFECT /IMPACT OF INDIRECT RULE TO TANGANYIKA AND BRITISH

AFRICAN COLONIES.
Exploitation of African resources:- Indirect rule was introduced by the British for the purpose of
exploiting African resources easily through local rulers support such as land, labours and
minerals.
Indirect rule promoted [boosted] tribalism. Indirect rule separated African societies in
ethnic/tribal identities since it favored some tribes including those whose local rulers were given
different opportunities than the other tribes.
Indirect rule weakened the traditional administration systems.
Indirect rule system promoted the problem of education, health and employment opportunities.
Indirect rule system introduced and widened social differences among natives.(creation of
classes in the society)
The system commented and centralized bureaucracy through the use of district commissioners.
The greatest fault in indirect rule was that it completely excluded from the local government the
African educated elites whose number increased over the year.
It made Africans hate their local rulers [leaders] who were used during indirect rule and made
Africans not to believe in them.

THE DIRECT RULE SYSTEM

It was a form of colonial administrative system which ruled Africans directly by replacing
African traditional, political and administrative organizations.
Direct rule was mainly adopted by Germany in colonies such as Tanganyika, Namibia,
Cameroon and Togo; also Portuguese applied direct rule in her colonies.
Why British used direct rule in some of her colonies instead of indirect rule.
Presence of many whites such as in Zimbabwe.
Plenty of resources available in the colonies.
The nature of African colony. British decided to use direct rule when Africans were ignorant,
reluctant and not supportive of indirect rule.
Good communication and infrastructures such as roads, railways and harbors led the British to
use direct rule.
Absence of strong centralized states.
Absence of resistances.
Absence of tropical diseases made the British not seek for local rulers’ support.

THE BRITISH DIRECT RULE IN ZIMBABWE [SOUTHERN RHODESIA].

Zimbabwe after being colonized by British in 1890’s under the company known as British South
African Company (BSACO) led by prominent imperialist named Cecil Rhodes who ruled
directly and called Zimbabwe as southern Rhodesia due to his effort and financial resources used
to occupy shone territories.
Therefore after Zimbabwe had been colonized by British and named as southern Rhodesia many
Europeans came to live in Zimbabwe because it was a huge country having a lot of resources
such as fertile land and minerals due to this British ruled Zimbabwe by using direct rule.
WHY THE BRITISH WHITE SETTLERS USED DIRECT RULE IN ZIMBABWE
1. Absence of local chiefs/ local rulers of Zimbabwe such as Indunas were no longer existed
during the resistance between British and Shona and Ndebele.
2. Presence of many white settlers in Zimbabwe. Cecil Rhodes influenced many white settlers to
invest in Zimbabwe so there was no manpower problem hence direct rule.
3. The richness of resources in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was a rich colony having fertile land,
minerals etc. made British to wish to rule it directly so as to exploit resources efficiently.
4. Absence of a centralized state. Zimbabwe had no strong centralized state since imposition of
colonial rule disturbed the system hence direct rule.
5. The effect of the Chimurenga war [Shona and Ndebele]. Chimurenga war left enemity
between Zimbabwe people and the Europeans hence difficult to involve Africans in their
administration.
6. People of Zimbabwe did not want to be colonized by the British.
7. Poor support from Zimbabwe local chiefs /rulers. Local chiefs were not happy with British
since their position and status eroded during British colonial rule that is why they did not want to
support them in administration hence British used direct rule.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECT RULE APPLIED BY THE BRITISH IN ZIMBABWE

1. It based on excessive oppression and suppression. Africans were highly oppressed and
suppressed by British settlers through direct rule using coercive apparatus such as police and
soldiers.
2. Zimbabwe was proclaimed as a crown colony. Direct rule in Zimbabwe made Zimbabwe as
British settlers’ part and parcel of their mother land country [Britain].
3. It based on emergence of law and order. Direct rule led to increase of many laws and orders in
Zimbabwe.
4. Direct rule led Zimbabwe to be under control of British South African Company [BSACO] in
1890 to 1923.
5. Direct rule in Zimbabwe made educated people neglected. Direct rule in Zimbabwe made the
educated people neglected not to be involved in the British government as a result of the armed
struggle during fighting for independence and freedom.
6. Direct rule gave settlers in Zimbabwe legislative and political rights. British settlers in
Zimbabwe were highly empowered politically, economically and favored by laws; for example
in 1923 settlers attained their self government.
7. Direct rule alienated Zimbabwe fertile land. Through direct rule the British settlers acquired
massive fertile land left the Zimbabwean’s people landless hence provide labour in the settlers
land and farms.
The British direct rule in Zimbabwe brought a lot of negative impact to the people of Zimbabwe
such as; oppression, exploitation, land alienation, forced labour, taxation etc. as a result people of
Zimbabwe took arms [armed struggle] during fighting for independence in 1980.

DIRECT RULE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

Direct rule was form of colonial administrative system which did not involve African rulers
support i.e. Germany.
Germany preferred much to use direct rule in most of her colonies in Africa such as; Tanganyika,
Namibia, Cameroon, Togo etc. direct rule were also applied by the Belgium, Portugal etc. in
their colonies.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECT RULE

1. Local chiefs were not given chances in colonial administrations.
2. It was very expensive since it needed lots of costs.
3. It faced many resistances from Africa.
4. It was not simple to control because German ruled Africans directly.
5. It faced communication problems because of language barriers.
6. It faced problems of manpower since Germans were few in number.

WHAT WERE THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIRECT AND DIRECT
RULE.

SIMILARITIES
Both were based on exploitation of African resources.
Both based on oppression of Africans through the use of force i.e. police, army and court.
Both based on racial segregation since African colour was regarded as inferior over white colour.
Both were capitalist systems.
Both aimed at colonizing /control Africans.
Both faced resistance or opposition from Africans.
Both failed to meet their demands.

DIFFERENCES
Direct rule was used by the Germans while indirect rule was used by the British.
Direct rule did not use local chiefs while indirect rule used local chiefs.
Indirect rule did not face many resistances from Africans while direct rule faced many
resistances.
Indirect rule was easy to manage while direct rule was difficult to manage because of language
problems.
Indirect rule needed small Europeans’ manpower while direct rule needed large manpower.
Indirect rule was cheap but direct rule was expensive.
Indirect rule created puppet class among Africans who cooperated with the British and support 

British colonialism while direct rule did not

ASSIMILATION AND ASSOCIATION POLICY BY

FRENCH.
French in her colonies such Cape Verde, Ivory Coast [cote devoir] Senegal, Saint Louis and
Rufisque applied two administrative systems such as Assimilation policy and Association.
Assimilation policy
Was an administrative system applied by French in her colonies, which aimed at turning or
transforming Africans into Frenchmen or citizens. A person who assimilated was called
Assimilador.Assimiladors was taught how to behave or think like French people. Assimilation is
a term derived from the French word assimiler means cause to resemble.
French introduced assimilation policy to her colonies so as to spread her culture of superiority all
over the world. Therefore the introduction or application of assimilation policy in French
colonies goes to them with the introduction of French language, institutions, laws, religion and
customs. Colonies or persons to follow assimilation policy [assimiladors] were supposed to
follow the French culture hence enjoy right just like French citizens.

THE REASONS WHY FRENCH APPLIED ASSIMILIATION POLICY IN HER COLONIES.

1. French revolution of 1789. French applied assimilation policy in her colonies since they said
that; the French revolution which occurred in 1789 advocated for the equality, fraternity and
freedom to all regardless of Vaile or color.
2. Assimilation policy applied by the French to spread their superiority all over the world. Since
the Africans assimilated would continue to spread French superiority.
3. To spread French culture and civilization. French applied assimilation policy since they
wanted to spread their culture through language and customs.
4. Assimilation applied to turn African to behave like French citizen.
5. To facilitate French exploitation. Assimilation aimed at exploiting Africans smoothly by
creating false consciousness to those who assimilated [assimiladors] to work for the benefits of
the French.
6. Cheap economically since assimilators work and behave just like French and became passive.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FRENCH ASSIMILATION POLICY

There were to be commune representatives in the French national assembly. The laws applicable
in France were well applied in the territories.
The French Africans were considered as a great obstacle for colonial rule.
The French administrative structure was more oppressive than that of the British.
Africans were allowed to register as French citizens and they could seek elections as deputies in
Paris.
The French administrators were given more judicial powers in the provinces.
The French decided not to use African traditional institutions in their administration.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ASSIMILATION SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION

4. Both weakened African traditions and Islamic religion in West Africa by introducing
Christianity i.e. Roman Catholic.
5. Both destroyed African traditional authorities and leaders since assimilated Africans replaced
many to the traditional leaders.
6. Both undermined African culture; African culture were regarded as inferior towards French
culture which regarded as regarded as superior and civilized for e.g. French language.
7.
Assimilation policy weakened Africans traditions such as Islamic religion in west Africa by
introducing Christianity for example Roman Catholic church.
Colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded as an oversea province of France
speaking people in West African still have close relationship with the French people than their
fellow African countries.
Assimilation policy integrated /allowed Africans to participate in French political matters in
French, Paris. Assimilation policy allowed African to participate in France parliament for
example Blaise Diagne was elected as deputy in the French parliament.
Question:  compare and contrast between indirect rule applied by British and assimilation policy
applied by the French.

QUESTIONS FOR GROUP DISCUSSION

1. Examine the reasons for the
changing nature of the French colonial policy of assimilation in controlling
African colonies. (NECTA-2002)

2. “African resistances against the

imposition of colonial rule failed due to Africans’ technological backwardness”.
Discuss (NECTA-2003)

3. Compare and contrast British and

French systems of administration as practiced in Africa during the colonial
period. (NECTA-2009)

4. Account for Ethiopia’s successful

resistance against colonialism. (NECTA-2010)
5. With examples, explain six
reasons for African resistances to colonial rule. (NECTA-2013)
6. Analyse six methods that were
used by the imperialist in imposing rule in Africa. (NECTA-2014)
7. Explain six differences between
direct and indirect rule. (NECTA-2016)
  
Topic 3: COLONIAL ECONOMY
Colonial economy was the economic undertaking which were operated by the colonialist or was
the king of the economy introduced by the colonialists in their colonies. These included
agriculture, mining, communication and transportation of commerce and trade. The colonialists
introduced these kinds of economies in Oder to fulfill their economic demands such as raw
materials, cheap labor, areas for investments and areas for settlement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY

It was export-import oriented colonial economy specialized in production of raw materials for
the metropolitan industries and importation of manufactured goods in the colonies.
It was based on the exploitation of African resources such as man power minerals and so on.
It was based on monoculture system of production.
They specialized in the production of major commodities such as Mauritius – sugarcane and
Ghana – cocoa.
It involved the building of physical infrastructure such as roads, harbours and railways for easy
transportation of raw materials.
It was characterized by Domination of European. African role of middlemen was suppressed
instead of that European established their trade companies.
Colonial production was based on coercion.
The colonialists used Africa as a dump place for their manufactured commodities such as
clothes, wine, sweets and beards. Introduction of money economy. Establishment of processing
industries such as cashewnut pupling industries.

OBJECTIVES OF COLONIAL ECONOMY

Colonial economies were shaped by the interests of the metropolitan economy, therefore, they
responded to the demands of the colonial powers.
Objectives of the Colonial economy were:
1. Colonies were expected to provide raw materials, both agricultural products and minerals, to
the factories of the European countries. Examples of the agricultural raw materials includes
cotton, coffee, sisal, pyre thrum, tea, cocoa and palm oil.
2. Colonies were expected to import manufactured goods like clothes, shoes, blankets and
utensils from Europe.
3. The Colonized people were expected to provide cheap labour for the benefit of colonial
masters.
4. Colonies were also expected to be self- supporting. This means that the colonized people were
expected to raise revenues that cool support administrative costs of colony.
5. Finally, in order to insure that exploitation of colonial resources was done efficiently, law and
order was to be maintained. This in turn would facilitate the exploitation of resources for the
benefit of colonial master.

METHODS USED TO ESTABLISH COLONIAL ECONOMY

These were three methods used to establish economy which were:

PRESERVATION
Under preservation the colonial economy preserved the followings:-
Labour unit. eg The use of family labour
Tradition system of production e.g shifting cultivation mixed farming and inter cropping. This
was done mainly in the peasant economy.

CREATION
The colonialists introduced the new elements in the pre-African economy things which were
introduced were:
Introduction of money. e.g Indian currency like Rupees during Germany rule.
Introduction of kipande system. forced people to walk with identification card
Introduction of cash crops.
Taxation

Forced labour
migrant labour- Migrant labours were the labours comes from the distant areas where the labour
reservations were established.

DESTRUCTION
Local handcraft industries were destructed.
importing ready manufactured goods to Africa.
Banning of local industries.
The colonialists instilled retaining some elements of pre-colonial economy to support production
of raw materials which were needed by European example of things which preserved were
Traditional tools in peasant agriculture and families remained as the basic unit of production and
pre-colonial relation production feudal societies were reserved.

WHY DID COLONIALISTS USED PRESERVATION METHOD /PRESERVED

SOME  TRADITIONAL AFRICAN ECONOMIC SYSTEMS.
Presence of resistance from the masses. In some areas in Africa which were centralized were
strongly resisted new colonial economies systems e.g. disagree to pay taxes, land alienation etc.
Ignorance and absence of reactions of people. Colonialists preserved some traditional African
economic systems because in some areas Africans were ignorant with a new economic system
and were not ready to apply them.
Reluctant/ conservativeness of the people. Some areas Africans were not ready for the changes
hence colonialists preserved their traditional economic systems.
Absence of enough land. In some areas land alienation was impossible hence colonialists left the
Africans to maintain their traditional economic systems under colonialist supervision.
Good traditional labour system. Some of the African societies had good traditional labour system
that is family which ensures constant supply of labour and production which prevent colonialist
to apply new economic systems.
Awareness of cash crops production. In some areas In Africa including Buganda they had
knowledge of practices cash crops even before colonial rule hence colonialists preserved them.

SECTORS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY AND THE SPECIFICATION [SPECIFIC AREAS

WHERE IT WAS PRACTICED].
There are [5] five main factors of colonial economy introduced in Africa;
1. Agricultural sector
Peasant economy
Plantation economy
Settler economy
2. Mining economy sector. It deals with the exploitation of minerals.
3. Transport and communication
4. Trade

TYPES OF AGRICULTURE INTRODUCED IN AFRICA DURING COLONIAL ECONOMY.

1. PEASANT ECONOMY/AGRICULTURE E.G. IN UGANDA
2. SETTLERS AGRICULTURE IN KENYA AND ZIMBABWE
3. PLANTATION AGRICULTURE

PEASANT AGRICULTURE
These are small scale agriculture productions where by a farmer produces both food crops and
cash crops.
Colonialists introduced peasant agriculture during colonial rule for the following aims/reasons;
Earning cash by selling cash crops.
Production and producing food crops for their survival during colonial rule.
To ensure that peasants [small scale farmers] are producing for capitalists.

HOW PEASANT ECONOMY WAS INTRODUCED IN AFRICA.

Introduction of peasant, cash crop farming in Africa was difficult because of the following
reasons:
1. African traditional was only producing food crops for direct consumption.
2. Ignorance. Many Africans were ignorant [not aware] on cash crop production.
3. Readiness of the people. Many people were not ready to produce cash crops.
4. Poor technology. Most of the peasants were using poor technology in the farming i.e. hand
hoes, axes, panga etc.
Due to the above difficulties colonialists do/ applied the following things in order to introduce
peasant cash crops production;
1. Missionaries’ persuasion. Missionaries persuade Africans who converted to Christianity to
grow cash crops.
2. The use of force. Those Africans who rejected to grow cash crops were forced to grow cash
crops through;
Orders from the colonialist, chiefs and African head men received orders from colonialists to
force their fellow Africans to grow cash crops.
Through seeds distribution and cash crops planting supervision.
Establishment of large farms in villages which grow cash crops where by people were forced to
work there.
Restructuring of colonies.
Encouraged the use of poor (crude) technologies in production i.e. the use of hand hoes, panga,
axes etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PEASANT AGRICULTURE [ECONOMY].

Family was the unit of production. Peasant economy was characterized by the members of the
family to be sources of labour in production.
Peasant based on a small unit of land. Peasant was characterized by practice of agriculture on a
small piece of land which was populated.
Peasant based on inter-cropping. Peasant practiced more than one type of crop in a single area
for food and cash crops.
Peasant used poor technology. The use of poor technology in production such as hand hoes, axes
and pangas were much applied in the peasant economy.
Peasant used on a dense population made it hard for land alienation to be practiced, if land
alienation was used, many people would be affected and there would be chaos in the area.
The colonial government was afraid of the centralized kingdoms that proved to be tough against
the establishment of settlers’ agriculture.
Some areas were tough and unfit for white settlement i.e. Uganda equatorial region had high
temperatures that discouraged white settlements.
Certain crops i.e. [cotton and coffee in Uganda] needed great care and could not be mixed easily
with other systems of agriculture.
Centralized and strong kingdoms in Uganda proved efficiency and capability to organize and
supervise agricultural activities in their areas. These traditional chiefs were paid lowly for
supervising that activity.
Taxation was imposed on the people so that they could cultivated cash crops.

CASE STUDY
PEASANT ECONOMY IN UGANDA
Uganda was among of the first colonies which peasant economy was introduced by colonialists.
The reasons behind for people of Uganda to be preserved to continue to practice small scale
agriculture it was because Uganda was a centralized state having good traditional and systems
under feudal relations before colonial rule.
Due to that Britain did not want to disturb that system so as to avoid resistance. Therefore they
left the people of Uganda to continue growing food crops alongside cash crops under British
supervision.

FACTORS/ REASONS WHY PEASANT AGRICULTURE ECONOMY WAS INTRODUCED

IN UGANDA AND NOT OTHER AREAS.
Dense population.
Problem or shortage of labor supply. Labour supply in Uganda was a problem since traditionally
family was a basic unit of production hence colonialists introduced peasants.
Unfavorable climatic conditions to the Europeans. Europeans could not be able to stay in Uganda
since climatic conditions of Uganda which was characterized by heavy rainfall, coldness and
hotness were not suitable or favorable for them.
The nature of crops. Peasant economy was introduced in Uganda because the types of crops such
as coffee which were grown in Uganda needed great care and great supervision.
Good centralized feudal political system.
Readiness of the people.
The influence from colonial government.
Peasant economy was cheap and easy to control.
The infrastructure and the territorial problems in some areas of Uganda and Tanganyika.
Therefore the factors/reasons above were the factors behind the introduction of peasant economy
not only in Uganda but also in north Nigeria and Tanganyika (in Kilimanjaro, Bukoba, Mbeya).

SETTLER ECONOMY
This involved production by foreigners. These foreigners usual presented the interests of the
metropolis (i.e. their main interest were mining and agriculture in the colonized countries).
The promotion of agricultural production was to go hand in hand With settlements in Africa,
especially in those areas that were fertile.
Settlers settled in big numbers in central Africa (Malaysia Zambia, Zimbabwe), South Africa,
parts of French equatorial Africa, French West Africa, and in East Africa (Kenya).

FEATURES OF SETTLER ECONOMY

(i) Land alienation with differently issue land ordinaries, in 1900 the land occupation ordinance
was enacted in Zambia.
The ordinance required that Europeans who had been allocated land must occupy and use that
land or otherwise they would pay taxes for leaving such land redundant.
In Kenya in 1597, the land regulation office set a si.. vacant land for European settlements, in
1902, the native Land ordinance allowed the commissioner to sell or give crown land to the
Europeans, and in 19.. large scale land alienation in Kikuyu began.
(ii) Forced labour: The French, German land Portuguese follow a similar policy of forced labour
and unpaid labour.
Forced labour was required to reduce costs that were necessary in public services. In Zimbabwe
in 1897, the Nature regulation Act was passed, forcing African chiefs to produced labourers at
law coast.
(iii) Taxation: the hut tax was introduced in Malawi in early 1890 in Zimbabwe in 1898, and in
Zambia in 1900. In Kenya the Hut Tax was introduced in 1980, and poll tax in 1910.
The intention of the tax was to cover administrative expansion ways by which Africans would be
forced to work in European farms in order to raise money to pay their taxes.
(iv) Migrant labourers were transported from faraway places to work in settler plantations.
(v) The development of infrastructures to serve the settlers.

WHY SETTLER DOMINATED IN KENYA THAN IN UGANDA OR TANGANYIKA?

 The following are the reasons for why settler dominated in Kenya than in Uganda;
1. Climatic condition. Climatic condition in Kenya made Europeans to be attracted especially in
Kenya highlands. also this areas was very fertile.
2. Kenya was made a ‘crown land’ means for Europeans settlements as results Africans were no
right to own land.
3. Low population in Kikuyu highland, this made land alienation possible hence no strong
resistance.
4. Africans were prohibited to grow cash crops. This also made British settlers to attracted in
Kenya as there were competition from Africans.
5. Construction of Buganda railway which facilitated the transportation of raw materials from
interior to Mombasa.
6. Settlers were favoured in Kenya. This is because settlers came in colonies under the influence
of colonial state so the colonial state did everything to favour them hence settlers had critical
influence on colonial government.

PLANTATION ECONOMY IN TANGANYIKA

This commodity production entailed massive exploitation of land and intensive exploitation of
African labour. The owners of the plantations were usually capitalists In Europe employing
managers to supervise production i.e. sisal and coffee Estates in Tanganyika.

WHY PLANTATION AGRICULTURE WAS ESTABLISHED IN TANGANYIKA

1. Due to change of colonial masters. In the beginning Tanganyika was under Germany but after
the 1 st world war Tanganyika became under the British.
2. The interests of the British colonial governors in Tanganyika. For example sir Byatt 1919-
1924 from Somali and Donald Cameroon from Nigeria; these were committed to peasant or
plantation agriculture rather than settler economy.
3. Tanganyika had a large areas where settler agriculture was not suitable to manage it but; they
settled only on highlands around Kilimanjaro, Usambara and South Western highlands of Iringa
and Tukuyu.
4. There was no settler policy in Tanganyika as in Kenya policy was committed to African
production.
5. There was no good and efficient transport and communication; it was not very much provided
in this particular sphere of influence.

MINING ECONOMY
Mining was another area of colonial economic activity; among of their demands was obtaining
minerals in Africans such as Gold.
Examples of areas where mining economy was taking place were;
South Africa.
Kimberly -diamond discovered in 1867.
Wit water- gold discovered in 1886.
East Africa.
Mwadui [Tanganyika] -diamond
Geita and Musoma – gold
Copper at Kimbe in Uganda.
Central Africa.
Southern Rhodesia – gold and coal
Belgium, Congo – copper, tin, zinc and lead
Zambia – copper and lead
Angola – diamond and oil
West Africa.
Northern Nigeria – coal mines at the tin mines in Josh plateaus.
Ghana gold mines

QUESTIONS FOR GROUP

DISCUSSION
1. How did the colonial government
ensure constant supply of labour in their colonies in East Africa? (NECTA-2000)
2. Why was settler economy a success
in Kenya but failure in Uganda? (NECTA-2002)
3. How did colonial economy differ
from the pre-colonial economy? (NECTA-2004)
4. Describe briefly the common
characteristics of settler and plantation agriculture in colonial Africa.
(NECTA-2005)
5. How did the colonial state uphold
the interests of white settler in Kenya? (NECTA-2006)
6. Identify six factors which
determined the variation of agricultural systems during the colonial period.
(NECTA-2012)
7. Analyse six tactics used by the
colonialists to establish colonial economy in Africa. (NECTA-2013)
8. “Migrant labourers were very
useful to the capitalists during colonial economy in Africa.” Substantiate this
statement by giving six points. (NECTA-2014)
OTHER QUESTIONS
1. Show how settler helped colonial
government in Kenya
2. Different btn pre colonial and
colonial economy 

1. Discuss the mechanism, used by colonialists to break up

the natural indigenous economy of East African people.
2. Using concrete examples of any East African society
show the pattern of the physical and social infrastructures were
determined by the system of the colonial economy.
 3. How did the colonial Government ensure constant supply
of labour in their colonies in East Africa?
4. Why was the settler economy a success in Kenya but a
failure in Uganda?

Topic 4: COLONIAL SOCIAL SERVICES.

Colonial social services involved the provision of education, health, water, housing and electrical
services in the colonies with the creation of colonial economy and administration. This does not
mean that no services were provided for Africans.

COLONIAL EDUCATION
Colonial Education was a process by which people get knowledge, skills and values that were
necessary for the mastering of social, political and economic situation under colonial rule.
Colonial education was provided in schools and colleges belonged to either the colonial
governments or the missionaries in areas that mainly produced raw materials. It replaced
informal or traditional education which existed before colonialism.

The aims of colonial education in African societies

To expand the market for the manufactured goods from Europe.
It aimed at creating African staff to work in the white color jobs such as clerks and foremen.
It aimed at creating elite who had to be loyal to the colonialists.  
It aimed at providing the knowledge which could help Africans production of the raw materials.

Features of Colonial Education.    

A. It was pyramidal in shape. The colonial education was pyramidally provided. This means that
the number of pupils decreased as the pupils reached the upper educational standard.
B. It was segregative. This education was segregative in the sense that only the sons of chiefs
were given education while girls were not given education. School were runkers according to
races. e.g There were special for the sons of chiefs.
C. It was bookish in nature It was mainly theoritical education.
D. It was for the white colar- Jobs education.
E. It was irrelevant to the African environment. The education taught the learners what was
present in Europe and not in Africa.

Impact of Colonial Education.

Although this education led to the improvement in African lives in many aspects, its impacts are
enormous.
(i) Many Africans were left illiteracy due to the small number of Africans that were benefited
with the education provided. Educated people were alianated from the society. Many people turn
their back of African traditional since they adopted cultural values of European society example,
ways of dressing and dancing, language as well as eating mannerisms.
(ii) Deduction of patriotism among the Africans. Those Africans who received the colonial
education denounced the Africans and hence become suro-Afro descendants. This mainly happen
in French colonies in West Africa where the elites denounced their fellow Africans simply
because they had received colonial education.
(iii) Prepared Africans for colonialism. Africans to accept colonialism. In their areas for example
the elites psychologically were prepared to accept the colonial administration as they were given
chances in the colonial government as party and parcel of the colonial administrators.
(iv) Colonial education created hatred between the educated and non-educated people. This
happened when the educated people segregated and used defamatory language to non-educated.
(v) Colonial education created the base of disunity and tribalism in Africa.
(vi) Led to the spread of Western civilization. Motives for Provision of Water and Housing
Services.
(i) Provision of water and housing services during colonialism was to facilitate the economic
interests of the metropolis.
(ii) These services were provided on racial bases where the Europeans were given the best
quality as opposed to Africans who received poor housing and water services.
(iii) Provision of water and housing services during colonialism was meant to encourage the
European settlement.

Distribution pattern of water and housing services

Political administrative and economic functions determined the nature of housing and water
service provided to the residents. Many Africans were attracted to move to urban centers after
the World War.
In Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia, some 4000 African male workers and unknown number of
women and children were reported to have been housed in squatter settlement by late 1930.
Africans lived in slums and were scattered in different parts of the capital city. Such slums were
made using cheap materials poles, grass and tins. Dar-es Salaam encountered unemployment
problem. The population increased but the number of houses did not increase. Many slums
emerged at the begging of colonialism. Example in Nairobi Kenya slums were scattered while
the Europeans settled in better- drained neighborhoods.
Conditions of living in the rural areas were becoming difficult especially in the white settler
colonies. Where a lot of African land was alienated. There also was great pressure for Africans to
pay taxes. Africans who lived in urban centres were overcrowded, the wages paid were much
better than in the rural areas.
Improvement in transportation also encouraged mobility to the urban centres. The introduction of
passenger buses and train coaches facilitated the movement towards the urban centres especially
in colonial Tanganyika.

Impact of the provision of colonial water and housing services.

(i) Africans viewed urban centers as a place for temporary settlement after which one would go
back to the rural areas as most of the service were provided for the Europeans.
(ii) Due to fewer houses in urban centers, Enterprising Africans construct logging houses.
(iii) Slums emerged due to lack of adequate shelter. In these houses, illicit activities such as the
sale of illegal liquor, theft and drug trafficking take place All these contributed to the emergence
of nationalism against colonial injustice. example, Mau mau liberation war.
(iv) African civil servants in the colonies got better housing and water services after the second
World War.
(v) Racial discrimination in the provision of water and housing services contributed to the
emergence of African Welfare Associations in Urban centres like Dar- es -Salaam.
(vi) Diseases such as pneumonia, diarrhoe and malaria affected Africans due to poor water
services and housing available for African communities. Many Africans died as a result of poor
condition of living in colonial urban centres. Also prostitution became widespread in colonial
urban centres result to move social problems such as spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

COLONIAL HEALTH SERVICE

This involved the provision of medical needs to the white men and colonial subjects it was
affected by the construction of government and missionary hospitals, dispensaries in the colonies
mostly were found in key forces stations like;
Armed forces stations
In production areas
Urban centers

Objectives of the colonial health services

1. Health services aimed at giving medicine to Africa peasants and labors in order to maintain
the labour power.
2. Were designed in order to improve the living standards of the whites since they received the
best services than the other races.
3. Aimed at destroying the African medication services.
4. Aimed at preventing and cure the white imposed diseases such as tuberculosis, sexually
transmitted diseases etc.
5. Aimed at maximizing the interests of capitalism in Africa.

Features of colonial health services

Many hospitals or dispensaries were built in urban areas, plantations areas and in areas which
had settlers farms i.e. Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Bukoba
Had racial discrimination i.e. the whites received the best health services followed by Asians and
Africans.
The hospitals/ dispensaries only provided western medication.
Highly medical personnel were the whites e.g. the British, French, Portuguese, Belgians etc
Africans served as dressing sweepers and other lower rank jobs.
They were religious biased i.e. there were catholic hospitals, Lutheran hospitals etc.

The impact of colonial health services.

Expanded the market of the western capitalism industry in Africans consumed various medicine
from Europe.
They maintained the labor power for peasantry settler and mining sector of colonial economy.
Provided employment to their people in Africa.
African herbs were almost replaced by the consumption of western medications.
Strengthened classes during the colonial period i.e. the white civil servants, settlers and managers
got high quality health services while the African received poor health services.
Other social services were such as;
Electricity
Water
Infrastructure
Housing

COMMERCE AND TRADE

Trading activities in Africa was nothing as it involved for a long time. The pre-colonial African
trade was also based on exchange of goods for goods.
So after colonial trade, the trading activities was characterized by the following points

Characteristics of colonial trade

It was organized and colonial conducted the government and the imperial trading companies for
example;
IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICAN COMPANY [IBEACO].
GERMAN EAST AFRICAN COMPANY [GEACO].
BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY [BSACO].
ROYAL NIGER COMPANY [RNCO] land international association.
The dominant of colonial trade was Arabs and Indians in east Africa and Syrians and Lebanese
in West Africa other than Africa.
It based on exploitations of raw materials such as minerals and agricultural products.
Money became the means of trading this was replaced the pre-colonial barter trade.
It established marketing boards – So as to control trade transaction and prices of the
commodities.
It based also on creation of storage facilities aims to store commodities and raw material.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD

After the colonialists to exploit African resources; the next was to setup modern transport
systems including railway lines, ports and roads. This was to simplify the transportation of
products from mining and farming activities. I.e. 1890-1926 many railway lines, roads and ports
were built in Africa.
Mombasa-kisumu line to Uganda [1904]
Uganda built Jinja to Masangali line in [1902]
Dar es salaam line from Tabora to Mwanza.
During Germany and British respectively.

QUESTIONS FOR GROUP

DISCUSSION
1. Using concrete examples of any East African country show
how the pattern of the physical and social infrastructures was largely
determined by the system of the colonial economy. (NECTA-2000)
2. Briefly analyse the pattern of colonial infrastructure in
mainland Tanzania and show how it facilitated exploitation of the country.
(NECTA-2010)

3. “Colonial social services consolidate colonialism in

Africa.” Justify this statement by giving six points. (NECTA-2013)