World Religions Notes (Part-1)

Allah (SWT) created Man and sent him to live on the Earth. But this living was not same like the living of
every creature on this planet. Man was given a task to apply the rules of his creator here and also to
deal others according to these principles. In short Man was nominated as the Caliph of Allah on Earth. In
order to guide this Caliph Allah revealed His message in different times and places. Sometimes new
message was given to the Prophets and sometimes messengers were sent to revive the revelations of
previous Prophets. A person who chose to follow a Religion as a way of life, whether it is Islam,
Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism or any other ideology or philosophy of life, has to understand
at first, what Religion is.
As the study of Religion developed as a separate science, different scholars have given a number of
definitions according to their perceptions. Being Muslims we are the bearers of the last Revelation which
tells us about 1,24000 messengers and the 4 revelations. They were the living proofs of this guidance,
which Allah has sent in different times. Most of the Muslim scholars do not differentiate between the
terms Al-Deen and Religion, while describing their general concept. But in the process of studying and
analyzing the two terms we find a number of definitions given by different scholars. The difference
occurred because of the difference of perception between Muslim and Western scholars. Muslims used
the term A-Deen ie: the way of life, for this Divine guidance and described it in this context. If we consult
the dictionaries the root word for this term is “Daana”. It is used in three different aspects in its literal
meanings with a few grammatical changes.
1. When it is associated with “hu” and becomes danahu. Here it is used in the meanings of “to
capture” or “to bring under one’s complete control”.
2. When it is associated with “lahu” and becomes danalahu. Here it gives the meanings of “giving
yourself under someone’s complete obedience”.
3. When it is associated with “bihi” and becomes danabihi, here it gives the meanings of a religion,
a way, an ideology to spend life.
Muslim scholars when talk about Religion by using the term Deen, they are using it in its 3rd meaning and
defined it in different ways. Most popular among these is given here:
Abdullah Daraz is one of those Muslim scholars who have written about Al-Deen in lot. His definition is
the most popular and accepted by majority of the Muslim scholars as the most authentic definition of
Deen. According to him:
“Deen is something given by Divine for the guidance in the matters of Faith and righteousness in
practices and dealings”
Another popular definition by a Muslim scholar is:
“Religion is from a Divine Being for those who are thoughtful and wise to show them a way towards
what is right in the present and to choose the success in the end”
On the other hand, Western scholars studied Religion as a developed phenomenon and not something
revealed from God. Each one of them defined Religion in perspective of the discipline, he belonged to
and that is why a lot of definitions are available when we try to find out how Westerners have defined it.
eg: Famous psychologist Sigmund Freud defined it by saying:
“Religion is the Opium of the Oppressed”
According to this definition Religion appeared when humanity was in a situation of oppression and not
able to control different type of happenings around him. In this situation religion teaches to be tolerate
and passionate. Religious teachings effect just like intoxication caused by opium and the user feels
relaxed. He is explaining a pure psychological function of Religion in the life of an individual. Another
popular definition is:
“Religion is a way to link Human Beings to their creator”
Auguste Kantt says:

“Religion is the sense of performing one’s responsibilities according to the Divine will”

Abbe Chatel says:

“Religion is the collection of the duties of creatures towards their creator”

Religion and Human Society:

Keeping in view of these definitions, our need for religion and religious teachings is clear. In short, we
require religion for the following reasons:

1.Sanctions for the Principles of Morality

Religion provides a sanction for the principles of morality like justice, honesty, righteousness,
brotherhood, equality, virtuousness, tolerance, sacrifice, help to the needy and other kindred virtues.
These are the virtues without which, not only our life will lose its order, but it is very likely to be turned
into a chaos. Of course, it is possible to acquire these moral and social qualities without the aid of
religion. But certainly in the absence of firm religious belief, these values appear to lose their meaning
and become a series of mere unbinding recommendations, because in such a case they do not amount
to more than a piece of advice from a close friend in respect of which we are at full liberty to accept or
reject. These qualities are rather based on an internal feeling and faith and are naturally beyond the
scope of ordinary law. It is only faith in the existence of an Eternal Being, who knows man equally from
within and without and who has full control over him, that cultivates these virtues within man and
impels him to automatic righteousness and adherence to duty, and if needed, to make sacrifices for the
sake of others. The well- known philosopher-cum-historian Will Durant says in his book ‘Pleasures of
Philosophy’ that without the backing of religion, morality is nothing more than arithmomancy, as
without it the sense of obligation disappears.

2. Power to endure adversities of life:

Religion provides power for facing adversities and serves as a bulwark against undesirable reactions of
despair and hopelessness. A religious man with firm belief in Allah, and of His munificence, does not find
himself in utter desperation, even in the worst moments of his life because he knows well that he is
under the protection of a Being who is Almighty. With Faith in the fact that every problem can be solved,
and every dead lock can be resolved with His help. He can overcome every disappointment and
hopelessness. For this very reason it very seldom happens that a truly religious man suffers from the
acute reactions of desperation like suicide, nervous breakdown or psychic ailments which are products
of frustration and defeatism. The Holy Qur’an says:

“Surely those who are close to Allah, have no fear nor shall they grieve”.
Thus, religious faith is, on the one hand, a motivating force, and on the other, it is a factor which enables
man to face hardships with courage and saves him from the ill effects of failure and disappointment.
Following the downfall of the Nazis, says Bertrand Russell there existed a danger of intellectual and
ideological revolt in Germany, but no doubt, religion has been one of the biggest factors in that
country’s return to stability. According to Dr. Durant, behavior of a man who is not blessed with reliance
on religion suffers from special epicurean confusion and the life which has not the comforting support of
religion, is an unbearable burden.

3.Encounter with Ideological Vacuum:

Man cannot live in an ideological vacuum for long and as such his tendency towards a long ideology and
false values becomes definite. His intellectual life is not filled with sound beliefs and healthy teachings. A
superstitious and even destructive ideas may find way into his spiritual firmament and may forever
pollute his brain. Instances of man’s tendency towards idolatry, man worship, diverse superstitions and
credulity regarding the influence of irrational things over destiny, can be witnessed even in the lives of
world intellectuals. All this originates from spiritual vacuum. It is religion which can fill the ideological
and intellectual vacuum with sound teachings and can save one from a tendency towards absurdities
and irrationalities. Hence, true understanding of religion can play an important role in combating
superstitions though it is true that even religion itself, if not understood correctly, may promote
superstitions.

4.An Aid to the Progress of Science and Knowledge:

Religion with its firm and sound teachings can be an effective factor in scientific progress, because its
foundation has been laid on the solid bed-rock of “freedom of will” and on the fact that everybody is
accountable for his own deeds. Qur’an says in chapter Al-Mudassir:

“Everyone is entangled in the outcome of his deeds”

Faith in religion teaches that limitless knowledge is the source of this cosmos, which is like a very grand
book penned by an erudite scholar. Every page of it, every line and word contains a glaring truth which
stimulates us to further study and contemplation. This attitude towards the cosmos undoubtedly
stimulates persistent thinking over the mechanism of creation and consequently helps in the
advancement of science and knowledge. In contrast, if we hold that this universe is the product of sheer
mechanical factors having no intellect, there remains no plausible reason why we should make
strenuous efforts to discover its secrets. In principle, a universe which is the outcome of the working of
an unconscious machinery, can neither be well-designed nor mysterious. Apart from giving a deadly
blow to the advancement of science and knowledge, such conception of cosmos negates the very fact
that man’s instinct is basically rooted in religion. Albert Einstein was very true when he pointed out why
great thinkers and discoverers are all interested in religion. He said that it was hard to find anyone
among the great thinking brains of the world who might not have a sort of religious feeling peculiar to
him. That feeling was different from the religion of the man in the street. A contemporary scientist says
that science for its own perfection should regard faith in God as one of its accepted principles. Thus, a
religious man, following the true teachings of religion, can more than anybody else, carry out research
and discover the secrets of nature.
5.Fight against discrimination:

Religion strongly opposes every discrimination based on color, race or class because it regards all human
beings as God’s creatures and every country as God’s country. According to it, all enjoy God’s love and
kindness equally and as such, all are equal. According to the teachings of Islam, no man can be superior
to another on the basis of his color, race, descent, language or class. Islam recognizes only piety and
knowledge as the touch stones of superiority. Allah says in chapter Al-Hujrat:

“Man! we have created you from a male and a female and we have divided you into nations and tribes
so that you may get to know one another. Surely the most honorable of you in the sight of Allah is he
who is the most pious”.

Thus, the role of religion in a world that has not yet been able even to solve the color problem, the
question of class part, is quite clear. Anyhow, it cannot be denied that every kind of religious thought or
belief cannot produce the desired results. Like every other intellectual movement, religion also requires
correct guidance. Otherwise it assumes the form of superstition, monasticism, escape from positive life
and pseudo-agnostic negative tendencies, the examples of which can even now be seen in the West,
where people have become fed up with a mechanical life. It is only in such an atmosphere that for want
of correct knowledge, religion is regarded as an obstructive factor.

 Classification of Religions:
When we go through different religions of the world it seems difficult to classify them. But the
researchers and the scholars of religions have put them under some categories they are:

# Theistic religions
# Pantheistic religions
# Paradoxical religions
# Animistic religions

 Theistic religions:
It means those religions who believe in one Supreme God. The examples of these religions are Islam,
Christianity and Judaism.

 Pantheistic religions:
It means those religions who believe in more than one God. Hinduism is the best example of it.
Pantheism means God is everything and everything is God.

 Paradoxical religions:
It means the religions in which we find clashes. Atheistic religions also come under this category, which
means those religions which do not believe in the existence of God, Angels, Heaven and Hell,
Resurrection etc. Its examples are Shinto religion of Japan, Jainism and Buddhism in India. Some
religions who believe in ancestor worship are also categorized here like Confucianism. Maybe this
concept emerged after mixing up with the belief of a Chinese religion in which ‘Shang Te’ is said to be
the Supreme God. But on the other hand, worship of a Supreme God is not the part of present Chinese
religion.

 Animistic religions:
Such type of religions are found in many parts of Africa. These are the religions which have the belief of
ancestor worship and good and bad spirits. Their followers believe that it is necessary to make these
spirits happy to have a better life in this world. Their happiness and anger matters a lot and have a great
impact on the living beings on Earth. But in some religions, a dim reflection of God is also there. But this
God has nothing to do with this universe after creating it. Similarly, they do not believe in any relation
between man and God.

 Classification according to the Revelation:

According to the scholars another classification of religion is which one is revealed, and which are not
revealed.
 Revealed religions:
The examples of these religions are Islam, Judaism and Christianity.
 Non-Revealed religions:
The examples are Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism

 Geographical Classification:
There are four types of religions according to this classification :
# Indian religions
# African religions
# Chinese religions
# Japanese religions

Similarly, they can be categorized as:

# Eastern religions
# Western religions
# Middle Eastern religions

 Semitic and non-Semitic religions:

According to the Bible: Semitic religions are the religions that are associated to the son of Prophet Noah
(A.S) Saam. Like Jews, Arabs, Assyrians etc. Major Semitic religions are Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
They are the prophetic religions and believe in the Divine guidance sent through Prophets of God.
All those religions that are opposite to Semitic are known as non-Semitic religions.

 Theories regarding the origin of religion:

What is the origin of man’s religion? Why does every culture in the world worship some Divine Being?
Anthropologists and historians have studied this question, and presently there are three primary
theories: the subjective theory, the evolutionary theory and original theory
 Subjective Theory:
The subjective theory teaches that religion originates with man. Humans have a psychological need for a
transcendent being that provides meaning and hope to their existence in this vast impersonal universe.
Adherents of this view believe that this religious makeup exists below our conscious awareness. Cultures
have various views of reality according to their experience, but the awareness and desire for religion is a
universal phenomenon. They therefore conclude that this disposition lies in our subconscious. In other
words, our belief about a transcendent Being are not the result of external realities or interactions with
such a being. Rather, these beliefs rise from our psyches. These feelings are expressed in more concrete
terms through symbols and attitudes, not through a set of defined belief systems. As a culture
progresses, these symbols and attitudes are developed into a set of beliefs and practices. Several
proponents were important in promoting this theory. Friedrich Schleiermacher believed that religion
began with a feeling of dependance. This led to a need for an object to depend on which resulted in the
idea of God. Ludwig Feuerbach taught that the concept of God is really a picture of an idealized person.
Sigmund Freud believed that God derived from the basic human need for a father image. The idealized
father figure becomes our image of God.
The subjective theory may teach us about human nature, but it does not adequately explain the origin of
religion or where this universal desire to know and understand God comes from. Dr. Winfried Corduan
writes, “I may carry in my subconscious mind an abstract representation of God, but I cannot on that
basis conclude that there is no independently existing, objective being that is God. God may have
created me with that idea so that I can relate to God.” Every effect has a cause. What is the cause of this
powerful desire for a relationship with God? If we are the products of a Divine creator, that would
explain this universal drive in all mankind to know Him because He placed this desire within us. The Bible
provides answers to the questions the subjective theory cannot answer. Genesis 1 states that we are
created in the image of God. Therefore, we were created in the image of God with the intent to have a
relationship with Him. Romans 1: 20 states that all men have ingrained in their hearts a knowledge of
God. Chapter 2 states that our conscience testifies that a moral law giver exists. The desire for God is a
basic part of human nature.

 Evolutionary Theory:
The second theory regarding the origin of religion is the evolutionary approach. It is also known as
‘Darwinian Theory of Religion’. This is the most popular view that is taught or implied in the study of
religion. Proponents of this theory believe, as in the subjective theory, that religion originates with man.
Religion is the result of an evolutionary process in human culture. In the most primitive period of a
culture, the most basic form of religion begins with an innate feeling that a spiritual force exists. This
force is impersonal and pervades all of creation. It is called mana, derived from the name given to it by
the inhabitants of Melanesia. Mana maybe concentrated more intensely in some areas and objects
more than others. A magnificent tree, a unique rock or a certain animal may contain a higher
concentration of mana. The goal is to manipulate this force so that one may attain a desired outcome.
Objects such as sticks or dolls, called fetishes, may contain the force and be used or worshipped. The
next stage is animism. At this stage, the force is visualized as personal spirits. Animism teaches that a
spirit or spiritual force lies behind every event, and many objects of the physical world carry some
spiritual significance. There are two categories of spirits: nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Nature
spirits have a human form and inhabit natural objects such as plants, rocks or lakes. Ancestral spirits are
the spirits of the ancestors. Both categories of spirits are limited in knowledge, power and presence.
One must maintain a favorable relationship with the spirits or else suffer their wrath. The next stage is
polytheism. Cultures progress from belief in finite spirits to the worships of gods. From polytheism a
culture evolves to henotheism, which is belief in many gods, but worship directed to only one of them.
The final stage is monotheism, the worship of one God.
There are several problems with this theory. The first is that these stages of development have never
actually been observed. There is no record of a culture moving in sequence from the mana stage to the
monotheistic stage as described in the evolutionary model. With mana and animism, evolutionary
proponents expect that cultures in these stages would be free of the notions of any gods. However, this
is not the case. Animistic cultures have gods, and most have a belief in a Supreme Being. Finally, there is
evidence that indicates religions actually develop in the opposite direction from the evolutionary model.
For these reasons the evolutionary and subjective theories do not provide an adequate explanation for
the origin of religion.

 Original Theory:
The third model for the origin of religion is original monotheism. This theory teaches that religion
originates with God disclosing Himself to man. The first form religion takes is monotheism and it
deviates from there. Dr. Winfried Corduan identifies nine characteristics of man’s first form of religion.
# God is a personal God
# He is referred to with masculine grammar and qualities
# God is believed to live in the sky
# He has great knowledge and power
# He created the world
# God is the author of standards of Good and Evil
# Human beings are god’s creatures and are expected to live by his standards
# Human beings have become alienated from God by disobeying His standards
# Lastly, God has provided a method of overcoming the alienation. Originally this involved sacrificing
animals on an altar of uncut stone.
Studies of world cultures have revealed that each one has a vestige of monotheistic beliefs which are
described by Dr. Corduan’s nine qualifications. Cultures that are very primitive provide some of the
strongest proof of original monotheism.

Contemporary anthropologists Dr. Wilhelm Schmidt and Don Richardson discovered that the religion of
some of the most ancient cultures were monotheistic and practiced little or no form of animism or
magic. In almost every culture around the world, the religion of a particular culture began with a
concept of a masculine creator God who lives in the heavens. He provided a moral law by which the
people would enter into a relationship with Him. This relationship was broken when the people were
disobedient and as the relationship deteriorated, people distanced themselves from the creator and
their knowledge of Him faded. As the civilization moved further away, they began to worship other
lesser gods. In their search to survive in a world filled with spiritual forces, they desired power to
manipulate the forces, thus there was an increase in the use of magic. Its best example is the Chinese
culture before Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, 2600 years before Christ, worshipped ‘Shang Ti’.
They understood him to be the creator and the law giver. They believed that he was never to be
represented by an idol. When the Zhou Dynasty controlled China, the worship of Shang Ti was replaced
by the worship of Heaven itself and eventually three other religions evolved in China. In a region North
of Calcutta, India, there lived the Santal people. They were found worshipping elements of nature.
However, before these practices developed, they worshipped ‘Thakur Jiu’, the Genuine God who
created all things. Although they knew that Thakur Jiu was the true God the tribe left worshipping him
and began entering into spiritism and the worship of lesser gods who ruled over some aspect of
creation. The Gedeo tribes if Ethiopia and Incas of South America are also the examples of original
Theory.

 Approaches to the study of Religion:

The growth of various academic disciplines (such as history, archeology, philology, philosophy,
anthropology, sociology and psychology) in the later half of the nineteenth century compelled scholars
to develop improved scientific procedures for an objective, analytical approach to the study of world
religions. At least five basic methodologies can be distinguished: Philosophical, Sociological,
Psychological, Phenomenological and Historical. These five approaches represent the application of
modern critical techniques to the study of world religions, and each of the five is in some way valuable
to the study of world religions.

1.Historical Approach:

The historical approach applies historical method to the study of world religions. Historians study
religious behavior through the sequence of events or series of transformations that characterize the
evolution of various religious traditions into their current forms or up to the points at which they
vanished. Historians consider religions as specific traditions that encompass fundamental beliefs,
important practices and institutionalized systems, all of which have gone through complex courses of
development and transformation. They seek to accumulate all the evidence and data he can, to discover
as close as possible to what really happened in past events. Historians however, in the study of religion,
often come with presupposed philosophical ideas about what could and what could not have happened.
For instance, many Bible historians presuppose that any miraculous or super-natural occurrence
recorded in scripture cannot possibly have happened in real history. Thus, they say that those events
must be based on legends and myths or were embellished by the biblical authors. In some cases, they
may speculate about what happened by offering naturistic alternatives. For example, one serious Bible
skeptic has proposed that Jesus did not actually rise from the dead but was impersonated by His
identical twin. Of course, not all historians discount super-natural occurrences. In fact, many have
applied historical principles to super-natural Bible events and concluded that there are no better
explanations than that they happened as reported. The best example is what we mentioned above: The
Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Even some non-Christian historians are hard put to explain the numerous
circumstances surrounding that event outside of it being actually true.

2. Phenomenological/Comparative approach:

The phenomenology of religion as a method of research in religious studies has its roots in the
“Phenomenological movement”, which began in 19 th century in Germany and Austria and extended
through the first half of the twentieth century blended with the philosophical thought of the social
scientists of that time. The term “phenomenology” was first coined by the Swiss-German mathematician
and philosopher Johann Lambert in 1764. He used this term in his reference to “illusory nature of human
experience in an attempt to develop a theory of knowledge that distinguished truth from error. This
view of Lambert was described in one of his books with the name of ‘Doctrine of appearance’. Immanuel
Kant also used this term twice when he presented the theory of ‘Distinguishing things as they appear to
us from things as they really are’. Kant proposed that it is not possible to have a true and genuine
knowledge of the transcendent as a science but in the phenomena, it is possible since it is a description
of the structure of the human experience. Thus, the ‘phenomenology of religion concerns the
experimental aspect of religion describing religious phenomena in terms consistent with the orientation
of the worshippers.’ Phenomenological approach to the study of religion views religion as being made
up of different component and these components are carefully studied in various religious traditions in
order to gain understanding of them. One of the contemporary scholars when describes the practical
implementation of this method to the study of religion he says that sacrifice, sacrament, sacred place,
sacred time, sacred word, festivals and myths of a religion should be studied. In this way the scholar will
be able to understand the value of each of these phenomena to religious experience. This means that
they need to understand the religion from personal experience. Significant contributions have been
made by this method, especially in the comparison of one religious form with another. That is why it is
also known as comparative method.

3.Sociological approach:

Early sociologists of religion regarded religion as the mainspring in the functioning of human society. The
discipline emphasizes the dimension of power and social change; it also stresses the sources of social
and psychological integration. Michael Hills observes that the study of religion has four main areas:
religious organizations, religion and social change, religion and social cohesion and an integration of the
three. Some scholars of religion recognize religion simply as a way of maintaining social cohesion. Others
recognize that it plays this role among others. Emile Durkheim is concerned with social reality and sees
religion as an agent of collectivity. For him social life is inherently religious. Rituals are the celebrations
of the social life, and through them a group affirms social solidarity. He also claims that religious
traditions are solely the product of society and have no basis in revelation. The sociological method is
applied to crucial issues such as how religion contributes to social integration and what function religion
serves in the social complex of which it is a part. The basic unit of study among sociologists is not the
individual personality but the network of relationships that bind people in cohesive groups called
‘societies.’

4.Psychological approach:

The study of the psychology of religion emphasizes the varieties of religious experience. It looks at the
importance of religion for the individual, and the range of religious manifestations. It is unique among
the scientific approaches in that it places the upmost priority on the person’s religious quests.
Psychologists of religion go beyond reason and recognize that there is a force, consciousness, which tries
to apprehend the infinite in a limited way. They consider that religion deals primarily with those human
experiences that go beyond our understanding. In ‘The varieties of religious experience’, William James
based his thesis on empirical data gained by case study. He defined religious experience as gradual,
unified consciousness, through which the person grasps spiritual realities. Experiences of the infinite
recounted by religious people arise from feeling of awe, fear and fascination, in the presence of the
sacred. Such sacred experience suggests the idea of the holy that encounters reason and
accommodated morality. Those who have had such experiences are understood to bring them into their
daily lives, to infuse the ordinary, everyday with the sacred----a dialectical relationship that changes the
understanding of both parts of life. The fundamental questions that concern the psychology of religion
are those that relate religious experience to social and psychological behavior. To this end, it observes
individual’s religious experience and religious traditions. Yet experience alone cannot be the criterion of
religiosity. Studies should also take into consideration other religious phenomena such as doctrine,
dogma, rites and rituals.

5.Philosophical approach:

Philosophy is the oldest discipline used to study religion. Immanuel Kant argued that the philosophy of
religion evaluates religious concepts, beliefs and practice within a framework of morality. Friedrich
Schleiermacher broadly agreed but refused to accept that religions could be reduced to moral life alone.
Another scholar said that religious concepts and beliefs are embedded in particular traditions and can
only be understood in the context of their culture. According to another scholar religion is a human
product, a projection of the imagination. For him religious beliefs are an idealized projection of people’s
hopes, fear and desires. Today philosophy of religion has moved on from defining abstract ideological
understandings of the ultimate reality to attempting a more classified understanding of religious life.

 JUDAISM:
Definition and Introduction:

The name of the Religion “Judaism” has been adopted after it passed through different stages in the
history. There is no specific definition for the religion as it changed its outward form at every stage of its
development. Because of this, religious scholars defined it by many ways. According to a comprehensive
definition it is one of the strictest form of monotheistic fundamental belief. But it is not a mere belief as
it has written teachings and a revealed organized Shariah as well. According to the ‘Encyclopedia of
Religion and Ethics’ that Judaism is the Religion of the descendants of Prophet Ibrahim (A.S), known as
Bani-Israel. Allah sent Prophet Musa (A.S) among them and revealed Torah to them through Him.
It is said in ‘The Religion of America’ that a Jew is the one who accepts the faith of Judaism. A Jew is the
one who, without formal religious affiliation, regards the teachings of Judaism, its ethics, its folkways, its
literature as his own. This is the cultural definition of a Jew. A Jew is the one who considers himself a
Jew or is so regarded by his community. This is known as the practical definition of being a Jew. In other
words, being a Jew may be a matter of belonging, believing or behaving. Generally, Israeli law declares
that a Jew is one born of a Jewish mother who has never embraced another faith. Neither of the sacred
Jewish classic, the Bible or the Talmud speaks of ‘Judaism’. The term is created by Greek Jews to
describe their uncommon way of serving God. Contemporary Jewish thinkers radically disagree as to the
nature of Judaism and even the advisability of employing the term. Interpretations of Judaism today
range from steadfast traditionalism to radical universalism. The traditionalist themselves differ strongly
on accommodation to modernity. The right-wing Orthodox resists accommodation, while the modern
Orthodox accepts any cultural good not forbidden by God’s revelation. Other contemporary Jews have
rejected Orthodoxy because they consider it incompatible with the practice of democracy and the
findings of the natural and social sciences especially critical history.

History of Judaism:
Jacob (Ya’qoob A.S) migrated from Palestine to Egypt along with his sons when his son Yousuf A.S
became the king of Egypt. They were 70 in numbers as told by their sacred books. Joseph (Yousuf),
respected his father and brothers a lot and gave them a piece of fertile land to settle down there. From
here the history of Jews in Egypt started. They enjoyed a higher status for a long time until the behavior
of Egyptians was changed towards them. The main reason was that the population growth rate of Bani-
Israel was more than the natives. More than that they were becoming powerful by making their
influence stronger in the state affairs. So much so that a time came when they were deprived of all their
properties and political positions in the state. Bani-Israel were living in such a miserable state when
Allah sent Prophet Musa and Haroon (A.S) among them for their guidance as well as to show the right
path to Pharaoh and his nation. They belonged to the tribe of Levi among the twelve tribes of Bani-
Israel. They asked them to worship one God, to leave the worship of idols, stars, souls of the deads,
kings, animals and everything except one God. They were given a heavenly Shariah by Allah known as
Jewish religion. Everything related to their religious and worldly life was explained by Musa A.S to them.
Bani-Israel accepted these teachings but Egyptians (Pharaoh’s nation) refused. The two Prophets lived
among Egyptians along with Bani-Israel until Allah (SWT) ordered them to migrate to the desert of Sinai.
It is a popular story told in Qur’an and in Old Testament in details. The chapter ‘Exodus’ of Torah also
talks about it.
Bani-Israel lived in the desert for forty years as Bedouins, travelling from one place to another. They
were also given ten commandments during this period. When they demanded to have a settled city life,
with the commandments of Allah Musa (A.S) asked them to march towards Palestine and capture it. But
they refused to attack and fight. This act made Allah angry and He wrote a disgraced life for them until
one whole generation of Bani-Israel passed away in the desert and next generation replaced them.
Prophet Musa and Haroon also died in this period after the revelation and Shariah was completed.
In about 13th century, under the leadership of Yousha’ ibn-e-Noon, Bani-Israel attacked Palestine and
conquered it. They treated the people of Palestine as slaves and started their civilized settled life there.
This was the end of their Nomadic life. A new period started when they reshaped their religion and
reorganized their Shariah. The heads of Levi tribe were the religious leaders who accomplished this task.
After they became more and more powerful their political leaders became their kings as well. This was
the time when Prophet Suleiman and Dawood appeared among them who were also their great kings
and another revelation ‘Zabur’ was given to them by Allah. Haikal-e-Suleimani and Al-Aqsa mosque were
also built during this period.
In the years 596 and 587 BC Nabuchonosor (Bakhtnasar), the Babylonian king attacked over Palestine
and destroyed their state. Majority of Jews were taken as prisoners to babul and the rest were either
killed or forced to leave to some other places. For a long time, they were not allowed to come back to
Palestine. For about next fifty years they remained in such circumstances until the Persian king Cyrus
defeated Babylonians in 538 BC. He allowed them to live and worship in Palestine but still they were not
the sovereigns of the state. For about two centuries they lived under Persians then Maqdooneens and
then under Romans. In the year 135 AC as a result of a revolt against Romans, Jews were scattered all
over the world. Till 1948 when the state of Israel was established and Jews got their own state, they
shifted to Israel from all over the world to show their majority in the land of Jerusalem and Palestine.
Since that time, Palestine and Al-Aqsa mosque are the bone of contention between Jews and the local
Muslims. The issue is no more religious only it has become political as well.

The State of Suleiman and Dawood:

King David defeated several other kingdoms in the region, including his main enemy, the Philistines. He
expanded his kingdom and brought it to a peak of political and military power, making Jerusalem the
capital of his kingdom. There he purchased the land for the first Jewish Temple, built by his son, King
Solomon. The Jewish kingdom reached its highest level of wealth and regional influence during the reign
of King Solomon, who was known for his great wisdom and was at peace with all his neighbors. He was
renowned for his wisdom, his prolific writings, and his building accomplishments. Born around 1010 BCE,
Solomon was the tenth son of King David (the second king of ancient united Israel). Like King Saul and
King David, King Solomon reigned for 40 years in one of the highest and most prosperous periods in
Israel's history - called by many, “The Golden Age” of Israel. During his reign, Solomon controlled
the trade routes coming out of Edom, Arabia, India, Africa, and Judea; he constructed an
elaborate and profitable web of alliances and purportedly built the first Temple of God
in Jerusalem, which was destroyed (along with the entire city of Jerusalem) by the Babylonians
in 586 BCE. Despite initial sovereign successes, the end of Solomon's rule was marked by
several insurrections and attacks from both foreign and domestic enemies, as well as a
disintegration of national and religious integrity because of cultural appeasements within Israel,
which compromised and weakened the social fabric of the United Kingdom. He died in 931
BCE at age 80, possibly the most prosperous and productive king ever to rule over Israel. In the
Hebrew scriptures, it is stated that King David, anointed by the Prophet Samuel before King
Saul's demise to be his replacement, officially became King of Judea (1010 BCE).  Later, it is also
stated that (in 1002 BCE) all the elders of Israel approached him to be their ruler, and “The king
made a covenant with them at Hebron before the Lord, and they anointed David king over
Israel.” King David's reign lasted 40 years, and like King Saul, it started off better than it ended.

 Jewish Beliefs and practices:

 Beliefs:
1.Jewish belief in God:
Judaism is one among the major Semitic religions. Its followers are known as Jews and they believe in
the prophetic mission of the Prophet Moses (A.S)
Following are a few verses from Torah and the Old Testament which can help to understand the concept
of God in Judaism:
“Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord”
In another verse it is said:
“I, even, I am the Lord; and besides me there is no saviour”
Another verse of Bible states:
“I am lord and there is none else; There is no God besides me.”
These and many other verses with the similar meanings clearly show that Judaism is a pure monotheistic
religion and there is a clear concept of belief in one God. It condemns idol worshipping strictly. God is
one, omnipotent, omniscient and without limitations or form. He is not only the creator and master of
the universe but also an active participant in human affairs. An important concept in relation to God and
human beings is that Torah states that man and woman are created in the image of God. It means to be
divinely ordained to demonstrate God’s justice and mercy. Judaism does not encourage to leave the
world, to please God. On the contrary, life is to be responded to with piety and reverence. Torah
instructs how an individual’s behavior must be governed from the cradle to the grave by moral codes.
2. The Chosen People:
The second basic tenet of Judaism is that a Jewish person is free to reject or accept the commandments
of God, which, according to tradition, were offered to and accepted by his people during the revelation
at Mount Sinai. Judaism views humans as autonomous agents neither wholly evil nor wholly good in
nature, who can suppress their potential for evil by following God’s commandments. The essence of that
obligation is perhaps best expressed in the Jewish legend telling of how God, having completed the
requirements, He demanded of humankind, offered them in the form of a scroll (The Torah) to various
nations. All except the Jewish people refused, on the grounds that the Torah placed too many
restrictions on their lives. Modern Judaism, therefore, represents Jews as a choosing, not chosen people.
God’s acceptance of Israel can be explained in terms not of Divine preference but of human choice.
There is no question of favoritism; on the contrary Jews consider themselves committed to maintain a
special sense of responsibility towards God and His commandments. They believe that their absolute
loyalty and obedience to God will result in the redemption of the entire human race. From here the
Jewish concept of singularity appears which means that Jews are the only among all human beings who
are closer to God. The sanctity of Jewish life and faith, the modern land of Israel and the very existence
of the Jews in a word, Judaism itself is inconceivable without the concept of chosenness. This is a special
universal God-Jew relationship which gives them a special place among other nations of the world.
Humanity is neither expected nor obligated, as Jews are, to live within the jurisdiction of Torah. The
responsibility of non-Jews is only that they accept seven basic obligation:
1. Not to profane God’s name
2. Not to worship idols
3. Not to commit murder
4. Not to steal
5. Not to commit adultery
6. Not to be unjust
7. Not to cut limbs from living animals
3.Jews and Gentiles:
The concept of superiority of Jews over other human beings leads to another belief; ‘Jews and Gentiles’.
Gentile is a person who is not a Jew. It is derived from the Hebrew term “Goy” which means ‘a nation’. It
is applied on all other nations who are not Jews. In the early period, closer to Jews were the Christians.
Thus, initially the term was applied on those who followed Christian faith because they went out of the
Jewish faith. According to the contemporary perception all those who are not Jewish by birth are
Gentiles. They are not at the same level of humanity as Jews. Some even believe that they are actually
animals in the form of human beings which have been created because Jews needed them in the world.
This belief creates a difference between Jewish and non-Jewish nations. It is to show the superiority of
Jews over others.
4.The Arrival of a Messiah:
Jews also believe that Judaism has a particular role to play in the task of world redemption. Since
ancient times Jewish tradition has asserted that a Messiah, endowed with strong leadership and great
wisdom, will come to redeem humankind and establish God’s kingdom on Earth by bringing an era of
perfect peace. The Messiah is expected to a human rather than a Divine Being, a descendant from the
house of David. Many Jews today still pray for the arrival of such a Messianic Age when they gather to
worship in the synagogue. Others have reinterpreted this traditional belief. Instead of pinning their faith
on an individual, who will appear in a Messianic Age, they consider that someday humanity collectively
will reach a level of transcendent enlightenment, justice and kindness that will create the climate for
God’s kingdom on Earth. Regardless of the interpretation placed on the tradition, Judaism is more
concerned with this world than the next in striving toward the ideal.
  Practices:
Judaism has always defined itself in terms of rites and religious acts. Such observances either mark
stages in individual life cycles or are related to the cycle of the religious calendar.
1.Rites of Passage:
The most important and distinctive of all Jewish rites is the circumcision of all male children eight days
after birth as an external symbol of the Covenant and of commitment to Judaism. Another religious
obligation is the Bar Mitzvah for boys reaching the age of thirteen. Recently, a Bar Mitzvah has been
introduced by some groups, although not all as a parallel ceremony for girls. In the rite, the young are
recognized as responsible adults, members of the Jewish community and faith. The marriage ceremony
is largely a matter of local practice, but certain religious observances are common to most Jewish
communities. It also gives permission for divorce if the partners are not agree, to live together. Divorced
persons are encouraged to remarry and may wed another partner in the synagogue. Death is attended
by an extremely ceremonial pattern. Burial takes place within twenty-four hours of death except when a
Sabbath or a Holy Day intervenes. The burial is followed by a seven-day period of mourning usually
called Shiva. After eleven months a memorial stone is placed at the graveside.
2. The Sabbath:
The most important of all Jewish observances is the Sabbath which starts every Friday evening and
continues till Saturday evening. The women of the house light the candles while the man recites a
special benediction over the wine and the bread. The ritual is followed by a festive meal. Some also
attend synagogue services on Friday night before dinner. Saturday is the Sacred Day for all Jewish
groups. Orthodox refrain from any type of work like lightning or riding on an automobile. A spice box is
passed around from hand to hand for the family to taste and smell as the sweetness of the Sabbath.
3.Devotional acts:
Religious people seek continually to know God’s will and to implement it in everyday life. One of the
responsibility of a devout Jew is to recite twice a day the basic prayer called Shema. The words affirming
the oneness of God and the love of God are taken in their literal meanings by every Jew that is why they
keep Shema written in small boxes on the left arm, as that is closer to heart and the forehead. Small
receptacles containing this prayer are fastened on the door posts of Jewish homes, offices and schools.
Tallith (a type of shawl) and the skull caps are also necessary parts of prayer.
4.High Holy Days:
The large gatherings of Jews are seen on events like Holy Days. All sects are gathered to remember their
great historical events. Most of these are celebrated in community meetings in synagogues. Important
among these are Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur. Rosh Hashana is the new year celebration which starts
in September and October. Some celebrate for two and some only for one day. Its symbol is a shofar
(Ram’s horn) which is blown in the synagogue during the service on New Year’s Day. Yom Kippur is
celebrated shortly after Rosh Hashana. A long day ritual of prayers and fasting in the synagogue,
including the confession of a catalogue of shortcomings, transgressions and sins, marks this important
event. Just before the sunset, the entire congregation chants the prayer of forgiveness for unfulfilled
vows made to God. At the end the entire family gathers for a festive meal at home.

 Jewish sects in History:

The details of Jewish sects that have been appeared in Jewish history is given below:
1.Samaritans:
They are known as the oldest sect of Judaism. Its basis can be found in the times, when the state of
Suleiman was divided into two. Samaritans is a term used to designate a people from that part of
kingdom of Israel which is known by the ancient capital city of Samaria. They preferred to call them
Israelits but history recalls them as Samaritans, which they translate as ‘the keeper of the Faith’.
Samaritans claim that they are the descendants of the suns of Yousuf. Classical sources tell that they
mixed up with Assyrians and other nations living there so their blood is not purely Jewish. Tulmood calls
them with the name of ‘Kootim’ because of a place named ‘Koot’. They also claim to be from Haroon. It
is said that they were the community who rebelled against Alexander the great in 332 BCE. Alexander
destroyed the city of Samaria and Samaritans fled to Mount Gerizim and built a temple there just like
the Jerusalem Temple. They were crushed so severely by the Christian government that they never fully
recovered. Then they lived under Muslim rule and their colonies spread in various places throughout the
Mediterranean world. They had their special synagogues in Constantinople, Rome, Aleppo, Gaza and
particularly Damascus and Cairo in the Muslim world. They even existed during Ottoman empire, where
their population became almost double. Majority of them lived in Nablus and Tel Aviv.
2.Hasideans:
The history of this sect is not very much known even among the Jewish writings. It is said that they were
found in 200 B.C and are radically different from other sects. Some scholars, mix-up between Hasideans
and Hasidims. But in fact, Hasideans is an ancient Jewish sect while Hasidism is a movement of
comparatively later times. The sect was known by this name because they were very strict towards
observing Sabbath and offering their prayers. The word ‘Hasideans’ means ‘the most pious’. Because of
their strictness in matters of Shariah and punctuality in the religious worships and services, they were
known by this name. Some scholars believe that this sect emerged in the form of Pharisees after them.
This sect finished after their clash with Makkabi movement. Most of Jewish historians believe that they
were far away from the real teachings of Old-Testament and that is why they did not have any
relationship with other Jewish sects except that of nationality.
3.Pharisees:
The name is derived from a Greek word, which means ‘the separatists’ or ‘deviants.’ It is because they
separated themselves from the supreme religious council of that time headed by Sadduquees. Several
meanings of their name have been told such as ‘those who purified themselves from ritually unclean
things’ or ‘those who were interpreters of Torah’. But Sadduquees used the names of brothers and
companions for themselves. They believed in the interpretation of Shariah written by Rabbanieen. This
sect appeared in 200 B.C first time in the history and remained on the stage for about one century even
after Jesus. Pharisees claim to be the true followers of Biblical religion, preserving ancient traditions
which had been handed down orally and at the same time developing Judaism through the Pharaisic
method of exegesis. Because of their great contribution in the religion, the later Jewish writers call them
‘men of great synagogue’, who consider Ezra as the greatest interpreter of Shariah after Musa. Gospels
tell us that they were the worst enemies of Christ. There are a number of texts in Gospels showing Jesus
speaking to the people and explaining them the infidelity and hypocrisy of Pharisees.
4.Sadduquees:
The reason of their name is that they were the followers of a person named ‘Saduq’, who is said to be
the chief advisor of Suleiman. His family inherited the post after him and since that time they are
enjoying a higher religious status in the society especially in the fields of religion and politics. They were
the bitter rivals of Pharisees but made a peace pact with them due to their public popularity. With the
destruction of temple, Sadduquees gradually faded out of existence.
5.Essenes:
They were known as Greek terms as ‘Essenoi’. The meaning of this name is ‘pious’, ‘healers’ and ‘the
silent ones.’ They were present in the times of Sadduquees and poharisees. They participated in the
revolt against Romans and were punished in return. As a result, they disappeared from the scene of
history gradually. Since the discovery of Dead sea scrolls, majority of scholars have adopted the view
that these documents were the library of Essenes, settled at Qumran. This is the sect mentioned in Dead
Sea Scrolls as ‘The Qumran Sect’. They were finished after the destruction of the Temple in 70 B.C.
6.Karaites:
This name is believed to appear in the 9 th century and according to 12 th century author, the name was
firstly used by Rabbinic Jews. They are known to be ‘the callers’, means those who called to the original
teachings of the religion. A Rabbi Annan bin David is said to be the founder of this sect. When they
started preaching their concepts, they were strictly condemned and opposed and as a result failed. The
Crusaders attack in 1099 stopped the Jewish activities were stopped in Palestine. They even survived the
persecution after the second world war because Germans considered them as a Turkish tribe that
embraced Judaism. After the Arab Israeli conflict most of its members moved to Israel, Europe and
America from the Arab territories. Most of traditional Jewish scholars believe them to be as rebels and
even infidels. The priests banned to marry them. It is the only Jewish sect which still exists. Today, they
are working with the name of ‘American Council for Judaism’ in New-York.

 Judaism in Contemporary times:

As discussed earlier, Judaism has passed through different stages of development. There is a clear
difference between the older sects and the modern religious groups comparatively. There are, even
differences between the practices of the followers of one sect living in different countries and societies.
These differences have become clear after the establishment of the state of Israel as it has affected the
lives of Jews everywhere in the world. It was easy for a Jew to live his life according to the rules of Torah
before the renaissance period. But now with the changing trends in the West, Jews have also changed
traditionally and culturally. Their main religious groups are now German, French and Spanish Jews when
classified according to the territories. The new generations are getting settled in their respective
environments. Globalization has also made them to change their attitude towards the outer world.
Being the member of one particular society, they have to follow the rules and regulations of that
country along with keeping his relationship strong with Jewish religious beliefs and traditions. In this
effort, there appeared three religious Jewish groups in today’s world: Reformists, Orthodox and
Conservatives.
1.Reform Judaism:
Reform Judaism began in the 18 th century with demands for change in Jewish practice and Doctrine on
the part of German Jewish intellectuals. Fifty Jewish thinkers gathered in the city of Berlin in 1810,
demanding a critical and analytical study of Jewish literature. But the establishment of a separate school
of thought laid the foundation stone for this movement and with the establishment of reformist temple,
it proved to be a complete religious thought. It was reformists who introduced music in worships. Jewish
hymns and prayers were translated into German. The name ‘Temple’ was used for their worship place
instead of Synagogue.
2.Orthodox Judaism:
Those European Jews who did not respond to the changes in Jewish rituals or beliefs and continued
simply with their traditional religion, or tried to adjust modernity in a Jewish framework, appeared in
the form of Orthodox. They even attacked the reforms with their slogan: ‘What is new is forbidden by
Torah’. The slogan was raised at first by Hungarian Jews. They insisted that the standards of
traditionalism should remain unchanged. They announced to accept the value of European culture,
secular education and active participation in social life as the need of the time. Their view is that there is
an in-built quality in Judaism to absorb the culture of the society in which it found itself but, this
adjustment should be in term of Judaism. One of their scholars interpreted it by saying that according to
Torah Judaism must go together with the culture, science and society of the place and period in which
Jews live because Judaism is a practical belief and a social system. The first Orthodox school was also
established in Germany. Modern Orthodoxy has established its own educational institutions and gives a
flexible interpretation and implementation of Shariah.
3.Conservative Judaism:
The tension between tradition and modernity raised another religious group. That is ‘The Conservatives’.
Its ideological mentors were those European scholars, who developed the so-called historical school
within the science of Judaism. Its founders opposed the reforms of contemporaries and walked out of
the 1845 Frankfurt Rabbinical Conference, in protest at their stand. Their view was that moderate
reforms are necessary, but they should reflect the spirit of the Jewish past and violate it in subservience
to modernity. They worked to preserve the centrality of Hebrew in worships and practices. They
established their Seminary in New York in 1887, which turned this movement into a major force on the
American Jewish scene. In 1913, United Synagogue of America was founded which also served as the
center for all Conservative congregations in North America. Today this is the largest formal Synagogue
organization in the USA and still growing at a faster rate than its own rivals. Conservatives encouraged
mixed seating and use of English language during worships. Such changes have given Conservative
Judaism an identity which clearly sets it off from Orthodoxy and make it very much a North American
product.

 Jewish Scripture:
The Holy Bible has two sections: Old Testament and New Testament. That is basically Christian division
as they believe in the revelation before Jesus to be the promise of God to Moses and this promise was
renewed with the revelation of Jesus. This first section of Bible is the Jewish scripture which is believed
to be the Holy text for Judaism, Christianity and Islam. It consists of four sections:
1.Torah which is also known as Pentateuch. It has 5 chapters which were given to Moses in written form.
They are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, numbers and Deuteronomy.
2. The history books telling the history of Israelits from their conquest of Cana’aan to their defeat and
exile to Babylon.
3. The poetic and wisdom books.
4. The books of the Biblical Prophets
Along with these ten commandments and Zabur, the Revelation of David are also considered as sacred
by the Jews.