Geography Udaan

“UDAAN” - Quick and Comprehensive Revision Series GEOGRAPHY: INDIA AND WORLD
INDEX
Sr. CHAPTER Pg. No

1 ORIGIN OF EARTH 1
2 GEOMORPHOLOGY 16
3 INDIA: GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY 40
4 COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE 53
5 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND AIR CIRCULATION 59
6 WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 67
7 WORLD CLIMATE REGIONS 74
8 OCEANOGRAPHY 83
9 INDIAN CLIMATE 99
10 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS 115
11 SOILS 127
12 NATURAL VEGETATION 133
13 HUMAN SETTLEMENT 139
14 INDIA – POPULATION 141
15 INDIA – LAND RESOURCES 146
16 AGRICULTURE 148
17 INDUSTRY 153
18 WATER RESOURCES 156
19 MINERAL RESOURCES 158
20 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS 161
21 CONTINENTS 164
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CH.1 ORIGIN OF EARTH
EARLY THEORIES
THEORY BY DETAILS
• By German philosopher • The hypothesis considered that the planets were
Immanuel Kant. formed out of a cloud of material associated with a
• Mathematician Laplace youthful sun, which was slowly rotating.
Nebular revised it in 1796.
Hypothesis • Again in 1950 somewhat • They considered that the sun was surrounded by solar
revised by Otto Schmidt in nebula containing mostly the hydrogen and helium
Russia and Carl Weizascar in along with what may be termed as dust.
Germany. • The friction and collision of particles led to formation
of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were formed
through the process of accretion.
• 1900, Chamberlain and • Considered that a wandering star approached the sun.
Moulton • As a result, a cigar-shaped extension of material was
Planetesimal • Supported by- Sir James separated from the solar surface.
hypothesis Jeans and later Sir Harold • As the passing star moved away, the material
Jeffrey separated from the solar surface continued to revolve
around the sun and it slowly condensed into planets.
MODERN THEORIES:
BIG BANG THEORY:

• Also called Expanding Universe Hypothesis.
• This theory was propounded by Georges Lemaître in late
1920s.
• Edwin Hubble 1920, provided evidence that the
universe is expanding.
• The expansion of universe means increase in space between
the galaxies.
• As time passes, galaxies move further and further apart. The
Big Bang Theory considers the following stages in the
development of the universe:
STAR FORMATION:
• The distribution of matter and energy was not even in the early universe. These initial density differences in
gravitational forces caused the matter to get drawn together.
• These formed the bases for development of galaxies. A galaxy contains a large number of stars.
• A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large cloud called nebula.
• Eventually, growing nebula develops localized clumps of gas.
• These clumps continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of stars.

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FORMATION OF PLANETS
• The stars are localized lumps of gas within a nebula. The gravitational force within the lumps leads to the
formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of gas and dust develops around the gas core.
• In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the core develops into small
rounded objects. These small-rounded objects by the process of cohesion develop into what is called
planetesimals. Larger bodies start forming by collision, and gravitational attraction causes the material to
stick together. Planetesimals are a large number of smaller bodies.
• In the final stage, these large number of small planetesimals accrete to form a fewer large bodies in the form
of planets.
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

• Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies like asteroids
and comets and huge quantity of dust-grains and gases.
• The Sun is the central star of our solar system. There are eight planets in our solar system: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune (My Very Efficient Mother Just Served Us Nuts!!)
• Mercury is the smallest and the nearest planet to the Sun.
• Venus is considered as 'Earth's-twin' because its size and shape are very much similar to that of the earth.
It is probably the hottest planet because its atmosphere contains 90-95% of carbon dioxide with clouds of
Sulphuric acid.

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• Jupiter is the Largest planet of the solar system. Its atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium, methane and
ammonia.
• The tilt of rotational axis of Venus and Uranus is so great that these planets actually rotate in a direction
that is opposite to the other planets.
• Pluto is a dwarf planet.
These planets are divided into:

1. Inner or Terrestrial planets which have higher densities and a solid rocky surface. These are Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars. The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the Sun where it was too
warm for gases on the surface to condense to solid particles. The intense solar wind near the sun blew off
lots of these gases and dust from the surface of the terrestrial planets. That’s why the terrestrial planets have
a rocky surface.
2. Outer or Jovian planets which have lower densities. These are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The
solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal of gases from the Jovian
planets. That’s why the Jovian planets have gaseous surface.
PARAMETERS TERRESTRIAL PLANETS JOVIAN PLANETS

Location Formed in closed vicinity of parent star  At distant location
here too warm for gases to condense to solid
particles
Effect of Solar It blew off lots of gas and dust from the The solar winds were not all that intense to
Winds terrestrial planets. Thus, have rocky surface. cause similar removal of gases from the
Jovian planets.
Size Smaller  low gravity could not hold Bigger  thick atmosphere
escaping gas
Density Higher Lower
THE MOON
• The moon is the only natural satellite of the
earth.
• Its diameter is only one-quarter that of the earth
and it is about 3,84,400 km away from us.
• The moon is tidally locked to the earth, meaning
that the moon revolves around the earth in about
27 days which is the same time it takes to complete
one rotation.
• As a result of tidal locking, only one side of the
moon is visible to us on the earth.
• Generally it is believed that the formation of moon,
as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of ‘giant
impact’ or what is described as “the big splat”.
• A body of the size of one to three times that of mars  collided into the earth sometime shortly after the
earth was formed  It blasted a large part of the earth into space  This portion of blasted material then
continued to orbit the earth  Eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.
Tidal Locking:
• Tidal locking is the name given to the situation when an object’s orbital period matches its rotational period.
• The Moon is tidally locked to the Earth, which means that it always shows one face to our planet. Tidal locking
is when a body in space orbits another body in a way that the body’s year and day are equal in length.
• This means that the body spins around its own axis once for each time it orbits around another, specific body
in space.
• By having equal years and days, this orbiting body shows the same side of its face to those looking at it from
the other body, or the body that being rotated around.
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• We see the same side of the moon, never getting a glimpse of its other side from Earth. This is because the
moon is tidally locked to the Earth.
• The moon orbits around Earth every 28 days, and the moon rotates completely around its axis in 28 days.
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
Asteroid A small rocky body that orbits the Sun. Most asteroids in our solar system are found in the
main asteroid belt, a region between Mars and Jupiter. But they can also hang out in other
locations around the solar system. For example, some asteroids orbit the Sun in a path that
takes them near Earth.
Comets Comets orbit the Sun, like asteroids. But comets are made of ice and dust—not rock.
Comets usually originate in the Kuiper belt which lies beyond the orbit of Neptune.
Meteoroids Sometimes one asteroid can smash into another. This can cause small pieces of the asteroid
to break off. Those pieces are called meteoroids. Meteoroids can also come from comets.
Meteors If a meteoroid comes close enough to Earth and enters Earth’s atmosphere, it vaporizes
and turns into a meteor: a streak of light in the sky. Because of their appearance, these
streaks of light are sometimes called "shooting stars". But meteors are not actually stars.
Meteorites Sometimes meteoroids don’t vaporize completely in the atmosphere. In fact, sometimes
they survive their trip through Earth’s atmosphere and land on the Earth’s surface. When
they land on Earth, they are called meteorites.
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH:

• It is not possible to know exactly how the earth was formed about 4,500 million years ago. Evidences
regarding earth’s structure are obtained from volcanic eruptions, earthquake waves, etc.
• Earth has concentric layers  crust, mantle and core.
• Due to the giant impact  The earth was further heated up  Thus gave rise process of differentiation 
that the earth forming material got separated into different layers (depending on densities)  Starting from
the surface to the central parts, we have layers like the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core.
• From the crust to the core, the density of the material increases.
• Earth is fifth largest planet in the Solar System.
• Blue Planet: From the outer space, the earth appears blue because its two-thirds surface is covered by water.
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH:

• The structure of the earth's interior is made up of several concentric layers.
• Temperature and pressure increase as we go deeper towards the centre of the Earth because of presence of
radioactive materials.
• Broadly three layers can be identified:
1. Crust
2. Mantle
3. Core
STRUCTURE OF EARTH:
•
Thicker  mean thickness = 30 km & Crust + upper
Continentaldensity = 2.7g/cm3 most layer of
Crust •
Rock Type: Granite mantle =
Outermost solid Minerals  Silica + Aluminum = SIAL
• lithosphere
CRUST part Thinner  mean thickness = 5 km & (10 to 200
•
density = 3g/cm3 km)
Oceanic • Rock type: Basalt
Crust • Minerals  Silica + Iron + Magnesium =
SIMA
• The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
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MANTLE • The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere. (=400KM)

• The material in the upper mantle portion is called magma
• Once it starts moving towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
• Density = 3.4g/cm3
• The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
Core mantle Outer Liquid state
boundary is Layer
located at the Solid State
CORE depth of 2,900 Inner
km. Referred as Layer
Nife layer (Iron +
Nickel)
NOTE: Trick to remember the different boundary names: “May Ram Guide Lakshman” for the Mohorovicic,
Repetti, Gutenberg and Lehmann discontinuities in order from top to bottom.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EARTH

• Iron is the most abundant element in the Earth followed
by Oxygen, Silicon, and Magnesium and so on.
• But if we talk about only the crust, then oxygen is the most
abundant element in the crust followed by Silicon,
Aluminium, Iron and so on.
EARTH’S GEOMAGNETIC FIELD

• Approximately, it is the field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted
at an angle of about 11 degrees with respect to Earth's rotational
axis, as if there were a bar magnet placed at that angle at the
center of the Earth.
• The geomagnetic field is a dynamic field and it changes with
location and time.
• Study of this magnetic field and its variations gives us a better
understanding about the metallic core of the Earth.
CAUSES OF GEOMAGNETIC FIELD:

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• The Magnetic Field of the Earth is generated by the motion of molten iron alloys in the Earth’s outer core.
Differences in temperature, pressure and composition within the core cause convection currents in the
molten metal.
• This flow of liquid iron generates electric currents, which in turn produce magnetic fields. This effect is
known as Dynamo Effect
GEOMAGNETIC REVERSAL
• A geomagnetic reversal is a change in a planet's magnetic field such that the positions of magnetic north and
magnetic south are interchanged. This happens in a cycle of a few hundred thousand years.
• The intensity of the geomagnetic field is greatest near the poles and weaker near the Equator.
GEOMAGNETIC POLES
• The geomagnetic poles are antipodal points where the axis of a best fitting dipole intersects the surface of
Earth. In contrast, the magnetic poles of the actual Earth are not antipodal; that is, the line on which they lie
does not pass through Earth's center.
• If the Earth's magnetic field were a perfect dipole, the field lines would be vertical to the surface at the
Geomagnetic Poles, and they would coincide with the North and South magnetic poles. However, the
approximation is imperfect, and so the Magnetic and Geomagnetic Poles lie some distance apart.
SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOMAGNETIC FIELD:

• This field acts as a shield that blocks the solar winds emanating from the sun.
• This wind consists of energetically charged particles which can severely damage the life on the planet.
• However, some particles manage to enter our planet, being directed by the magnetic field towards the poles,
causing those amazing lights known as Polar Lights.
• Helps in navigation by use of compass.
• Magneto-Perception: Some animals can use this magnetic field to navigate while migrating over long
distances.
• The study of paleo-magnetism provides us with information about the past record of geomagnetism and the
age of rocks on the surface of the planet.
• Paleomagnetic studies have also helped in developing the theories of Seafloor spreading and Plate Tectonics.
• Geomagnetic field is cause of the formation of magnetosphere around the Earth.
MAGNETOSPHERE
• A magnetosphere is a region of space surrounding
the Earth (or any other planet or star) in which
charged particles are affected by the geomagnetic
field (or magnetic field of that body).
• It traps charged particles from the solar winds
(ions and electrons emitted by Sun) and funnels
them into a plasma.
• It extends upto 60,000 km on the side facing the
Sun and to a greater extent on the opposite side.
• Its boundary is known as Magnetopause, outside
which is a turbulent magnetic region known as
magneto-sheath.
• It contains the Van Allen radiation belts
containing of high energy charged particles.
• The lower belt contains electrons and protons extending from 1000 to 5000 km above the Earth’s equator.
• The upper belt has mainly electrons extending from 15000 to 25000 km above the equator.
MAGNETIC STORMS
• A period of rapid magnetic field variation is known as magnetic storms.
• They occur when strong gusts of solar winds collide with magnetosphere of earth.

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• This results in generation of electric currents in the near-earth space. These are known as Ring currents and
they are mostly concentrated over the equator.
• These storms and currents can harm our artificial satellites and long-range radio communication which is
possible because of ionosphere.
• Global positioning systems dependent on satellites and radio communication are also impacted.
AURORAS
• Electrons and ions sometimes descend from the magnetosphere into the upper atmosphere and excite the
molecules of nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere. These excited molecules produce light seen as Auroras.
• Auroras are mostly seen around the poles because of highest intensity of geomagnetic field there.
• The auroras in Earth's Northern Hemisphere are called the Aurora Borealis. Their southern counterpart,
which light up the Antarctic skies in the Southern Hemisphere, are known as the Aurora Australis.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT INTERIOR OF EARTH
DIRECT SOURCES:
• Mining Areas: The most easily available solid earth material is surface rock or the rocks we get from mining
areas. Gold mines in South Africa are as deep as 3 – 4 km. Going beyond this depth is not possible as it is very
hot at this depth. Through this we came to know  temperature and pressure increase with the increasing
distance from the surface towards the interior in deeper depths & density of the material also increases with
depth.
• Projects: Scientists world over are working on two major projects such as “Deep Ocean Drilling Project”
and “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”. The deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so far reached a
depth of 12 km. This and many deep drilling projects have provided large volume of information through the
analysis of materials collected at different depths.
• Volcanic Eruption: forms another source of obtaining direct information. As and when the molten material
(magma) is thrown onto the surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption it becomes available for laboratory
analysis.
INDIRECT SOURCES :
• Meteors: The material and the structure observed in the meteors are similar to that of the earth. They are
solid bodies developed out of materials same as, or similar to, our planet. Hence, this becomes yet another
source of information about the interior of the earth.
• Gravity Anomaly: The gravity values differ according to the mass of material. The uneven distribution of
mass of material within the earth influences this value. The reading of the gravity at different places is
influenced by many other factors. These readings differ from the expected values. Such a difference is called
gravity anomaly. Gravity anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass of the material in the
crust of the earth.
• Magnetic Field: Magnetic surveys also provide information about the distribution of magnetic materials in
the crustal portion, and thus, provide information about the distribution of materials in this part.
• Seismic Activity/Earth Quake: An earthquake is an intense shaking of Earth’s surface. The shaking is
caused by movements in Earth’s outermost layer.
EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE

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LITHOSPHERE: The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the Earth. The lithosphere includes the brittle upper
portion of the mantle and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth's structure.
EVOLUTION OF ATMOSPHERE
3 Stages of evolution of Atmosphere:
First Stage: Loss of The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and helium was stripped off as a result of
primordial atmosphere the solar winds. This happened not only in case of the earth, but also in all the
terrestrial planets, which were supposed to have lost their primordial
atmosphere through the impact of solar winds.
Second Stage: Hot Degassing: During the cooling of the earth  gases and water vapour were
interior of earth released from the interior solid earth. This started the evolution of the present
contributed to the atmosphere. The early atmosphere largely contained water vapour, nitrogen,
evolution of the carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and very little of free oxygen. The process
atmosphere through which the gases were outpoured from the interior is called degassing.
Final Stage: Composition of atmosphere modified by living world through the process of
photosynthesis.
EVOLUTION OF HYDROSPHERE:
• Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed water vapour and gases to the atmosphere.
• As the earth cooled, the water vapour released started getting condensed.
• The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the temperature further decreased
causing more condensation and more rains.
• The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected in the depressions to give rise to oceans. (The earth’s
oceans were formed within 500 million years from the formation of the earth).
ORIGIN OF LIFE:
• Initially the earth or even the atmosphere of the earth was not
conducive for the development of life. Modern scientists refer to the
origin of life as a kind of chemical reaction  First generated
complex organic molecules  Assembled them  could duplicate
themselves  Converting inanimate matter into living substance.
• The record of life that existed on this planet in different periods is
found in rocks in the form of fossils. The microscopic structures
closely related to the present form of blue algae have been found in
geological formations much older than some 3,000 million years. It
can be assumed that life began to evolve sometime 3,800 million
years ago.

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EARTH
• Distance from Sun: 149 Million Km (Average)
• 147.5 million km at Perihelion- closest to the Sun
• 152.2 million km at Aphelion- farthest from Sun
• Shape: Geoid (oblate spheroid): slightly flattened at the Poles and bulging at the Equator.
• Ratio of land to water: 3:7; Northern Hemisphere – 2:3; Southern Hemisphere – 1:4 (southern hemisphere
has larger surface area under water)
• Speed of rotation around axis is maximum at equator and decreases poleward.
• Earth lies in Goldilocks Zone - water can exist in liquid state.
• It is the densest planet in the solar system.
LATITUDE:

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• Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s surface, measured in degrees from the Centre of the
earth.
• Parallel to equator  therefore called parallels of latitude.
• These parallels are in form of circles with unequal diameters. Largest circle is Equator (0° latitude) while
at poles they shrink to a point (90° N & S).
• There are 181 latitudes in total.
• Parallels of latitude are drawn at an interval of one degree. If the earth were a perfect sphere, the length of 1̊
of latitude would be a constant value, i.e. 111 km everywhere on the earth. But to be precise, a degree of
latitude changes slightly in length from the equator to the poles. While at the equator, it is 110.6 km at the
poles, it is 111.7 km. i.e. the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is a little longer than at the
equator.
• Important Parallels of Latitudes:
o Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern Hemisphere
o Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern Hemisphere
o Arctic Circle at 66½° in north of the equator
o Antarctic Circle at 66½° in south of the equator
• Equator: Equator is an imaginary line running on the globe that divides it into two equal parts.
• The northern half of the earth is known as the Northern Hemisphere and Southern half is known as the
Southern Hemisphere.
COUNTRIES PASSING COUNTRIES

THROUGH
• South America: Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil
EQUATOR • Africa: Sao Tome and Principe, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of
Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia.
• Asia: Maldives, Indonesia, Kiribati
• Europe: UK, France, Spain
PRIME MERIDIAN • Africa: Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo
• Antarctica
• North America: Bahamas (Archipelago), Mexico
• Africa: Egypt, Libya, Niger, Algeria, Mali, Western Sahara, Mauritania
TROPIC OF CANCER • Asia: Taiwan, China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Oman,
• UAE, Saudi Arabia
• South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN • Africa: Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar
• Australia
• In India Tropic Of Cancer passes through (8 states): Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram.
• NOTE: Easy to remember  GaRaM Chat & Jalebi With Tea is Ram’s choice
LONGITUTE:
• The longitude of a place is its angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. It is also measured in
degrees. The longitudes vary from 0° to 180° eastward and westward of the Prime Meridian. (Also called
meridian)
• Prime Meridian: In 1884,it was decided to choose as zero meridian the one which passes through the Royal
Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near London as a Prime Meridian.
• The distance between longitudes decreases from equator towards poles (Maximum at the equator)
• The distance between longitudes at the equator is the same as latitude, roughly 69 miles. At 45 degrees north
or south, the distance between is about 49 miles (79 km).The distance between longitudes reaches zero at
the poles as the lines of meridian converge at that point i.e. the degree of longitude decreases in length from
equator to pole.

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• The primary unit in which longitude and latitude are given is degrees (°). There are 360° of longitude (180°
E ↔ 180° W) and 180° of latitude (90° N ↔ 90° S). Each degree can be broken into 60 minutes (’). Each minute
can be divided into 60 seconds (”).
• International Date Line: 1800 longitude is chosen as International Date Line.
• The west side of the line is always one day ahead of the eastern side. A traveller crossing the Date Line
from east to west loses a day and while crossing the Date Line from west to east he gains a day.
• The International Date Line in the mid-Pacific curves from the normal 180° meridian at the Bering
Strait, Fiji, Tonga and other islands to prevent confusion of day and date in some of the island groups that
are cut through by the meridian.
STANDARD TIME
• The local time of places which are on different meridians is bound to differ.
• In India, for instance, there will be a difference of about 1 hour and 45 minutes in the local times of Dwarka
in Gujarat and Dibrugarh in Assam.
• In India, the longitude of 82½° E (82° 30’E) is treated as the standard meridian. The local time at this
meridian is taken as the standard time for the whole country. It is known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).
• States through which IST passes are: UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
HEAT ZONES OF THE EARTH:

1. Torrid Zone: The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all
latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It,
therefore, receives the maximum heat.
2. Temperate Zones: The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude
beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s
rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. They have moderate temperatures.
3. Frigid Zones: Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole in the
Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole in the
Southern Hemisphere, are very cold. It is because here the sun does not rise
much above the horizon.
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH:

• Earth rotates around its axis from west to east.
• This rotational motion has following effects:
o Cycle of days and nights
o Coriolis Force which acts on all moving objects on the
Earth.
Rotation o Seasons (because of tilted axis)
• Solar day: time taken to complete one rotation, i.e.
approximately 24 hrs.
• Speed of rotation decreases from Equator to polewards.
• The axis of rotation is inclined at an angle of 23.50
resulting in varying length of days and nights and
different seasons.
Revolution • Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
• Time taken is about 365 days and 6 hours to complete one revolution.
• The extra 6 hours become one extra day in a leap year after 4 revolutions.
• Earth is closest to the Sun on 3rd January (147 million km), called as Perihelion.
• Earth is farthest from the Sun on 4th July (153 million km), called as Aphelion.

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What would happen if the earth did not rotate?

• The portion of the earth facing the sun would always experience day, thus bringing continuous warmth to
the region. The other half would remain in darkness and be freezing cold all the time. Life would not have
been possible in such extreme conditions.
• As the earth is in inclined position around the sun  a year is usually divided into summer, winter, spring
and autumn seasons.
IMPORTANT TERMS
• An imaginary circle around the sky directly above the Earth's Equator.
• It is always 90 degrees from the poles.
Celestial Equator • All the stars rotate in a path that is parallel to the celestial Equator.
• The celestial Equator intercepts the horizon at the points directly east and west
anywhere on the Earth.
• Stars rise perpendicular to horizon at the Equator and rotate parallel to horizon at
the poles.
• A sidereal day measures the time taken by Earth to complete one rotation.
Sidereal Time • It is 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds.
• It helps astronomers keep time and know where to point their telescopes without
worrying about where Earth is in its orbit.
• Time taken by Sun to reappear at the same position in the sky, as seen from a point
on Earth, after one rotation of earth is known as Solar Time.
Solar Time • Its value is approximately 24 hours. The length of a solar day varies through the
year, and the accumulated effect produces seasonal deviations of up to 16 minutes
from the mean.
• Summer Solstice: on 21 June  Northern hemisphere titled towards Sun. The rays
of the sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer  receive more heat.
• The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting. The
North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle
Solstice: The Sun experience continuous daylight for about six months.
shines directly • Since a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is
over one of the summer in the regions north of the equator.
tropics. • The longest day and the shortest night at these places occur on 21st June. Areas in the
north of Arctic Circle see 24 hrs sunlight while areas south of Antarctic Circle
experience 24 hrs night.
• Winter Solstice: on 22 December  Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of
the sun. A larger portion of the Southern Hemisphere gets light.

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• Therefore, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere with longer days and shorter
nights.
• The reverse happens in the Northern Hemisphere. This position of the earth is
called the Winter Solstice. Areas south of Antarctic Circle in 24 hrs sunlight while
areas north of Arctic Circle in 24 hrs darkness.
• When the sun shines directly over Equator – equal lengths of day and night at all
points on Earth.
Equinox • Vernal equinox (spring equinox), 21st March: spring (autumn) in northern
hemisphere.
• Autumn equinox: 23rd September: autumn (spring) in northern hemisphere.
LOCAL AND STANDARD TIME:

PARAMETERS LOCAL TIME STANDARD TIME
Meaning Local time implies the time of a place Standard time refers to the fixed time for
determined on the basis of apparent places falling in the same meridian, set in a
movement of the sun. country by law.
Variations Changes continuously with the change in Remains same for a particular country.
longitude.
Longitude Places on the same longitude have same Places on the same longitude have
local time. different standard time.
Reckoned by Shadow cast by the sun. Time zones
GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT):

It is the name for mean solar time of the longitude (0°) of the Royal Greenwich Observatory in England. The
meridian at this longitude is called the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian.
How we determine our time with respect to GMT:

• Rotation of earth of 360̊ in one day or 24 hours. Therefore, 15̊ in one hour or 1̊ in 4 minutes.
• Earth rotates from West to East, so every 15̊ we go eastward, local time is advanced by 1 hour.
• If we go westward, local time is retarded by one hour.
• East of Greenwich  see the sun earlier  Gain time (EAST-GAIN-ADD) (E.G.A)
• West of Greenwich  see sun later  Lose time (WEST-LOSE-SUBTRACT) (W.L.S)
• India is 5 hrs 30 min ahead of GMT.
• From Greenwich to 180̊ E  gain 12 hours.
• Similarly from Greenwich to 180̊W  Lose 12 hours.
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• Thus, a difference of 24 hours between the two sides of the 180̊ meridian. This is International Date Line
(IDL).
• Thus while crossing IDL: East to West  loses a day
• West to East  gains a day
• IDL passes through middle of Pacific Ocean.
ECLIPSE
• It is defined as an astronomical phenomenon which occurs when one spatial object comes within the
shadow of another spatial object.
• It happens when three celestial bodies are in a straight line. This alignment of three celestial objects in a
straight line is known as a syzygy.
• An eclipse takes place when one heavenly body such as a moon or planet moves into the shadow of another
heavenly body. There are two types of eclipses on Earth: an eclipse of the moon (Lunar Eclipse) and an eclipse
of the sun (Solar Eclipse).
SOLAR ECLIPSE:
• As observed from the Earth, a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon
passes in front of the Sun.
• This occurs on a new moon phase. Depending on the distance of the
moon from the earth during the event, different types of solar
concealment can be observed. They can be categorized as:
1. Partial: only a portion of sunlight is blocked. Sun, moon and
Earth are not exactly lined up.
2. Annular: Sun can be seen around the edges like a bright ring.
Moon is farthest from Earth.
1. Total: Sun is completely blocked by the Moon. Sun, moon and
Earth  direct line.

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TYPES OF SHADOWS : During a solar eclipse, the moon casts two shadows on Earth.
UMBRA: This shadow gets smaller as it reaches Earth. It is the dark center of the moon’s shadow.
People standing in the umbra will see a total eclipse.
PENUMBRA: Gets larger as it reaches Earth. People standing in the penumbra will see a partial eclipse.
People standing in the umbra will see a total eclipse.
ANTUMBRA It is the lighter area of a shadow that appears beyond the umbra, at a certain distance from
the object casting the shadow.
LUNAR ECLIPSE:
• Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes
through the Earth's shadow.
• This happens only during a full moon, when the
Moon is on the far side of the Earth from the Sun.
Depending on how the sun, the moon, and the earth
line up, lunar eclipse too can be categorized as:
1. Partial: When only a part of the moon moves
into the shadow of the earth. Happens when only
a part of the moon enters Earth's shadow.
2. Total: When the earth passes directly in front of
the moon and casts its shadow on the full moon.
Moon and the sun are on exact opposite sides of
Earth.
STUDENT NOTES:

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CH. 2 GEOMORPHOLOGY
MINERALS AND ROCKS
MINERALS
• Minerals are naturally occurring substances that
have an orderly atomic structure and a definite
chemical composition & physical properties.
• Minerals can be identified on the basis of their
physical properties such as color, density,
hardness and chemical property such as solubility.
• On the basis of composition, minerals are classified
• into metallic and non-metallic types.
• Basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in
the interior of the earth.
• Coal, petroleum and natural gas are organic
minerals.
• Iron ore, nickel, copper minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Limestone is found in sedimentary rocks.
METALLIC NON-METALLIC
Contain metals in raw form. Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals
Metals are hard substances that conduct heat and
electricity and have lustre or shine. For example, iron
ore and bauxite
Metallic minerals are of two types: For example, limestone, mica, gypsum, coal and
1. Ferrous- Ferrous minerals contain iron ore, petroleum.
manganese and chromites.
2. Non-ferrous- Non-ferrous minerals do not contain
iron but may contain some other metals like gold,
silver, copper or lead.
EXTRACTION OF MINERALS
• Mining, drilling and quarrying are the three extraction methods of minerals.
• Mining is the process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface.
• The process of mining includes two methods: (a) Open cast mining, (b) Shaft mining
• Deep wells are bored to take minerals out and this process is called drilling.
• In the process of quarrying, minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out.
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS
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• Minerals found in the crust are in solid form

whereas in interior they are in liquid form98% of
the crust consist of eight elements.
• The rest is constituted by titanium, hydrogen,
phosphorous, manganese, sulphur carbon, nickel
& other elements.
• The Great Oxygenation Event or oxygen
catastrophe which happened 2400 million years
ago in Proterozoic eon triggered an explosive
growth in the diversity of minerals on Earth.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS;

External Crystal Form: • Internal arrangement of molecules-cube, octa-hedrons, hexagonal, prisms.
Cleavage: • Tendency to break in given directions producing relatively plane surfaces, it
may any direction
• Fracture is the characteristic way a mineral break. The
difference between cleavage and fracture is that
Fracture: Limonite; cleavage is the break of a crystal face where a new
crystal face is formed where the mineral broke,
whereas fracture is the "chipping" of a mineral.
• Describes how a mineral reflects light -- how
Lusture: Diamond; brilliant or dull it is.
• Diamond which has high refractive index comes
under Adamentine lusture.
• Color is the easiest physical property to
describe, however it can also be the
most difficult property to make a
mineral identification. Some minerals
Colour /Streak: always have the same color, such as gold,
Alexandrite; whereas some minerals, such as quartz, fluorite, and calcite, come in all
colors.
• Streak is the color of a minerals powder when it is crushed. Some minerals
have a different color powder than their actual color.
• It is a minerals reaction to certain stress, such as crushing, bending, breaking,
Tenacity or tearing. Since tenacity is composed of different reactions to different
stresses, it is possible for a mineral to have more than one form of tenacity.
• Hardness is defined by how well a mineral will resist scratching by another
mineral.
common household item (with a fixed
Mineral hardness)
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
Structure/ Hardness 4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
• All minerals are in this scale, since talc is the softest known mineral
and diamond is the hardest.

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Specific gravity (SG) is the measurement used to determine the density of

Specific Gravity minerals. Different minerals that have the same volume have different weights.
Specific Gravity is measured by the relative weight of the item to water.
IMPORTANT MINERALS OF THE EARTH CRUST

• FELDSPAR: Silicon & Oxygen are Common Elements . Sodium, Potassium ,Calcium ,Aluminium are found in
Specific Varieties . ½ of the Earth Crust Consists Of Feldspar. It has Light Cream to Salmon Pink Colour and is
used In Ceramics and Glass Making.
• QUARTZ: Important component of sand granite consists of silica, hard mineral. It is insoluble in water , it is
white or colourless and is used in RADIO ,RADAR etc.
• PROXENE: Consists of calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron & silicon, it forms 10% of earth crust, found in
meteorites, usually green or black in colour .
• OLIVINE: Magnesium, Iron, Silica are major elements, used in jewellery, greenish crystal, found in basaltic
rock.
• AMPHIBOLE: aluminium, calcium, silicon, iron magnesium are major elements. They form 7% of earth crust,
green or black colour , used in asbestos industry, hornblende is another form of amphibole
• MICA: consists of potassium, aluminium, magnesium iron silica . Forms 4% of the earth crust. Found in
igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is widely used in electronic industries.
USES OF MINERALS:
• Some minerals which are usually hard are used as gems for making jewellery.
• Copper is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
• Silicon is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
• Silicon is used in the computer industry which is obtained from quartz.
• Aluminium is used in automobile, airplanes, bottling industry, building and in kitchen cookware.
ROCKS
• Rocks are aggregate of one or more minerals, they may be hard or soft in varied colours, they do not have
definite chemical composition.
• Petrology is the science of rocks. Petrologist who studies the scientific methods of rocks.
• There are at least 2000 minerals in the crust.
• There are at least six mineral groups which form rocks in the crust
• On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks can be classified into:
 Igneous
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic
ROCK CYCLE
• Rocks do not remain in their original form for long
but may undergo transformation.
• Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old
rocks are transformed into new ones.
• Igneous rocks can be changed into metamorphic
rocks.
• The fragments derived out of igneous and
metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn into
fragments and may be source for formation of
sedimentary rocks.
• The crustal rocks once formed may be carried down
into the mantle through subduction process and may turn into molten magma.
IGNEOUS ROCKS

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• The upper 16 kilometers of the Earth’s crust is made up of 95% Igneous rock, with a thin covering of
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
• Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock cools, Forming silicate mineral crystals.
FEATURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS;

• They are hard granular and crystalline.
• Do not contain fossils.
• Do not allow water to percolate through them. Less affected by chemical weathering.
• No layers like sedimentary rocks
MAGMA AS SOURCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

• The mixture of the Molten Rocks which makes the Igneous rocks is called Magma.
• Magma in fact is a mixture of molten rocks, volatiles (gas) and other solids[ originated from partial melting
of lower crust and upper mantle]
• When the Molten Magma goes down deep within the earth and gets solidified, it is called Plutonism. On the
contrary, the molten Magma can also come out on the surface of earth via a volcanic eruption.
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

• Magma that solidifies below the Earth’s surface and remains surrounded by older, pre-existing rock
• The rocks cool slowly, so they develop large mineral crystals that are visible to the eye.
• Examples of intrusive igneous rocks:
 Granite: (batholith generally), Felsic, igneous rock.
 Diorite: intermediate
 Gabbro: Mafic igneous rocks equivalent to basalt.
 Peridotite, Rhyolite, Andesite, Basalt, Komatiite, Diabase etc
• They are further classified into Plutonic, Hypabyssal, Batholiths and Laccoliths as follows:
Plutonic Generally, very large crystal and they were formed due to cooling of magma very deep inside
the Earth
Hypabyssal/ Consolidated in a zone above the base of Earth’s crust and hence has distinct structural
subvolcanic characteristics.
Batholiths They extend to greater depths and larger areas.
Laccoliths A sheet intrusion that has been injected between two layers of sedimentary rock.
EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

• If the magma reaches the surface and emerges as lava, it forms extrusive igneous rock.
• Extrusive igneous rocks cool very rapidly on the land surface or ocean bottom and thus show crystals of only
microscopic size.
• Examples of extrusive igneous rocks:
 Basalt
 Andesite
 Rhyolite
FELSIC ROCKS AND MAFIC ROCKS

• Felsic rocks are rich in silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium.
• Mafic rocks are rich in magnesium and iron.
• If the rock is highly dominated by Magnesium and Iron, it is called Ultramafic.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks are made from layers, or strata of mineral particles found in other rocks that have been
weathered and from newly formed organic matter.
• Sedimentary rocks are important because they preserve a record of ancient landscapes, climates, and
mountain ranges, as well as the history of the erosion of Earth.
• In addition, fossils are found in abundance in sedimentary rocks younger than 600 million years and provide
evidence of the evolution of life through time.
• They are found over 95% of the crust but contribute only 5% in the crustal volume.
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FEATURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

• Formed at earth's surface by the hydrological system
• Consists Of Layers
• Contain Fossils
• The Process Of Sedimentary Rock Formation Is Called Lithification
• Most of the sedimentary rocks are permeable and porous.
TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
• Sandstone {cemented sand grains}

• Siltstone {Cemented silt particles}
Clastic • Congomerate {sandstone containing pebbles of hard rocks}
• Mudstone {mainly silt and clay}
• Claystone {mainly clay} and shale {clay and mud rock}
Organic • Calcareous types like limestone, chalk
• Carboneous like peat, lignite, coal
Chemical • Dolomite, rock salt, gypsum
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Metamorphic rocks are formed from the pre-existing rocks within the Earth’s crust by changes in
temperature and pressure and by chemical action of fluid.
• Rocks are Schist, Gneiss, Slate, Quartzite, Marble and Granite.
FEATURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS:

• Formed due to recrystallization
• Formed due to pressure and temperature
• Very smooth
• Consists of layers some times
• Exhibit wide range of colour
• Rarely contain fossils
• React with acids
THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS:

• Foliated metamorphic rocks: such as gneiss, phyllite, schist and slate which have a layered or banded
appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure.
• Non-foliated metamorphic rocks: such as marble and quartzite which do not have a layered or banded
appearance.
SOME EXAMPLES:
TYPE OF ROCK ORIGINAL ROCK METAMORPHIC ROCK

Igneous Granite Gneiss
Igneous Basalt Homblend
Sedimentary Limestone Marble
Sedimentary Coal Graphite coal
Sedimentary Sandstone Quarzite
Sedimentary Shale/clay Slate/mica sheet
GEOMORPHIC PHENOMENA:

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EARTHQUAKE
• Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground
suddenly breaks along a fault.
• This sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves
that make the ground shake. These seismic waves
originate in a limited region and spread in all
directions.
• The spot underground where the rock breaks is called
the focus or hypocentre of the earthquake. The place right
above the focus (on top of the ground) is called
the epicenter of the earthquake.
• Nearly 90 percent of all earthquakes occur at depths of less
than 100 km. Shallower is the depth, more destructive an
earthquake is.
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE
• Earthquake magnitude refers to amount of energy released.
• It is determined by the use of a seismograph which is an instrument that
Earthquake magnitude: continuously records ground vibration measured using Richter scale.
• An earthquake with a magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale releases 30
times the energy than one with 6.5 magnitudes.
• An earthquake of magnitude 3 is the smallest normally felt by humans.
• Intensity refers to the impact felt in a locality. So intensity scale measures
the effects of an earthquake where it occurs.
• Thus, an earthquake may have different intensities in different locations
Earthquake intensity: which is measured using MERCALLI SCALE.
• Range of intensity scale is 1-12 and that of magnitude scale which is a
logarithmic scale which is 0-10.
• The Isoseismals are the contours of equal earthquake intensity. The area
that suffers strong shaking and significant damage during an earthquake
is termed as meizoseismal region
FORESHOCKS, MAINSHOCKS AND AFTERSHOCKS AND EARTHQUAKE SWARM

• The Earthquakes come in three forms of clusters called foreshocks, mainshocks, and aftershocks.

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• Foreshocks are quakes that occur before a larger one in the same location; around a quarter of all main
shocks happen within an hour of their foreshock.
• Mainshocks are of the highest magnitude.
• Aftershocks are smaller quakes that occur in the same general geographic area for days-and even years-
after the larger, mainshock event.
• Earthquake swarm is a series of many low magnitude earthquakes without a discernible main shock. They
occur in a localised region and over a period of time ranging from days, weeks to even months, without a
clear sequence of foreshocks, main quakes and aftershocks.
• It is when seismic energy piles up inside the Earth and is released in small amounts from certain points, such
a series of earthquakes can occur.
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE
• Tectonic Earthquakes: These are generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
• Volcanic Earthquake: These are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
• Collapse Earthquake: In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines
collapse causing minor tremors.
• Explosion Earthquakes: Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.
• Reservoir Induced Earthquakes: The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs
EARTHQUAKE WAVES/ SEISMIC WAVES
• First to arrive at surface.

• They are longitudinal waves, so can pass through
Body Waves: solids, liquids and gases.
Body waves are generated due to Primary (P) • They create density differences in the material
the release of energy at the focus waves: leading to stretching and squeezing of the
and move in all directions material. The higher the density of medium the
travelling through the body of the higher their velocity.
earth. • They are transverse waves, so can’t pass through
Secondary (S) liquids.
waves: • As they vibrate perpendicularly, these waves
create crests and troughs.
Surface Waves: Raleigh (R) • R waves are analogous to water waves i.e.
• The body waves interact with waves movement of particles takes place in the vertical
the surface rocks and plane.
generate new set of waves • In L waves movement of particles takes place in
called surface waves. the horizontal plane only but at 90 to the
• These waves move along the direction of propagation of the wave
surface. Love (L) waves • L waves are most destructive. The surface waves
• They are the last to report on get significantly amplified when they pass
seismograph. through a soft ground like alluvial deposits.
• These waves are more • They are surface waves and don’t go deeper into
destructive. the earth. L waves are faster than R waves. So the
sequence of arrival is PSLR.

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• They cause displacement of

rocks, and hence, the collapse
of structures occurs.
HOW SEISMIC WAVES HELP IN DEFINING EARTH’S INTERIOR?

• The speed of the seismic waves varies with the composition of the medium.
• It was observed that when the focus of the Earthquake is not too deep, some waves are propagated along the
surface and remains in the crust, while other set enters the mantle, speeds up and reaches the seismometer
first.
• This was enough to conclude that there is something below earth crust which has a greater density and varied
composition. It was later called Mohorovičić discontinuity or simply Moho.
• The above finding led to determine that mantle is denser than crust and is viscous, semi-molten material. P-
wave velocities are much slower in the outer core than in the deep mantle while S-waves do not travel at all
in the liquid portion of the outer core.
ROLE OF SEISMIC WAVES IN DETERMINATION OF EPICENTRE

• Time is recorded for P-waves and S-waves to travel through the Earth and arrive at a seismographic station.
• As we know that the P waves reach the to the seismographs first at a station, the difference between the time
of P waves and S waves is called S-P Interval. The S-P interval increases with increasing distance from the
epicentre. At each station a circle on a map can be drawn which has a radius equal to the distance from the
epicenter.
SEISMIC WAVES AND SHADOW ZONE

• It was observed that seismographs located at any
distance within 105° from the epicentre, recorded the
arrival of both P and S waves. However, the
seismographs located beyond 145° from epicentre,
record the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves.
• Thus, a zone between 105° and 145° from epicentre
was identified as the shadow zone for both the
types of waves. The entire zone beyond 105° does
not receive S-waves.
• The shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than that
of the P-waves (over 40 per cent of the earth surface).
• For example, we know that Earth’s outer core is liquid
because s-waves are not able to pass through it; when an earthquake occurs there is a “shadow zone” on
the opposite side of the earth where no s-waves arrive.
• Similarly, we know that the earth has a solid inner core because some p-waves are reflected off the
boundary between the inner core and the outer core.
EARTHQUAKE ZONES INDIA

• Indian subcontinent has a long history of devastating earthquakes, partially due to the fact that India is
driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year.
• About 60% area of Indian Subcontinent is vulnerable to earthquakes.
• According to the IS 1893:2002 (It is the latest code of Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) which lays down the
criteria of for earthquake resistant design of structures), India has been divided into four seismic zones viz.
Zone-II, -III, -IV and -V unlike its previous version which consisted of five zones for the country. After some
revisions in the previous zoning, Zone I was altogether removed.

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GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE

• Circum-Pacific Belt: This belt is along a path
surrounding the Pacific Ocean This zone included the
regions of great seismic activity such as Japan, the
Philippines, and Chile. This path coincides with the
“Pacific Ringof Fire”.
• Alpine-Himalayan Belt: Another major concentration
of strong seismic activity runs through the mountainous
regions that flank the Mediterranean Sea and extends
through Iran and on past the Himalayan Mountains.
• Mid-Atlantic Ridge: a mid-ocean ridge that extends
along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean southern Europe.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

• Landforms: Ground shaking, differential ground settlement, land and mud slides, soil liquefaction, ground
lurching and avalanches.
• Damage of property: When earthquake occurs, buildings are greatly damaged. Underground pipelines and
railway lines are damaged or broken. Dams on river collapse, resultant floods cause havoc.
• Human loss: Duration of tremors of earthquake is normally of only few seconds, but thousands of people
may die in this short period.
• Tsunamis: Earth quakes can often result in tsunamis. It wreaks havoc on settlement of coastal areas.
• Fountains of mud: Due to the intense impact of earthquake, hot water and mud appear on the surface and
take a form of fountains. In Bihar earthquake of 1934, the fields of farmer were covered by knee-deep mud
and crops destroyed.

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• Liquefaction: underlying layer of water rich sand compacts and send a column of water and fine sand up
and out onto the surface. The depth of lakes etc become lower and sand is pushed through the ground and
the building sink into the ground.
VOLCANOES
• A vent or opening in the Earth crust is known as Volcano.
• The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and
dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and minor amounts of chlorine, hydrogen
and argon.
• Most volcanoes are nearly conical in shape.
• Lava blown out quickly cools down in small solid Pieces known as cinders.
• The pieces of cooled lava collected around the vent gives rise to cinder cone.
CAUSES OF VOLCANO
• Volcano can be caused along convergent, divergent and some continental plate boundaries.
• Subduction of one plate under other in case of converging plate boundary results in melting of rocks due to
high temperature and pressure which rises along the fissures of rocks.
• In case of diverging boundaries, thinning of upper crust leads to reduction in overlying pressure of rocks
causing decrease in rock melting point and formation of magma which rises and erupts as lava from fissure
volcanoes.
• Some continental volcanoes located away from plate Boundaries due to stressing of plates and creation of
faults.
BENEFITS OF VOLCANO
• Volcanic rocks upon weathering and decomposition can Yield very fertile soils.
• The ash and dust are found very fertile for fields and orchards.
• They have great deal of scenic beauty in the form of geysers, springs of hot water.
• The cinders and clots are sold to tourists visiting such areas, for their fantastic shapes.
• These geysers and water springs have potential to be developed as geothermal electricity.
• They add extensive plateaus and volcanic mountains.
• Volcanic activity produces valuable minerals and gases.
TYPES OF VOLCANO
• Shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes.

• These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt a type of lava that is very fluid when
Shield volcanoes erupted.
• These volcanoes are not steep. They become explosive if water gets into the vent.
• Volcanoes in Hawaiian Islands are this type.
Composite • These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more viscous lava than
volcanoes basalt.

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• This material accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings leading to formation of
layers, and this makes the mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
• They are found at destructive plate margins.
• Examples of composite volcanoes include Mount Fuji Japan.
• These are most explosive of the Earth’s volcanoes.
Caldera • They are usually so explosive that when they erupt, they tend to collapse on
themselves rather than building any tall structure.
• The collapsed depressions are called calderas. Ex: Lonar lake in Maharashtra.
• These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.
Mid-ocean ridge • There is a system of mid ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that stretches
volcanoes through all the ocean basins.
• The central portion of this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.
• These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long distances.
Flood basalt • The Deccan traps from India, presently covering most of the Maharashtra plateau, are
province a much larger flood basalt province.
• It is believed that initially the trap formations covered a much larger area than the
present.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES BY PERIODICITY OF ERUPTION

Active Volcanoes erupt frequently and mostly located around Ring of Fire.
Active volcanoes The Mount Stromboli is an active volcano and it produces so much of Gas clouds
that it is called Light house of Mediterranean.
Mount St.Helens located in Washington USA, Mt. Etna located in Sicily.
Dormant Volcanoes are those who are not extinct but not erupted in recent history.
Dormant Volcano Mount Kilimanjaro, located in Tanzania which is also the highest mountain in
Africa.
Extinct Volcano Extinct or inactive volcanoes have not worked in distant geological past.
In most cases the crater of the Volcano is filled with water making it a lake.
SOME NOTABLE TERMS RELATED TO VOLCANOES

Tephra • The Tephra is all the volcanic material such as Ash, Plumes, Volcanic Bombs, Volcanic
Blocks, lapilli etc.
Volcanic Bomb • They are viscous rounded shaped half semisolid pieces called Volcanic Bombs
Lapilli • Lapilli mean “little stones, which may be ejected in either a solid or molten state
• The Ash from the Volcanoes is hard and abrasive type which is made up of rock
Volcanic Ash particles, minerals and Volcanic glass fragments.
• When this ash falls on the ground, it is called Volcanic Ash Fall. The clouds are called
Avalanches sometimes.
Pyroclastic • It is the fragmented (clastic) rock material formed by a volcanic explosion or ejection
Rocks from a volcanic Vent.
Pillow lava • Interconnected, sack-like bodies of lava formed underwater.
Repose • The time lag between the volcanic eruptions is called repose.

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Volcanic • Volcanic Explosivity Index is a scale that measures the Volume of Volcanic Products,
Explosivity Index Height of Plume and other observations to decide which volcano is more explosive.
OTHER IMPORTANT TRIVIA

• There are more than 1500 active Volcanoes in the word.
• The Volcanic Ash is mostly acidic.
• The Olympus Mons is the tallest known Volcano on Planet Mars.
• Italy’s Stromboli Volcano is erupting for more than 2500 years.
• The 1883 eruption of Indonesia’s Krakota eruption was so loud that blasts were
heared 3000 miles away.
• Mauna Kea in Hawaii is the tallest Volcano on earth. The meaning of its name is
White Mountain as it is snow-capped. Its height is 4205 meter from Sea Level;
however, if it measured from its oceanic base, it is the higher than mount Everest
(over 10000 meters).
• Hot springs and geysers also are manifestations of volcanic activity. They result
from the interaction of groundwater with magma or with solidified but still-
hot igneous rocks at shallow depths. A hot spring is different from geyser in the
sense that a hot spring gives off steam when the water comes near the surface.
• A geyser keeps the water boiling underground, which helps create the pressure that causes the water to rise
out of the ground spontaneously.
MAGMA
• Magma is a mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles and solids.
• Besides molten rock it may contain suspended crystals and dissolved gases like vapour, carbon dioxide,
minor amount of sulphur, chlorine etc.
• The two most abundant elements in earth’s crust and mantle are oxygen and silicon which combine to make
Silica i.e SiO2.
TYPES OF MAGMA
The classification of the Magmas is done primarily on the basis of Silica content in following categories:

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Magma Type Silica Content Fe-Mg Content Temperature Eruption Viscosity
Ultramafic or Less than 45% 8-32% High up to 1500°C Gentle Low

Picritic
Mafic or Around 50% Less than 10% Up to 1300°C Gentle Low
Basaltic
Andesitic Around 60% Around 3% Up to 1000°C Explosive Medium
Felsic / Around 70% Around 2% Below 900°C Explosive High

Rhyolitic
• Increasing Silica content implies a lower temperature of the Magma.

• Increasing silica content implies an explosive eruption behaviour of Magma
• Increasing silica content implies an increasing viscosity of Magma.
• Magma often collects in magma chambers that may feed a volcano or turn into a pluton.
• Magma is capable of intrusion into adjacent rocks, giving rise to Sills and Dikes, and extrusion onto the
surface as lava, and explosive ejection as Tephra to form pyroclastic rocks.
• The Tephra is all the volcanic material such as Ash, Plumes, Volcanic Bombs, Volcanic Blocks, lapilli etc.
HOW MAGMA IS FINALLY FORMED?

• The initial composition of the magma depends upon the composition of the source rock and the degree of
partial melting.
• Melting of a mantle source (garnet peridotite) results in mafic/basaltic magmas, while melting of crustal
sources yields more siliceous magmas.
• Then, the transportation toward the surface or during storage in the crust can alter the chemical composition
of the magma. This is called magmatic differentiation and includes some processes such as assimilation,
mixing, and fractional crystallization.
VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
Batholiths A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust. They
develop in the form of large domes.
Laccoliths These are large dome shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-
like conduit from below. Ex: Karnataka plateau is spotted with Domal hills of granite
rocks.

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Lapolith A portion of lava moves in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. In case
it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body.
Phacolith Rocks found at the base of synclines or at the top of anticline in folded igneous country.
Sill The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill.
Dykes Lava solidifies almost perpendicularly to the ground. Such structures are called dykes.
These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the
Deccan traps.
RING OF FIRE:
• The Ring of Fire is a long chain of volcanoes and other tectonically active structures that surround the Pacific
ocean.
• The chain runs up along the western coast of South and North America, crosses over the Aleutian Islands in
Alaska, runs down the eastern coast of Asia past New Zealand and into the northern coast of Antarctica.
• The Ring of Fire is one of the most geologically active areas on Earth, and is a site for frequent earthquakes
and powerful volcanic eruptions.
• Many of these volcanoes were created through the tectonic process of subduction whereby dense ocean
plates collide with and slide under lighter continental plates.
• In general, foci of the earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are at shallow depths whereas along the
Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-seated ones.
EXOGENIC PROCESSES:
• They derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the prime source the sun.
• Gravitational force create gradient towards down slope direction.
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• The basic reason for weathering, mass movement ,erosion and deposition is the development of stress in the
earth materials.
• Temperature and precipitation are the two major elements that control various processes.
• All the exogenic process are covered under general term Denudation.
• Weathering , mass-wasting ,erosion and transportation are included in denudation.
• Different types of rocks offer varying resistances to various geomorphic processes. Therefore varied relief
on earth.
WEATHERING
• Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through the
actions of various element .
• In weathering there is no motion of materials takes place so it is in-situ or on site process.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WEATHERING & DEPTH

• Geological Structure
• Climate
• Topography
• Natural Vegetation
TYPES OF WEATHERING
PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL CHEMICAL
Thermal changes- Repeated Burrowing and wedging by Dissolution; dissolving action of
temperature change, stress develop organism like earthworks termites water and various organic acids.
and rocks crack and split. (onion
peeling/ exfoliation)
Frost action-sharp angular Rodents help in exposing the new Hydrolysis; reaction with
fragments of rocks are formed surfaces to chemical attack and hydrogen in air or water
assists in the penetration of
moisture and air
Pressure release Oxidation; Reaction of oxygen in
air or water with minerals in the
rock
Hydraulic action; repeated wetting Solution
and drying stress
Hyaloclastite; mechanical Hydration
weathering
Carbonation

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SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
• Responsible for the formation of soils and erosion and deposition.
• Biodiversity is basically depending on depth of weathering .
• Weathering aids mass wasting , erosion and reduction of relief and changes in landforms.
• Weathering of rocks and deposition helps in the enrichment and concentrations of certain valuable ores of
iron manganese, aluminium copper.
• It is an important process of soil formation.
ENRICHMENT:
• When rocks undergo weathering some materials are removed through chemical or physical leaching by
ground water and thereby the concentration of remaining materials increases.
• Without such a weathering taking place, the concentration of the same valuable material may not be sufficient
and economically viable to exploit, process and refine, this is what is called enrichment.
MASS MOVEMENT:
• These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under
the direct influence of gravity.
• Air water ice do not carry debris ,but debris carry them.
• When force is greater than resistance mass movement occurs.
• Ex. Weak unconsolidated material, thinly bedded rocks, faults etc.
Reasons for landslides along the Himalayas;

• Tectonically active
• Made of sedimentary rocks
• Steep slopes
• Heavy rains
• Unconsolidated material is found

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EROSION, TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION [LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT]

• Geomorphology is the science of landforms.
• After weathering, geomorphic agents operate the landforms to change.
• Small to medium tracts or parcels of the earth surface are called landforms.
• Several landforms together are called landscape.
• Due to changes in climate and vertical and horizontal movements landforms change their shape.
• Each landform undergo three stages called youth , mature and old stages
• Various geomorphic agents bring the changes to the landforms such as running water, moving ice, wind
glaciers, underground water, waves by erosion and deposition.
EROSION AND SOIL FORMATION:

• PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION: weathering is basic process Factors influencing erosion:
for soil formation. The weathered material is transported and • Rock structures such as fold , fault,
decomposed due to bacteria lichens and moss. The dead joints, fractures, hardness, softness
remains increases the humus of the soil. permeability and impermeability.
• PEDOLOGY is Science of soil formation. • Stability of sea level
• Tectonic stability of landmass
RUNNING WATER • Climate
• In humid regions rainfall is heavy so running water is
dominant agent.
• Most of the erosional features are formed in upper course/youthful stage of the river.
• Depositional features are formed in the lower course /old stage of the river.
• There are two components of running water; overland flow –sheet erosion and linear flow –stream erosion.
LIFECYCLES OF STREAM
YOUTH   MATURE   OLD  
• Less streams • More streams • Smaller tributaries
• Less integration • More integration of streams • Few in number
• V-shaped valleys are common • Deep V-shaped valleys • Flood plains are common
• Stream divides are swampy • Wider flood plains • Natural leeves and ox-bow
marshy areas • Meanders are present lakes are also present.
• Waterfalls and rapids are • Rapids and water falls
common disappear
EROSIONAL LANDFORM OF RUNNING WATER

• They may consist of stream deposits.
• They are formed due to vertical erosion.
RIVER TERRACES • If they are at the same level, they are called paired terraces
• Unpaired terraces are found in the areas of slow upliftment areas
• Reasons for the formation of river terraces;
1. Receding water after a peak flow
2. Change in hydrological regime due to climatic change
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3. Tectonic uplift of land

4. Sea level changes in case of rivers closer to the sea
• Loop like channels are called meanders.
• Lateral erosion is common in the lower course of the rivers.
• Due to low kinetic energy water changes its course
• When meanders are found in deep and hard rocky areas, they are called incised
or entrenched meanders.
MEANDERS • Same meanders develop loops which later on converted into oxbow lakes.
• Reasons for the formation of meanders:
1. Gentle gradient
2. Unconsolidated material makes irregularities
3. Coriolis force
4. Slight irregularities along the river banks.
POT HOLES: • They are circular depressions formed by abrasion
• Pebbles and boulders get collected in these holes and rotated and make
depression wider and deep.
PLUNGE POOLS • At the foot of the water falls potholes become plunge pools [due to soft rocks].
• They are below the level of river bed.
• Steep sides
GORGE • Equal width of top and bottom
• Small in length
• They are found in semi-arid land [e.g. Brahmaputra gorge]
• Step like slides
CANYON • Wider at top and narrow at bottom
• Longer in length
• Found in dry areas [e.g. Grand Canyon]
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORM OF RUNNING WATER

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• Made of alluvial soils

Alluvial Plain • They are divided into two types khadar and bangar
• Khadar soils are found near the river and bangar soils are found away from
the river
• They are very fertile
• Found near the foot of the hills
• The river break into number of channels
Alluvial Fans • Low gradient
• Coarse load is deposited
• Cone shaped deposit
• Channels shift their position in the plain. They are called distributaries
• Cones are gentle slope in humid areas and dry lands they have steep slope.
• Found near by the mouth of the river.
• Made of fine alluvial soils.
• They are in triangular shape.
Deltas • Divided by distributaries.
• Deposited material is stratified on the basis of size;
• Coarse material is deposited first and then fine material.
• Big boulders  fine material  Delta plains.
Natural Levees • Low linear, parallel ridges made of coarse material found along the river bank.
Point Bars • They are also called as meander bars found along the convex side of
meanders.
• When rivers carry coarse material, there can be selective deposition of
coarser materials causing formation of a central bar, which diverts the flow
Braided Channel towards the banks; and this flow increases lateral erosion on the banks.
• As the valley widens, the water column is reduced and more and more
materials are deposited as islands and lateral bars developing a number of
separate channels of water flow.
KARST TOPOGRAPHY
• Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the action of groundwater through
the processes of solution and deposition is called Karst topography.
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS OF KARST TOPOGRAPHY
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS OF KARST TOPOGRAPHY

• The chief chemical in lime stone is calcium carbonate, which is easily soluble in carbonated water (carbon
dioxide absorbed rainwater).
STALAGMITES • Grow from the floor

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• Broad base
• Formed due to evaporation of water
• Broad edge
• They are pillar shape
• Grow from the roof
• Narrow base
STALACTITES • Formed due to condensation
• Sharp edge
• They are conical shape
• The stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to give rise to columns and pillars.
GLACIERS
• Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a vast sheet of ice is
spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down the slopes of mountains in broad
trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called glaciers.
EROSIONAL LANDFORM OF GLACIER

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• The un assorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers is called glacial till.
• Streams form by melting ice at the bottom, sides or lower ends of glaciers.
• Some amount of rock debris small enough to be carried by such melt-water streams is washed down and
deposited. Such glacio-fluvial deposits are called outwash deposits.
COASTAL LAND FORMS

• Other than the action of waves, the coastal landforms depend upon:
 the configuration of land and sea floor;
 whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating (submerging) landward.
• Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts are formed;
 high, rocky coasts [submerged coasts]
 low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary coasts [emerged coasts]
• The rivers appear to have been drowned with highly irregular coastline.
• The coastline appears highly indented with extension of water into the
land where glacial valleys (fjords) are present.
• Along high rocky coasts, waves break with great force against the land
shaping the hill sides into cliffs.
• With constant pounding by waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut
HIGH ROCKY COASTS/ platform in front of the sea cliff.
west coast India • Bars are submerged features and when bars show up above water, they
are called barrier bars.
• Barrier bar which gets keyed up to the headland of a bay is called a spit.
• When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth of a bay and block it, a
lagoon form.
• The lagoons would gradually get filled up by sediments from the land
giving rise to a coastal plain.
• Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear to extend their length by
building coastal plains and deltas.
• The coastline appears smooth with occasional incursions of water in the
form of lagoons and tidal creeks.
• The land slopes gently into the water. [Thus, Depositional features
LOW SEDIMENTARY dominate].
COASTS/ East coast India • Marshes and swamps may abound along the coasts.
• When waves break over a gently sloping sedimentary coast, the bottom
sediments get churned and move readily building bars, barrier bars, spits
and lagoons.
• Lagoons would eventually turn into a swamp which would subsequently
turn into a coastal plain.

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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS IN COASTAL AREAS

• Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms usually found
where erosion is the dominant shore process.
• At the foot of such cliffs there may be a flat or gently sloping
platform covered by rock debris derived from the sea cliff
behind [wave cut terrace].
• The lashing of waves against the base of the cliff and the rock
debris that gets smashed against the cliff along with lashing
waves create hollows which widen to form sea caves.
• The roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede further
inland leaving a resistant rock called sea stack.
• An off-shore bar which is exposed due to further addition of sand is termed a barrier bar.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS IN COASTAL AREAS;

• Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are
dominated by deposition, but may occur as patches
along even the rugged shores. [temporary features]
• Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized materials.
Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small
pebbles and even cobbles.
• A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea in the off-
shore zone (from the position of low tide waterline to
seaward) lying approximately parallel to the coast is
called an off-shore bar.
WINDS
• Wind is one of the two dominant agents in hot deserts.
• Winds cause deflation, abrasion and impact.
• Deflation includes lifting and removal of dust and smaller particles from the surface of rocks.
• The impact is simply sheer force of momentum, which occurs when sand is blown into or against a rock
surface.

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• Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a thin cover of debris, are
called pediments (sheet flooding and lateral erosion)
• Through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the expense of mountain front, and
gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a remnant of the mountain.
• That‘s how the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless Pediplains.
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS BY WINDS

• Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by
persistent movement of wind currents in one direction. This process may
create shallow depressions called deflation hollows.
• The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first
shallow depressions called blow outs are created, and some of the blow
outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.
• some remnants of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the shape of
mushroom with a slender stalk and a broad and rounded pear shaped cap
above called mushroom rocks.
• Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table top and quite often, the
remnants stand out like pedestals.
• In basins with mountains and hills around and along, the drainage is towards the center of the basin and due
to gradual deposition of sediment from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms at the center of the basin
called Playas Plains.
• In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body. Such types of shallow lakes are
called as playas.
• The playa plain covered up by salts is called alkali flats.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORM BY WINDS

• Depending upon the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains are moved along the floors by rolling or
saltation and carried in suspension and in this process of transportation itself, the materials get sorted and
settled when wind slow down. Thus dunes are formed.
• There can be a great variety of dune forms Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with the points or wings
directed away from wind direction i.e., downwind, form where the wind direction is constant and moderate.
• Parabolic dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially covered with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes
are reversed barchans with wind direction being the same.
• Seif is similar to barchan with a small difference. Seif has only one wing or point.
• Longitudinal dunes are parallel and Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction..[when
direction of wind is constant]

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STUDENT NOTES:

39
CH.3 INDIA: GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
• The geological structure includes arrangement and deposition of rocks in earth’s crust, plays a dominant role
in determining relief of land and nature of the soil. Also helps in knowing mineral wealth, harnessing
agricultural and industrial growth and in economic prosperity.
• The geological study helps in: Land use planning, Development of transport and communication lines,
Increasing irrigation potential, Determining the quality and quantity of water resources, Understanding
disasters etc.
GEOLOGICAL REGIONS OF INDIA

• Triple tectonic division (generally accepted
by most geologists):
1. Peninsular Region which also includes:
a. Meghalaya Plateau
b. Kutch-Kathiawar plateau
2. Extra-Peninsular Region which includes:
a. Himalayas
b. Eastern Extension- Andaman &
Nicobar Islands
3. Indo-Gangetic Plains
• Some scholars recognise only two divisions

1. Peninsular region
2. Extra-Peninsular or Himalayas and Indo-
Gangetic Plains
• Both regions have deep contrasts:
PENINSULAR REGION EXTRA-PENINSULAR REGION

• One of the oldest landmasses on earth • Dominated by youthful reliefs like the Himalayas.
• Open senile topography dominates. • Indo Gangetic plains have flat featureless and
• Not undergone marine submergence since monotonous topography.
Cambrian times. • It has its origin in Tethys sea and is prone to
• Not much tectonic activity happens. tectonic forces.
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF INDIA

• Sir T holland of geological survey of india has classified the rock systems of the country in the following four
major divisions:
1. The Archean Rock System
2. The Purana Rock System
3. The Aryan Rock System
4. The Dravidian Rock System
1. THE ARCHEAN ROCK SYSTEM: It was used for rock systems older than the Cambrian system. These are the
oldest of all rocks and include:
• These are the oldest and were the first to be formed at the time of cooling and
GNEISSES solidification of upper crust ~4000 MYA (Million Years Ago).
AND SCHISTS • They are all azoic (devoid of any animal life), crystalline and extremely faulted.
• They are generally called “Fundamental or Basement complex”.
video.onlyias.in /mains.onlyias.in 40 [email protected] /+91-7007931912

• Most common rock covering around two-thirds of Archean Rock System is

“GNEISS”.
DISTRIBUTION:
• Central and Peninsular India
• Odisha, Meghalaya, MP, Chhattisgarh and Chota-Nagpur Plateau.
• Bundelkhand Plateau, N of Vadodara to all along Aravallis.
• They form the backbone of the Himalayas and found in the bulk of high ranges.
• Includes some of the highly metamorphosed rocks of sedimentary and igneous
origins.
• Most ancient metamorphosed sedimentary rock system.
• It is as-old-as and in some cases older than the Gneisses and Schists.
• Economically the most valuable rocks as they possess valuable minerals like high-
grade iron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.
THE DHARWAR DISTRIBUTION:
SYSTEM • Dharwar-Bellary-Mysuru belt of Karnataka
• Jharkhand (Ranchi, Hazaribagh)
• NP (Balaghat, Rewa)
• Chhattisgarh (Bastar, Dantewada, Kanker)
• Odisha (Sundargarh, Keonjhar)
• Aravallis (Jaipur and Palanpur)
• Himalayas (Central and Northern zones)
• Meghalaya plateau
2. THE PURANA ROCK SYSTEM:
• Named after the district of Cuddapah in Andhra Pradesh.

• A great thickness of unfossiliferous clay, slates, sand, quartzites, sandstones and
limestones were deposited in great synclinal basins.
• These were consolidated by compressive forces from one side and hence have
crescent-shaped outcrop.
• Economically significant as they have iron ore, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel,
CUDDAPAH cement grade limestones etc.
SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION:
• Cuddapah, Kurnool (AP)
• Chhattisgarh
• Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
• Keonjhar and Kalahandi (Odisha)
• Along the Aravallis from Delhi to Gujarat
• Some amount in Karnataka
• These comprise of ancient sedimentary rocks superimposed on ancient Archaean
base.
• Has large stratified (layered) formation of sandstones, shales and limestones over
4000m thick.
• It has little traces of animal and vegetable life and devoid of any recognizable fossil.
DISTRIBUTION:
VINDHYAN • From Sasaram in Bihar to Chittorgarh in Rajasthan. (absent in between around
SYSTEM (1300- Bundelkhand)
600 MYA) • Chhattisgarh
• Bhima valley (Karnataka)
• Kurnool (AP)
• The lower Vindhyan (1300-1100 MYA) is marine in origin and upper Vindhyan
(1000-600MYA) is fluviatile (deposits by rivers) in origin.
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE:
• The upper Vindhyan belt encloses diamond-producing belts of Panna and Golconda.
• Devoid of metallic minerals but provides excellent ornamental stones, sandstones,

glass making sand and some coal.
3. THE DRAVIDIAN ROCK SYSTEM (600-300 MYA): Mostly found in the extra peninsular region and are mostly
absent in the Peninsular region. They contain abundant fossil and hence it’s easier to recognise their age. They
include rocks of the following periods:
• Named after Cambria (Latin for Wales in Britain) and includes slates, clays,
Cambrian quartzites and limestones.
(600 MY old) • They are best developed in N Himalayas. In Spiti valley, Haimanta system is 1600
m thick deposit of slates, quartzite and dolomites. Also found in Lahul, Kullu,
Kumaon region, Baramulla of J&K, The Salt Ranges on Indo-Pak border.
Ordovician • Includes quartzites, sandstones and limestones. They overlie the Haimanta system
(500 MY old) of Himachal and are present in Kashmir and Kumaon.
Devonian • They are devoid of any fossil remains and are identified in Muth quartzite of Spiti
(400 MY old) and Kumaon and Haridwar of Uttarakhand.
Silurian • Found in Spiti valley along with Ordovician. The Lahul and Kullu valleys also have
(400 MY old) them. Limes and Shales of Kumaon belong to the Silurian period.
• Comprise mainly of limestone, shale and quartzite. They are divided into
• Upper carbonifero us made of limestone and dolomite. Mt. Everest is made of
Carboniferous upper carboniferous limestone.
(means coal- • Mid Carboniferous has been the age of great upheavals. Rocks are found in Spiti,
bearing) Shimla, Kashmir and the eastern Himalayas.
(350 MY old) • Lower carboniferous includes slates of different types and are found in Pir Panjal
and Kumaon region.
• Coal formation started in carboniferous age.
4. THE ARYAN ROCK SYSTEM: Has rock formations from upper carboniferous to recent times. It is fairly
preserved in peninsular India and is found in perfect sequence in the Himalayan region along the entire northern
border.
• Derives its names from the kingdom of Gonds- the most primitive people of
Telangana and AP. First discovered in Madhya Pradesh.
• Consists of sandstones with some shales and clays.
• They have a continental origin, fluviatile and lacustrine deposits around 6000m
thick.
• Economically the most important rocks since they have around 98% of coal
The Gondwana
reserves.
system • They have rich deposits of iron ore, copper, uranium, and antimony.
(250 MY old) DISTRIBUTION:
• Damodar valley Jharkhand
• Along Mahanadi in Chhattisgarh and Odisha
• Southern MP
• Along the Godavari from Nagpur up to its delta
• Kashmir, Darjeeling and Sikkim.
The Triassic system • It is almost absent in the peninsula but is found extensively from Hazara to Nepal.
(280-225 MY old)
The Jurassic system • Named after the Jura mountains on the borders of France and Switzerland.
(280-225 MY old) • Covers wide areas in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, south Ladakh and Spiti
• It underwent marine transgression (for a while was covered by water)
The Cretaceous • Best developed marine systems of India which has a variety of rocks.
Period • It is found deposited on land, sea, estuaries, and lakes.
(135-70 MY Old) • No other system is as widely distributed.
DISTRIBUTION:
• Spiti- sandstones, limestones, quartzites and shales
• Rupshu and Burzhil of Kashmir

• Meghalaya plateau- sandstones
• Bagh belts of Gwalior along River Narmada.
• From the end of cretaceous till the beginnings of Eocene- volcanic outbursts
overwhelmed a large part of peninsular India.
• The reason given is the passage of Indian peninsula over the Reunion hotspots.
• The volcanic deposits have flat tops and steep sides so that they appear as gigantic
steps from a distance.
• The word “trap” is from the Swedish word “Treppen” which means stairs or steps.
DISTRIBUTION:
The Deccan Trap • Kutchh
• Saurashtra
• Maharashtra
• Malwa plateau
• Northern Karnataka
• Parts of Telangana, TN, UP and Jharkhand
• It is thickest along the western coast (3000m) and most thin around the eastern
coast (150m)
Tertiary System • A most significant period in India’s geological history as the Himalayas were
(60 to 7 MY old) born and India took its present shape.
• It’s called the age of mammals due to the abundance of fossils.
• Found all along the length of the Shiwalik hills.
• Composed of sandstones, silts, conglomerates, clays and grits.
• Mostly non-fossiliferous.
Shiwalik System DISTRIBUTION:
• Assam
• Kutchh
• Saurashtra
• Tamil Nadu
• Odisha
• Nearly a million years old and said to be just begun.
• Older Pleistocene had a cold climate marked by glaciation
• Recent one started 12000 years ago and saw the rise of homo sapiens.
• This period witnessed the heavy deposition of fluvioglacial materials.
• Karewas of Kashmir valley are flat-topped terraces in Kashmir and on flanks of
Pir-Panjal consisting of:
Pleistocene And
o Clay
Recent o Sand
(Quaternary) o Silt
o Lenticels of conglomerate from old deltaic fans.
• Most recent deposits are that of Indo-Gangetic plains which filled the great
depression between the foot of the Himalayas and the northern edge of the
peninsula.
o Bhangar (old alluvium) is away from the river.
o Khadar (new alluvium) is near the river.
• In geological terms, volcanic hotspots are volcanic regions below which volcanism occurs because of a rising
mantle that is hotter than the surrounding mantle.
• The rising mantle is because of lava activity from underneath and may even erupt from time to time.
• The position of tectonic plate boundaries in volcanic hotspots does not in any way affect the hot mantles.
• In many cases, hotspots remain constant while tectonic plates move further away thus leaving a trail of
volcanoes, the oldest being the furthest away from its original location.
• There are different suggestions as to the origin and composition of volcanic hotspots.

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COASTLINE OF INDIA
• The Indian coastline which is 7516.6 km long covers 6100 km of mainland coastline along with the Andaman,
Nicobar and the Lakshadweep islands. The coastline of India touches 13 states and Union Territories. The
western coastal plains are along the Arabian Sea whereas the eastern coastal plains are located along the Bay
of Bengal.
• The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea came into being during the cretaceous or early tertiary period after
the disintegration of Gondwanaland.
Evidence of • Submerged forest on the eastern side of Mumbai.

submergence and • A sudden increase in depth of sea about 30 km from the coast of Makran.
emergence of the • The ancient city of Dwarka under the shallow waters off the coast of
coastlines Saurashtra.
• Rann of Kutchh has witnessed both submergence and emergence.
• Raised beaches found at many places on the western coast.
• Marine shells found on the land far away from the sea.
Evidence of • The steep face of Sahyadri parallel to the western coast.
submergence and • Coral reefs are present below the alluvium in Kerela several kilometres away
emergence of the from the coast.
coastlines • Andaman and Nicobar Islands were once connected with the Arakan Yoma
(Myanmar).
• Sri Lanka was connected with mainland India by a land bridge (Adams bridge)
now represented only by Pamban Islands.
ICE-AGES IN INDIA
Dharwar ice age • Evidence in Kaldurg in Southern India.
Gondwana ice age • Talcher in Odisha has evidence in form of boulders which are like those found
in Shimla and the Salt Ranges (Pakistan).
Pleistocene ice age • Marked by cold and warm spells in succession. In Himalayas evidence is found
of excessive glaciation up to a height of 1800m.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
• That branch of geography which studies the present relief features of the earth’s surface or of natural features
in their causal relationship. India has a unique personality with respect to physiography.
o 43 % is plains
o 10.7 % is mountainous
o 18.6% is hilly
o 27.7% is plateau
• India is divided in following 6 physiographic regions:
1. The Northern mountains
2. The great plains of North India
3. The peninsular plateau
4. The coastal plains
5. The Indian deserts
6. The islands
1. THE NORTHERN MOUNTAINS

• The Northern Mountain : It is divided into three groups. They are :
a) The Himalayas
b) The Trans Himalayas
c) The Puranchal/ Eastern hills in North East
a) The Himalayas

• Himalayas are the young fold mountains. This is the highest mountain range of the world. Himalayas act as
natural barrier. The extreme cold, snow and
rugged topography discourage the neighbors
to enter India through Himalayas. They run
from west-east direction from Indus to
Brahmaputra along the northern boundary of
India.
• It also known as the Himadri, Himvan or
Himachal and are the youngest and the
loftiest mountain chains of the world.
• It stretches in length for more than 2400 km
from Indus gorge to Brahmaputra gorge.
• Its width is maximum in Kashmir (500 km)
and minimum in the Arunachal (200 km).
• The Pamir (roof of the world) is the connecting link between the Himalayas and the Central Asian peaks.
• Number of peaks more than 8000m is 14 and more than 7500m is 20.
• The southern boundary is well defined by the foothills while the northern boundary is obscure and merges
with the Tibetan plateau.
• Individual ranges have steep gradient towards the south but a gentler slope towards the north.
• In Awadh and Bengal plains, the Himalayas rises abruptly and attains great heights in short distance from
the plains. Thus, Kanchenjunga and Everest are visible from the plains.
• In contrast the western Himalayas rise gradually through a series of ranges.
Pass It is a natural gap or a route between a ridge, hill.

Range Large landmass consisting of mountains, ridges and peaks.
Peak Highest point or tip of a mountain range.
Valley A depression or a flat land between two elevated areas.
Dun Longitudinal valleys existing between himachal and shiwaliks.
ORIGIN OF HIMALAYAS
• It is agreed unanimously that they have
come out of a great geosyncline called
the Tethys sea and they have developed
in phases (Greater-Middle-Shiwalik).
• However, there are divergent views
about the process involved and forces
responsible.
• About 120 MYA PANGEA existed with N
America and Eurasia in its north which
was called ANGARALAND or
LAURASIA.
• The southern part of PANGEA had S
America, Australia, Africa, S India, and
Antarctica; and was called
GONDWANALAND.
• In between ANGARALAND and
GONDWANALAND, there was a long,
narrow sea called the TETHYS sea.
• Sediments deposited from rivers of
both the continents were deposited in the Tethys sea. (Relate to Brahamputra being antecedent i.e., existed
before the Himalayas)
• These sediments were subjected to forces of compression which led to a series of folds one behind another
giving birth to the Himalayas.
THERE IS EVIDENCE WHICH SHOW HIMALAYAS ARE STILL RISING:

• Some fossils of Shiwalik are also found in Tibet indicating similarity in Climate and elevation.
• The lakes of Tibet appear desiccated (dry, weathered) implying water levels were much higher in the past.
• Himalayan rivers are still in youth and there are evidences of rejuvenation due to uplift.
• Frequent earthquakes indicate non-achievement of isostatic equilibrium.
ISOSTASY:
• It is the rising or settling of a portion of the Earth’s lithosphere that occurs when weight is removed or added
to maintain equilibrium between buoyancy forces that push the lithosphere upward, and gravity forces that
pull the lithosphere downward.
• When these two forces balance, the lithosphere is said to be at isostatic equilibrium.
• Isostasy is responsible for the preservation of high mountains long after tectonic uplift has ceased and for
erosional exhumation of deeply buried rock. Isostatic uplift can be on the order of feet per 100 years but only
until isostatic equilibrium is restored.
PLATE TECTONICS:
• It is the most recent and widely accepted theory which gives most satisfactory answers to intricate and
puzzling questions regarding
o Origin of continents and oceans,
o Formation of mountains,
o Occurrence of earthquakes and
o Eruption of volcanoes.
• In this theory lithosphere is believed to be broken
into a series of separate plates that move in
response to the convection cells in the upper
mantle. (mention division of crust).
• There are three types of plate boundaries:
1. Constructive- where two plates diverge (fig
of Mid oceanic ridge above) and lava coming
out expands the crust.
2. Destructive- where plates come towards one another (converging boundaries or subduction zones),
collide and one plate goes into the mantle and is consumed.
3. Conservative/Transform- Where plates move past one another without being subdued or overriding.
DIVISION OF HIMALAYAS:
The Himalayas may be divided into three parallel ranges:
1. Greater Himalayas or Himadari
2. Lesser Himalayas or Himachal
3. Outer Himalayas or Siwaliks.
• Also known as inner or central or Himadri Himalayas. It is the northernmost range.

• It terminates abruptly in Nanga Parbat in NW and Namcha Barwa in the NE.
• Before being named, the Everest (in the great Himalayas) was called as Peak XV.
• Important peaks in descending order are: Kanchenjunga >> Lhotse >> Makalu >>
Greater Dhaulagiri >> Manaslu >> Nanga Parbat >> Annapurna
Himalayas or • Some important peaks between 7000-8000m are: Nanda Devi, Kamet, Namcha
Himadari Barwa, Badri Nath, Trisul
• These mountains are so formidable that they cannot be crossed easily even through
passes as they are snowbound most of the time. Important passes are:
o Burzhil and zozila in Kashmir
o Bara lacha la and Shipki la in Himachal
o Thaga la, Niti paas and Lipu lekh in Uttarakhand
o Nathu la and Jelep la in Sikkim
Lesser • These lie in between Shiwalik in the south and greater Himalayas in the north.
Himalayas or • Important ranges include:
Himachal

o Dhaula Dhar, Pir Panjal- In Kashmir is the longest most important range. It
extends from Jhelum to Beas and is separated from Zanskar range by Kashmir
valley.
o Mussoorie- From Mussoorie to Lansdowne.
o Nag Tibba
o Mahabharat Lekh- In Nepal, is a continuation of Mussoorie ranges.
• Majority of hill resorts and located here. E.g., Shimla, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora and
Darjeeling etc.
• Outer most range of Himalayas and called outer Himalayas.
• With its southern steep slopes, it assumes hogback appearance.
• Runs parallel to lesser Himalayas from Potwar plateau to Brahmaputra valley.
• Except for 80-90 km in which Teesta flows, this is almost an unbroken series of low
hills.
• They comprise of:
o Jammu Hills (Jammu and Dafla)
Outer Himalayas o Miri, Abhor and Mishmi (Arunachal)
or Siwaliks.
o Dhang and Dudwa range (Uttarakhand)
o Churia Ghat (Nepal)
• DUNS/DOONS- Shiwalik hills formed after the Himalayas and obstructed rivers
coming from Himalayas and formed temporary lakes. The debris brought by the
rivers were deposited in these lakes. After rivers cut through the Shiwalik, these lakes
dried up and left behind DUNS OR DOONS. E.g., Dehradun.
• CHOS- The southern slopes are devoid of any vegetation in Punjab and Himachal and
are highly dissected by several streams known as Chos.
b) The Trans Himalayas

• Also called Tibetan Himalayas as most of it lies in Tibet.
• Zaskar, Ladakh, Kailas and Karakorum are the main ranges.
• The Rakaposhi and Harmosh ranges maybe treated as an extension of the Ladakh range.
• The northernmost range of Trans Himalayas is the Great Karakoram range also called as Krishnagiri range.
• The K2 is the second highest peak in the world and the highest in India. It has been named Godwin Austen by
the British and Qogir by the Chinese.
c) The Puranchal/ Eastern hills in North East

• After crossing the Dihang turn the Himalayas take a sudden turn and form a series of comparatively low hills
running in the shape of a crescent.
• From Arunachal to Mizoram, they form India’s border with Myanmar.
• Important peaks are:
o Patkai bum which forms international boundary between Arunachal and Myanmar
o After a while it merges into the Naga hills where Saramati peak is the highest.
o Patkai bum and Naga hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar.
o Kohima hills to the west are made up of sandstone and slate and have rough topography.
o South of naga hills is the Manipur hills which forms the boundary between Manipur and Myanmar.
o The Barail ranges separate Naga and Manipur hills.
o Jaintia, khasi and Garo hills are eastward continuation of Peninsular block (and not part of Northern
plains).
o Mizo hills or Lushai hills are south of Manipur hills.
• Height decreases as we move from N to S. And although low in elevation, these hills are formidable due to
rough terrain, dense forests, and swift streams.

Syntaxial bends of Himalayas: East-west trend of Himalayas is suddenly terminated by sharp bends at both
extremities. This bend is called syntaxial bend. The western bend occurs at Naga Parbat while the eastern
bend occurs near the turn of Brahmaputra into India in Arunachal.
MAIN PASSES OF THE HIMALAYAS:
• Mintaka pass- Near the trijunction of India-Afghanistan-China.

• Aghil pass- North of k2, joins Ladakh with Xinjiang. Remains closed in winters.
• Banihal pass- Across Pir Panjal range and remains closed for winters.
Jammu and • Khardung la- Near Leh in the Ladakh range and remains closed in winters. World’s
Kashmir highest motorable road passes through this pass.
• Pir-Panjal pass- A traditional pass on Mughal road and provides shortest and easiest
link between Jammu and Kashmir but closed since partition.
• Zoji la- Provides important link between Srinagar and kargil and kargil and Leh.
• Bara Lacha la- Provides link between Himachal and Jammu and Kashmir. NH
connecting Mandi and Leh passes through here.
Himachal • Rohtang pass- Provides link between Kullu, Lahul and Spiti. It is great tourist
Pradesh attraction and is used by public and military very much.
• Shipki la- At Indo-China border and provides link between Himachal and Tibet.
Remains snow bound for most part of winter.
• Lipu lekh- At the trijunction of India-China-Nepal in Pithoragarh district. Links India
with Tibet. Recently in news due to new map of Nepal showing origin of Kali river in
Nepalese territory. India had built a road as part of new route to Kailash Mansarovar
yatra.
Uttarakhand • Mana pass- Little bit north of Badrinath Dham near the Indo-China border. It connects
Uttarakhand with Tibet. Remains closed for 6 months due to snowfall.
• Mangsha Dhura- At Indo-China border in Pithoragarh and connects India and Tibet.
Used as route to Kailash Mansarovar.
• Niti pass- At the Indo-China border across the great Himalayas and joins Uttarakhand
with Tibet. Remains closed from November till May.
• Nathu la- At Indo-China border and forms an offshoot of ancient silk route. Connects
Sikkim with Tibet and is an important trade route between India and China. It was
Sikkim closed after 1962 war but reopened in 2006.
• Jelep la- Passes through Chumbi valley and is an important link between Sikkim and
Lhasa.
• Bom Di la- Near the Eastern boundary of Bhutan and connects with Lhasa.
Arunachal • Dihang pass- Provides passage between Arunachal and Myanmar.
Pradesh • Dipher pass- At trijunction of India-Myanmar and China. It provides easy access
between India and Mandalay in Myanmar. It is an important trade route which is open
all year.
SIGNIFICANCE OF HIMALAYAS:
• Climatic influences
• They interrupt the summer monsoons and cause precipitation. They also prevent cold continental winds and
fronts from Siberia and Central Asia from entering India. They split the Jet stream into two branches and are
especially important in duration of monsoon.
• Defence
• They have made it difficult for outside invaders to enter India unhindered and serve as a barrier.
• River sources
• Fertile soil
• Great rivers and their tributaries carry enormous alluvium. These have nourished the great plains since ages
with new and fertile soils.
• Hydroelectricity
• Forest wealth
• Tourism

2. THE GREAT NORTHERN PLAINS

It is an aggregational plain formed by the deposition of three major river systems- Indus, Ganga, and
Brahmaputra. It is the largest alluvial tract of the world. Its width decreases from west to east. Its northern
boundary is well defined by the Shiwalik, but the southern boundary is not well marked.
ORIGIN OF THE PLAIN:

• The rivers filled up the deep depression between the plains and the Himalayas. There are debates about
whether the depression was a geosyncline or a fault or something else.
• But most geologists agree that the Tethys sea sediments were compressed and risen to form the Himalayas
and a trough.
• The great plains represent Himalayas pushing towards the north. They are not flat and featureless.
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE PLAINS:

• Bhabhar is a narrow belt running along the foot of Shiwalik with a remarkable continuity from Indus to
Teesta. Rivers have deposited sediments in form of alluvial fans which make up the Bhabhar. Its porosity is
so high that most streams run underground.
• The Tarai is a wide marshy tract in the south of Bhabar running parallel. The rivers re-emerge and turn large
areas in to marshes covered with thick forests. It is more pronounced in the east as there is more rainfall over
there. Most of it in Punjab, UP and Uttarakhand has been converted into agricultural land.
• The Bhangar is composed of old alluvium and is lying above the level of flood plains.
• The Khadar is the new alluvium and forms the flood plains along the riverbanks. A new layer of alluvium is
deposited by river flood every year.
• Reh or Kallar is barren saline regions in UP and Haryana that have increased with overirrigation.
• Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land situated along the banks of Ganga river especially in the upper Ganga-
Yamuna Doab. Formed due to accumulation of windblown sand during summer.
REGIONAL DIVISION OF PLAINS:
• The western extremity consists of the Thar desert (1.75 lakh Km in India). The
proper desert is called “Marusthali” and accounts for greater part of Marwar plains.
1. The Rajasthan • The geological evidence suggests that it is a part of peninsular plateau but from
plains appearance it looks like it is an aggregational plain.
• The area of shifting sand dunes is called DHRIAN.
• Parts of it is formed by deposition of five rivers- Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum.
It is primarily made up of DOABS i.e., land between rivers.
• There are 5 prominent doabs from east to west: (starting letter of the two rivers
involved)
o Bist- Between Beas and Sutlej
o Bari- Between Beas and Ravi
2. The Punjab- o Rachna- Between Ravi and Chenab
Haryana plain o Chaj- Between Chenab and Jhelum
o Sind Sagar Doab- Between Jhelum, Chenab, and Indus.
• The DHAYAS are broad flood plains of khadar and the khadar belt themselves are
called as BET LANDS.
• Numerous local streams exist called CHOS.
• The area between Ghaggar and Yamuna is in Haryana and is called “Haryana Tract”.
It acts like a watershed between Yamuna and Sutlej.
• Ghaggar is considered successor of Saraswati.
3. The Ganga • It is the largest unit and stretches from UP to West Bengal.
Plain • It is divided in the upper, middle, and lower Ganga plains.
• The upper Ganga plain extends from Shiwalik in the North, Yamuna in the west
and Peninsular boundary in the south. The western part has the Ganga-Yamuna
doab, the east has Rohilkhand plains.

• The middle Ganga plain occupies eastern part of UP and Bihar. The plain is
drained by many tributaries of Ganga. The area is prone to frequent floods.
• The lower Ganga plain is mostly in WB and parts in Bangladesh. It starts from foot
of Darjeeling Himalayas and ends in the Bay of Bengal. The area is marked by DUARS
and BARINDH plains. The delta of Ganga is in this division and has large number of
mud flats, sandbanks, estuaries, and world-famous SUNDARBANS.
4. The • Although it is treated sometimes an extension of the Gangetic plains, it is well
Brahmaputra demarcated by:
Plain 1. Eastern Himalayas of Arunachal
2. Patkai & Naga hills in the East
3. Garo-Khasi-Jainita and Mikir in the south
4. Lower Ganga plain and Bangladesh border in the west.
• Brahmaputra enters this plain near Sadiya and flows farther to Bangladesh after
turning southwards near Dhubri.
3. THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

• Its roughly triangular with its base coinciding with the southern
edge of the great plain. It is surrounded by hills on all three sides:
o North- Aravallis, Satpura, Vindhyas, Bharmer and Rajmahal.
o South- western and eastern ghats.
• It is the largest physiographic unit of India and is 600-900m above
sea level. The general slope is from west to east except the
Narmada-Tapi rift which slopes westwards.
• Except for few parts of it, the peninsula hasn’t undergone marine
transgression. The entire plateau is an aggregation of several
smaller plateaus and hill ranges interspersed with river basins
and valleys.
1. The Marwar upland is the upland of eastern Rajasthan as it lies
in the east of the Aravalli range. It is made up of sandstone, shale,
and limestones of the Vindhyan period. River Banas originates
here and flows west to join Chambal.
2. The Central Highlands or The Madhya Bharat Pathar is in the
east of Marwar upland. Most of it lies in the Chambal river basin
and flows in the rift valley. Thick forest grows here and to its
north is the Chambal Badlands or ravines.
3. The Bundelkhand upland is to the south of Yamuna river between the Madhya Bharat Pathar and the
Vindhyan scarp lands. It comprises mostly of gneiss and granite. It is spread over five districts of UP. Erosion
by rivers rendered it unfit for cultivation.
4. The Malwa Plateau is between the Aravallis on the west and Bundelkhand in the east. It has two drainage
systems- one towards the Arabian sea (Narmada, Tapi and Mahi) and the other towards the Bay of Bengal
(Chambal and Betwa joining the Yamuna). It is composed of extensive lava flow and is covered with black
soil. There are rolling surfaces and flat-topped hills dissected by rivers.
5. The Baghelkhand is east of Maikal range made of sandstone and limestone on the west and granite on the
east. The central part acts as water divide between Son in the north and Mahanadi in the south.
6. The chotanagpur plateau in the east of Baghelkhand represents the NE projection of the Peninsula. It lies
mostly in Jharkhand, N Chhattisgarh, and Purulia of West Bengal.
• The Son flows in the NW and joins the Ganga.
• The mid-western portion is called the Patlands (high laterite content). It presents a radial drainage
pattern.
• Rivers like Barakar, Subarnarekha, Damodar, North and South Koel have extensive drainage basins.
• The Damodar river flows through the middle of the plateau in a rift valley from west to east.
• N of Damodar is the Hazaribagh plateau with isolated hills and Parasnath peak is the highest.
• The Rajamahal hills to the N edge are mostly made of Basalt and covered by lava flows.
7. The Meghalaya Plateau is part of peninsular India and extends further NE beyond the Rajmahal hills and
forms a rectangular block known as Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau. It is separated by the main peninsula
by the Rajmahal-Garo gap now filled by sediments of Ganga. From west to east there are Garo-khasi-Jainita
hills. Shillong is the highest point of the plateau.
8. The Deccan plateau is the largest unit of the peninsula.
• The triangular plateau is bounded by Satpura and Vindhyas in the North West, Mahadeva and Maikal in
the North, western ghats in the west and eastern ghats in the east.
• Its general slope is from west to east indicated by flow of major rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,
and Cauvery.
• It is sub divided into smaller plateaus:
o The Maharashtra plateau
o The Karnataka plateau
o Telangana plateau
o Chhattisgarh plateau
THE HILL RANGES OF THE PENINSULAR PLATEAUS:

• Running in NE to SW direction between Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat.
• They represent the relict of world’s oldest mountains.
Aravalli Ranges • Its NE end is marked by the Delhi ridge and is supposed to continue till Haridwar.
• In the SW is the Mount Abu separated by valley of Banas. Guru Shikhar is the highest
peak.
• Rise as escarpment north of Narmada-Son trough.
• It runs parallel to Narmada from east to west from Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar.
Vindhyas • The western part is covered with lava.
• In the east Bharner and Kaimur hills are part of Vindhyas.
• It acts as a watershed between Ganga system and rivers of South India.
• It runs in east-west direction south of Vindhyas and in between Narmada and Tapi.
Satpuras • It starts from the Rajpipla hills in the west, through Mahadev to Maikal range.
• There are evidences of it being uplifted and folded. Dhupgarh near Panchmarhi is the
highest peak.
• Forming the western edge of Deccan tableland and running N-S for 1600 km.
The western • They are down to Malabar, steep-sided, terraced, flat-topped hills or cliffs presenting
ghats or mesa like stepped topography facing the Arabian coast.
Sahyadri’s • Important peaks are: Kalsubai, Mahabaleshwar, Harishchandra, Kudremukh, Doda
Betta, Makurti, Anai Mudi (highest of all south India), Anamalai (North from
Anaimudi), Palanai (NE from Anaimudi), Cardamom hills (South from Anaimudi).
• Runs almost parallel to the east coast. It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills
from Mahanadi in Odisha to Vaigai in Tamil Nadu.
• They neither have structural unity nor physiographic continuity.
The Eastern • They almost disappear between Godavari and Krishna.
Ghats • Only between Mahanadi and Godavari they exhibit true mountain character.
• Mahendragiri is the tallest peak here.
• Near Curnool there is the Nallamalai range with Palkonda hills.
• Shevroy and javadi hills are the lasy prominent hills from south of Andhra.
4. THE COASTAL PLAINS

• The coastal plains in India run parallel to the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal along the Peninsular Plateau. The
area between the western ghats and the Arabian sea is called the western coastal plains. While that between
the Eastern ghats and the Bay of Bengal is called the Eastern coastal plain.
• The western coastal plain is a narrow belt along the Arabian sea of about 10-20km wide.
THE WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS CONSIST OF:
Kutch peninsula • Due to lack of rain and flowing surface water, the work of wind is everywhere,
and this has given rise to arid and semi-arid landscapes.
Kathiawar peninsula • Mt. Girnar is the highest point and is of volcanic origin.
Gujarat plain • Lies east of Kutch and formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi.
Karnataka plain • It is from Goa to Mangalore. Sharavati river falls from a slope and makes
Gersoppa falls or Jog falls.
Kerala plain or • Between Mangalore and Kanyakumari. There are lagoons, backwaters, spits etc.
Malabar plains Backwaters are locally called KAYALS are shallow lagoons or inlets at the sea,
Largest one is Vembanad lake. Kochi is situated in the opening to the sea. This
and several other lagoons are joined together to provide inland waterways.
Konkan plain • Lies south of Gujarat plains and extends from Daman to Goa. Mumbai was an
island but now been reclaimed. Some lateritic hillocks rise to 100m above sea
levels.
THE EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS CONSIST OF:
Utkal plain • Comprises coastal Odisha and has Mahanadi delta at Cuttack’s head. The Chilika
lake is in the south of Mahanadi delta and is the biggest lake in the country.
Andhra plain • Lies south of Utkal and extends to Pulicat lake. It has Sriharikota island. The
combined delta of Godavari and Mahanadi has advanced by 35 km towards the
sea. It has a straight coast and badly lacks good harbours except Vishakhapatnam
and Machilipatnam.
Tamil Nadu plain • Most important feature is the Cauvery delta.
5. THE INDIAN DESERTS

• The Indian Desert lies towards the western margin of Aravali Hills. It is also called Thar Desert. It is the ninth
largest desert in the world.
• It spreads over the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. This region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It
receives less than 150 mm of rainfall per year.
• The vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes.
• Luni is the main river in this area. All other streams appear only at the time of rainfall otherwise they
disappear into the sand.
6. THE ISLANDS
• Andaman and Nicobar form an arcuate chain and have 265 small and big islands. The entire chain consist
of two distinct group of islands. The Great Andaman in the N separated by 10-degree channel from the Car
Nicobar Islands.
• Lakshadweep Islands is a group of 25 small islands. Those above 11 degree are called AMENDEVI while
those south of this are called CANNANORE. In the extreme south is the MINICOY. The largest and the most
advanced is the MINICOY.
STUDENTS NOTE:

CH.4 COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

• The atmosphere is a mixture of different gases, water vapour, dust and it envelopes the earth all around.
PERMANENT GASES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Constituent % by Volume
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon Dioxide 0.036
Neon 0.002
Helium 0.0005
Krypton 0.001
Xenon 0.00009
Hydrogen 0.00005
• The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere:
1. Beyond 120KM Oxygen, quantity is almost negligible
2. CO 2 & Water vapour found only up to 90KM from the Earth surface.
CARBON DIOXIDE
• It is largely responsible for the Green-House Effect.
• CO 2 is transparent to the incoming solar radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
• Also, it absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation & reflects some part of it towards the earth’s surface.
OZONE
• Found between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s surface.
• Ozone acts as a filter& absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun & prevents them from reaching
the surface of the earth.
WATER VAPOUR
• Water vapour is a variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with:
1. Altitude
2. From The Equator Towards The Poles
• It also absorbs parts of the insolation from the sun & preserves the earth’s radiated heat. Thus, it acts like a
Blanket.
DUST PARTICLES
• These are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
• The higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry
winds in comparison to Equatorial and Polar Regions.
Weather It is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time (short duration) and place.
Climate It is the average weather in a given area over a longer period.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

• The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature.
• Density is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude.
• The atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature condition as:

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THE TROPOSPHERE
• It is the lower most layer of the atmosphere
• Its average height is 13 km (8 km near the poles & 18 km near the equator).
• All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
• It contains 99% of the water vapour in the atmosphere.
• The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every 165m of height (Normal Lapse Rate).
• Tropopause: the zone separating the troposphere from the stratosphere.
THE STRATOSPHERE
• It is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km.
• It contains the ozone layer.
• The air blows horizontally here. Therefore, considered ideal for flying of aircrafts.
• The lower portion of the stratosphere is also influenced by the polar jet stream and subtropical jet stream
• Temperature increases with increasing height.
THE MESOSPHERE
• Lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to 80 km.
• The temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude.
• Absence of Green House Gases.
• ‘Meteors’ or falling stars occur in this layer.
• The upper limit of the mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
THE IONOSPHERE
• It is located between 80 & 400 km above the Mesopause.
• Electrically charged currents flows in the air in this sphere, which is responsible for Auroras or northern
lights, can be seen in this layer.
• Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected by this layer.
• The temperature starts increasing again with increasing heights.
THE EXOSPHERE
• The outer most layer of our atmosphere.
• Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to the lack of gravitational force.

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SOLAR RADIATION
• Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the Sun from a
nuclear fusion reaction that creates electromagnetic energy.
• The earth’s surface receives most of its energy from the Sun
(in short-wavelength) called the Insolation (or Incoming
Solar Radiation).
• The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day,
in a season and a year.
• The factors that cause these variations in insolation:
1. The Rotation Of The Earth On Its Axis;
2. The Angle Of Inclination Of The Sun’s Rays
3. The Length Of The Day
4. The Transparency Of The Atmosphere &
5. Land Topography.
• The maximum insolation is received over subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is least.
• The Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
• During its revolution around the Sun:
o The position where Earth is farthest from the sun (on 4th July) is called Aphelion.
o the position where Earth is nearest to the sun (on 3rd January) is called Perihelion.
Note: The area covered by vertical rays is always less than the slant rays. More slanting resulting in more
absorption, scattering & diffusion.
HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE

• The four different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere are:
1. Conduction: is the process in which heat flows from objects with higher temperature to objects with
lower temperature though molecular movement.
2. Radiation: Heat transfer from one body to another without actual contact or movement.
3. Advection: transfer of heat through the horizontal movement of the air.
4. Convection: is the transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas) between areas of different
temperature.
• The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere.
• In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day & night) variation in daily weather is caused by advection alone.
HEAT BUDGET OF THE PLANET EARTH

• A heat budget is a perfect balance between incoming heat absorbed by the earth and outgoing heat
escaping it in the form of radiation.

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• The earth receives almost all of its energy from the Sun in the form of short wave radiations (Visible light
& UV radiation). The Earth, in turn, radiates back to space the energy received from the sun in the long
wavelengths (mostly Infrared rays).
• As a result, the earth neither warms up nor does it get cooled over some time.
VARIATION IN THE NET HEAT BUDGET AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE

• Some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance while the other part has a deficit.
Fig: depicts the latitudinal variation in the net radiation balance of the earth
• The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed poleward.
• This avoids permanent heating or cooling effect of low and high latitudes respectively.
TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a place) is.
Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution:

• The latitude has direct control on temperature. As the insolation is inversely proportional to the latitude.
• The altitude of the place: Higher the altitude lower is the temperature.
• Distance from the sea: The places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and
land breezes which moderate the temperature.
• The air-mass circulation and ocean currents: The places, which come under the influence of warm air-
masses/ocean currents experience higher temperature and the places that come under the influence of cold
air-masses/cold currents experience low temperature.
• Local aspects: wind, vegetation cover, slope etc.,
• Surface Properties: like Albedo
Normal Lapse Rate • The rate of decrease of temperature with height is termed as the normal lapse rate.
• It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m
Albedo • Albedo is the amount of sunlight (solar radiation) reflected by a surface. Measured
from scale 0 to 1 (perfect reflector).
• Fresh Snow (0.80) > Ocean ice > Sand > Green gross > Soil > Forest > Open ocean
(0.06) > Charcoal (0.04)
TEMPERATURE ANOMALY:
• It refers to a condition when the temperature of a place is different from the mean temperature of the latitude
of which it is located.
1. Positive anomaly: Temperature > mean temperature of latitude. Ex: Sahara Desert
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2. Negative anomaly: Temperature < mean temperature of latitude. Ex: Mt. Everest
ISOTHERMS:
• Isotherms are imaginary line joining places having an equal temperature.
• Ideally for homogenous Earth isotherms should be following latitudes but, due to land water heat difference,
they bend in different directions.
• General rule: While crossing land the isotherms in any hemisphere bend (towards pole/equator) to negate
the effect of the season. Ex: In January the isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south
over the continent.
Characteristics of Isotherms:
1. In Northern hemisphere, isotherms are irregular & closely spaced.
2. In Southern hemisphere, isotherms are more regular &widely spaced.
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
• It is a condition in which a warm air layer lies above the cold air layer (negative lapse).
Conditions Favorable for Temperature Inversion:

• A long winter night, so that the outgoing radiation is greater than the incoming radiation.
• A clear and cloudless sky
• Still air (no/slow horizontal movement of air) which avoid mixing of air
• Dry air near the ground surface
TYPES OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION:

1. Ground (Surface) Temperature Inversion:
• This takes place on the layers in contact with the surface by the process of conduction.
• If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result.
• This kind of temperature inversion is very common in the higher latitudes.
• In lower & middle latitudes it occurs during cold nights and gets destroyed during the daytime.
2. Valley Inversion
• The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air
drainage.
• Cold air at the hills and mountains, produced during the night,
flows under the influence of gravity.
• Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and
moves down the slope to pile up deeply in pockets and valley
bottoms with warm air above. This is called air drainage.
• It protects plants from frost damages.

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3. Frontal Inversion
• A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm
air mass and lifts it aloft.
• The front between the two air masses then has warm air above
and cold air below.
• This type of inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather
changes.
CONSEQUENCES OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION:

• It determines precipitation, cloud formation.
• It affects diurnal variations
• Air drainage system protects plants from frost damages
• It limits the diffusion of air pollutant that aid Fog or Smog formation.
• Atmospheric stability: Temperature inversion discourages the vertical movement of air which brings
stability in the atmosphere.
• Intense thunderstorms and tornadoes are also associated with inversion of temperature.
STUDENTS NOTES

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CH. 5 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND AIR CIRCULATION

• The weight of the column of air at a given place and time is called air pressure or atmospheric pressure.
• The mean atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1013.25 millibars (mb).
• Wind= horizontal movement of air which flows from high pressure to low pressure areas.
• Air current= vertical or nearly vertical movement of air current.
Distribution of Air pressure

• Air pressure is not uniform on the Surface of earth’s, it varies both vertically and horizontally.
• The mass of air above in the column compresses the air mass under it, hence lower layers have higher
density and exert more pressure.
• In higher altitude, rice takes more time to cook because low pressure reduces the boiling point of water.
Vertical Variation of Pressure:

• Air pressure decreases with increase in altitude in
lower atmosphere but not with same rate due to
variation in air density controlling factors
(temperature, water vapour, gravity).
• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger
than that of the horizontal pressure gradient.
• We do not experience these strong upward winds as
they are generally balanced by a nearly equal but
opposite gravitational force.
• A rising pressure indicates stable weather whereas a
falling pressure indicates cloudy and unstable
weather.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure:

• Horizontal distribution is studied by drawing isobars( isobar is a line connecting points that have equal
values of pressure).
• Pressure gradient is the ratio between pressure difference and the actual horizontal distance between
two points.
• Close spacing of isobars expresses steep pressure gradient while wide spacing indicates gentle pressure
gradient.
• Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.
• High-pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the centre.
Factors responsible for variation in the horizontal distribution of pressure:

• Temperature: High temperature leads to rise of air, hence low pressure and vice versa.
• The earth’s rotation: It leads to rise of air at equator and fall in tropics; hence, equator has low pressure
while tropics have high pressure.
• Water vapour: Air with higher quantity of water vapour has lower pressure and that with lower quantity of
water vapour has higher pressure.
Pressure and Winds:
Global Pressure Belts

The horizontal distribution of air pressure across the latitudes is characterized by high or low pressure belts.
1. The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt

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2. The Sub-tropic High Pressure Belts
3. The Sub-polar Low Pressure Belts
4. The Polar High Pressure Belts
1. The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt:

• This belt extends from equator to 10ᴼN and 10ᴼS latitudes.
• The sun shines almost vertically on the equator throughout the year.
• As a result, the air gets warm and rises over the equatorial region and produce equatorial low pressure.
• ‘Zero’ Coriolis force so no cyclones at the equator.
• Only conventional currents, horizontal movement of air is absent due to excessive heating.
• Called ‘doldrums’ (the zone of calm) due to virtual absence of surface winds.
• Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture form cumulonimbus clouds and lead to thunderstorms
(convectional rainfall).
• This belt is also known as-Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) or the Thermal Equator because the
winds flowing from sub-tropical high-pressure belts converge here.
2. The Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts:

• Extend from near the tropics to about 35° North and South.
• Uprising air of the equatorial region is deflected towards poles due to the earth’s rotation. After becoming
cold and heavy, it descends in these regions , resulted in high pressure Belts.
• Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30ᴼ North and on the western side of the
continents.
• The subsiding air is warm and dry; therefore, most of the deserts are present along this belt, in both
hemispheres(Cold ocean currents is also one of the reason for this).
Horse Latitude: In old days, vessels with cargo of horses passing through these belts found difficulty in sailing
under these calm conditions. They used to throw the horses in the sea in order to make the vessels lighter. So
this Belts is called as ‘horse latitudes’.

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3. The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts:

• The sub-polar low-pressure belts extend between 45ᴼN and the Arctic Circle (66.5ᴼN) in the northern
hemisphere and between 45°S and the Antarctic Circle (66.5ᴼ) in the southern hemisphere.
• Winds coming from the sub-tropical and the polar high belts converge here to produce cyclonic storms or
low-pressure conditions.
• This zone of convergence is also known as polar front.
4. The Polar High Pressure Belts:

• They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N and S latitudes.
• In Polar Regions, sun never shines vertically. Sunrays are always slanting here resulting in low temperatures.
• Because of low temperature, air compresses and its density increases. Hence, high pressure is found here.
• Winds from these belts blow towards sub-polar low pressure belt.
Types of Wind:
1. Planetary winds or permanent winds
2. Periodic winds
3. Local winds
1. PLANETARY WINDS:
Planetary or permanent winds blow in the same direction
throughout the year. They are:
a. Tropical easterly or trade winds,
b. Westerlies
c. Polar easterlies.

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a. Trade winds • Confined to a region between 30°N and 30°S.
or Easterlies: • The winds that blow from sub-tropical high-pressure areas towards equatorial low-
pressure areas called trade wind or easterly winds.
• Because of the Coriolis effect the northern trade winds move away from the
subtropical high in north-east direction(clockwise).
• In southern hemisphere the trade winds diverge out of the sub-tropical high towards
the equatorial low from the south-east direction(counter-clockwise).
• Trade winds tend to blow mainly from the east, so known as Tropical easterlies.
b. The • Occur between about 35° and 65° North and South latitudes.
Westerlies: • The winds that move pole ward from the sub-tropical high pressure in the northern
hemisphere are deflected to the right and thus blow from the south west.
• These in the southern hemisphere are deflected to the left and blow from the north-
west. Thus, these winds are called westerlies.
• Westerlies of Southern hemisphere are stronger (known as Roaring forties, Furious
fifties, and Screaming sixties) and more consistent in direction due to predominance
of water.
c. Polar • Polar easterlies blow from Polar Regions towards sub-polar low-pressure regions.
Easterlies: • Their direction in the northern hemisphere is from north-east to southwest and from
south-east to north-west in the southern hemisphere.
2. Periodic Winds:
• The direction of these winds changes with the change of seasons. Monsoon winds are the most important
periodic winds.
• Other examples of periodic winds include land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze, cyclones and
anti-cyclones, and air masses.

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3. Local Winds:
• Local differences of temperature and pressure produces local winds.
• Such winds are local in extent and are confined to the lowest levels of the troposphere.
General circulation pattern of Atmosphere

The wind belts girdling the planet are organised into three cells
in each hemisphere:
1. The Hadley cell
2. The Ferrell Cell
3. The Polar cell
1. Hadley cell :
• The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises
because of convection caused by high insolation and a low
pressure is created. The winds from the tropics converge at
this low pressure zone.
• The converged air rises and moves towards the poles. This
causes accumulation of air at about 30ᴼ N and S.
• Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a
subtropical high. Another reason for sinking is the cooling of
air when it reaches 30ᴼ N and S latitudes.
• Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the
equator as the easterlies.
• The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
2. Ferrel Cell:

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• In the middle latitudes(30° to 60° North and South)
the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes
from the poles and the rising warm air that blows
from the subtropical high.
• At the surface these winds are called westerlies
and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
• A large part of the energy that drives the Ferrel cell
is provided by the polar cell and Hadley cell
circulating on both sides and that drag the Ferrel
cell with it.
• The Ferrel cell is weak, and the air flow and
temperatures within it are variable. For this reason,
the mid-latitudes are sometimes known as the
"zone of mixing."
• Unstable weather conditions are associated with
this mid-latitude depressions.
3. Polar Cell:
• At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar
easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
• At the 60th parallel, the air rises to the tropopause (about 8 km at this latitude) and moves poleward. As it
does so, the upper level air mass deviates toward the east.
• When the air reaches the polar areas, it has cooled and is considerably denser than the underlying air. It
descends, creating a cold, dry high-pressure area.
• At the polar surface level, the mass of air is driven toward the 60th parallel, replacing the air that rose there,
and the polar circulation cell is complete.
• As the air at the surface moves toward the equator, it deviates toward the west.
• Again, the deviations of the air masses are the result of the Coriolis effect. The air flows at the surface are
called the polar easterlies.
• The outflow of air mass from the cell creates harmonic waves in the atmosphere known as Rossby waves.
• These ultra-long waves determine the path of the polar jet stream, which travels within the transitional zone
between the tropopause and the Ferrel cell.
• By acting as a heat sink, the polar cell moves the abundant heat from the equator toward the polar
regions.
GEOSTROPHIC WINDS
• As winds blow parallel to the pressure gradient force, they are deflected sideways by the Coriolis force.
• In upper troposphere, the pressure gradient force is balanced by equal Coriolis force acting in opposite
direction.
• As a result, winds start flowing parallel to isobars and perpendicular to pressure gradient force. These winds
are known as Geostrophic Winds.
• These winds can also form in a cyclonic or anti cyclonic circulation.
• Balancing of pressure gradient force and Coriolis force is the reason why the air rising from equatorial belt
does not go straight towards pole but descends in the subtropics. One important type of geostrophic winds
are the Jet Streams.
JET STREAMS
• Jet Streams (Upper air westerlies) are narrow bands of meandering high velocity geostrophic winds that
flow in the upper troposphere circumnavigating the poles.
• These winds blow from west to east in both the hemispheres.
• The wave like flow of jet streams is because of changes in Coriolis force with latitudes.
• The meanders formed by these winds are known as Rossby waves.
Jet streams are classified into following types:

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PERMANENT JET • These jets exist throughout the year in mid and higher latitudes.
STREAMS • Their strength and intensity varies with seasons.
• These winds flow between the Hadley and Ferrel cells.
• The subtropical jet streams are located close to latitude 30° in both hemispheres.
SUBTROPICAL JET • The STJ exists all year in the southern
STREAM (STJ) • hemisphere. However, it is intermittent in the northern hemisphere during
summer when it migrates north.
• The northern Polar jet stream is said to "follow the sun" as it slowly migrates
northward as that hemisphere warms, and southward again as it cools.
• This jet stream blows between the Ferrel and Polar cells.
• The polar jet stream is most commonly found between latitudes 30° and 60°
POLAR FRONT JET (closer to 60°).
STREAM • It has a more variable position than the subtropical jet. In summer, its position
shifts towards the poles and in winter towards the Equator.
• They are stronger and more regular in winters.
TEMPORARY JET • Also known as tropical jet streams because they occur over tropics.
STREAMS
TROPICAL • The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric summer
EASTERLY JET over southern Asia and northern Africa. The TEJ is found near between 5° and
STREAM 20°N.
• The Somali jet occurs during the summer over northern Madagascar and off the
coast of Somalia. The jet is most intense from June to August.
SOMALI JET • It is a major cross-equatorial flow from the southern Indian Ocean to the central
STREAM Arabian Sea.
• The jet remains relatively steady from June to September before moving
southward to the southern Indian Ocean during the winter.
SIGNIFICANCE OF JET STREAMS:

• Jet streams help in maintenance of latitudinal heat balance by mass exchange of air.
• They can aid in flight when direction of flight is same as that of the jet streams. If not, then pilots avoid jet
streams.
• They influence the path of temperate cyclones and can bring them to the lower latitudes.
• Western disturbances seen in North West India during winters are actually temperate cyclones brought
in by the subtropical jet streams.
• They also influence the mechanism of Monsoons which we will study later.
• The Polar jets, at lower altitude, and often intruding into mid-latitudes, strongly affect weather and aviation.
AIR MASS
• A large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture is known as Air Mass.
• When air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the characteristics of the
area. These are known as Source Regions.
SOURCE REGIONS
• Source Region imparts heat and moisture characteristics to the overlying air mass.
• These homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains and plateaus which have homogenous
temperature and moisture across long distances.
• The main source regions are in the high pressure belts in the sub tropics (giving rise to tropical hot air
masses) and around the poles (the source for polar cold air masses).
• Areas with high pressure but little pressure difference or pressure gradient are ideal source regions.
• There are no major source regions in the midlatitudes as these regions are dominated by cyclonic and other
disturbances.
• There are five major source regions. These are:
1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans (warm and moist air masses);
2. The subtropical hot deserts (hot & dry air masses);
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3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans (cool and moist air masses);
4. The very cold snow-covered continents in high latitudes (cold and dry air masses);
5. Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica (cold and dry air masses).
TYPES OF AIRMASSES:
• Characteristics of an air mass are not very important for the source region but they are important for the
regions these masses travel to. For ex., air mass over Siberia is not cold for Siberia. This air mass might be
cold air mass for the warmer regions down south. This air mass might even be a warm air mass if it travels
to the arctic region.
• Thus, a cold air mass is one which is colder than the underlying surface.
• A warm air mass is one which is warmer than the underlying surface.
• Air masses are classified into various classes and denoted by following letters:
o c : continental (dry) air mass
o m : maritime (moist) air mass
o T : tropical (warm)
o P : polar (cold)
o A : Arctic or Antarctic (cold)
o E : Equatorial (warm and moist)
• These air masses are characterized by dry, cold and stable conditions.
CONTINENTAL POLAR • Source regions of these air masses are the Arctic basin, northern North
AIR MASS (cP) America, Eurasia, and Antarctica.
• These are also known as Continental Arctic (cA) air masses.
• These are actually those continental polar air masses which have moved over
the warmer oceans, got heated up and have collected moisture.
• The source region of these air masses are the oceans between 40° and 60°
MARITIME POLAR AIR latitudes.
MASS (mP) • The conditions over the source regions are cool, moist, and unstable. These are
the regions which cannot lie stagnant for long.
• The weather during winters is characterized by high humidity, overcast skies
and occasional fog and precipitation.
• During summer, the weather is clear, fair and stable.
CONTINENTAL • The source-regions of the air masses include tropical and sub-tropical deserts
TROPICAL AIR MASS of Sahara in Africa, and of West Asia and Australia.
(cT) • These air masses are dry, hot and stable and do not extend beyond the source.
• They are dry throughout the year.
• The source regions of these air masses include the oceans in tropics and sub-
tropics such as Mexican Gulf, the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans.
MARITIME TROPICAL • These air masses are warm, humid and unstable.
AIR MASS (mT) • The weather during winter has mild temperatures, overcast skies with fog.
• During summer, the weather is characterized by high temperatures, high
humidity, cumulous clouds and convectional rainfall.
STUDENT NOTES:

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CH. 6 WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

• Water is present in the atmosphere in three forms namely gaseous, liquid and solid.
• The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants through
transpiration.
• Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
• Latent Heat of Vaporization: is the temperature at which the water starts to evaporate.
• Evaporation affected by temperature, movement of air, the moisture content in the air.
• Transpiration: is a process by which water absorbed by roots of plants evaporates from leaves and flowers
due to Sunlight/heat.
• Sublimation is the conversion between the solid & the gaseous phases of matter, with no intermediate
liquid stage.
HUMIDITY
• Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity.
• ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY (AH) is the actual amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere.
• AH is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air.
• AH is expressed in terms of grams per cubic meter (g/m3).
• RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) is the percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full
capacity at a given temperature.
• RH is greater over the oceans and lower over the continents.
• SPECIFIC HUMIDITY (SH) is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of air. SH is preferred over AH as it
doesn’t change with change in the condition of temperature & pressure.
• Humidity Capacity (HC) is the maximum amount of water vapour which an air parcel can hold to become
saturated. HC α Temperature.
• The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
• Note: The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature.
CONDENSATION AND PRECIPITATION

• The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is added
or withdrawn due to evaporation and condensation
respectively.
• The transformation of water vapour into water is called
condensation. (the reverse of evaporation)
• Condensation is caused by the loss of heat.
• In free air, condensation results from cooling around tiny
particles known as hygroscopic condensation nuclei. Ex:
dust, smoke and salt
• Condensation is influenced by the volume of air,
temperature, pressure and humidity.
• Condensation takes place:
1. When the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its constant volume.
2. When both the volume and the temperature are reduced.
3. When moisture is added to the air.
• After the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as Precipitation.
• This may take place in liquid (rainfall) or solid form (snowfall).
• Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow-water.

SLEET • When a layer of air with the temperature above freezing point overlies a subfreezing
layer near the ground, precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
• Hail is a form of solid precipitation.
HAILSTONES • Formed when drops of water freeze together in the cold upper regions of
thunderstorm clouds.
• These chunks of ice are called hailstones.
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• Note: Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the freezing point as well as higher than
the freezing point.
• After condensation, the moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the following forms; dew, frost, fog and
clouds.
• Dew is water droplets that appear on the cooler surface of solid objects (rather than on the
nuclei in the air) due to condensation.
• Ideal conditions for dew formation:
1. Clear Sky,
DEW 2. Calm Air,
3. High Relative Humidity
4. Cold and Long Nights &
• The temperature at which a given sample of air saturates is termed as Dew Point.
• The dew point is above the freezing point.
FROST Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (00C), i.e. the
dew point is at or below the freezing point.
FOG AND MIST

• When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls all of a sudden,
condensation takes place within itself on hygroscopic condensation nuclei (fine dust particles).
• Fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
• Mist is a form of fog but, it contains more moisture than fog.
• Smoke + Fog  Smog
• Because of the fog and mist, the visibility becomes poor to zero.
CLOUDS
• Cloud is a mass of floating water droplets or tiny crystals of ice.
• Formed by the condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevations.
• According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under four
types: (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus.
• Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m).

CIRRUS • They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance.
• They are always white and composed of ice crystals.
• Before sunrise and after sunset, cirrus is often coloured bright yellow or red.
• These clouds are lit up long before other clouds and fade out much later.
CUMULUS • Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool.
• They are generally formed at a height of 4,000 - 7,000 m.
• They exist in patches and are scattered with a flat base.
• These are layered, grey clouds
STRATUS • Covers large portions of the sky.
• These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses
with different temperatures.
• If thick enough, produce drizzle, ice prisms, or snow grains.
• Nimbus clouds are black or dark grey.
NIMBUS • They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth.
• These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.
• Sometimes, the clouds are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
• Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour.
• Cumulonimbus, with its strong vertical updraft, extends well into the high level of clouds.

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Based on the height of clouds

• High-Level Clouds: Cirrus (Ci), Cirrocumulus (Cc), and Cirrostratus (Cs)
• Mid-Level Clouds: Altocumulus (Ac), Altostratus (As), and Nimbostratus (Ns).
• Low-level clouds: Cumulus (Cu), Stratocumulus (Sc), Stratus (St), and Cumulonimbus (Cb).
TYPES OF RAINFALL
• Based on origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types, the convectional, orographic or relief and
the cyclonic or frontal.
THE CONVECTIONAL RAIN:

• The warm air becomes light and rises in
convection currents.
• As it rises, it expands and loses heat and
consequently, condensation takes place and
cumulous clouds are formed.
• Heavy rainfall with lightning and thunder
takes place which does not last long.
• Such rain is common in the summer or the
hotter part of the day.
• The equatorial regions and interior parts
of the continents, particularly in the
Northern hemisphere receive this type of
rainfall.
THE OROGRAPHIC OR RELIEF RAIN

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• When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is
forced to ascend and as it rises, it expands; the temperature
falls, and the moisture is condensed.
• After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach
the other slope, they descend, and their temperature rises.
• Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence,
these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry.
• The area situated on the leeward side is known as the rain-
shadow area.
THE CYCLONIC OR FRONTAL RAIN

• This type of rain is caused by cyclonic activity.
• It occurs along the fronts of the cyclone.
• It is formed when two masses of air of unlike density,
temperature, and humidity meet.
• The front is the boundary between two contrasting air masses.
Parts: Warm front & Cold front.
• At the warm front, the warm lighter wind increases slightly over
the heavier cold air.
• As the warm air rises, it cools, and the moisture present in it
condenses to form clouds.
• This rain falls gradually for a few hours to a few days.
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL

• Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in
different seasons.
• In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
Heavy Rainfall 1. The equatorial region

(greater than 200 cm annually) 2. The coastal region under monsoon
3. Windward side of coastal mountains
Moderate Rainfall 1. Adjacent regions of very heavy rainfall areas
(between 100 to 200 cm annually) 2. Coastal regions in the warm temperate region
Inadequate Rainfall 1. Eastern part of the continents in temperate regions.
(between 50 to 100 cm annually) 2. Interior of continents in tropical regions
Low Rainfall 1. Rain shadow regions
(less than 50 cm annually) 2. The western part of continents in tropical regions
Extremely low rainfall 1. Hot and cold deserts
(less than 25 cm annually)
FRONTS
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• Front is a three dimensional boundary zone between two converging air masses with contrasting physical
properties like temperature, humidity etc.
• Fronts are commonly formed in the higher latitudes (40° - 65° latitudes) where warm and moist subtropical
air masses come in contact with cold and dry polar air masses.
• The process of formation of a front is known as Frontogenesis and it involves convergence of two distinct
air masses.
• Dissipation of a front is known as Frontolysis where one of the air masses over rides other.
• In northern hemisphere Frontogenesis happens in anti-clockwise direction and in southern
hemisphere, in clockwise direction. This is due to Coriolis Effect.
• Frontogenesis is the reason for the formation of temperate or extra tropical cyclones in mid latitudes.
Based on the mechanism of frontogenesis and the associated weather, the fronts can be studied under
the following types:
• When two contrasting air masses collide and are unable to push against each other,
then the surface position of a front does not change and a stationary front is formed.
STATIONARY • The wind motion on both sides of the front is parallel to the front.
FRONT • Once this boundary resumes its forward motion, it becomes either a warm front or cold
front.
• Cumulonimbus clouds are formed along a stationary front. Overrunning of warm air
along such a front causes frontal precipitation.
• When a cold air mass replaces a warm air mass by advancing into it or the warm air
mass retreats and cold air mass advances, then the transition zone between them is
known as Cold Front.
COLD FRONT • Cold air mass violently displaces the warm air mass upwards causing cloud formation
and heavy rainfall for short duration.
• Severe storms can occur. During the summer months thunderstorms are common.
• Cold front moves up to twice as quickly as warm fronts. Frontolysis begins when the
warm air mass is completely uplifted by the cold air mass.
• When warm air mass slowly ascends over the cold air mass, a gently sloping front is
formed known as Warm Front.
WARM FRONT • As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and causes moderate to gentle
precipitation over a large area.
• Unlike a cold front, the temperature and wind direction changes are gradual.
• Such a front is formed when a cold air mass overtakes a warm air mass and goes
OCCLUDED underneath it.
FRONT • Weather along an occluded front is complex— a mixture of cold front type and warm
front type weather. Such fronts are common in west Europe.
CYCLONES: TROPICAL AND TEMPERATE

• A cyclone is a large scale air mass rotating around a strong centre of low atmospheric pressure
• A sufficiently low pressure region can create a pressure gradient strong enough to provoke violent winds and
strong convection around the low pressure centre.
• Cyclones can be classified on the basis of their origin into tropical and extra tropical cyclones.
TROPICAL CYCLONES:
• Tropical cyclones are strong low pressure centres that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move
over to the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction due to violent winds, very heavy rainfall
(torrential rainfall) and storm surge.
• Conditions favourable for tropical cyclone formation:
o Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.
o Presence of the Coriolis force to create a cyclonic vortex (hence they do not form at Equator because
Coriolis force is zero).
o Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
o A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.

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o Upper divergence above the sea level system.
• A roughly circular area of comparatively light winds and fair
weather found at the centre of a severe tropical cyclone is
known as Eye of the cyclone.
• The eye is the region of lowest surface pressure and warmest
temperatures as air descends at the centre.
• The eye is surrounded by the “eye wall”, the roughly circular
ring of deep convection, where winds blow the fastest.
• Tropical cyclones have a compact size, ranging from 80 km to
2000 km in diameter.
• The latent heat of evaporation released by the condensation of
moist rising air over oceans is the driving engine for tropical
cyclones.
• These cyclones cannot sustain over land because the latent heat
of evaporation is not available. Therefore, they dissipate after
they make landfall.
• Tropical cyclonic systems move in a parabolic path towards
west. Then they get deflected by the Coriolis force.
• They are most commonly formed over:
o South-east Caribbean region where they are called
hurricanes.
o Philippines islands, eastern China and Japan where they are called typhoons.
o Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea where they are called cyclones.
o Around south-east African coast and Madagascar-Mauritius islands.
o North-west Australia where they are known as Willy Willy.
• Wind circulation is anti-clockwise in northern hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere.
• These low pressure systems are responsible for cyclonic rainfall, thunderstorms and storm surges along the
coasts where they make contact with land.
• These cyclones can be predicted in advance.
TEMPERATE CYCLONES:
• The low pressure systems developing in the mid and high latitude (35° latitude and 65° latitude in both
hemispheres), beyond the tropics are called the Temperate Cyclones or Extra Tropical Cyclones or Mid-
Latitude Cyclones or Frontal Cyclones or Wave Cyclones.
• They are most commonly formed at the polar fronts where warm and moist air masses meet cold and dry air
masses from poles.
• Such conditions occur over sub-tropical high, sub-polar low pressure belts and along the Tropopause.
• The cold air pushes the warm air upwards from underneath. Thus a void is created because of lessening of
pressure.
• The surrounding air rushed in to occupy this void and coupled with the Earth’s rotation, a cyclone is formed
which advances with the westerlies (Jet Streams).
• These cyclones are actually the formation and occlusion of stationary, cold and warm fronts.
• The temperate cyclones occur mostly in winter, late autumn and spring. They are generally associated with
rainstorms and cloudy weather.
• The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical and shaped like an inverted ‘V’. They stretch over large areas
ranging from 500 km to over 2500 km. They have a height of 8 to 11 km.
• The approach of a temperate cyclone is marked by fall in temperature and pressure and a halo around the
Sun and the moon, and a thin veil of cirrus clouds.
• A light drizzle follows which turns into a heavy downpour. These conditions change with the arrival of the
warm front which halts the fall in mercury level and the rising temperature.
• Rainfall stops and clear weather prevails until the cold front of an anticyclonic character arrives which causes
a fall in temperature, brings cloudiness and rainfall with thunder. After this, once again clear weather is
established.
• Since these cyclones move with the westerlies (Jet Streams), they are oriented east-west. If the storm front
is east-west, the centre moves swiftly eastwards.
• These cyclones can cover long distances under the influence of westerlies.
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• The western disturbances arriving in North West India during winters are remnants of such cyclones.
POLAR VORTEX
• A polar vortex is an area of low pressure polar air revolving over the poles.
• Polar vortex is: cold + upper tropospheric (8-9 km) + circumpolar + low pressure + large cyclonic parcel of
air (1000 km diameter).
• This large upper troposphere cyclone spins in anti-clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere
(clockwise in south).
• It is formed mainly in winter and gets weaker in summer.
• It is usually contained above the poles by the polar front jet streams.
• In winters, the vortex becomes stronger and bigger in extent and the polar front jets also shift towards
Equator.
• As a result, a part of polar vortex may split and intrude into the mid latitudes region bringing extremely cold
weather.
• This portion of the polar vortex intruding into lower latitudes is known as Polar Outbreak.

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CH.7 WORLD CLIMATE REGIONS

THE HOT, WET EQUATORIAL CLIMATE:
• Found between 5ᴼand 10ᴼ north and south of the equator.
• Its greatest extent is found in lowlands of Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies.
• Dominated by Maritime tropical air masses.

• Equatorial temperature is uniform throughout the year.
• Average monthly temperatures are above 18ᴼC, but the highest temperature can reach
Climate: as high as 45ᴼC.
• There is no winter.
• The diurnal range of temperature and annual range is small.
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation help to moderate the daily temperature.
• Annual average precipitation is above 150 cm.
• No month without rain i.e., no distinct dry season.
• There are two periods of maximum rainfall, in April and October, which occur shortly
after the Equinoxes. (Double rainfall peaks is the characteristic feature of equatorial
Precipitation: climates, & not found in other climate types.)
• Least rain falls at the June and December solstices.
• There is much evaporation and conventional air currents are set up, followed by heavy
downpours of conventional rain in afternoons.
• Relative Humidity is constantly high (over 80%) making one feel ‘sticky’ and
uncomfortable.
• Equatorial regions support Tropical evergreen forests with dense canopy cover
(called ‘Selvas’ in Amazon).
Vegetation: • The vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen tress e.g., mahogany, ebony,
cabinet woods and dyewoods.
• Other plants like small palm trees, climbing plants like lianas and epiphytes and
parasitic plants found here.
• Equatorial regions are sparsely populated with primitive people live as hunters and
collectors and the most advance one practice Shifting cultivation.
Life and • After shifting cultivation, a less luxuriant secondary forest spring up, called
Economy: Belukar (in Malaysia).
• Natural Rubber and cocoa industry thriving here. Others important crops like
coconuts, sugar, coffee, tea, tobacco, spices, sago cultivated here.
TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE:

• Occur within 5ᴼ to 30ᴼ north and south of Equator.
• Best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and south
China and northern Australia.
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• The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling
of land and sea.
• In the summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, low pressure is
created in Central Asia.
Climate:
• Winds blow outwards as the South-East Monsoon, to Java, and after crossing the
equator are drawn towards the continental low-pressure area reaching the Indian sub-
continent as the South-West Monsoon.
• In winter, the conditions are reversed.
• Average monthly temperature is above 18ᴼC, maximum temperature can reach 45ᴼC.
Temperature: • The average temperature in the summer is around 30ᴼC.
• Mean temperature during winters is around 25ᴼC.
Vegetation: • Dry deciduous forests, with broad-leaved hardwood trees.
• Less luxuriant than tropical forests with fewer species.
• Supports high- population density.
• Subsistence farming is the main occupation.
Life and
• Intensive cultivation in regions with irrigational facilities.
Economy:
• Shifting cultivation is followed in North-East India and South-East countries.
• Major crops include rice, sugar, cotton, jute, spices, etc.
• Cattle and sheep rearing for domestic and commercial purposes.
1. The cool, dry season (October to February): Out Blowing dry winds, the North- East
Monsoon brings little or no rain to the Indian sub-continent. However, a small amount of
rain falls in Punjab from cyclonic sources (Western Disturbances).
Tropical 2. The hot dry season (March to mid-June): The sun’s northward shift to the Tropic of
Monsoon Cancer causes a sharp temperature rise. Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea breezes
Seasons: Three and little rain.
distinct seasons 3. The rainy season (mid-June to September): ‘Burst’ of the South-West Monsoon in
mid-June, torrential downpours sweep across the country. Almost all the rain for the year
falls within this rainy season. Concentrated Heavy rainfall in summer is a characteristic
feature of the Tropical Monsoon Climate.
TROPICAL MARINE CLIMATE

• The climate is under influence of the on-shore Trade Winds all the year-round.
• Have evenly distributed rainfall.
• Found in Central America, West Indies, north-eastern Australia, the Philippines, parts of East Africa,
Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil.
• Rainfall (both orographic and conventional) is maximum in summer, but without any distinct dry period.
• Favourable for habitation, but prone to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons.
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THE SAVANNA/SUDAN CLIMATE

• Transitional type of climate found between the equatorial rainforests and hot deserts.
• Characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons.
• Confined within the tropics and is best developed in Sudan, hence Sudan Climate.
• Also known as llanos in Orinoco basin and compos in the Brazilian Highlands.
• Sudan type of climate is characterized by an alternate hot, rainy season and cool,
Climate: dry season.
• No distinct rainy season like Monsoon climate.
• In Northern Hemisphere, Rainy season from May to September.
• In Southern Hemisphere, Rainy Season from October to March.
• The amount of rainfall and the length of the rainy season decreases from equator
Rainfall:
to pole-wards towards the desert fringes.
• Trade winds bring rains to the eastern coasts but become dry by the time they
reach interiors of the continents.
• Mean annual temperature is greater than 18° C.
Temperature: • Highest temperatures do not coincide with the period of the highest sun but fall
just below the onset of rains.
• Extreme diurnal range of temperatures. Days are hot and nights are cold.
• The prevailing winds (the Trade Winds) brings rain to the coastal districts.
Winds: • They are strongest in the summer but are relatively dry in continental interiors
or the western coasts.

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• Harmattan meaning ‘the doctor’ are the north east trades which blow from
interior Africa to the Atlantic coast in Guinea gives relief from moist sea winds
by increasing the rate of evaporation with resultant ‘cooling effect’.
• The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees.
• The grasslands are called as ‘bush-veld’ or ‘parkland’.
• The trees are deciduous, usually have broad trunks, with water-storing devices
to survive (like acacia tree).
• Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong
winds.
• Tall savanna grasses (elephant grass) have deep roots. It lays dormant during
Vegetation: cool, dry season.
• Trees decrease in height and density polewards.
• The savanna is known as the ‘big game country’ as thousands of animals are
Animal Life of the trapped or killed each year.
Savanna: • There are two main groups of animals in the savanna, the grass-eating
herbivorous animals and the fleshing-eating carnivorous animals.
• Masai tribes of the East African plateau are pastoralists whereas Hausa of
northern Nigeria are settled cultivators.
Life and Economy: • The old grazing grounds of Masai tribes in the Kenyan Highlands were taken over
by the immigrant white settlers for plantation agriculture (coffee, tea, cotton)
and dairy farming.
• Agriculture is barely practiced.
DESERT CLIMATE
Deserts are regions of scanty rainfall which may be:
• Hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan typeor
• Temperate as are the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi.
HOT DESERTS:
• Also called the ‘Trade Wind Deserts’ because the aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of
off-shore Trade Winds.
• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between 15°-30° north
and south latitudes.
MID-LATITUDE DESERTS:

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• The temperate deserts are rainless because of either continentality (Ex: Gobi Desert) or rain-shadow
effect (Ex: Patagonian Desert).
• The Patagonian Desert is drier due to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty Andes than
to continentality.
• Annual precipitation of less than 25 cm.

Precipitation: • The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub- Tropical High-Pressure
Belts where the air is descending, a condition least favourable for any precipitation.
• Hottest regions on earth with no cold season.
Temperature: • the average summer temperature is around 30°C
• The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great.
Natural • Xerophytic or drought-resistant.
Vegetation: • Grass, scrub, herbs, weeds, roots or bulbs
• Leaves are waxy and leathery, needle-shaped – reduce transpiration.
• Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different groups of
inhabitants.
Life in the Deserts: • Example: The primitive hunters and collectors (The Bushmen and The Bindibu).
• The nomadic herdsmen (The Tuaregs of the Sahara, the Gobi Mongols and The
Bedouin of Arabia).
• The caravan traders, the settled cultivators and the mining settlers.
THE WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN (MEDITERRANEAN) CLIMATE:

• Distribution: around the Mediterranean Sea, along the west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
between 30° - 40° latitudes.
• Example, Central California, Central Chile, along the coast in southeastern and south-western Australia.
• The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts.
• These areas come under the influence of a sub-tropical high in summer and westerly wind in winter.
• Hence, the climate is characterized by hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter.
• Temperature: Monthly average in summer is around 25° C and in winter below 10°C.
• The annual precipitation ranges between 35-90 cm.
• Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies.
• Land of Orchads.
• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
Natural vegetation: • The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
• A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and
grapefruit are grown.
Local Winds: • Sirocco: hot & dry dusty (blood rain) wind originates in the Sahara Desert.
• Brings a warming effect to the colder Mediterranean region.
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• Mistral: is a cold wind.
• The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the funnelling effect in the valley
between the Alps and the Central Massif [Plateau in France].
Economic activities: • The area is important for fruit cultivation, cereal growing
• Wine-making and agricultural industries as well as engineering and mining.
THE TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL (STEPPE) CLIMATE:

Distribution: Bordering the deserts, away from the Mediterranean regions and in the interiors continents are
the temperate-grasslands.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:
• The grasslands are practically treeless.
• The grasses are not only shorter but also wiry and
sparse.
• Climate is continental with extremes of temperature.
• This type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never
severe due to maritime influence.
• The summers are hot and the winters are cold.
• The heaviest rain comes in June and July (late spring and
early summer).
• About 45 cm is the average annual rainfall.
• Wheat and Maize cultivation is predominant.
• Local wind - Chinook: is a hot wind, also called ‘snow eater’. It melts the snow-covered pastures and
animals can be driven out of doors to graze in the open fields.
• Due to extensive, mechanized wheat cultivation and are now the ‘granaries of the world’.
THE WARM TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN (CHINA TYPE) CLIMATE:

• A modified form of monsoonal climate.
• Found on the eastern margins of continents in warm temperate latitudes, just outside the tropics.
• Characterized by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter.
• Annual rainfall is around 60 to 150 cm.
• In summer, the regions are under the influence of moist, maritime airflow from the subtropical anti-cyclonic
cells.
• Local storms: Typhoons (tropical cyclones), and Hurricanes, also occur.
It can be sub-divided into three main types:

1. The China type: central and north China (including southern Japan (temperate monsoonal).
2. The Gulf type:
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• Minimal monsoonal characteristics.
• There is no complete seasonal wind reversal.
• Areas: south-eastern United States, (slight-monsoonal).
3. The Natal type:
• Absence of the monsoonal characteristics.
• The entire warm temperate eastern margin (non-monsoonal areas) of the southern hemisphere.
• The warm temperate eastern margins are the most productive parts of the middle
Economy: latitudes.
• World’s greatest rice-growing areas, warm wet and lowland favour rice cultivation.
• Cane sugar, cotton, tobacco, maize, dairy products etc.
THE COOL TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN (BRITISH TYPE) CLIMATE:

• These are under the permanent influence of the Westerlies all-round the year.
• Regions of frontal cyclonic activity, typical of Britain, and are thus said to experience the British type of
climate.
• The seasons are very distinct.
• Mean annual temperature: 5 to 150C
• The warming effect of North Atlantic Drift makes winter milder.
Distribution: • Around Britain in Europe.

• In Southern Hemisphere: southern Chile, Southern Australia, Tasmania and most
parts of New Zealand.
• Parts of North America.
Natural • Deciduous forest: Shed leaves in winters to protect against snow and frost.
Vegetation: • Valuable temperate hardwood: oak, elm, birch, beech, poplar, Willows, Alder,
Asp
Economy: • The countries are concerned in the production of machinery, chemicals, textiles
and other manufactured articles rather than agriculture.
• Fishing is particularly important in Britain, Norway and British Columbia.
• Intense mixed farming, dairying.
THE COOL TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL (SIBERIAN) CLIMATE:

• This type of Climate is experienced only in the northern hemisphere where the continents within the high
latitudes have a broad east-west spread.
• On its poleward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra of Canada and Eurasia at around the Arctic Circle.
• The Siberian Climate is conspicuously absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness of
the southern continents in the high latitudes.

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Climatic Conditions: • Bitterly cold winter of long duration, and cool brief summer.
• Siberia often referred to as the ‘cold pole of the earth'.
• Annual Rainfall: 35 to 65 Cm
• Permanent snowfields are absent (as in Alps & Himalayas) due to melting in
spring & summer.
Natural Vegetation: • The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are the richest
sources of softwood.
• There are four major species in the coniferous forests:
a) Pine, e.g., white pine, red pine, Scot’s pine, Jackpine,
b) Fir, e.g., Douglas fir and balsam fir,
c) Spruce and
d) Larch.
Economy: • The coniferous forest regions of the northern hemisphere are comparatively
little developed.
• Only in the more accessible areas are the forests cleared for lumbering.
• Paper industries due to the availability of Softwood.
THE COOL TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN (LAURENTIAN) CLIMATE:

• Laurentian Climate is an intermediate type of climate between the British and the Siberian type of climate.
• It has features of both the maritime and the continental climates.
• Found only in two regions.

1. North-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A. &
2. Newfoundland.
•
Characterized by cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers.
•
Winter temperature is below freezing-point.
Climatic Conditions: •
Summers are as warm as the tropics (21° - 27°C).
•
75 to 150 cm rainfall distributed throughout the year with a maximum during
summer.
• Dry Westerlies that blow from continental interiors dominate winters.
• Cool temperate forest.
Natural Vegetation: • Forest tends to be coniferous north of the 50°N latitude.
• Oak, beech, maple and birch are the principal trees.
• Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and pulp industries are the most
Economy important economic undertaking.
• Agriculture is less important because of the severity of the winter and its long
duration.
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THE ARCTIC/POLAR/TUNDRA CLIMATE:
• Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
• The polar climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature.

• Winters are long & very severe.
Climatic Conditions: • Summers are cool and brief.
• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow.
• Convectional rainfall is generally absent because of the low rate of evaporation
and the lack of moisture in the cold polar air.
Natural Vegetation: • No trees, Vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. is found.
• The few people who live in the tundra live a semi-nomadic life.
Human life: • Arctic inhabitants the Eskimos, Lapps, Samoyeds etc.,
• During winter they live in compact igloos.
STUDENTS NOTES:

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CH.8 OCEANOGRAPHY
• 3/4th or 71% of the globe is covered by hydrosphere and remaining 29% by lithosphere.
• Only 2.05% of water on the surface is fresh; the remaining 97% resides in the ocean.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
• There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents through the
processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.
Evaporation Evaporation is when the sun heats up water in rivers or lakes or the ocean and turns it
into vapor or steam. The water vapor or steam leaves the river, lake or ocean and goes
into the air.
Transpiration Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from
aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers.
Condensation Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water.
Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the formation of
clouds.
Precipitation Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed that the air cannot hold it
anymore. The clouds get heavy and water falls back to the earth in the form of rain, hail,
sleet or snow.

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• Water vapor carried by the atmosphere condenses as clouds and falls as rain far from where it evaporated.
• Water evaporates from the surface of the ocean, mostly in warm, cloud-free subtropical seas. This cools
the surface of the ocean, and the large amount of heat absorbed the ocean partially buffers the greenhouse
effect from increasing carbon dioxide and other gases.
KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
A gulf is a portion of the ocean that penetrates land. Gulfs vary
greatly in size, shape, and depth. They are generally larger and
Gulf more deeply indented than bays. Like bays, they often make
excellent harbors. Many important trading centers are located on
gulfs.
A bay is a body of water partially surrounded by land. A bay is

usually smaller and less enclosed than a gulf.
Bays
A cape is a high point of land that extends into a river, lake, or

ocean. Some capes, such as the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa,
Cape are parts of large landmasses.
A strait is a narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies

Strait of water.
A narrow strip of land, bordered on both sides by water,

connecting two larger bodies of land.
Isthmus
Partly enclosed coastal body of water in which river water is

Estuary mixed with seawater.
RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR:

• The oceans are confined to the great depressions of the earth’s outer layer.
• The geographers have divided the oceanic part of the earth into five oceans, namely the Pacific, the Atlantic,
the Indian, Southern ocean and the Arctic. The various seas, bays, gulfs and other inlets are parts of these
large oceans.
Important Oceans:
1. Pacific Ocean (165,000,000km2)
2. Atlantic Ocean (82,000,000km2)
3. Indian Ocean (73,000,000km2)
• Average depth of ocean  3,800m
• Average height of lithosphere  840m
• Thus, depth of ocean > height of lithosphere

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• A major portion of the ocean floor is found between 3-6 km below the sea level.
• The floors of the oceans are rugged with the world’s largest mountain ranges, deepest trenches and the
largest plains.
• These features are formed, like those of the continents, by the factors of tectonic, volcanic and depositional
processes.
Divisions of the Ocean Floors The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions:
1. The Continental Shelf
2. The Continental Slope
3. The Deep Sea Plain
4. The Oceanic Deeps.
Besides, these divisions there are also major and minor relief features in the ocean floors like ridges, hills, sea
mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
CONTINENTAL SHELF:
• Continental Shelves are the seaward extension of the
continent from shoreline to continental edge.
• It extends from the coast to depths of 100–200 metres
(330–660 feet).
• It is the shallowest part of the ocean. Average slope is 1°
or even less.
• Width varies greatly from a few miles (North Pacific off
the continent of North America) to hundred miles (off
North West Europe) depending upon the nature of reliefs
of the coastal land. The Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean,
the largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in width.
• Entirely absent: where coasts are extremely mountainous, such as the Rocky Mountain and Andean coasts.
• The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of the margins like the coasts of
• Chile, the west coast of Sumatra, etc. (Ocean– Continent Convergence and Ocean – Ocean
Convergence).
• On the contrary, the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in
width.
• Covers 7.5% of the total area of the oceans.
• It has deposits brought by rivers and streams.
• According to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, every nation has a continental shelf extending no more
than 200 nautical miles from the nation's coastline.
• Continental Shelves of India: Compared to the western continental margin of India, the shelf in the eastern
continental margin of India is found to be irregular and narrower, with a variable width.
The shelf is formed mainly due to:

1. Tilting of land
2. Marine erosion
3. Submergence of a part of continental margin
4. Relative rise in sea level.
5. Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers
Various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin —

1. Glaciated shelf: (Surrounding Greenland),
2. Coral reef shelf: (Queensland, Australia),
3. Shelf of a large river: (Around Nile Delta),
4. Shelf with dendritic valleys: (At the Mouth of Hudson River)
5. Shelf along young mountain ranges: (Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).
Importance of continent shelves

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1. Marine food comes almost entirely from continental shelves;

2. They provide the richest fishing grounds;
3. They are potential sites for economic minerals
4. A lot of fuel we use is collected from beneath the continental shelves. For example, 30 percent of all the oil
and 20 percent of the natural gas produced in the U.S. comes from offshore drilling.
5. Polymetallic nodules (manganese nodules; concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides) etc. are
good sources of various mineral ores like manganese, iron copper, gold etc.
CONTINENTAL SLOPE:
• The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
• It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope.
• The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
• The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
• The slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
• On an average, the slope is a narrow band 41 km wide that encircles all continents and islands.
• The passive margin slopes of the South Atlantic Ocean are the widest on average (73 km), although the slope
attains its greatest width of 368 km in the North Atlantic, where the slope protrudes south of Newfoundland.
• The most narrow, active margin, slopes are in the Mediterranean and Black Seas (25.8 km). The average
width of active slopes (35.6 km) is somewhat less than the average width of passive margin slopes (45.7 km).
• The gradient of the slope is lowest off stable coasts without major rivers and highest off coasts with young
mountain ranges and narrow continental shelves.
• Most Pacific slopes are steeper than Atlantic slopes. Gradients are flattest in the Indian Ocean.
• It is important to note, the wider the continental shelf, the steeper the continental slope, reflecting that when
deposition is farther out to sea, the water depth deepens.
• The relief of the continental slope varies considerably due to faulting, submarine slides, and numerous
submarine canyons.
SUBMARINE CANYONS:
• Long, narrow and very deep valleys or trenches located on the continental shelves and slopes with vertical
walls resembling the continental canyons are called submarine canyons because of their location under
oceanic water.
• Some are comparable to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River.
• Submarine canyons are formed via erosion and mass wasting events, particularly on steep continental slopes.
• They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves and slopes, often extending from the
mouths of large rivers.
• The Hudson Canyon is the best known submarine canyon in the world.
CONTINENTAL RISE:
• Continental rise is a major depositional regime in oceans made up of thick sequences of continental
material that accumulate between the continental slope and the abyssal plain.
• The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth. When the slope reaches a level of between
0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the continental rise.
• With increasing depth the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal plain.
DEEP SEA PLAIN OR ABYSSAL PLAIN:

• Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
• Flattest and smoothest regions of the world.
• The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000m.
• Covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
• The large supply of terrigenous (terrigenous sediments are those derived from the erosion of rocks on land;
that is, they are derived from terrestrial environments) and shallow water sediments buries the irregular
topography to form a generally flat relief.
• It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor
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OCEANIC DEEPS OR TRENCHES:

• These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.
• The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins.
• They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
• They are of tectonic origin and are formed during ocean – ocean convergence and ocean - continent
convergence
• They occur at the bases of continental slopes and along island arcs and are associated with active volcanoes
and strong earthquakes. That is why they are very significant in the study of plate movements.
• As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean
and 6 in the Indian Ocean.
• The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench with, a depth of more
than 11 kilometres.
MINOR RELIEF FEATURES:

Some minor but significant features predominate in different parts of the oceans are:
MID-OCEANIC RIDGES:
• It is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression.
• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s surface.
Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
• They are a few hundred kilometers wide and hundreds and often thousands of kilometers in length on the
floors of oceans. Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest mountain systems on
earth.
• These ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gently sloping or in the form of steep-sided narrow mountains.
• These oceanic ridge systems are of tectonic origin and provide evidence in support of the theory of Plate
Tectonics.
ABYSSAL HILLS:
• These are elevated features of volcanic origin
• A submarine mountain or peak rising more than 1,000 metres above the ocean floor is known as a seamount.
The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
• The flat topped seamounts are known as guyots. They show evidences of gradual subsidence through stages
to become flat topped submerged mountains. It is estimated that more than 10,000 seamounts and guyots
exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.
ATOLL:
• An atoll is created as a ring of coral surrounds an undersea volcano that has risen above the water's surface.
• Volcano  receded into the ocean  atoll remains.
• Atoll encloses a lagoon. Thus, It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of
fresh, brackish, or highly saline water.
Lagoon: A lagoon is a shallow body of water protected from a larger body of water (usually the ocean) by
sandbars, barrier islands, or coral reefs.

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TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATERS:

• The temperature of the oceanic water is important for marine organisms including plants (phytoplankton)
and animals (zooplanktons).
• Water warms up and cools down much more slowly than land. This is reason for small annual range of
temperature
FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION:

1. Latitude: the temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles because the
amount of insolation decreases pole ward.
2. Unequal distribution of land and water
3. Prevailing wind
4. Ocean currents: warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold currents decrease
the temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf Stream (warm current) raises the temperature near the eastern
coast of North America and the West Coast of Europe while the Labrador Current (cold current) lowers the
temperature near the north-east coast of North America.
Source of Temperature:
• Major source: Sun
• Some energy, though insignificant, is also received from below the bottom and through the compression of
sea water.
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE:

On the basis of reach of sun rays, oceans are vertically divided into two zone:
Photic Zone: • Also called as euphotic zone.

• Upper zone up to the depth of 200m and receives solar radiation.
Aphotic zone: • Extends from 200 m depth to the bottom and does not receive solar rays.
• Here there are bacteria that make use of heat supplied by earth’s interior to prepare
food. So, they are the primary producers.
• Other organisms feed on these primary producers and subsequent secondary producers.
• So, the heat from earth supports wide ranging deep water marine organisms in absence
of solar rays.
Layers in the Ocean:

With respect to temperature, there are three layers in the ocean from surface to the bottom in the tropics
First Layer: • Also called epilimnion represents the top-layer of warm oceanic water.
• 500 m thick.
• Temperature range: 20-to-25-degree C.

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• Present within the tropics throughout the year but it develops in mid-latitudes only
during summer. The epipelagic zone (or upper open ocean) is the part of the ocean
where there is enough sunlight for algae to utilize photosynthesis (the process by
which organisms use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into food). This zone reaches
from the sea surface down to approximately 200 m.
Thermocline • Also called metalimnion. Represents vertical zone of oceanic water below the first
Layer: layer.
• Characterized by rapid rate of decrease of temperature with increasing depth
Third Layer: • Also called hypolimnion. This layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor.
The polar areas have only one layer of cold water from the surface (sea level) to the
deep ocean floor.
• Though the sea temperature decreases with increasing depth but the rate of decrease of temperature is not
uniform. The change in sea temperature below the depth of 2000m is negligible.
• Diurnal and annual ranges of temperature ceases after the depth of 5 fathoms (30 feet) and 100 fathoms (600
feet) respectively.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing depth from equator towards the pole is not uniform.
• Though the surface temperature of the seas decreases from equator towards the poles but the temperature
at ocean bottoms is uniform from equator towards the pole, which means that the rate of decrease of
temperature with increasing depth is more rapid near the equator than towards the poles.
• In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface water temperatures are close to 0° C and so the temperature
change with the depth is very slight (ice is a very bad conductor of heat). Here, only one layer of cold water
exists, which extends from surface to deep ocean floor.
• Sea surface water driven away by offshore winds  upwelling of water from below  low temperature at
sea surface  Thus rate of decrease of temperature with increasing depth becomes low.
• Contrary to this, onshore winds pilling of sea water  record relatively high temperature at sea surface 
thus rate of decrease of temperature with increasing depth becomes rapid.
• The enclosed seas of high latitudes register inversion of temperature i.e. the temperature of sea surface is
lower than the temperature below due to high insolation throughout the year and lesser mixing of the warm
and cold’ waters. e.g.: Sargasso Sea, Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Sulu Sea, etc.
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE:

• From equator towards pole: temperature decreases.
• Northern hemisphere record relatively higher average temperature than in southern hemisphere. Reason:
Unequal distribution of land and ocean water.
• Highest temperature not recorded at equator rather a bit north of it. Reason: Sunlight falling on the Equator
generates rising air currents that help in the formation of clouds over equatorial regions, which then cause
rains and thunderstorms.
• Warm and cold currents affect the rate of change of temperature with latitude.
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS:

• Salinity is defined as the ratio between the weight of the dissolved materials(salt in grams) and the weight of
the sample sea water (litre)
• Factors affecting ocean salinity are mentioned below:
1. The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depends mainly on evaporation and precipitation.
2. Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water flow from rivers, and in Polar
Regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
3. Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
4. The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations. Salinity, temperature and density of water are
interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or density influences the salinity of water in an area.
• The average salinity of the ocean is 35 grams of dissolved salts in each liter.
• Baltic Sea: Much lower salinity. Reason: dilution by fresh water and melting ice.
• Red sea: Salinity increases. Reason: Much surface evaporation and few rivers to bring in fresh water.
• Density of highly saline Lake Van and Dead Sea is so high that it is almost impossible to sink.
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• Dissolved salts in ocean water:
Fig: Latitudinal Variation in Evaporation and Precipitation
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY:

• Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the
location of the sea.
• Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or
decreased by the input of fresh waters, such as from the rivers.
• Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that water is
‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity
between the surface zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
• The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
• Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called
the halocline (compare this with thermocline), where salinity increases
sharply.
• Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its
density to increase. High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads
to stratification by salinity.
• In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases up to 35 metres and then
it decreases. At the equator, surface salinity is lower.
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY:

ARCTIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN
• The salinity fluctuates from • The salinity variation in the • The average salinity of the
0 - 35 ˚/˳˳ seasonally. Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its Atlantic Ocean is around 36 ˚/˳˳.
• In hot and dry regions, shape and larger areal extent. • The highest salinity is recorded
where evaporation is high, • Salinity decreases from 35 ˚/˳˳ - 31 between 15° and 20° latitudes.
the salinity sometimes ˚/˳˳ on the western parts of the • Maximum salinity (37 ˚/˳˳) is
reaches to 70˚/˳˳ northern hemisphere because of observed between 20° N and
the influx of melted water from 30° N and 20° W - 60° W. It
the Arctic region. gradually decreases towards
• In the same way, after 15° - 20° the north.
south, it decreases to 33 ˚/˳˳
MARGINAL SEAS:
• The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more saline water
brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
• Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
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• The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.

• Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers.
• The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35˚/˳˳.
• The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water.
• On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of fresh water.
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER

• The horizontal and vertical motions are common in ocean water bodies.
• Horizontal movement  currents & waves
• Vertical movement  Tides
WAVES
• Waves are actually the energy, which moves across the ocean surface.
• Most of the waves are caused by the wind driving against water.
• Water particles only travel in a small circle as a wave passes.
• Origin: A wave’s size and shape reveal its origin. Steep waves fairly young ones and probably formed by
local wind. Slow and steady waves originate from faraway places, possibly from another hemisphere.
• Source of energy: Wind. Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines.
• The motion of the surface water seldom affects the stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans.
• The largest waves are found in the open oceans approaches the beachslows down (This is due to the
friction occurring between the dynamic water and the sea floor) when the depth of water is less than half
the wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks.
• Waves continue to grow larger as they move and absorb energy from the wind.
• When a breeze of two knots or less blows over calm water, small ripples form and grow as the wind speed
increases until white caps appear in the breaking waves. Waves may travel thousands of km before rolling
ashore, breaking and dissolving as surf (surf: the swell of the sea that breaks upon the shore)
• The maximum wave height is determined by the strength of the wind, i.e. how long it blows and the area over
which it blows in a single direction.
• Circular motion: Waves travel because wind pushes the water body in its course while gravity pulls the crests
of the waves downward. The falling water pushes the former troughs upward, and the wave moves to a new
position. The actual motion of the water beneath the waves is circular.
• It indicates that things are carried up and forward as the wave approaches, and down and back as it passes.
Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric pressure changes) is called surges.
Surges are not regular like tides.
TIDES
• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun and
the moon, is called a tide.
• Major cause for tide: Moon’s gravitational pull>Sun’s gravitational pull.
• Even though the sun is much more massive and therefore has stronger overall gravity than the moon, the
moon is closer to the earth so that its gravitational gradient is stronger than that of the sun.
• Another factor is centrifugal force, which is the force that acts to counter balance the gravity.
• Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for creating the two major tidal
bulges on the earth.

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• On the side of the earth facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite side though the
gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force causes tidal bulge on the
other side.
Why bulges are caused on two sides?

• The ‘tide-generating’ force =difference between the gravitational attraction of the moon and the centrifugal
force. Side of the Earth nearest the moon, pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater than the
centrifugal force, and so there is a net force causing a bulge towards the moon.
• Opposite side of the earth, the attractive force is less, as it is farther away from the moon, the centrifugal force
is dominant. Hence, there is a net force away from the moon. It creates the second bulge away from the moon.
On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide generating forces are more important than the vertical forces
in generating the tidal bulges.
• When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents.
• The vertical distance between high tide and low tide is the tidal range.
Tidal Bulges:
Continental Shelves Mid-oceanic Islands Bays/Estuaries

Greater height Low The shape of bays and estuaries
along a coastline can magnify the
intensity of tides
Types of tides:
Based on their frequency:
Semi-diurnal tide Diurnal tide Mixed Tide

• 2 high tides & 2 low tides each • Only one high tide & one low • Tides having variations in
day. tide each day. height are known as mixed
• Successive high or low tides are • Successive high and low tides tides.
of same height. are of same height. • These tides generally occur
• Most common tide. along the west coast of North
America and on many islands of
the Pacific Ocean.
Based on positions of Sun, Earth and Moon:

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SPRING TIDE NEAP TIDE

When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight • At this time the sun and moon are at right angles
line, the height of the tide will be higher. These are to each other and the forces of the sun and moon
called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on tend to counteract one another. The Moon’s
full moon period and another during new moon attraction, though more than twice as strong as
• period. the sun’s, is diminished by the counteracting
force of the sun’s gravitational pull.
• Normally, there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.
Perigee Moon’s orbit is closest to the earth High and low tides occur. During this time the tidal range is
greater than normal
Apogee When the moon is farthest from The moon’s gravitational force is limited and the tidal
earth ranges are less than their average heights
Perihelion Earth is closest to the sun Around 3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also much
greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides
Aphelion Earth is farthest from the sun Around 4th july each year, tidal ranges are much less than
average
ebb The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling
Flow or flood The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising
OCEAN CURRENTS :
• Ocean currents are large masses of surface water that circulate in regular patterns around the oceans.

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• They are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater driven by gravity, wind (Coriolis
Effect), and water density.
From equatorial regions to pole wards: • Higher surface temperature

• Warm currents
Polar regions to equator wards: • Lower surface temperature
• Cold currents
• North & South Equatorial Currents

Warm • Counter Equatorial Current (formed due to pile up of water by
PACIFIC OCEAN Currents equatorial currents at west pacific)
CURRENTS • Kuroshio Current, North Pacific Current, East Australian Current.
Cold Currents • Oyashio Current, Okhotsk Current, Alaska Current, California
Current, Peru Current also known as Humboldt Current.
• North & South Equatorial Currents
• Counter Equatorial Current
• Antilles Current: flows east of Caribbean Islands.
Warm • Gulf Stream
Currents • North Atlantic Drift
ATLANTIC • Norwegian Current: keeps oceans to the north of Norway free from
OCEAN ice.
CURRENTS • Brazil Current
• Labrador Current: Its confluence with warm Gulf Stream creates a
rich fishing ground on the north east coast of North America (Grand
Cold Currents Bank).
• Greenland Current, Canary Current, Benguela Current
• Falkland Current: A small branch of West Wind Drift splits and flows
between Argentinian coast and Falkland Islands.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CURRENTS:
Insolation • Insolation water expands. Hence, water near equator is about 8 cm higher in level
than middle latitudes  caused slight gradient  water flows down slope
Wind • Blowing wind pushes water to move.
• Friction between the wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water
body in its course.
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• The Planetary Winds: Trade winds: between the equator and the tropics  moves
equatorial water  pole wards and west wards.
• E.g. North-East Trade Winds move the North Equatorial currents and its derivatives,
the Florida Current and the Gulf Stream Drift to the warm southern and eastern coast
of U.S.A.
• Similarly, South-East Trade Winds drive the South Equatorial Current which warms
the eastern coast of Brazil as the warm Brazilian Current.
• Westerlies: Temperate latitudes  result in a north-easterly flow of water in
Northern Hemisphere  thus; warm Gulf Stream is driven to the western coast of
Europe as the North Atlantic Drift.
• Westerlies of Southern Hemisphere drive the West Wind Drift equator wards as
the Peruvian Current off South America and the Benguela Current off Southern Africa.
• Monsoon Winds: In Northern Indian Ocean direction of the current changes
completely with the direction of the monsoon winds which comes from North-east in
winter and South-west in summer.
Gravity • Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
• Coriolis force  causes water to move Right in Northern Hemisphere  thus
clockwise direction. (e.g.: the circulation of the gulf stream drift and the Canaries
Coriolis Force Current)
• Left in Southern Hemisphere  thus, anti-clock wise direction. (e.g. The Brazilian
Current and the West Wind Drift)
• Warm equatorial water  lighter and rises  move slowly along the surface pole
Temperature wards.
• Heavier Cold water  of the polar region  creep slowly along the bottom of the sea
equator.
• High salinity  dense  flow below water of low salinity
Salinity • e.g. In Mediterranean region , there less saline water of open Atlantic flows into the
Mediterranean , and this is compensated by an outflow of denser bottom water from
the Mediterranean.
• A land mass obstructs and diverts a current.
• E.g. the tip of Southern Chile Diverts part of the WEST Wind Drift northwards as
Land Peruvian Current.
• Also shoulder of the Brazil at Cape Sao Roque, divides the west-flowing equatorial
currents into the Cayenne Current which flows north-westwards and Brazilian Current
flows south-westwards.
GYRES:

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• Gyre is vast circular system made up of ocean currents that spirals about a central point. Larger, sustained
currents—the Gulf Stream, for example—go by proper names. Taken together, these larger and more
permanent currents make up the systems of currents known as gyres.
• There are five major gyres: the North and South Pacific Subtropical Gyres, the North and South Atlantic
Subtropical Gyres, and the Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre.
Types: On the basis of:
Surface Constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the
Current: upper 400 m of the ocean.
DEPTH Deep These waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density
Water and gravity. Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes,
Current: where the temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.
Cold Bring cold water into warm water areas. Found on the west coast of the
currents: continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on
the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Hemisphere.
TEMPERATURE Warm Bring warm water into cold water areas and observed on the east coast of
currents: continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the
northern hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents in high
latitudes.
EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENT:

• Desert Formation: Air blowing toward shore, chilled by contact with cold water, produces a layer of fog.
This heavy fog drifts onto land. Although humidity is high, the atmospheric changes that normally cause
rainfall are not present. A coastal desert may be almost totally rainless, yet damp with fog. Due to Cold ocean
currents in west coast regions of the tropical and sub-tropical continents. E.g. Peru Current, also called
Humboldt Current, is a cold-water current of the southeast Pacific Ocean and reason for the aridity of
Atacama desert. It is the driest desert of the world.
Fig: Cold Currents and Deserts
• Bordered by warm waters.

• Distinct marine climate. Their average temperatures are
West Coast Middle & Higher relatively low with narrow diurnal and annual ranges.
latitudes There is fog, but generally the areas are arid. They are
characterized by cool summers and relatively mild
winters with a narrow annual range of temperatures.
• Bordered by cool waters.
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Tropical & subtropical • Bordered by cool waters Their average temperatures

latitudes are relatively low with narrow diurnal and annual
ranges. There is fog, but generally the areas are arid.
• Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes. This
results in warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones.
• The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of planktons, the
primary food for fish population. The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in these mixing zones.
CORAL REEFS
• Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals known as “coral polyps”.
• These polyps extract calcium salts from sea water to form hard calcareous exoskeletons. Coral reefs over a
period of time transform or evolve into coral islands and various other marine landforms like fringing reefs,
barrier reefs, atolls.
• Many marine organisms live in close association with corals, with tight resource coupling and recycling,
allowing coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and biodiversity, such that they are referred to as
‘the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans’.
CONDITIONS FOR CORAL GROWTH

• Stable climatic conditions are conducive to growth of corals.
• Warm waters with narrow diurnal and annual temperature ranges.
• The ideal depths for coral growth are 45 m to 55 m below sea surface, where there is abundant sunlight
available. Corals cannot tolerate turbid and freshwaters. They also cannot tolerate excessive salinity.
• Corals are highly fragile and are vulnerable to climate change and pollution and even a minute increase in
marine pollution can be catastrophic.
LANDFORMS CREATED BY CORALS

• Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly from a shore. They are located close to
FRINGING REEFS land, and often form a shallow lagoon between the beach and the main body of the
reef.
• The fringing reef is by far the most common of the three major types of coral reefs.
• Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef structures parallel to a shore and are
separated from it by lagoon.
• They are the largest of the three reefs as they run for hundreds of kilometers and
BARRIER REEFS are several kilometers wide.
• Barrier Reefs extend as a broken, irregular ring around the coast or an island,
running almost parallel to it. The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off the NE coast
of Australia is the world’s largest example of this reef type.
CORAL BLEACHING
• Corals live in a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae, an autotrophic microorganism which assists the
corals in food production through photosynthesis.
• The host coral polyp in return provides zooxanthellae with a protected environment to live within, and a
steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic processes.
• The bright colours seen in coral colonies are due to these zooxanthellae.
• When these zooxanthellae are subject to some external stress resulting in a decline in their numbers, the
colours of corals disappear. This is known as coral bleaching.

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CAUSES OF CORAL BLEACHING

• Abnormally high or low sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching. Thus, events like El Nino, global
warming etc. can trigger large scale coral bleaching.
• Sudden exposure of corals to the atmosphere during events such as extreme low tides or tectonic uplift can
potentially induce bleaching.
• Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm generated precipitation and runoff has been demonstrated to cause
coral reef bleaching.
• When corals are exposed to high concentrations of chemical contaminants like copper, herbicides and oil,
coral bleaching happens.
• Disturbances in pH of oceans can increase stress on corals and zooxanthellae.
• Most coral diseases cause patchy or whole colony death and sloughing of soft tissues, resulting in a white
skeleton.
UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON LAW OF THE SEAS (UNCLOS)

• It is an international agreement that defines the
rights and responsibilities of nations where use of
the oceans’ waters by them is concerned.
• UNCLOS deal with aspects like delimitation,
control of environmental pollution, commercial
activities in the seas, technology transfer and
settlement of disputes between States with
reference to ocean matters.
• It also creates a legal regime for controlling
mineral resource exploitation in deep seabed
areas through an International Seabed
Authority.
• The UNCLOS came into force in the year 1994 and has been signed by 157 countries.
• The USA has signed the treaty but has not ratified it.
• This convention defines maritime zones to regulate the national jurisdictions over the ocean waters:
Territorial Waters + Contiguous Zone + Exclusive Economic Zone + High Seas.
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CH.9 INDIAN CLIMATE

INTRODUCTION
• Climate is the aggregate of the atmospheric condition involving heat, Moisture and air movement. The climate
of India is described as the ‘Tropical type monsoon’ indicating the impact of its location in tropical belt and
the monsoon wind.
• Weather patterns in India can be strongly variable: epochal droughts, heat waves, floods, cyclones, and other
natural disasters are sporadic, but have displaced or ended millions of human lives. Such climatic events are
likely to change in frequency and severity as a consequence of human-induced climate change.
• On-going and future vegetative changes, sea level rise and inundation of India's low-lying coastal areas are
also attributed to global warming.
• Although a sizeable part of the country lying north of the Tropic of Cancer falls in the northern temperate
zone but the shutting effects of the Himalayas and the existence of the Indian Ocean in the south have played
significant role in giving India a distinctive climatic characteristic.
FEATURE OF THE INDIAN CLIMATE

• Reversal of wind system with the change of season in a year.
Reversal of winds • During the Winter season wind generally blow from north-east to south west
direction and in Summer season, it completely reverse.
Seasonal and • 80% annual rainfall is obtained in the latter part of the summer whose duration
Variation of rainfall from 1-5month.
• Cherapunji has received in a single day an amount equal to 10 years of rainfall at
Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
Diversity of Indian • These are caused by Difference in the location, altitude, distance from the sea
Climate and General reliefs condition at differences places.
Impact of High and • Due to the low temperature high pressure area is formed and vice versa.
Low pressure over • Ex- intense heating of the land in summer season to formation of the thermally
the land induce low pressure cell over the north western part of the country.
FACTORS THAT DECIDE THE CLIMATE OF INDIA

India climate controlled by the number of factors but which can be divided into two group :
1. Factor related to location and Relief
2. Factor Realted to Air pressure and wind
FACTOR RELATED TO LOCATION AND RELIEF

Almost half of the country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical
area. All the remaining area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics. Therefore,
India’s climate has characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates. So,
Tropical zone near to the equator experience high temperature through the year with
Latitude and small and daily and annual range and north of tropic of cancer away from the equator,
Altitude experience extreme climate with high daily and annual range of temperature.
In the factor of Altitude, Temperature decreases with height. Due to the thin air, places
in the mountain are cooler than place on the plains. For example, Agra and Darjiling
are located on the same latitude, but temperature of January in Agra is 16°C whereas
it is only 4°C in Darjiling.
Distance from the Oceans heat up and cool down much more slowly than land. This means that coastal
Sea locations tend to be cooler in summer and warmer in winter than places inland at the
same latitude and altitude.
Distribution of land This factor depends on the specific heat of Land and Water. We know that India is
and water flanked by the Indian Ocean on three side and high mountain wall in the north side.
As Compared to the landmass, water heats up or cools down slowly. This differential

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heating of land and sea creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and
around the Indian subcontinent.
The Himalayan The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the
Mountains subcontinent. It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences
comparatively milder winters as compared to central Asia.
FACTOR REALTED TO AIR PRESSURE AND WIND

Air pressure and wind system is different at different altitude so its effect on indian climate.So,Follwing factor
impact on local climate of india.
• Surfce pressure and wind
• Jet stream and upper air circulation
• Western cyclonic disturbance and Tropical cyclone
So, These factor have different mechanism with reference to winter and summer season of the yearly separately:
 Weather condition in winter season
 Weather condition in summer season
WEATHER CONDITION IN WINTER SEASON
• The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique. During winter, there is a
high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry winds blow from this region
to the low-pressure areas over the oceans to the south. In summer, a low-pressure
area develops over interior Asia as well as over north-western India.
• During the northern hemisphere 's winter, High pressure area is built in Central
Surface pressure and west Asia. This center of high pressure give rise to the flow of air at the low
and wind level from the north towards the Indian subcontinent.
• These continental winds come in contact with trade wind over northwestern
india.
• Now, the contact zone is not stable and sometimes it shift up to the middle Ganga
valley thus bringing the entire North-western india the influence of the North-
Westerly winds.
• During winter season the
upper air westely jet
streams are positioned in
asia.These are bifurcated in
two branches due to the
tibetian Himalyan
obstruction. North branch
blows north of himalays and
Jet stream and the Tibetan Plateau.Southern
upper air branch blows south of the
circulation mighty mountains.In winter
the sub-tropical westerly jet
stream bring rain to the
western part of india.
• This jet stream is responsible for bringing western disturbances4 from the
Mediterranean region into Indian sub-continent. Winter rain and hail storms in
northwestern plains and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions are caused by
these disturbances.
Western cyclonic • The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter
disturbance and months brought in by the Westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. The
Tropical cyclone usually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions of India. It
brings little rain in winter month which is god for the wheat crops.
• Tropical cyclones occur during the monsoon as well as in October -November,
and are part of the easterly flow. These disturbances affect the coastal regions of

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the country. These tropical cyclones have very high wind velocity and heavy
rainfall and hit the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coast.
WEATHER CONDITION IN SUMMER SEASON
• In summer,Sun shift nortward then wind circulation over the sub-continent

undergoes a complete reversal at both.This is caused by Low pressure belt nearer
the surface, Termed as ITCZ (Inter Tropical convergence Zone) shift northwords
in the month of july. So, this time, westerly jet stream withdraw from the indian
region.
Surface pressure What is the impact of ITCZ Shifting North?

and wind • Its an Low Presure area so ITCZ attract winds from all around. A low-pressure area
develops over interior Asia as well as over northwestern India. This causes a
complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer. Air moves from the
high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction,
crosses the equator, and turns right towards the low-pressure areas over the
Indian subcontinent. These are known as the Southwest Monsoon winds.
• These winds blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread
rainfall over the mainland of India.
• In summer, Sun shift nortward then wind
circulation over the sub-continent
undergoes a complete reversal at both.This
Surface pressure is caused by Low pressure belt nearer the
and wind surface ,Termed as ITCZ (Inter Tropical
convergence Zone) shift northwords in the
month of july. So, this time ,westerly jet
stream withdraw from the indian region.
• An easterly jet stream flows over the

southern part of the Peninsula in June, and has
a maximum speed of 90 km per hour In
August; it is confined to 15 Degree North
Jet stream and latitude, and in September up to 22 Degree
upper air North latitudes. The easterlies normally do not
circulation extend to the north of 30 Degree North latitude
in the upper atmosphere.
• The easterly jet stream steers the tropical depressions into India. These
depressions play a significant role in the distribution of monsoon rainfall over the
Western cyclonic Indian subcontinent.
disturbance and • The tracks of these depressions are the areas of highest rainfall in India. The
Tropical cyclone frequency at which these depressions visit India, their direction and intensity, all
go a long way in determining the rainfall pattern during the southwest monsoon
period.
• Some Other Feature like unity of Indian Climate Such as Himalaya mountain ranges prevent the cold
northerly wind of central Asia from entering into India and Plurality of season occurs like as winter, fall of
winter, spring, summer rainy and autumn.
INDIAN MONSOON

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• The term monsoon is derived from Arabic word ‘mausim’ meaning ‘season’. Arabians were known to
general pattern of winds in different seasons. As such, Arabians used to sail their ships for the movement of
goods and people. Monsoon is actually a wind regime operating at a level of 20 km from the earth’s surface.
It is characterised by seasonal reversal of wind direction at regular intervals.
• Although the monsoon is a global phenomenon influenced by a variety of factors not yet completely
understood, the real monsoon rains cover mainly the South Asian region, represented by India, Myanmar, Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan and parts of South East Asia.
THERMAL CONCEPT OF INDIAN MONSOON

• According to this Thermal theory (Halley’s Theory of Origin of Monsoon), the differential heating of land
and sea at the time when the sun makes an apparent northward movement is the main cause of the Indian
monsoonal regime.
Two factors are mainly responsible for this very strong development of monsoons:
1. Vast size of the Indian subcontinent and adjacent seas.
2. Very high and extensive mountain systems of the Himalayas.
MECHANISM OF HALLEY’S THEORY OF ORIGIN OF MONSOON

• According to the thermal concept, during the period following the Vernal Equinox (March 22), the sun
starts its apparent northward shift. As a result, the areas lying north of the equator (tropics and subtropics)
get a progressive high incidence of solar radiation.
• The effect of this phenomenon on the Indian subcontinent is seen in the form of intense heating of the vast
northern plains and the adjoining highlands. As a result, a massive low pressure belt is formed extending
from the Punjab plains in the north-west to the Bengal delta in the east.
ORIGIN OF INDIAN MONSOON

Indian Monsoon depends on the Differential heating of sea and land but alone it can’t produce the Monsoon
circulation. Apart from, it depends on the Following Concept:
ROLE OF JET STREAM:

• The burst of monsoons depends upon the upper air circulation which is dominated by Sub Tropical Jet
Streams (STJ). The south west monsoon coming in India is related to tropical easterly stream. It blows
between 8 degree- 35 degree North latitudes.
• The north east monsoon (winter monsoon) is related to the subtropical westerly Jet Stream which blows
between 20 degree and 35 degree latitudes in both hemispheres.
ROLE OF THE HIMALAYAS AND TIBETAN PLATEAU:

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• Tibet plateau plays a crucial role in initiating the monsoon circulation. The plateau of Tibet extends over
an area of about 4.5 million sq. km. The average height of these highlands is 4000 m. Due to its enormous
height it receives 2-3 Degree Celsius more insolation than the neighboring areas.
• Heating of these areas leads to a clockwise air circulation in the middle troposphere and two-wind streams
originate from this area. One of these wind streams blow southward and develops into the tropical easterly
jet stream (TEJ).
• The other stream blows in an opposite direction towards the North Pole and becomes the westerly jet stream
over Central Asia.
ROLE OF ENSO:
• El Nino/Southern Oscillation and La Nina - Both terms refer to large-scale changes in sea-surface
temperature across the eastern tropical Pacific and the most powerful phenomenon of the Earth. These are
best known for altering the climate across more than half of the planet that also impact the weather patterns
of India.
• El Nino during winter causes warm conditions over the Indian subcontinent and during summer, it leads to
dry conditions and deficient monsoon. Whereas La Nina results in better than normal monsoon in India.
• India experienced deficient rainfall during El Nino years 2002 and 2009 whereas monsoon was normal
during El Nino years 1994 and 1997. It means that in about 50 per cent of the year with El Nino during
summer, India experienced droughts during monsoon.
• Crops like Paddy, Maize, Groundnut, Guar, Castor, Tur, Moong and Bajra would suffer due to El Nino.
ROLE OF WALKER CELL

• The Walker circulation is the result of a difference in surface pressure and temperature over the western and
eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. A pressure gradient from east to west creates an air circulation from the
Eastern pacific i.e. along the coast of Peru-Chile to western Pacific (Australia-New Guinea). Walker cell is
associated with southern oscillation and its strength fluctuates with that of Southern Oscillation Index
(SOI).
• In Indian Ocean, the air descends down at high pressure zone from where surface winds blow as Southwest
monsoon towards Indian sub-continent in summers. During La-Nina Indian ocean branch of walker cell get
strengthen and surface winds are more intense. La-Nina condition is generally associated with good
monsoon.

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• During appearance of El-Nino or negative SOI, the ascending branch of the walker cell shifts to the central
regions of the Pacific Ocean from west pacific region. In result, the Indian Ocean cell shifts towards east.
The surface winds or Southwest monsoon winds are weaker than normal conditions.
Walker cell and Indian Monsoon

INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE
• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between two
areas (or poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern
pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
• IOD develops in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in October. With a positive
IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of Bengal towards Arabian Sea). These
results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean near African Coast) are much warmer and eastern Indian
Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder and dry. Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than Bay of Bengal)
results in more cyclones than usual in Arabian Sea.
• In the negative dipole year (negative IOD), reverse happens making Indonesia much warmer and rainier.
Negative IOD results in stronger than usual cyclonogenesis (Formation of Tropical Cyclones) in Bay of Bengal.
Cyclonogenesis in Arabian Sea is suppressed.

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NATURE AND IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF MONSOON

Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall in the South Asian region help to understand the causes and salient
features of the monsoon, particularly some of its important aspects, such as:
• The onset of the monsoon.
• Rain-bearing systems (e.g. tropical cyclones) and the relationship between their frequency and distribution
of monsoon rainfall.
• Arabian Sea Branch and Bay of Bengal Branch.
• Break in the monsoon.
• Retreat in Monsoon
THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON :-

• Differential heating of land and sea during the summer months is
the mechanism which sets the stage for the monsoon winds to drift
towards the subcontinent. During April and May when the sun
shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, the large landmass in the
north of Indian Ocean gets intensely heated. This causes the
formation of an intense low pressure in the north-western part
of the subcontinent. So low pressure cell attract the southeast trade
across the equator.
• The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also related to the
phenomenon of the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from
its position over the north Indian plain, south of the Himalayas. The
easterly jet stream sets in along 15°N latitude only after the
western jet stream has withdrawn itself from the region. This
easterly jet stream is held responsible for the burst of the
monsoon in India.
RAIN-BEARING SYSTEMS
• The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Arabian Sea Branch
and the Bay of Bengal Branch near the southernmost end of the Indian
Peninsula.
• First originate in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of north
India. Second is the Arabian Sea current of the southwest monsoon which
brings rain to the west coast of India. The latter extends toward a low-
pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger
than the Bay of Bengal branch.
The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoons is divided into three distinct
streams on arriving in the mainland of India.
1. The first stream strikes the west coast of India and gives extremely heavy
rainfall of over 250 cm. It strikes perpendicular to Western Ghats causing
plentiful Orographic Rainfall (400 to 500 cm annual rainfall on the windward
side). Rainfall is drastically reduced to about 30-50 cm on the leeward side of
the crest. There is a narrow belt of marked aridity on the immediate leeward
The Arabian Sea side of the Western Ghats. But once it is passed, the air starts rising again and
branch the amount of rainfall increases further east.
2. The second stream enters Narmada - Tapi troughs (narrow rift valley) and
reaches central India. It does not cause much rain near the coast due to the
absence of major orographic obstacle across the rift. Some parts of central India
receive rainfall from this stream (Ex: Nagpur).
3. The third stream moves parallel to the Aravalli Range without causing much
rainfall. Consequently, the whole of Rajasthan is a desert area. However, some
orographic effect is occurring on the south-eastern edge of the Aravalli

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Range. Mt. Abu gets about 170 cm rainfall while the surrounding plains have
only 60 to 80 cm rainfall.
The Bay of Bengal Branch of the southwest monsoon is divided into two distinct
streams.
1. The first stream crosses the Ganga - Brahmaputra delta and
reaches Meghalaya. Here that the orographic effect results in intense rainfall.
Cherrapunji receives an annual rainfall of 1,102 cm, major portion of which
occurs from June to August. Mawsynram located at 1,329 m above sea level
just 16 km to the west of Cherrapunji records higher annual rainfall of 1,221
The Bay of Bengal cm. Both the stations are located on the southern slopes of the Khasi hills at
Branch the northern end of a deep valley running from south to north.
2. The second stream of the Bay of Bengal branch moves along Himalayan
foothills as they are deflected to the west by the Himalaya and brings
widespread rainfall to Ganga plain. The rainfall by this stream is characterized
by a steady decline as we move from east to west up the plain. The Tamil
Nadu coast remains relatively dry during the south-west monsoon period
because of:
 Rain shadow effect of the Arabian Sea current and
 Bay of Bengal current which flows parallel to the coast.
BREAK IN THE MONSOON.

• During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or
more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon. These dry spells are quite common during the rainy season.
• These breaks in the different regions are due to different reasons:
 In northern India rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing storms are not very frequent along the
monsoon trough or the ITCZ over this region.
 Over the west coast the dry spells are associated with days when winds blow parallel to the coast.
RETREAT IN MONSOON
In simple words, retreating means withdrawal. So, withdrawal of south-west monsoon winds from skies of north
India during months of October and November is known as retreating monsoon. The withdrawal is gradually and
takes about three months.
INDIAN CLIMATE –SEASONS

• The climatic conditions of India can best be described in terms of an annual cycle of seasons. The
meteorologists recognise the following four seasons:
 The cold weather season
 The hot weather season
 The southwest monsoon season
 The retreating monsoon season.
• Seasons are a special feature of Indian climate. Temperature, pressure, wind direction and the amount and
duration of rain varies from one season to the other. Meteorologists identify four seasons in India.
1. THE COLD WEATHER SEASON

Duration • Mid-November to February
• Clear sky, pleasant weather, low temperature, low humidity, high range of
General Characteristic temperature, cool and slow north-east trade winds.
• The diurnal range of temperature, especially in interior parts of the country, is
very high.
• The isotherm of 20°C runs roughly parallel to the Tropic of Cancer. Some parts
Temperature of Kerala and Tamil Nadu typically experiences temperatures near 30°C.
• The mean minimum temperature is about 5°C over north-west India and 10°C
over the Gangetic plains.

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• High pressure over north-western India.

Wind Disturbance • Winds blow from northwest to southeast. Around four or five westerly
• Disturbances are carried by westerly jet
• stream.
• The retreating winter monsoons pick up some moisture while crossing the Bay
of Bengal and cause winter rainfall in Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh,
Rainfall south-east Karnataka and south-east Kerala (Usually in the first weeks of
November).
• The western disturbances also cause a little rainfall in north-west India
2. THE HOT WEATHER SEASON

Duration • April, May, June
General Characteristic • High temperature and low humidity are the chief characteristics.
• Also seen as Dust storm and dryness.
• In March, the highest temperatures occur in the southern parts (40-45°C).
• In April the highest temperature of about 45°C is recorded in the northern parts
of Madhya Pradesh.
Temperature • In May the highest temperature shifts to Rajasthan where temperatures as high
as 48°C may be recorded.
• The diurnal range of temperature is also very high. It may be as high as 18°C in
some parts.
• Low pressure over north-western part of India and high pressure over
southern parts of Bay of Bengal. ITCZ shifts to Ganges plain. Wind direction
Wind Disturbance varies from
• one part of India to the other. Dust storms are frequency experienced in the
afternoon in northern plains.
Rainfall • Completely dry Season. Dust storms and thunder storms provide some rainfall.
Eastern regions receive more rainfall comparatively.
3. THE SOUTHWEST MONSOON SEASON

Duration • June – September
• South West Monsoon Season is also known as hot-wet season.
General Characteristic • Sudden onset is the important feature of South West Monsoons.
• With the onset of monsoons, temperature falls drastically and humidity levels
rise.
• Sudden onset of South West Monsoons leads to significant fall in temperature
(3° to 6°C).
Temperature • The temperature remains less uniform throughout the rainy season.
• The temperature rises in September with the cease of south-west monsoons.
• Other parts of Northwest India also have temperatures above 30°C
• Over the peninsular region, due to pressure gradient between north and south,
winds blow in a southwest to northeast direction from Arabian sea and Bay of
Wind Disturbance Bengal.
• Their direction undergoes a change in Indo-Gangetic plain where they move
from east to west.
• The average rainfall over the plains of India in this season is about 87 per cent.
• The advance of the monsoon is much faster in the Bay of Bengal than in the
Rainfall Arabian Sea.
• The monsoons advance quickly accompanied with a lot of thunder, lightning
and heavy downpour. This sudden onset of rain is termed as monsoon burst.
4. THE RETREATING MONSOON SEASON

Duration • October - November

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General Characteristic • Monsoon winds are retreating gradually and sudden rise of temperature with
October heat.
• With retreat of the monsoons, the clouds disappear and the sky becomes clear.
Temperature • The day temperature starts falling steeply.
• The diurnal range of temperature increases due to lack of cloud cover.
• As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon trough weakens and gradually shifts
southward. Consequently, the pressure gradient is low. Unlike south-west
Wind Disturbance monsoon, the onset of the north monsoon is not clearly defined.
• The direction of winds over large parts of the country is influenced by the local
pressure conditions.
• October-November is the main rainy season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas
of Andhra Pradesh to the south of the Krishna delta as well as a secondary rainy
Rainfall period for Kerala.
• The retreating monsoons absorb moisture while passing over the Bay of Bengal
and cause this rainfall.
TRADITIONAL INDIAN SEASONS

• This cycle of seasons, which the common people in north and central India follow is based on their practical
experience and age old perception of weather phenomena.
• However, this system does not match with the seasons of south India where there is little variation in the
seasons.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MONSOONAL RAINFALL

• Seasonal Monsoon:- Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is seasonal in character, which occurs
between June and September.
• Depends on Topography:- Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. For instance the
windward side of the Western Ghats register a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy rainfall in the north-
eastern states can be attributed to their hill ranges and the Eastern Himalayas.
• Distance from sea: - The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea.
Kolkata receives 119 cm during the southwest monsoon period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56
cm.
• Heavy rain fall: - The summer rainfall comes in a heavy downpour leading to considerable run off and soil
erosion.
• Agriculture depends on the Natural rainfall: - Monsoons play a pivotal role in the agrarian economy of
India because over three-fourths of the total rain in the country is received during the southwest monsoon
season.
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• Uneven Distribution of rainfall: - Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more
than 250 cm.
DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
• The distribution of rainfall in any region is mostly influenced by the relief features on the surface of the
Earth and the direction of the rain-bearing winds in that region. Another important factor which
influences the distribution of annual rainfall in India is the path followed by the cyclonic depressions.
The region located on the windward side of mountains, hills or plateaus receives comparatively more rainfall
than the leeward side.
• Broadly, India can be divided into the following four regions, depending upon the average annual rainfall
received by those regions.
Category Rainfall in Cms Regions

Average rainfall • In certain parts of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, in north-eastern India,
of more than 200 the average annual rainfall generally exceeds 1000 cm, but drops to
Heavy cm about 200 cm or even less in the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining
Rainfall hills, which are located in the rain-shadow area.
• Meghalaya is the wettest part of India with Mawsynram and
Cherrapunji getting about 1220 cm and 1100 cm of average annual
rainfall respectively. This region does not experience drought
conditions, but is subjected to frequent floods.
Moderate Average annual • The eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, northern and middle Ganga
Rainfall rainfall between valley, north-eastern peninsula, Manipur, coastal areas of Andhra
100 cm and 200 Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are included in this region. Here irrigation is
cm needed as a protective measure against drought.
Average annual • The Upper Ganga Valley, eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryajia, Kashmir
rainfall between and large parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western Madhya Pradesh,
Low Rainfall 50 cm and 100 Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, are included in this
cm region. Large irrigation projects have been developed to overcome the
danger of droughts and famines.
Inadequate Average annual • The areas included are the rain-shadow areas in the Deccan Plateau,
Rainfall rainfall of less north Kashmir, southern Punjab, western Rajasthan and Kachchh.
than 50 cm There is an acute shortage of water in these areas.

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VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL
• A characteristic feature of rainfall in India is its variability. The variability of rainfall is computed with the
help of the following formula:
C.V. = (Standard Deviation/Mean) × 100
• Where C.V. is the coefficient of variation the values of coefficient of variation show the change from the
mean values of rainfall. The actual rainfall in some places deviates from 20-50 per cent.
• The degree to which rainfall amounts vary across an area or through time is an important characteristic of
the climate of an area. This subject area in meteorology/climatology is called "rainfall variability." There
are two types (or components) of rainfall variability, areal and temporal.
DESCRIPTION OF ANNUAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL:

• The highest variability is found in the areas where the average annual
rainfall is the lowest such as desert areas of Rajasthan. Here, variability of
rainfall is around 60 per cent.
• Contrary to this, in the areas where the average annual rainfall is over
200 cm (Meghalaya plateau, Western Ghats), the annual variability of
rainfall is less than 10 percent.
• A very large part of India falls in the category of 15 to 30 per cent annual
variability of rainfall. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra etc. fall in this category
• Variability of annual rainfall increases from the western coast to the
interior of the peninsular region and from West Bengal and Odisha towards
north and north-west.
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

• India has tropical monsoon climate with large regional variations in terms of rainfall and temperature.
While classifying Indian climatic regions, most geographers have given more importance to rainfall than to
temperature as variations in rainfall are much more marked than those of temperature.
Climatic Regions of India:

• Stamp’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India: Temperate, Tropical
• Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India.
STAMP’S CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA
• Stamp used 18°C isotherm of mean monthly temperature for January to divide the country into two
broad climatic regions, viz., temperate or continental zone in the north and tropical zone in the south.
TEMPERATE INDIA
REGION AVERAGE TEMPERATURE ANNUAL RAINFALL

• Himalayan Region Sumer = 4°-7°C East = Over 200 cm
Winter = 13°-18°C West = much less
• North-western Region: Northern Summer = 16°C Below 200 cm
parts of Punjab and southern parts of Winter = 24°C
Jammu and Kashmir
• Arid Lowland: Thar desert of Winter = 16° to 24°C Below 40 cm
Rajasthan, south western part of Summer = 48°C
Haryana and Kachchh of Gujarat
• Region of moderate rainfall: Punjab, Winter = 15°-18°C 40 – 80 cm
Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Summer = 33°-35°C
Union Territory of Delhi, north-west
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Plateau area of Madhya Pradesh and

eastern Rajasthan
• Transitional Zone: Eastern Uttar Winter = 15°-19°C Summer = 30° 100 -150 cm
Pradesh and Bihar – 35°C
TROPICAL INDIA
REGION AVERAGE TEMPERATURE ANNUAL RAINFALL

• Region of very heavy rainfall: Winter = 18°C in Summer = 32°- Over 200
Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram 35°C
and Nagaland
• Region of heavy rainfall: Chhattisgarh, Winter = 18°-24°C 100 – 200 cm
Jharkhand, Gangetic West Bengal, Summer = 29°-35°C
Odisha and coastal Andhra Pradesh
• Region of moderate rainfall: between Winter = 18°-24°C Summer = 50 -100 cm
Western and Eastern Ghats 32°C in
• Konkan Coast: Mumbai in the north to Annual = 24°-27°C. Over 200 cm
Goa in the south
• Malabar Coast: Goa to Kanyakumari Annual = 27°C Over 250 cm
• Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Annual = 24°C 100 to 150 cm
Andhra Pradesh (Retreating Monsoon)
KOEPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

• Koeppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
• Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India is an empirical classification based on mean annual
and mean monthly temperature and precipitation data.
• Koppen climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality of
precipitation and temperature characteristics.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters f, m, w and s, where:
1. f – no dry season,
2. m – monsoon climate,
3. w – winter dry season and
4. s – Summer dry season.
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• The above mentioned major climatic types are further subdivided depending upon the seasonal distribution
of rainfall or degree of dryness or cold.
 a: hot summer, average temperature of the warmest month over 22°C
 c: cool summer, average temperature of the warmest month under 22°C
 f: no dry season
 w: dry season in winter
 s: dry season in summer
 g: Ganges type of annual march of temperature; hottest month comes before the solstice and the summer
rainy season.
 h: average annual temperature under 18°C
 m (monsoon): short dry season.
• The capital letters S and W are employed to designate the two subdivisions of dry climate:
1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and
2. arid or desert (W).
• Capital letters T and F are similarly used to designate the two subdivisions of polar climate
1. tundra (T) and
2. Icecap (F).
• Koeppen based his scheme of Climatic classification on monthly values of temperature and precipitation. He
identified five major climatic types, namely:
Climate Classification Climate Region MAP

Monsoon type with The western coastal region south of Goa
short dry season (Amw) experiences this type of climate.
Monsoon type with dry The region of this type of climate extends
season in summers (AS) along the coromandel coast
Tropical Savannah type Almost the entire peninsular region except
(Aw) for some coastal parts experiences this type
of climate.
Semi-arid steppe This climatic region includes the interior
climate (BShw) parts of the peninsular plateau and some
parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab
and Jammu & Kashmir.
Hot desert type (BWhw) This type of climate is found only in the
western part of Rajasthan
Monsoon type with dry Largely Northern plains of India experience
winters (Cwg) this type of climate.
Cold-humid winter type This climate of characterized by a short
with short summer (Dfc) summer season. This region covers the
north-eastern parts of India.
Polar type (E) this type of climate is experienced in Jammu
& Kashmir and the neighbouring mountain
ranges.

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CLIMATE CHANGE & GLOBAL WARMING

Global climate has witnessed changes in the past at the global as well as at local levels. This climate change is still
ongoing. Besides the natural causes, human activities such as large-scale industrialization and presence of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are important factors responsible for global warming.
Greenhouse Gases: Gases like carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide
which are present in much smaller concentrations in the atmosphere, together with carbon dioxide are known
as greenhouse gases. These gases are absorbers of long wave terrestrial radiation and contribute to global
warming.
IMPACT ON INDIA
• Unusual and unprecedented spells of hot weather are expected to occur far
EFFECT ON more frequently and cover much larger areas.
TEMPERATURE • Under 4°C warming, the west coast and southern India are projected to shift
PATTERNS to new, high-temperature climatic regimes with significant impacts on
agriculture.
• A decline in monsoon rainfall since the 1950s has already been observed.
The frequency of heavy rainfall events has also increased.
• A 2°C rise in the world’s average temperatures will make India’s summer
monsoon highly unpredictable.
• At 4°C warming, an extremely wet monsoon that currently has a chance of
occurring only once in 100 years is projected to occur every 10 years by the
EFFECT ON end of the century.
PRECIPITATION • An abrupt change in the monsoon could precipitate a major crisis, triggering
more frequent droughts as well as greater flooding in large parts of India.
• India’s northwest coast to the south eastern coastal region could see higher
than average rainfall.
• Dry years are expected to be drier and wet year’s wetter. Droughts are
expected to be more frequent in some areas, especially in north-western
India, Jharkhand, Orissa and Chhattisgarh.
• Crop yields are expected to fall significantly because of extreme heat by the
2040s (Source: World Bank).
• At 2.5°C warming, melting glaciers and the loss of snow cover over the
Himalayas are expected to threaten the stability and reliability of northern
India’s primarily glacier fed rivers, particularly the Indus and the
EFFECT ON HIMALAYAN Brahmaputra.
GLACIERS • Alterations in the flows of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers could
significantly impact irrigation, affecting the amount of food that can be
produced in their basins as well as the livelihoods of millions of people.
• Even without climate change, world food prices are expected to increase due
to growing populations and rising incomes, as well as a greater demand for
EFFECT ON biofuels.
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD • Seasonal water scarcity, rising temperatures, and intrusion of sea water
SECURITY would threaten crop yields, jeopardizing the country’s food security.
• Under 2°C warming by the 2050s, the country may need to import more
than twice the amount of food-grain than would be required without climate
change.
• Climate change is expected to have major health impacts in India- increasing
EFFECT ON PUBLIC malnutrition and related health disorders such as child stunting - with the
HEALTH poor likely to be affected most severely.
• Child stunting is projected to increase by 35% by 2050 compared to a
scenario without climate change.

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• Malaria and other vector-borne diseases, along with and diarrheal

infections which are a major cause of child mortality, are likely to spread
into areas where colder temperatures had previously limited transmission.
• Heat waves are likely to result in a very substantial rise in mortality and
death, and injuries from extreme weather events are likely to increase.
STUDENT NOTES:

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CH.10 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS

• DRAINAGE SYSTEM refers to origin and development of streams through time, While DRAINAGE PATTERN
means spatial arrangement and form of drainage system in terms of:
•Geometrical shape
•Geological structure
Climate conditions
•Denudational history
• For e.g., trellis pattern, dendritic pattern, parallel pattern etc. Examples of drainage systems are consequent,
subsequent, obsequent, re-sequent, antecedent, and superimposed streams.
• The origin and evolution of any DRAINAGE SYSTEM in a region is determined and controlled by two main
factors:
1. Nature of Initial surface and slope
2. Geological structure (folds, faults, joints etc.)
CLASSIFICATION OF STREAMS/DRAINAGE SYSTEMS BASED ON SLOPES AND GEOLOGICAL SURFACE
1. SEQUENT STREAMS: are those that follow the slope and are well adjusted to the geological structure. They
are of the following type:
• These are the first to originate in a particular region. Here slopes are primary
determinant, and the rivers are known as “dip streams”.
Consequent Streams • The first streams to be initiated on a newly emerged coastal plain are these. The
longest stream of the whole system is called “master consequent”.
• Most of the streams of coastal India are examples- Krishna, Cauvery, Rivers
draining the western ghats etc.
• These streams originated after the master streams. They are generally
Subsequent Streams transverse to the master stream i.e., 90 degrees; and their flow is largely
determined by geological structure.
• e.g., River Son (for River Ganga) and River Asan (for Yamuna)
• These also follow the slope of the surface but move in opposite direction before
Obsequent Streams meeting the master stream.
• e.g., Sun Kosi which flows opposite to Master consequent Ganga before meeting.
Resequent Stream • These follow the slope and move in the same direction before meeting the master
stream. These are of recent origin.

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• e.g., Gomati River
2. INSEQUENT OR CONSEQUENT STREAMS: are those not adjusted very well to the geological structure and not
follow the present-day natural slope. They are of the following types:
• These are those that have originated prior to the upliftment of land and they
Antecedent Streams make their way up by vertically eroding the uplifted surfaces.
• E.g., Indus, Sutlej, Kosi etc.
• These exhibit discordance to the underlying rock structure as the cover of rocks
on which they originated has been lost to erosion.
Superimposed • The old rock structure maybe deeply buried under a set of sediments. A river
Streams that starts from that sediment surface after eroding, reaches the underlying
layers of the rocks and finds itself out of adjustment with ancient rock surface.
• E.g., Damodar, Son, Subarnarekha etc.
DRAINAGE PATTERNS
The DRAINAGE PATTERN means the ‘geometrical forms’ of the drainage systems and spatial arrangement of
streams in particular locality or region. Generally divided into the following types:
• Formed by network of tributaries and master consequent streams which follow

the regional slope and are well adjusted to the geological structures. Such
TRELLISED patterns are developed in area of simple folds characterized by parallel anticlinal
ridges alternated by parallel synclinal valleys.
• Generally formed in cuesta topography where hard beds become escarpments
and soft ones are eroded to become valleys and lowlands.
• Shows some degree of resemblance to the trellis pattern as both have tributaries
joining master streams at right angle. But in trellis confluence is guided by
strikes and dip angles of rock beds while in Rectangular pattern it is guided by
RECTANGULAR lines of weakness.
• The second line of difference is that in trellis the spacing between the streams
joining the main stream is less than that of rectangular pattern.
• The most common and widespread pattern and resembles the branches, roots
and rootlets of a tree. It is associated with areas of homogenous lithologies,
DENDRITIC horizontal and very gently sloping strata and areas of extremely low reliefs.
• Uniform lithology presents most ideal condition for its development. E.g. Basins
of Mahanadi, Krishna, Cauvery etc.
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• It is formed by streams which diverge from a central higher point in all

RADIAL OR directions. Domes. volcanic cones, residual hills etc. aid in its development.
CENTRIFUGAL • These streams resemble the spokes of the wheels. Best e.g., is entire drainage
network of Sri Lanka, South Koel, Subarnarekha rivers of Odisha and Jharkhand.
CENTRIPETAL OR • It is opposite of inland drainage pattern because it is characterized by streams
INLAND which converge at a point; generally, a depression or a basin.
• Kathmandu valley sees tributaries of Baghmati converge.
• It is formed when tributaries of master consequent are developed in form of
ANNULAR OR Circle. It is formed over mature and dissected domal mountain characterized
CIRCULAR with series of alternate bands of soft and hard rock beds.
• Master consequent streams emerge at top and radiate in all directions. E.g. is
Sonapet dome of Bihar.
• Rare pattern formed when tributaries flow in opposite direction to the master
BARBED streams. The tributaries join the main streams in a hook shaped bends.
• Generally developed due to river capture
• Developed in mountainous areas where broad valleys are flanked by parallel
HERRINGBONE OR ridges with steep hillside slopes.
RIB • The name comes from Herring fish. Upper Jhelum in valley of Kashmir is an
example.
INDIAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM

India is blessed with hundreds of large and small rivers which serve as great source of water for irrigation,
industry, and domestic purposes. Almost all fertile lands in India have been formed by depositional work of
rivers.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS:
1. BASED ON SIZE 2. BASED ON ORIENTATION TO 3. BASED ON ORIGIN

SEA
• Major river basins-20,000 SQ • Bay of Bengal drainage • Himalayan river system
KM and more • Arabian sea drainage • Peninsular river system
• Medium basins- 2000 to
20,000 SQ Km
• Minor river basins- less than
2000 SQ km
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ORIGIN:
1. THE HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEM
THE INDUS RIVER SYSTEM

• It rises near lake Man Sarovar in Tibet from the glaciers of Kailas ranges. It enters India and continues
to flow NW between Ladakh and Zanskar ranges.
• It encircles the town of Leh and is joined by Zaskar river and later by Shyok river.
• Gilgit, Gortang, Dras, Hunza, Shiger etc are other tributaries of Indus.
• Indus receives from PANJNAD (Panchnad) accumulated waters of five eastern tributaries:
JHELUM Rises in SE Kashmir valley and flows through the Pir Panjal ranges. It is joined by Kishanganga
river near Muzaffarabad. It joins Chenab in Pakistan.
Originates from near Bara Lacha La near Lahaul Spiti of Zanskar range. Two small headstreams
CHENAB are Chandra and Bhaga and join to form the Chandrabhaga which flows through Pir Panjal and
enters Jammu and Kashmir as the Chenab, it joins Sutlej after receiving waters from Jhelum and
Ravi.
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RAVI Origin is near Rohtang pass in Kullu hills. Flows between the Dhola-Dhar and Pir Panjal ranges. It
joins Chenab in Pakistani Punjab.
Originates near Rohtang pass near Pir Panjal range close to the source of Ravi. It crosses Dhola
BEAS Dhar and meets Shiwalik hills and into the plains. Then it meets River Sutlej at Harike in Punjab. It
lies entirely within India. It lies entirely within the Indian territory.
It rises from Mansarovar-Rakas lake near Damra pass in Western Tibet. It cuts a gorge near Naina
SUTLEJ Devi where Bhakhra Nangal dam has been constructed. It is joined by Beas at Harike. During its
journey it receives collective waters of Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum. It finally joins Indus in Pakistan.
• Indus empties into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi before forming a delta.
• Water of Indus is shared by India and Pakistan as per the Indus Water Treaty according to which, India can
utilize only 20% of its total discharge.
THE GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

• It originates as Bhagirathi from Gangotri in Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Alaknanda joins it at
Devprayag and from here on it flows by the name of Ganga.
• After Haridwar Ganga flows into the plains. It is joined by Yamuna at Allahabad.
• After flowing through Bihar, near Rajmahal hills it turns southward and becomes HUGLI in West Bengal and
PADMA in Bangladesh.
• It forms a large delta called the SUNDARBANS before emptying into the Bay-of-Bengal.
• It is joined by large number of tributaries from left as well as right:
• YAMUNA is the largest and most important tributary and originates from Yamunotri near Bandar punch in
Garhwal district. After cutting across Nag Tibba, Mussoorie and Shiwalik ranges; it comes into the plains.
 In the upper reaches it is joined by Tons and near Ghaziabad by Hindon.
 Chambal- Rises near Mhow in Vindhyas and moves North through Malwa plateau. It joins Yamuna near
Etawah.
 Sind- originates near Vidhisha plateau and joins Yamuna.
 Betwa- rises in Bhopal and joins the Yamuna near Hamirpur.
 Ken river rises from Barner hills and joins Yamuna near Chila.
• Son rises from Amarkantak plateau not far from Narmada’s origin and passes through the Kaimur ranges. It
joins Ganga near Danapur. Almost all tributaries of Son join it on the right bank.
• The Damodar rises from chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift valley and joins Hugli in Bengal.
• The Ramganga rises in Garhwal hills and joins Ganga near Kannauj.

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• Ghaghra originates south of Mansarovar lake in Tibet and cuts through the Himalayas. Sarda and Saryu are
its important tribuataries.
• River Kali forms the border between Nepal and Kumaon region of India and has many feeders.
• River Gandak originates near Tibet-Nepal border receives large number of tributaries in Nepal.
• Burhy Gandak originates from Sumesar hills near Indo-Nepal border. It joins Ganga near Munger town.
• Kosi consists of seven streams and is popularly known as Saptakaushki. The seven streams join into three
and then these three meets at Triveni, north of Mahabharat range. It joins Ganga near Kursela. It is called the
“Sorrow of Bihar”.
THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM

• Rises in the Kailas range (Chemayungdung Glacier) around 150 KM away from the source of Indus, and only
35 KM from that of Sutlej.
• It is known as Tsang Po (The Purifier) in Tibet and Yarlung Zangbo in Chinese.
• Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its course abruptly takes a southward turn around Namcha Barwa
(7,756 m) (Syntaxial Bend).
• It enters India through Dihang or Siang gorge and emerges from Sadiya in Assam.
• At Sadiya, it is joined by two important streams:
 Dibang from North
 Lohit from South
• From there onwards it is known as Brahmaputra. It is main tributaries from here are:
FROM NORTH FROM SOUTH

• Subansiri • Dibru
• Kameng • Burhi Diing
• Dhansiri • Dhansiri (there is one from N also)
• Manas • Kalang
• Tista (It was a tributary of Ganga until
1787.)
• Champaman
• It witnesses heavy siltation and is very wide and braided in lower Assam. Near Dibrugarh it has many islands;
most important of which is Majuli (world’s largest river island).
• Up to Dibrugarh it is navigable (from its mouth)
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• It goes around the Garo hills and enters Bangladesh near Dubri. Here it is known by the name of Jamuna and
joins Ganga.
• The united steams of Ganga and Jamuna is known by the name of Padma.
• Padma merges in Meghna and falls into the Bay of Bengal after forming a broad estuary.
• Left Bank Tributaries: Dibang, Lohit, Dhansiri, Kolong etc.
• Right Bank Tributaries: Kameng, Manas, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri etc.
2. THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

• These have existed from much longer than the Himalayan rivers and thus have reached mature stage. They
have eroded almost up to their base level.
• Characterized by broad, shallow, and largely braided valleys. The East flowing rivers form big deltas while
the west flowing one’s form Estuaries.
Why so?
• West flowing rivers, especially Narmada and Tapi flow through hard rocks and are not able to form
distributaries before they enter the Sea.
1. THE EAST FLOWING RIVERS:
THE MAHANADI
• The Mahanadi basin extends over states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively smaller portions of
Jharkhand, Maharashtra and MP.
• The Mahanadi has its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya in Raipur District of Chhattisgarh.
• It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and east and by the
Maikal range on the west.
• The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of the peninsular rivers, in water potential and flood producing
capacity, it ranks second to the Godavari.
• Other small streams draining directly into the Chilka Lake also forms the part of the Mahanadi basin.
• At Sambalpur, the Hirakud Dam (one of the largest dams in India) on the river has formed a human-made
lake 35 miles (55 km) long.
• It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack and enters the Bay of Bengal at False Point by several channels.
• Left bank Tributaries: Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand and Ib etc.
• Right bank Tributaries: Ong, Tel and Jonk etc.
THE GODAVARI
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• Emerges near Triambak plateau of Nashik in Maharashtra.

• The Godavari basin extends over states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha
in addition to smaller parts in MP, Karnataka and Union territory of Puducherry (Yanam).
• The total length of Godavari from its origin to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465 km.
• Largest system of the peninsula and is revered as Vridha Ganga or Dakshin Ganga.
• Below Rajmundry, it divides itself into two streams Gomati Godavari and Vashishta Godavari before
forming a delta and falling into Bay of Bengal.
• Left bank tributaries are: Wardha joins Wainganga and becomes Pranhita which joins Godavari, Penganga
rises from Buldhana range and joins Wardha, Wainganga, Sabari.
• Right bank tributaries: Manjra is the only important one and it joins Godavari after passing through Nizam
Sagar.
THE KRISHNA
• The Krishna is the second largest east flowing river of the Peninsula.
• The Krishna Basin extends over Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.

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• Rises in the Western Ghats just north of Mahabaleshwar and flows into the Bay of Bengal.
• Left bank tributaries: Bhima, Musi (Hyderabad located on its banks), Munneru etc.
• Right bank tributaries: Ghatprabha, Koyna, Malprabha, Tungabhadra (largest) etc.
• Important dams on this river include Nagarjuna Sagar, Sri Sailam, Almatti and Basava Sagar etc.
• It forms a large delta which appears to merge with that of Godavari and it extends 35 km into the sea.
THE CAUVERY
• The Kaveri River rises in the Brahmagiri range, Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka.
• The Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union Territory of Puducherry.
• Also, a revered river of the south and called Dakshin Ganga.
• It flows eastward 800 km before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
• Its upper catchment area receives rain by SW monsoon during summer and the lower catchment area
receives rain by NE monsoon during winter.
• Therefore, it is almost a perennial river and is useful in power generation and irrigation.
• The river descends from the South Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through the Shivasamudram
waterfalls (101 m high).
• At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes Southerly direction and enters the Mettur Reservoir.
• In the last stage, the river divides into two parts, the Northern branch being called ‘The Coleron’ and
Southern branch remains as Cauvery, and from here the Cauvery Delta begins.
• After flowing for about 16 km, the two branches join again to form ‘Srirangam Island’.
• Left bank tributaries: Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha and Arkavati etc.
• Right bank tributaries: Lakshmantirtha, Kabbani, Bhavani, Noyil and Amravati etc.
THE SUBARNAREKHA
• The Subarnarekha (395 km) originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming the boundary between
West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course before joining the Bay of Bengal.
• It forms an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas.
THE BRAHMANI
• The Brahmani (800 km) comes into existence by the confluence of the Koel and the Sankh rivers near
Rourkela, Odisha.
• The basin is surrounded by the Chhotanagpur plateau and the Mahanadi basin.
• The basin flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and drains into the Bay of Bengal.

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Prelims Mains

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THE PENNER
• The Pennar (597 km) rises in the Chenna Kesava hill of the Nandidurg range, in Chikkaballapura district of
Karnataka and flows towards east eventually draining into the Bay of Bengal.
• Its basin extends over states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
• Seshachalam Hills (famous for Red Sanders) and Paliconda ranges are important hill ranges in the basin.
• Left bank tributaries: Jayamangali, Kunderu and Sagileru etc.
• Right bank tributaries: Chiravati and Papagni etc.
2. THE WEST FLOWING RIVERS:
THE NARMADA
• It is the largest of all west flowing rivers of peninsular India. It rises from the western flanks of
Amarkantak in MP.
• Flows westward in a rift valley between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
• It forms famous falls: Dhuandhar Falls (known as Marble Falls) near Jabalpur, Kapildhara Falls near
Amarkantak and Sahasradhara Falls near Maheshwar, both in Madhya Pradesh.
• It meanders through alluvial plains past Bharuch (GJ) and forms an Estuary before falling into the Gulf of
Khambhat.
• There are several riverine islands in Narmada’s estuary-Aliabet is the largest.
• Major hydropower projects in the basin include Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar, Barg and
Maheshwar etc.
• Tributaries: Hiran (right bank), Kolar (right bank), Tawa (left bank).
Rift Valley
• Linear faults created in the crust due to tensional diastrophic forces.
• Narmada and Tapti did not form their own valleys and instead flow in rifts (faults) created during the bending
of the peninsular block.
• This bending happened because of the collision with Eurasian plate and formation of Himalayas.
THE TAPI OR TAPTI

• Also known as twin or handmaid of Narmada, it originates from Satpura in Betul district of MP.
• Tapti or Tapi River is the second largest west flowing river in the peninsular India.
• Flows for about 724 km from its source in Multai, MP to the estuary in Gulf of Khambhat.
• Flows through Khandesh plains of Maharashtra between Satpuras and Ajanta ranges.
• Main tributary is Purna river (left bank) which joins it near Bhusawal. Some others are: Betul(left), Patki
(left), Girna (Right), Amravati (Right)
• It makes an estuary near Surat and falls into Gulf of Khambhat.
THE SABARMATI
• The Sabarmati is the name given to the combined streams of the Sabar and Hathmati.
• The Sabarmati basin extends over states of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• The total length of the river from origin in Aravalli Hills (Rajasthan) to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
• Industrial city of Ahmedabad is located on its banks.
• It falls in the Gulf of Khambhat and has few tributaries: Sedhi, Wakul, Meshwa.
THE MAHI
• The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas in Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh and drains into
Gulf of Khambhat covering 580 km.
• Hydro Power stations are located in Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana Dam.
• It crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice.
• Main tributaries are: Som, Anas, Panam.
THE LUNI OR SALT RIVER

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• Names so as its water is brackish below Baltora.

• It originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer, passes through the south-eastern
portion of the Thar Desert, and ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, after travelling a
distance of 495 km.
• Water of the Luni River is brackish after Balotra (Rajasthan) where high salt content in the soil impacts
the river.
• Luni is the only river basin of any significance in Western Rajasthan, which forms the bulk of arid zone.
HIMALAYAN VS PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM

HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEM PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM
• Origins are in Himalayan ranges. • Originate in Peninsular plateau.
• They have large basins and catchment areas. • They have small basins and catchment areas.
• They flow through deep I-shaped valleys called • They flow in comparatively shallow valleys and
gorges. are almost completely graded.
• These gorges are carved out by down cutting • They are examples of consequent drainage and
carried side-by-side with the uplift of Himalayas. have little erosional activity to perform.
• These are e.g., of antecedent drainage. • They receive water from rains mostly and hence
• They are perennial in nature i.e., they flow are not perennial but seasonal.
throughout the year. • The rivers have reached maturity and have been
• They receive water from both- monsoons and flowing in one of the oldest plateaus.
snow-capped feeders. • The hard rocks provide little scope for
• They flow through young fold mountains and are meandering or to form distributaries.
still in youthful stage i.e., they have not yet hit • East flowing rivers form deltas while west flowing
their base level. (No river erodes below their base one’s form estuaries.
levels)
• Meandering is seen in their lower reaches.
• They form big deltas near their mouths. Ganga-
Brahmaputra delta is the largest in the world.
RIVER REGIMES
• It is the seasonal fluctuation in the volume of water in a river. The climatic differences in the sources of the
Himalayan and Peninsular rivers lead to differences in drainage patterns.
• Regimes of Himalayan rivers are both monsoonal and glacial while that of Peninsular rivers are only
monsoonal.
1. GANGA
o Minimum flow from January to June.
o Maximum from August to September.
o Rate of flow steadily falls after September and thus Ganga has a monsoonal regime.
2. JHELUM
o Attains its max flow in June or even in May due to snowmelt.
3. NARMADA
o It has a very low volume of discharge from January to July which suddenly rises in August when the
maximum is attained.
4. GODAVARI
o Flows at a low level until May and has a double maximum: In May-June and July-August
o After August there is a sharp fall.
HYDRO POWER PROJECTS

• Dams are constructed across rivers to create reservoirs where water for irrigation and other purposes is
stored.

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• The potential energy of the water stored in reservoirs can be tapped to generate electric power in hydel
power projects.
• India ranks fourth after China, USA and Russia in terms of number of dams.
• Tehri dam on Bhagirathi river (Uttarakhand) is the tallest dam in India (260 m) and also the eighth highest
dam in the world.
• Hirakud dam on Mahanadi river (Odisha) is the longest dam in India.
• Indira Sagar Project on Narmada river (Madhya Pradesh) has the largest reservoir in terms of storage of
water.
IMPORTANT FALLS AND THEIR LOCATIONS

FALLS LOCATION/SIGNIFICANCE
Sahasradhara Falls Two falls with same name. One on Narmada River in Maheshwar (MP). Other is
a limestone formation near Dehradun
Elephanta Falls Near Shillong, Meghalaya.
Chuliya Falls On Chambal near Kota (Rajasthan).
Dhuandhar Falls On Narmada near Jabalpur (MP).
Rajrappa Falls At confluence of Damodar and Bhairavi in Jharkhand.
Duduma Falls On Machhkund River on the border of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
Kapildhara Falls On Narmada near Amarkantak (MP)
Hundru Falls On Subarnarekha near Ranchi.
Dudhsagar Falls On Mandovi River in Goa.
Gokak Falls On Gokak River in Karnataka.
Jog Falls (Gersoppa Falls) On Sharavati River in Karnataka.
Shivasamudram Falls On Kaveri near Bangalore (Karnataka).
Nohkalikai Falls Near Cherrapunji, Meghalaya. One of the tallest falls in India.

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RIVER POLLUTION AND NAMAMI GANGE MISSION

Why in News: The quality of Ganga water in the stretch from Kannauj to Prayagraj was categorised as being
extremely deficient in dissolved oxygen.
Main pillars of the Namami Gange Programme are:

1. Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure
2. River-Front Development
3. River-Surface Cleaning
4. Bio-Diversity
5. Afforestation
6. Public Awareness
7. Industrial Effluent Monitoring
8. Ganga Gram
Causes of pollution in the Ganga:

• Untreated sewage: Approximately 3 billion litres of raw, untreated sewage are dumped in the river on a
daily basis.
• Industrial effluents: Countless tanneries, chemical plants, textile mills, distilleries, slaughterhouses, and
hospitals contribute to the pollution of the Ganges by dumping untreated waste into it.
• Leather industries: The leather industries in Kanpur use vast amounts of chromium and other toxins and
chemicals. Chromium pollutes the Ganges turning it toxic and poisonous.
• Dams: Dams are also one of the main cause of pollution in the Ganga. Dams obstruct the flow of river and
make it slow due to which Ganga lacks in self-purification capacity.
• High use of fertilizers: high use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture field, this all flows to the river
through rain water and harm aquatic wildlife.
• Religious Belief and practices: Thousands of bodies are cremated on the banks of the river yearly with
many being released into the river with hopes that their souls may have a direct path to heaven.
STUDENT NOTES:

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CH.11 SOILS
• Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface. Pedogenesis is
the natural process of soil formation that includes a variety of processes such as weathering, leaching,
calcification etc.
• Components of the soil are mineral particles, humus, water and air.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE FORMATION OF SOIL

• Relief
• Parent material
• Climate
• Vegetation and other life-forms
• Time
• Human activities.
The actual amount of each of these factors depend upon the type of soil.
SOIL PROFILE
• The vertical section of the soil showing different layers from
the surface to the parent material is known as soil profile.
• Soil particle sizes varies which further determine soil profile.
• Stone: Particles of large size

• Gravel: Particles greater than 2 mm in diameter
• Coarse sand: Particles less than 2 mm and greater than 0.2
mm in diameters
• Fine sand: Particles between 0.2 mm and 0.02 mm in
diameter
• Silt: Particles between 0.02 mm and 0.002 mm in diameters
• Clay: Particles less than 0.002 mm in diameters.
Soil horizon: A layer generally parallel to the soil surface, whose physical characteristics differ from the layers
above and beneath. These are defined in most cases by obvious physical features, chiefly colour and texture.
Horizon: O • Surface horizon comprised of organic materials at various stages of decomposition.

Horizon: A • Topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral matter,
nutrients and water.
Horizon: E • Zone that has been heavily leached.
• Leaching is a process in which soluble nutrients are lost from the soil due to
precipitation.
Horizon: B • Transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’, and contains matter derived
from below as well as from above.
• Contains some organic matter, although the mineral matter is noticeably weathered
Horizon: C • Also known as Saprolite. Composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first
stage in the soil formation process and eventually forms the above two layers.
Horizon: R • known as the parent rock or the bedrock
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL IN INDIA

• In ancient times, soils used to be classified into two main groups – Urvara and Usara, which were fertile
and sterile respectively.
• In the 16th century A.D., soils were classified on the basis of their inherent characteristics and external
features such as texture, colour, slope of land and moisture content in the soil.

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• Based on texture, main soil types were identified as sandy,

clayey, silty and loamy, etc
• On the basis of colour, they were red, yellow, black, etc.
• Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified
the Indian soils on the basis of their nature and character as per
the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil
Taxonomy.
• On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the
soils of India have been classified into: (i) Alluvial soils (ii)
Black soils (iii) Red and Yellow soils (iv) Laterite soils (v)
Arid soils (vi) Saline soils (vii) Peaty soils (viii) Forest soils.
ALLUVIAL SOILS
• They are depositional soils, transported and deposited
by rivers and streams.
• About 40 per cent of the total area of the country.
• The alluvial soils vary in nature from sandy loam to
clay.
• In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different
Characteristics types of alluvial soils have developed:
1. Khadar: New alluvium; deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil
by depositing fine silts; Contain calcareous concretions (Kankars).
2. Bhangar: older alluvium; deposited away from the flood plains; Contain
calcareous concretions (Kankars).
• These soils are loamier and more clayey in the lower and middle Ganga plain and
the Brahmaputra valley. The sand content decreases from the west to east.
• The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey to ash grey.
• Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated.
Minerals • They are generally rich in potash but poor in phosphorous.
• Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys.
Areas • Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the plains of Gujarat.
• In the Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river
valleys.
BLACK SOILS
• The black soil is very deep. These soils are also
known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’.
• Generally clayey, deep and impermeable.
• They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink
Characteristics when dried.
• So, during the dry season, these soils develop wide
cracks. Called ‘self-ploughing’ because of this
character of slow absorption and loss of moisture, it retains the moisture for a very
long time, which helps the crops, especially, the rain fed ones, to sustain even
during the dry season.
• The colour of the soil ranges from deep black to grey.
• Rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina.
Minerals • They also contain potash.
• But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
• Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra,
Areas Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
• In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and the north western part
of the Deccan Plateau.
RED AND YELLOW SOILS

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• Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low

rainfall.
• The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of
Characteristics iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
• It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
• Fine grained red soil normally fertile, whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry
upland areas are poor in fertility.
Minerals • They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus
• Areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
• Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied
Areas by red loamy soil.
• Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh and in
the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
LATERITE SOILS
• Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’
which means brick.
• Develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall.
• Result of intense leaching due to tropical rains.
Characteristics • Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria
that thrives well in high temperature.
• Suitable for tree crops like cashew nut.
• Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction.
• These soils have mainly developed in the higher areas of the peninsular plateau.
• With rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and
Minerals aluminum compound are left behind.
• These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron
oxide and potash are in excess.
Areas • The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.
ARID SOILS
• Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
• They are generally sandy in structure and saline in
nature.
• In some areas, the salt content is so high that common
Characteristics salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water.
• Lower horizons are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers
because of the increasing calcium content downwards.
• The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration
of water, so soil moisture remains unavailable for plant growth.
Minerals • These soils are poor and contain little humus and organic.
• Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal.
Areas • Characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic
arid topography.
SALINE SOILS
• They are also known as Usara soils.
• They are infertile, and do not support any vegetative
growth.
Characteristics • Their structure ranges from sandy to loamy.
• In the Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon
brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust.

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• Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of saline soils. In the
areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use of irrigation, the fertile alluvial
soils are becoming saline.
• Excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions promotes capillary action, which
results in the deposition of salt on the top layer of the soil.
• In such areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are advised to add
gypsum to solve the problem of salinity in the soil.
Minerals • Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium
• They lack in nitrogen and calcium.
Areas • They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas.
• More widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in
Sunderban areas of West Bengal, Rann of Kuchchh.
PEATY SOILS
• They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high
humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation.
Characteristics • Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per
cent.
• These soils are normally heavy and black in colour. At many
places, they are alkaline also.
Minerals • Large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a
rich humus and organic content to the soil.
Areas • It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and
the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
FOREST SOILS
• Formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
• The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment
where they are formed.
• They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes.
Characteristics • In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they experience denudation, and are
acidic with low humus content.
• The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.
• Heterogeneous in nature and their character changes with parent rocks, ground-
configuration and climate.
• They are especially suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.
Minerals • The forest soils are very rich in humus but are deficient in potash, phosphorus and
lime.
Areas • Himalayan region, Western and Eastern Ghats as well as in some parts of the
Peninsular plateau.
STAGES OF SOIL EROSION

• Soil erosion: The removal of top soil cover by exogenic agents
like running water, winds etc. is
• referred to as soil erosion
• Wind and water are powerful agents of soil erosion because of
their ability to remove soil and transport it. Wind erosion is
significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
• In regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, erosion by
running water is more significant.
• Human activities too are responsible for soil erosion to a great
extent.
• Increase human population  Demand on the land increases 
Forest and other natural vegetation is removed for human
settlement/ cultivation/ grazing animals Etc.
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1) Splash Erosion: First stage of erosion process. Occurs when raindrop hit bare soil.
2) Sheet Erosion: Uniform movement of a thin layer of soil across an expanse of land devoid of vegetative
cover.
3) Rill Erosion: When sheet flows begin to concentrate on the land surface. Rill erosion leaves visible
scouring on landscape.
4) Gully Erosion: Rill erosion evolves into gully erosion. Gullies resemble large ditches or small valleys, but
are metres to tens of metres in depth and width.
SOIL CONSERVATION
• Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and improve
the degraded condition of the soil.
• Lands with a slope gradient of 15 - 25 per cent should not be used for cultivation. If at all the
• land is to be used for agriculture, terraces should carefully be made.
• Over-grazing and shifting cultivation must be checked by educating villagers about the
• consequences.
• Contour bunding Contour terracing, regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover cropping, mixed farming
and crop rotation are some of the remedial measures which are often adopted to reduce soil erosion.
• In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts should be made to protect cultivable lands from encroachment by sand
dunes through developing shelter belts of trees and agro forestry.
IMPORTANT TERM
• Contour Bunding: Contour bunding or contour ploughing or contour farming is the practice of creating a
water break (bunds) along the contour lines in hilly areas to reduce the speed of water flowing downslope.
• Check Dams: A small dam constructed across the waterway to counteract erosion.
• Wind Breaks or shelter belts: A belt of trees planted around the fields to provide shelter from winds.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE:
• UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), met in the Indian capital of New Delhi for COP14,
adopting a series of breakthrough measures in the accord, known as the Delhi Declaration.
• India will restore 26 million hectares of degraded land /land degradation neutrality by the SDG target year
of 2030.
CENTRALLY SPONSORED SCHEMES

1. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP)
• The scheme is funded by the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of
India with 91.66% as Central Share and 8.34% as State Share. With an intention of involving village
communities in the implementation of Watershed Development Projects (WDP) under IWDP, the Ministry of
Rural Development (MoRD), Government of India, adopted the WDP Guidelines (1995) which was
subsequently revised in 2001 (WDP Revised Guidelines, 2001) and later evolved the New Guidelines for
Hariyali (2003) which are under implementation w.e.f. April 1, 2003.
2. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

• During 2009-10, the Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development, Department of Land Resources,
has approved for treatment of 30,000 hectares in 18 watershed projects of the State.
• The Central and State share for the IWMP projects is in the ratio of 90:10.
• The main objectives of this programme are as follows:
o To dissipate soil and water erosion and surface run-off
o To harvest/ recycle surface runoff and rainwater
o To enhance soil moisture regime/ water holding capacity
o To promote sub-surface flow, base flow and ground water recharge
o To improve soil health and tilth
o To improve production and productivity
o To promote generation and gainful employment opportunities.

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Other Government of India Schemes

• Soil Conservation for enhancing the productivity of degraded lands in the catchment of River Kopili in Jaintia
Hills District under Macro-Management Mode of Agriculture Department, Meghalaya.
• Rastriya Krishi Vigyan Yojna (RKVY)
STUDENT NOTES:

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CH.12 NATURAL VEGETATION

• Definition: Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time,
so as to allow its individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible.
Also called Virgin Vegetation.
Factors Determining Vegetation:

• Relief: Land & Soil
• Climate: Temperature, Photoperiod & Precipitation
TYPES OF FOREST
TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST

Location • Western slope of Western Ghat, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Island &
Tamil Nadu Coast, Purvanchal hills.
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Rainfall • Exceeds 250 cm

• Annual temp  25-27̊C
• Forest well stratified
• Warm, wet and humid throughout year& Thick Canopy
Characteristics • Luxuriant vegetation
• No definite time for trees to shed leaves, flowering & fruition.
• No clear distinction between the climate
• Dry season is short
• Rosewood, Mahogany, Aini, Ebony,
• Rubber (Trees Height-60m or even more)
Species found • Epiphytes (an organism that grows on the surface of a plant and derives its
moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water (in marine environments) or
from debris accumulating around it.)
SEMI EVERGREEN FOREST

Location • Western coast, Assam, Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha,
Andamans.
Rainfall • 200-250 cm
• Mixture of  evergreen + moist deciduous
• Mean annual temperature  24 to 27̊ C
Characteristics • Transitional forest between tropical evergreen and tropical deciduous forests.
• Less dense
• Dry season is not short like tropical evergreen forest.
Species found • Under growing climbers, cedar, hollock & kail
• Trees have buttress roots (aerial extensions of lateral surface roots )
TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS

Location • Northeast States along foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of Western
Ghats& Odisha, Chota Nagpur Plateau, Manipur & Mizoram
• Mean annual temperature27̊ C
Characteristics • Occupy a much larger area about large tracts under these forests have been
cleared for cultivation.
Species found • Teak, Sal, Shisham, Hurra, Mahua, Amla, Semul, Kusun & Sandalwood, Bamboo.
• Heavily Buttressed trees.
TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS

Location • Rainier areas of Peninsula & Plains  UP + Bihar
Characteristics • Parkland landscape (parkland is an area of open land with grass and trees).
• As dry season begins  trees shed leaves
Species found • Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood
TROPICAL THORN FOREST

Location • Semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
Rainfall • < 70 cm
• Mean annual temperature 25-30̊ C
• Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil  to get
Characteristics moisture.
• The stems are succulent  to conserve water.
• Leaves are mostly thick and small  to minimize evaporation.

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• Xerophytic adaptation (Xerophyte adaptations increase water intake, limit

water loss, and store water efficiently).
Species found • Grasses and Shrubs, babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas.
• Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti.
LITTORAL AND SWAMP FOREST (WETLANDS)

Location • The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri
• Mud and silt  accumulated on such coasts.
Characteristics • Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants
submerged under water.
• Salt-tolerant species of plants (i.e., Halophytic Adaptation)
Species found • Sundari (durable hard timber).
• Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta.
MONTAIN FOREST
NORTHERN MONTAIN FOREST (HIMALAYAS)
SOUTHERN MONTAIN FOREST
• Western Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris, Satpura and the Maikal ranges,
Location Anamalais, Palni hills, Kalakadu, Mundanthurai and Kanyakumari in the states
of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Rainfall • Rainfall:150 to 300 cm
• As are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above sea level, vegetation is
temperate in the higher regions, subtropical on the lower regions of Western
Characteristics Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
• Red-colored young leaves turning into different colors on maturity is a
prominent characteristic of the Shola forests.
• The temperate forests are called Sholas also known as rolling grasslands in
Species found the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills.
• Others include magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle.
SACRED GROVES:
• Sacred groves refer to a piece of natural vegetation that is protected by a certain community due to religious
reasons.

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• The area is usually dedicated to a local deity.

• As a result, local communities tend to take responsibility to protect and nurture the area. It could be only a
few trees or an entire forest.
• Some NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves. Traditionally, and in some cases even today,
members of the community take turns to protect the grove.[2] However, the introduction of the protected
area category community reserves under the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 has introduced
legislation for providing government protection to community held lands, which could include sacred groves.
• Hunting and deforestation in these areas are banned but other activities with a more sustainable process
such as honey and deadwood collection are allowed.
• A strong concentration of these groves are found in Himachal Pradesh and Kerala. Other places where one
can find sacred groves are Rajasthan, Bihar, Meghalaya and Maharashtra.
 Kerala: Kerala is home to 240 sacred groves., the largest grove is in Ernakulum.
 Himachal Pradesh: The state with the highest number of sacred groves. Shipin is believed to be the
largest deodar grove and contains trees that are thousands of years old.
 Maharashtra: The groves in Maharashtra are called deorais or devrais and are concentrated in Pune,
Ratnagiri, Raigad and Kolhapur.
 Umang Lai is a form of holy Sacred grove found in Manipur. The holy as well as religious festival of Lai
Haraoba is celebrated especially in regards of these holy sacred groves.
INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES:

• Invasive alien species are species whose introduction and/or spread outside their natural past or present
distribution threaten biological diversity.
• Common characteristics : rapid reproduction and growth, high dispersal ability, phenotypic plasticity
(ability to adapt physiologically to new conditions), and ability to survive on various food types and in a wide
range of environmental conditions.
• Islands are especially vulnerable because they are naturally isolated from strong competitors and
predators. Islands often have ecological niches that have not been filled because of the distance from
colonizing populations, increasing the probability of successful invasions.
Some commonly found alien species:

• African apple snail (Achatina fulica): The most invasive among all alien fauna in India, this mollusc was
first reported in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is now found across country and is threatening the
habitat of several native species.
• Papaya Mealy Bug (Paracoccus marginatus): Native of Mexico and Central America, it is believed to have
destroyed huge crops of papaya in Assam, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
INDIAN STATE OF FOREST REPORT, 2019

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Indian State of Forest Report, 2019

AREA WISE AS % OF TOTAL MANGROVE COVER
GEOGRAPHICAL AREA
Madhya Pradesh (largest) Forest cover as percentage of total Total mangrove cover in the country
followed by Arunachal Pradesh, geographical area, the top five is 4,975 sq km which is 0.15% of the
Chhattisgarh, Odisha and States are Mizoram (85.41%), country’s total geographical area.
Maharashtra Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%), West Bengal has 42.45 percent of
Meghalaya (76.33%), Manipur India’s mangrove cover (highest in
(75.46%) and Nagaland (75.31%). the country.) followed by Gujarat and
Andaman &Nicobar Islands.
Information: Total Forest and Tree Cover rises to 24.56 percent of the total geographical area of the Country.
Other Important Findings:

• Increase in forest cover - Top 5 states: Karnataka > Andhra Pradesh > Kerala > Jammu & Kashmir >
Himachal Pradesh.
• Top three states showing Mangrove cover increase: Gujarat > Maharashtra > Odisha
• States showing loss in forest cover: Manipur > Arunachal Pradesh > Mizoram
• States showing loss in forest cover: Manipur > Arunachal Pradesh > Mizoram
• Total forest cover in the North Eastern region is 65.05% of its geographical area.
• There is a decrease of forest cover to the extent of 765 sq km (0.45 per cent) in northeast India region. Except
Assam and Tripura, all states in the region show decrease in forest cover.
• The loss in the North East is attributed primarily due to the traditional farming practice of Shifting
Cultivation.
• Least forest cover in India (absolute area): UTs: Chandigarh < Lakshadweep < Puducherry < Delhi < Dadra
and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu < A & N Islands < J & K (no separate data for Ladakh). States: Haryana
< Punjab < Goa < Sikkim < Bihar
• Maximum Tree Cover (absolute area): Maharashtra > Madhya Pradesh > Rajasthan >J&K.
• Maximum Tree Cover as percentage of geographical area: Chandigarh > Delhi > Kerala> Goa.
• States with maximum bamboo bearing area: Madhya Pradesh > Maharashtra > Arunachal Pradesh >
Odisha.
CARBON STOCK
• Total carbon stock in the country's forest: estimated to be 7,124.6 million tonnes.
• There is an increase of 42.6 million tonnes in the carbon stock of the country as compared to the last
assessment of 2017.
• State-wise Maximum carbon stock: Arunachal Pradesh > Madhya Pradesh > Chhattisgarh > Maharashtra
• State-wise Maximum per hectare carbon stock: Sikkim > Andaman & Nicobar Islands > Jammu & Kashmir
> Himachal Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh
• Soil organic carbon is the largest pool of forest carbon followed by Above Ground Biomass (AGB), Below
Ground Biomass (BGB), Litter and dead wood.
FOREST CONSERVATION:
• Forests have an intricate interrelationship with life and environment. These provide numerous direct and
indirect advantages to our economy and society. Hence, conservation of forest is of vital importance to the
survival and prosperity of humankind.
• Accordingly, the Government of India proposed to have a nation-wide forest conservation policy, and
adopted a forest policy in 1952, which was further modified in 1988.
• According to the this forest policy, the Government will emphasise sustainable forest management in order
to conserve and expand forest reserve on the one hand, and to meet the needs of local people on the other.
• The Ministry of Environment released the draft National Forest Policy in the year 2018. The basic thrust of
the draft Policy is for conservation, protection, and management of forests along with addressing other issues
associated with forest and forest management.

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THE FOREST POLICY OF 1988

1. Bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas under forest cover;
2. Maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance was disturbed;
3. Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and genetic pool;
4. Checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts;
5. Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land;
6. Increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural population
dependant on forests, and encourage the substitution of wood;
7. Creating of a massive people’s movement involving women to encourage planting of trees, stop felling of
trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest.
Based on the forest conservation policy, following steps were initiated:
• Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation
on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural
Social forestry development.
• According to the National Commission on Agriculture (1976), these are urban
forestry, Rural forestry and Farm forestry.
• Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and
privately owned lands in and around urban centres such as green belts, parks,
roadside avenues, industrial and commercial green belts, etc. Gandhinagar leads
Urban forestry in per capita urban greenery among Indian cities with Chandigarh taking second.
• Cities renowned for their urban green spaces often have 20% to 35% coverage of
total geographical area. For Chandigarh it is 35%, Delhi 20% and Gandhinagar it
is 57.13%.
Rural forestry • Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community-
forestry.
• Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land
inclusive of the waste patches. It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering
the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit.
Agro-forestry • A policy which deals with problems faced by agroforestry sector, including
adverse policies, weak markets and a dearth of institutional finance was approved
by the Cabinet in February 2014.
• India became the world's first country to adopt a comprehensive agroforestry
policy.
• Community forestry involves the raising of trees on public or community land
such as the village pasture and temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along
railway lines, and schools etc.
Community forestry • Community forestry programme aims at providing benefits to the community as
a whole.
• Community forestry provides a means under which the people of landless classes
can associate themselves in tree raising and thus, get those benefits which
otherwise are restricted for landowners.
• Farm forestry is a term applied to the process under which farmers grow trees for
commercial and non-commercial purposes on their farm lands.
• Forest departments of various states distribute seedlings of trees free of cost to
Farm forestry small and medium farmers.
• Several lands such as the margins of agricultural fields, grasslands and pastures,
land around homes and cow sheds may be used for raising trees under non-
commercial farm forestry.

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CH.13 HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Settlements refers to the process of grouping of people & acquiring of some territory to build houses & also
for their economic support. It also refers to any form of human habitation which ranges from a single dwelling to
a large city.
Isolate Dwellings • Such settlement consists of individual units. It can be termed as the initial state of
development of a settlement.
• An isolated dwelling would only have 1 or 2 buildings or families in it
Hamlets • When many individual units are cluster together, they form hamlets. The grouping
may be due to similar occupation patterns, religion, cultural factors etc.
• A hamlet has a tiny population
Villages • When many hamlets combine they from a village. The reason for such grouping may
be due to interdependencies of one hamlet on another, thus to form a self-sufficient
unit.
Towns • A town is a larger entity which is more self-sufficient and has a stronger economic
base.
Cities • Where large concentration of people exists, multiple economic activities exist.
Metropolis • A metropolis is a large city, with a population of at least one million living in its urban
agglomeration.
Megalopolis • An extensive, metropolitan area or a long chain of continuous metropolitan areas.
RURAL SETTLEMENTS:
• These settlements have closely built-up area.

• Therefore, in such settlements all the dwellings are concentrated in one
Compact/Clustered central sites and these inhabited area is distinct and separated from the farms
Settlements and pastures.
• Maximum settlements of our country come under this category. They are
spread over almost every part of the country
• The dwellings or houses are not well-knitted.
• Such settlements are characterized by a small but compact nuclear around
Semi- Compact/ Semi- which hamlets are dispersed. It covers more area than the compact
Clustered Settlement settlements.
• These settlements are found both in plains and plateaus depending upon the
environmental conditions prevailing in that area.
• These types of settlements are fragmented into several small units.
• The main settlement does not have much influence on the other units.
Hamlet Settlements • Very often the original site is not easily distinguishable and these hamlets are
often spread over the area with intervening fields.
• This segregation is often influenced by social and ethnic factors.
• This is also known as isolated settlements.
• Here the settlement is characterized by units of small size which may consist
Dispersed Settlements of a single house to a small group of houses. It varies from two to seven huts.
• Therefore, in this type, hamlets are scattered over a vast area and does not
have any specific pattern.
URBAN SETTLEMENTS:
The definition of urban areas has been refined in 2011 according to which urban areas are comprised of two
types of administrative units - Statutory Towns and Census Towns.
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• Statutory Towns: All administrative units that have been defined by statute as urban like Municipal
Corporation, Municipality, Cantonment Board, Notified Town Area Committee, Town Panchayat, Nagar Palikas
etc., are known as Statutory Towns.
• Census Towns: Administrative units satisfying the following three criteria simultaneously are treated as
Census Towns as mentioned below:
 A minimum population of 5000;
 At least 75 percent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural sector;
 A density of population of at least 4,000 persons per square kilometer.
City Towns with population of 1,00,000 and above are categorised as cities.
An Out Growth (OG) is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet or an enumeration
Outgrowth block made up of such village or hamlet and clearly identifiable in terms of its
boundaries and location. Some of the examples are railway colony, university campus,
port area, military camp, etc
Cities with population of one million and over are known as metropolitan cities. The
Metropolitan Cities main activities in these cities are industries, trade, commerce, transport, cultural and
political. The number of metropolitan cities increased from 12 in 1981 to 53 in
2011.
Cities with population of 5 million and above are known as mega cities,
Mega Cities according to Census of India. But United Nations considers mega cities as those that
have a population of 10 million and above. In India, Greater Mumbai, Kolkata and
Delhi are examples of mega cities.
This term was coined by Patrick Geddes. It comes into being by coalescence of urban
settlements which were separated by open space in the past.
Conurbation The coalescence usually occurs through Ribbon Development along the main
inter-urban transport routes. Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are good examples of
conurbations in India
It is a Greek word which is derived by combining two terms ‘great’ and ‘city’. It is just
Megalopolis like conurbation and is formed when a large city of Boston to sprawls and brings
into its fold, the smaller adjacent towns and cities. This term was first used by
Gottman in 1964
STUDENTS NOTES:

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CH.14 INDIA – POPULATION

• The most important resource to a nation is its Human Resource.
• The current population of India is at 138.26 crores (2020), according to UN data.
• Population of India is equivalent to 17.7% of the total world population. India ranks number 2 in the list
of countries (and dependencies) by population.
• According to estimates in a recently released United Nations report, India is expected to add 273
million people by the year 2050.
• More often, it is argued that such a large population invariably puts pressure on its limited resources and is
also responsible for many socio-economic problems in the country.
• Decadal Growth rate of Population in India between 2001- 2011 was 17.64%. It decreased from 21.54% during
1991- 2001.
• India’s population is larger than the total population of North America, South America and Australia
put together.
• The individual states of India have population comparative to the population of many countries
TERMS DEFINITION
Crude birth rate The annual number of live births per 1,000 people.
General fertility rate The annual number of live births per 1,000 women of childbearing age (often taken to
be from 15 to 49 years, but sometimes from 15 to 44)
Age- specific fertility The annual number of live births per 1,000 women in particular age groups (usually
rate 15- 19, 20-24 and so on).
Crude death rate The annual number of deaths per 1,000 people
Infant mortality rate The annual number of deaths of children of age less than 1-year-old per 1,000 live
birth
Life expectancy The number of years which an individual at a given age can expect to live at present
mortality levels. Life expectancy of India is 69.16 years (2017)
Total fertility rate The number of live births per woman completing her reproductive life, if her
childbearing at each age reflected the current age-specific fertility rates.
Gross reproduction The number of daughters who would be born to a woman completing her
rate reproductive life at current age-specific fertility rates
Net reproduction rate The number of daughters who would be born to a woman according to current age-
specific fertility and mortality rates.
Maternal mortality Defined as the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births due to pregnancy or
rate (MMR) termination of pregnancy, regardless of the site or duration of pregnancy
Population pyramid Also called an "age-gender-pyramid", is a graphical illustration that shows the
distribution of various age groups in a population (typically that of a country or region
of the world), which forms the shape of a pyramid when the population is growing.
Sex ratio The number of females per thousand males is referred to as sex ratio.
Child mortality rate Number child deaths under the age of 5 years per 1000 live births. It’s about 50 in
2016. SDG Target - 11
Dependency ratio Measure of the number of dependents aged zero to 14 and over the age of 65,
compared with the total population aged 15 to 64
Demographic Defined to be that period of time in a nation's demographic evolution when the
window proportion of population of working age group is particularly prominent.
Demographic The economic growth potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age
dividend structure, mainly when the share of the working-age population (15 to 64) is larger
than the non-working-age share of the population (14 and younger, and 65 and older).
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION:

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• The percentage shares of population of the states and Union Territories in the country show that Uttar Pradesh
has the highest population followed by Maharashtra, Bihar and West Bengal.
• U.P., Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh along with Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Karnataka and Gujarat, (10 states) together account for about 76 per cent of the total population of the country.
• Some states like UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh etc. are very densely populated. While
States like Arunachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and UT like Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh have very less
population density.
• The national population density is 382 persons per square kilometer. But the population is unevenly
distributed.
• A steady increase of more than 200 persons per sq km over the last 50 years, as the density of population
increased from 117 persons/ sq km in 1951 to 382 persons/sq km in 2011.
GROWTH OF POPULATION:
• It is the change in the number of people living in a particular area between two points of time. Its rate is
expressed in percentage.
• The growth rate of population in India over the last one century has been caused by annual birth rate and
death rate and rate of migration and thereby shows different trends.
The Natural Growth Rate: The difference between the crude birth rates and death rates between two
points of time is known as the natural growth rate.
The Induced Growth Rate: It is explained by the volume of inward and outward movement of people in
any given area.
• The States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha,
Puducherry, and Goa show a low rate of growth not exceeding 20 per
STATES WITH LOW cent over the decade.
GROWTH RATES • Kerala registered the lowest growth rate (9.4) not only in this group of
states but also in the country as a whole.
• Nagaland experienced decline in population.
• A continuous belt of states from west to east in the north-west, north, and
north central parts of the country has relatively high growth rate than the
STATES WITH HIGH southern states.
GROWTH RATES • It is in this belt comprising Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam,
West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, the growth rate on
the average remained 20-25 per cent.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
• Demographic transition theory (DTT) can be used to describe and predict the future population of any area.
• The theory tells us that population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and
low deaths as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society.
These changes occur in stages which are collectively known as the demographic cycle.
• High Fertility
First stage • High Mortality
• Life Expectancy Is Low
• Low Levels of Technology
• Fertility remains high in the beginning of second stage but it declines with time.
Second stage • This is accompanied by reduced mortality rate. Improvements in sanitation and health
conditions lead to decline in mortality. Because of this gap the net addition to population
is high.

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Last stage • Fertility and mortality decline

• Population - Urbanized
In the present day, different countries are at different stages of demographic transition. Demographic Transition
Theory.
TERMS TO KNOW:
Labour force • The percentage of persons in the labour force (i.e., working or seeking or
participation rate available for work) in the population.
Female Labour Force • The share of working-age women who report either being employed, or being
Participation Rate available for work.
Worker Population • Defined as the percentage of employed persons in the population.
Ratio (WPR)
• The number of females per thousand males is referred to as sex ratio.
Sex Ratio • According to the 2011 census, the sex ratio in India is 940 which was 933 in
2001. (Kerala –highest -1084-Kerala is the only state where the number of
females is more than that of males)
• The number of females per thousand males in the age group of 0–6 years in the
Child Sex Ratio human population.
• According to Census 2011, Child Sex Ratio in India is 918 which is lowest since
Independence.
PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TRIBAL GROUP (PVTGs):

• In 1975, the Government of India initiated to identify the most vulnerable tribal groups as a separate category
called PVTGs and declared 52 such groups, while in 1993 an additional 23 groups were added to the category,
making it a total of 75 PVTGs out of 705 Scheduled Tribes.
• PVTGs are more vulnerable among the tribal groups. Due to this factor, more developed and assertive tribal
groups take a major chunk of the tribal development funds because of which PVTGs need more funds directed
for their development.
• PVTGs have some basic characteristics –
 they are mostly homogenous, with a small declining or stagnant population,
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 they are relatively physically isolated,

 absence of written language,
 pre agricultural level of technology and a slower rate of change etc.
 Among the 75 listed PVTG’s the highest number are found in Odisha.
MIGRATION
• In the Indian Census, migration is signified by two types:
1. Migration by birthplace
2. Migration by place of last residence
• Migration can be of various types:
1. Temporary
2. Permanent
3. Voluntary
4. Permanent
It is the movement by people from one place to another with the intention of settling,
Human Migration permanently or temporarily in a new location (within or outside the home country). Such
people are called migrants.
Immigration Immigration is coming to a foreign country with the intention of permanently living there.
Emigration Emigration is leaving a resident country with the intent to settle elsewhere.
These are the people who have been forced to flee their resident country because of war,
Refugees violence or persecution. Such people are protected by international law, specifically the
1951 Refugee Convention.
Enroute Migrants in between origin and destination are known as enroute.
Return Migration When groups of people move back to where they came from.
Seasonal When people move with each season (e.g. farm workers following crop harvests or
Migration working in cities off-season).
Migration stream A number of migrants sharing a common origin and destination form a migration stream.
and counter- For every stream there is a reverse counter-stream.
stream
Diaspora is commonly understood to include Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Persons of
Diaspora Indian Origin (PIOs) and Overseas Citizens of India (OCI), of which PIO and OCI card
holders were merged under one category - OCI - in 2015.
WORLD MIGRATION REPORT

It is International Organization for Migration’s (IOM) flagship publication that features the latest trends in
international migration, discusses emerging policy issues and provides regional recent developments in Africa,
America, Asia, Europe, the Middle East and Oceania.
UN’s World Migration Report-2020 - key highlights:

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• As per the report, India continued to be the largest country of origin of international migrants. It had the
largest number of migrants living abroad (17.5 million), followed by Mexico (11.8 million) and China (10.7
million).
• The top three remittance recipients were India ($78.6 billion), China ($67.4 billion) and Mexico ($35.7 billion).
• It states that Syria has the highest internally population of displaced people, at 6.1 million, followed by
Colombia (5.8 million) and the Congo (3.1 million)
• With respect to the impact of climate and weather disasters, the report notes that Typhoon Mangkhut in the
Philippines contributed to the fact that 3.8 million people were newly displaced there at the end of 2018, the
largest number globally.
International Organization for Migration (IOM)

IOM is a leading inter-governmental organization in the field of migration and works closely with governmental,
intergovernmental and non-governmental partners. It was established in 1951 and has its head office at Le Grand-
Saconnex, Switzerland. IOM works in the four broad areas of migration management: Migration and
development + Facilitating migration + Regulating migration + Forced migration.
MIGRANTS AND THE SDGs:

• The 2030 Agenda (with core principle to "leave no one behind," including migrants) for Sustainable
Development recognizes for the first time the contribution of migration to sustainable development.
• 11 out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) contain targets and indicators that are relevant to
migration or mobility.
• The SDGs’ central reference to migration is made in target 10.7, to facilitate orderly, safe, regular and
responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-
managed migration policies.
MEASURES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT:

• For giving special focus to the issues pertaining to the Indian diaspora, the government set up a dedicated
Ministry of overseas Indian affairs in 2004. It provides all round services to the diaspora
• In 2003 started Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas, to mark the contribution of the overseas Indian community to the
development of India.
• Pravasi Bhartiya Bima Yojana- for the welfare of Indian diaspora living abroad
• Know India Programme launched as an orientation programme for diaspora youth conducted with a view to
promote awareness on different facets of life in India and the progress made by the country in various fields.
• Oversees Citizenship of India Scheme (OCI)- Scheme provides for benefits comparable to citizens in certain
fields, like in economic and education fields etc.
• The Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs is running a scheme known as “Tracing the Roots” to facilitate PIOs in
tracing their roots in India.
• The Swarna pravas Yojana- New Plan Scheme: This scheme has been launched for promoting the
employability of Indian workers abroad.
STUDENTS NOTES:

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CH.15 INDIA – LAND RESOURCES

• India holds 16% of world population and 20% of livestock on 2.5 % of land area
• Land use records maintained – Land Revenue Department
• Survey of India is responsible for measuring geographical area of administrative units of india
LAND USE CATEGORIES
It is important to note that area under actual forest cover is different from area classified as
Forests forest. The latter is the area which the Government has identified and demarcated for
forest growth. The land revenue records are consistent with the latter definition. Thus,
there may be an increase in this category without any increase in the actual forest cover.
Land put to Non- Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries,
agricultural shops, etc. are included in this category. An expansion in the secondary and tertiary
Uses: activities would lead to an increase in this category of land-use.
Barren and The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains, desert lands,
Wastelands: ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.
Area under Most of this type land is owned by the village ‘Panchayat’ or the Government. Only a small
Permanent proportion of this land is privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes
Pastures and under ‘Common Property Resources
Grazing Lands:
Area under The land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land is
Miscellaneous privately owned.
Tree Crops and
Groves (Not
included in Net
sown Area):
Culturable Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in this
Waste-Land: category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation
practices.
This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year.
Current Fallow: Following is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land recoups the lost
fertility through natural processes.
Fallow other This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more than a year but less than
than Current five years. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it would be categorized
Fallow: as culturable wasteland.
Net Area Sown: The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is known as net sown
area.
LAND DEGRADATION IN INDIA

According to recently released State of India’s Environment 2017 report, nearly 30 per cent of India is
degraded or facing desertification.
• Overgrazing, Deforestation and Careless Forest Management

• Urban Growth, Industrialization and Mining –
• Natural causes -Include earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts, avalanches, landslides,
Causes volcanic eruptions, floods, tornadoes, and wildfires.
• Land Shortage, Land Fragmentation and Poor Economy
• Population Increase
• Agricultural activities and practices
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• Poor Irrigation and Water Management

• Drifting of sand and its accumulation on fertile agricultural land.
• Excessive soil erosion by wind and to some extent by water.
Ecological • Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes decrease their water containing capacity.
implications • Lowering of water table leading to acute water shortage.
• Increase in area under wastelands
• Decrease in agricultural production.
• Increase in frequency and intensity of droughts.
What is Desertification?
According to Article 1 of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD, Paris, 1994),
desertification means “land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors,
including climatic variations and human activities”.
WASTELANDS ATLAS – 2019

• The Department of Land Resources in collaboration with National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Department
of Space has published Wastelands Atlases of India – 2000, 2005, 2010 & 2011 editions.
• This 2019 Atlas provides district and state wise distribution of different categories of wastelands area
including mapping of about 12.08 Mha hitherto unmapped area of J&K.
OPERATIONAL LAND HOLDING IN INDIA:

• In Agriculture Census 2015-16 (10th census), the operational holdings are categorised in five size classes as
follows:
Sr. Category Size Class

1 Marginal Below 1 hectare
2 Small 1 to 2 hectares
3 Semi- Medium 2 to 4 hectares
4 Medium 4 to 10 hectares
5 Large 10 hectare and above
Countrywide the average operational holding size is 1.08 ha.
STUDENTS NOTE:

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CH.16 AGRICULTURE
• India is an agricultural economy where approx. 49% of the people depend directly or indirectly on agriculture.
About 80 percent of farmers own less than two hectares.
• Net sown area still accounts for about 47% of the total land area of India.
• In India, over 80 per cent of water is used in irrigation. Of the net sown area of around 140 million hectares
(Mn ha), close to half (68.4 Mn ha) is irrigated (2019)
• Major states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha among others are still majorly
dependent on Agriculture.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FARMING
• Primitive subsistence agriculture is practiced on small patches of land with primitive tools
like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family/community labour.
• It purely relies on monsoon, natural fertility of soil and other environmental suitability
conditions.
• Also known as shifting or slash and burn agriculture.
Primitive • Practiced in tropics (by tribes)
Subsistence • Jhum  North-eastern India
Agriculture • Vevar and Dahiyaar  Bundelkhand Region (Madhya Pradesh)
• Deepa  Bastar District (Madhya Pradesh)
• Zara and Erka  Southern States
• Batra  South-eastern Rajasthan
• Podu  Andhra Pradesh
• Kumari  Hilly Region of the Western Ghats of Kerala
• Kaman, Vinga and Dhavi  Odisha
• This type of farming is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
• Basically, there are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture:
Intensive 1. One is dominated by wet paddy and
Subsistence 2. Another is dominated by crops such as sorghum, soybeans, sugarcane, maize, and
Agriculture vegetables.
• Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming are: Tonkin Delta (Vietnam), lower Menem
(Thailand); lower Irrawaddy (Myanmar); and the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta, Eastern
Coastal Plains (India).
• Commercial farming is profit oriented type of farming. The main characteristic of this
type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g. high yielding variety
(HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher
productivity. Food is produced with the help of advanced technological innovation and is
Commercial meant to be sold in the market for profit making.
Farming • Plantation is a type of commercial farming. In India, some of the important plantation
crops are: tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc. Usually a single crop is grown over a
large piece of land using capital intensive inputs and cheap labour. Tea plantation in
Assam is a perfect example of plantation commercial farming.
• Here the prime motive is to earn profit, hence the production is mainly market oriented.
At some places, plantation farming hugely depends on market demand.
AGRICULTURAL FACTS
• India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products.

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• India's fruit production has grown faster than vegetables, making it the second largest fruit producer in the
world.
• Agricultural export constitutes 10 per cent of the country's exports and is the fourth-largest exported principal
commodity.
• Accounts for about 35% of our national income.
• Share in GDP - around 14 %.
• Provides food for the people and fodder for the animals.
• Main source of raw materials to the agro-based industries viz. sugar, textile, edible oil, etc.
• Predominance of food crop - 2/3rd of total cropped area.
• 1st rank in Milk (17% of world production), Mango, banana, coconut, cashew, papaya, peas, cassava and
pomegranate.
• Largest producer and exporter of spices, Millets, Pulses, Dry Bean, Ginger.
• Overall, second largest producer of vegetable, fruits and fishes.
• Have three main cropping seasons viz. Kharif, Rabi & Zaid
CROP CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GROWING SEASON

• The kharif Season: starts in June and ends in October and largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon
under which the cultivation of tropical crops such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is possible.
• The rabi Season begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March-April. The low
temperature conditions during this season facilitate the cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as
wheat, gram and mustard.
• Zaid Short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi crops. The cultivation of
watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during this season is done on irrigated lands. However,
this type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in southern parts of the country.
• Also known as Multiple cropping

Mixed cropping • When two or more than two crops are grown simultaneously on the same field
• Increases crop yield & Fertility of soil
Mixed farming • Cultivation of crops + Rearing of animals
• Fodder crops -- An important component of mixed farming along with other crops
• Adopted in scanty rainfall areas viz. < 75 cm /year
• Draught resistance crops are grown as they require less irrigation
• Farming of arid & semi-arid regions • Also known as Rain fed Farming
Dry land farming • Rainwater is only source of moisture for crops
• Minimal use of chemicals, Pesticides, fertilizers etc.
• Contributes 40% of the food production
• Provide support to nearly 45% of the population
COOPERATIVE FARMING VS COLLECTIVE FARMING

COOPERATIVE FARMING COLLECTIVE FARMING
• Farmers voluntarily pool their resources together • State owned agriculture esp. in socialist countries
like land, machinery etc. to form a co-operative like Russia
society. • Farmers pool their resources together to achieve
• Cooperative societies help farmers to procure more yearly targets set by govt to sell their produce at
inputs, sell farm products at best prices & procure fixed rates.
essentials in quantity at cheaper rates • Excess of produce is distributed among members
• For Ex. Denmark, Netherland or are sold in the market
• Members are also paid according to the nature of
work allotted to them.

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INFRASTRUCTURE FACTORS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE

• Hybrid seeds are obtained by cross pollination of different varieties of related plants.
Seeds • Genetically Modified seeds, are the ones in which the genetic material (DNA) has been
altered in such a way as to get the required quality.
NEW UREA POLICY 2015:
• New urea policy 2015 (NUP), which became effective from June 1, 2015 has principal
objectives of maximizing domestic urea production and promoting energy efficiency to
rationalize subsidy burden.
• The policy aims at tightening the energy consumption norms based on the actual energy
consumption levels of respective units during past few years.
Fertilizers • Further, the subsidy calculation for production above reassessed capacity has been
modified to protect the interest of stakeholders in case of significant volatility in
International Parity Price (IPP).
NEEM COATING OF UREA:

• It has been made mandatory for all the indigenous producers of urea to produce 100% of
their total production of subsidized urea as neem coated urea.
• Urea: most concentrated solid nitrogenous fertilizer, containing 46 per cent nitrogen+
The nitrogen in urea is readily fixed in the soil.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) 2015 :
• GOI had announced 'Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana' with the motto of water to
Irrigation every farm 'Har Khet Ko Paani'.
• The scheme is aimed at irrigating the field of every farmer and improving water use
efficiency to provide ''Per Drop More Crop''.
Green Revolution By Norman Borlaug
• Positives:
 To achieve self-sufficiency in food
 Shorter Life cycles
 Increased productivity
 Benefited Wheat & Rice
HYV (High  Benefitted Punjab, Haryana, UP, TN, Andhra Pradesh & Maharashtra
Yielding
Variety) • Negatives:
Seeds:  Input cost increased
 More water & fertilizer required
 Chemical poisoning of soil
 Salinity & Alkalinity increased which makes soil impermeable
 Depletion of ground water
 Loss of fertility of soil
 Limited to selective states only
 • Limited to selected crops
• Modified form of agricultural plants to enhance desired traits such as increased
resistance to herbicides or improved nutritional content
Genetically • Using the latest molecular biology techniques & genetic engineering, plants are
Modified Food undertaken breeding to get the desired results
• • Last decade, genetically modified (GM) crops were introduced esp. for Cotton & Brinjal
in India but as of now only GM Bt. Cotton production is allowed.

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INDIAN CROPS
• 20 – 27 Degree C of average Temperature
• 150 cm of average Rainfall
Rice • Require Warm & Humid climate
• Clayey or alluvial moisture retentive soil
• Labour intensive crop
• 15 - 20* C of average Temperature
Wheat • Require moderate cool climate
• Clayey or well drained fertile soil
• Machine intensive crop
Maize • At least 140 frost free days
• Require Warm climate
• Alternate Rainy & Sunny Season is best for this crop
• Belongs to Bamboo family
• Indigenous to India
• Long duration crop - 10 - 15 months
Sugarcane • 20 - 27* C of average Temperature
• 75 - 150 cm of average Rainfall
• No from with moderately warm climate
• Soil exhausting crop - Requires heavy dose of fertilizers
• Special Feature - Ratooning
Millets • Requires warm & dry climate
• Can be grown on medium to low fertility soil
• Best is sandy loamy soil with good drainage
• Bigger millets are called Sorghums
• For example Jowar - Great Millet
Cotton • 50 - 100 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires approx. 210 frost free days
• Requires mineral rich black lava soil (Regur)
• Soil exhausting crop - Requires heavy dose of fertilizers
• Obtained from the bark of the plant
Jute • Requires Hot & Humid climate
• Soil exhausting crop -- Requires heavy dose of fertilizers
• Requires rich delta or alluvial soil
• Famous Jute substitutes -- Mesta, Kenaf
• More than 18* C of average Temperature
Tobacco • 50 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires 120 - 180 frost free days
• Sandy soil with good drainage
Tea • 150 - 250 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires heavy rainfall but no stagnant water
• Hence grown on hill slope
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Coffee • Shade loving crop -- Grown in shades of banana or rubber
• Requires heavy rainfall but no stagnant water
• Hence grown on hill slopes
• 25* C of average Temperature
Cocoa • 125 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires protection from direct sunrays
• Hence grown in shades
• Obtained from the latex of plants (Heavea Brasitiensis)
Rubber • 20 - 30* C of average Temperature
• Grown on hill slopes to prevent water logging
FOOD GRAIN MANAGEMENT: CURRENT AFFAIRS

• With food grain stocks held by Food Corporation of India in central pool has hit 6 year high ,the government
plans to increase allocation to Below Poverty Line (BPL)
• TARGET FOR 2022 : FCI to increase 100 lakh tones of storage space
FOOD CORPORATION OF INDIA

• Nodal agency under Ministry of Consumer Affairs ,Food and Public Distribution
• Procure food grain at minimum support price + open ended basis  form central pool
• Economic cost of FCI = acquisition of food grains at msp +procurement incidentials (labour and transport
cost) +distribution cost (freight, handling, storage and interest charges, losses during storages )
• Difference between Economic Cost and central issue price =operational loss of FCI  reimbursed by govt of
India as Food subsidy
FISHERIES SECTOR
• Present statues – 6.58 % of GDP  agriculture + forest + fishing
• Total fish production =13.42 million metric tons (3.71 (marine) + 9.71 (inland))
• Largest producer of marine: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil nadu
• Largest producer of Inland: Andhra Pradesh, west Bengal, UP
• Largest producer of Fisheries (both): Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat
STUDENTS NOTE:

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CH.17 INDUSTRY
TYPES OF INDUSTRY DEFINITION
1. Agro based Industries: Raw material sourced from agriculture sector. E.g.:
Cotton, sugar etc.
On The Basis Of Raw 2. Mineral based Industries: Raw material sources from mining, E.g.: Iron & steel,
Materials cement etc.
3. Forest based Industries: Raw material sourced from forest. E.g.: Paper
industry, Timber etc
1. Basic or key industries: Supply their goods to other industries. E.g.: Iron &
On The Basis Of Input steel
2. Consumer Industries: Produce goods for direct consumption. E.g. Toothpaste,
Television etc
1. Public sector: Owned & operated by govt. E.g. BHEL, SAIL etc.
On The Basis Of 2. Private sector: Owned & operated by private individuals. E.g. TISCO, RIL.
Ownership 3. Joint sector: Jointly run by state & private players. E.g. OIL
4. Cooperative sector: Owned & operated by the producers and suppliers of raw
materials, workers or both. E.g. Sugar industry in Maharashtra.
1. Labour Intensive Industry: Large no. of skilled unskilled or semi-skilled labour
is employed. E.g. Textile, leather & footwear.
On The Basis Of Mode Of 2. Capital goods Industry: Manufactures machine tools, heavy electrical
Operation equipment, heavy transport vehicles, mining & earth moving tools etc.
3. Industries with strategic significance: Industries which are critical for the
purpose of earning foreign exchange, research & defense. E.g. Aerospace,
shipping, electronics & telecommunication, defense equipment etc.
1. It refers to the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and
the volume of production. 1. Small scale industries: Use lesser amount of
capital investment and technology, and produce small volume of products.
On Basis Of Size E.g.: handicrafts, cottage industries etc.
2. Large scale industries: Investment of capital is higher and the technology used
is superior in large scale industries. E.g.: automobile industry, heavy
machinery industry etc.
FACTORS AFFECTING LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES

• Availability of raw materials
• Availability of power and energy supply
• Capital
• Market
• Labour
• Transport
• Water and climate
• Capital
MAJOR INDUSTRY IN INDIA
IRON AND STEEL

• Location in india:
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• Bokaro steel plant -1964

• TISCO- Jamshedpur
• Visvesvaraya plant : Karnataka
Raw material :
• Bulk inputs of iron & steel industry are iron ore (gross/weight-losing raw material), fuel (coal; weight-losing),
limestone (flux) & water (required for cooling & worker safety).
• Mostly large integrated steel plants are located close to source of
raw materials, as they use large quantity of heavy and weight
losing raw materials.
• Concentration of Iron and steel industry in Chota Nagpur region -
Presence of Iron ore & coal in this region. TISCO at Jamshedpur.
CURRENT AFFAIRS:
• Largest steel producer :
1. China (54%)
2. India (6%)
3. Japan
• Largest steel consumer:
1. China (49%)
2. USA
3. India (6%)
• PURVODAYA INITIATIVE (2020): Set up steel plants in Eastern
india.
COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY

• Tropical climate  abundant yield of cotton
• 1854  first cotton mill in Mumbai
• Uninterrupted supply of raw cotton from large cotton growing areas
of west india benefited the industry in centers like Ahmedabad
(Manchester of india), Nagpur, Surat, Indore and Coimbatore.
• E-cocoon App: mobile application for quality certification in silkworm
seed sector
• At 18% of the global total, India is the world’s largest producer of
cotton. It also has the largest area under cotton cultivation in the
world, representing about 25% of the world’s area under cultivation.
• Stateof Gujarat, Maharashtra, AndhraPradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Madh
ya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are the major
cotton producing areas in India.
WOOLEN TEXTILE INDUSTRY

• Rural based
• Export oriented
• Not enough production
• Main area: Punjab, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh.
JUTE INDUSTRY
• The British setup the first jute industry in India in 1855 in the Hooghly valley near Kolkata.
• There is the availability of local fibres like Mesta (important commercial fibre crop after cotton and Jute. Jute
and Mesta fibre together is known as raw jute)
• Producer of jute: West Bengal alone accounts for 72% of India’s jute production.
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• Jute packaging material act 1987: 100% of food grains and 20% of sugar must be packed in jute bags.
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY
• One of eight core industries (least weighted)
• About 70% of units producing nitrogenous fertilizers use naphtha as basic raw material. That’s why they are
located near oil refineries.
• Hajira – Vijaipur - Jagdishpur gas pipeline has given birth to plants at Vijaipur, Jagdishpur, Babrala etc.
• Phosphatic fertiliser plants are dependent on mineral phosphate which is largely imported but reserves are
also found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand.
• Current developments: DBT of fertilizer -2018, urea subsidy, neem coated urea.
AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
• There is a huge increase in automobile production with a catalyst effect by indirectly increasing the demand for
a number of raw materials like steel, rubber, plastics, glass, paint, electronics and services.
• India has emerged as Asia's fourth largest exporter of automobiles, behind Japan, South Korea and Thailand.
• The country is expected to top the world in car volumes with approximately 611 million vehicles on the
nation's roads by 2050.
STUDENTS NOTES:

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CH.18 WATER RESOURCES

• India account for 2.45 % of world surface area,4% of worlds water resources; total utilizable water resource in
the country is only 1,122 cubic km.
Surface • Only about 690 cubic km (37 per cent) of the available surface water can be utilized because:
Water  Over 90% of annual flow of the Himalayan rivers occur over a four-month period.
Resources  Potential to capture such resources is complicated and limited by suitable storage
reservoir sites.
• The total replenishable groundwater resources in the country are about 432 cubic km.
• India uses most groundwater in the world.
Ground • Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins, have about 46 per cent of the total replenishable
Water groundwater resources.
Resources • The level of groundwater utilization is relatively high in the river basins lying in north-
western region and parts of south India
• The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and
Tamil Nadu.
FALKENMARK INDICATOR OR WATER STRESS INDEX

• It is one of the most commonly used measures of water scarcity.
• It defines water scarcity in terms of the total water resources that are available to the population of a
region; measuring scarcity as the amount of renewable freshwater that is available for each person
each year.
• If the amount of renewable water per person per year in a country is:
 Below 1,700 m3, the country is said to be experiencing water stress.
 Below 1,000 m3, it is said to be experiencing water scarcity.
 Below 500 m3, it is experiencing absolute water scarcity
Central Ground Water Board

It was established in 1970, It is a subordinate office of the Ministry of Water Resources and is the National Apex
Agency entrusted with the responsibilities of providing scientific inputs for management, exploration, monitoring,
assessment, augmentation and regulation of groundwater resources of the country.
SCHEMES AND INITIATIVES OF GOVERNMENT:

Ministry of Jal Campaign for water conservation and water security. The campaign run through citizen
Shakti launched ‘Jal participation while focus on water-stressed districts and blocks in the country.
Shakti Abhiyan’
Pradhan Mantri ‘Har khet ko pani’ and ‘More Crop per Drop’ – focuses on improving water use
Krishi Sinchay efficiency.
Yojana (PMKSY)
Jal Kranti Abhiyan The government is making active efforts to revolutionize villages and cities through
block-level water conservation schemes. It aims at turning one water scarce village in
each district of the country into water surplus water village through a holistic and
integrated approach by adopting conservation and management techniques.
National Water The Government of India has launched the National Water Mission with the objective of
Mission conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring more equitable distribution
both across and within states through integrated water resources development and
management. o One of the objectives of the Mission is to increase the water use
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efficiency by 20%.
'Jal Shakti' Ministry Merging erstwhile two ministries, namely: Ministry of Water Resources, River
Development and Ganga Rejuvenation + Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation.
Atal Bhujal Yojana Aims to promote sustainable ground water management with community participation
in select over-exploited and water stressed areas
Restructured Improving coverage of piped drinking water in rural areas. Increase level of service
National Rural delivery. Thrust on coverage of water quality affected habitations.
Drinking Water
Programme
STUDENT NOTES:

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CH.19 MINERAL RESOURCES

METALLIC NON-METALLIC ENERGY MINERALS
• Ferrous • Mica • Coal
• Non ferrous • Salt etc. • Petroleum
• Precious • Natural gas
• Shale gas
FERROUS MINERALS
FERROUS CHARACTERISTICS
MINERALS
• Basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development.
• India is endowed with fairly abundant resources of iron ore.
• India is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high
content of iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic qualities, especially valuable in
the electrical industry.
Iron Ore • Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used, but
has a slightly lower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 per cent).
Major iron ore belts:

• Odisha-Jharkhand belt
• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt
• Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru belt
• Maharashtra-Goa belt
• Mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. Nearly 10 kg of
Manganese manganese is required to manufacture one tons of steel.
• It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
NON-FERROUS MINERALS
NON-FERROUS CHARACTERISTICS
MINERALS
• India is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper.
• Being malleable, ductile and a good conductor, copper is mainly used in electrical cables,
Copper electronics and chemical industries.
• The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum district
of Jharkhand are leading producers of copper.
• Odisha was the largest bauxite producing state in India with 34.97 per cent of the
country’s total production in 2009-10.
• Bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and later aluminum is obtained. Bauxite
deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminum
Bauxite silicates
• It combines the strength of metals such as iron, with extreme lightness and also with good
conductivity and great malleability.
• Mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-
Katni.
NON-METALLIC MINERALS

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• Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets.
These sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be layered into a mica sheet of a few
centimeters high.
• Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown. Due to its excellent di-electric
Mica strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage, mica
is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic industries. Mica
deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau.
• Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer. In Rajasthan, the
major mica producing area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh is also an
important producer in the country.
• Limestone is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium
and magnesium carbonates. It is found in sedimentary rocks of most geological
Rock minerals formations.
• Limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron
ore in the blast furnace.
ENERGY RESOURCES
CONVENTIONAL DESCRIPTION
SOURCES OF
ENERGY
Gondwana coal: a little over 200 million years in age major resources of Gondwana coal,
•
which are metallurgical coal, are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand).
Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and
Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.
• Tertiary coal: occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh
and Nagaland.
• Coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial part of the
Coal nation’s energy needs.
• Used for power generation, to supply energy to industry as well as for domestic needs.
• India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial energy requirements.
• Lignite is a low-grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content. The principal
lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of electricity.
• Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures is bituminous
coal. It is the most popular coal in commercial use.
• Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal which has a special value for smelting
iron in blast furnaces. Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.
• Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and
numerous chemical industries.
• 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from
Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.
• Ankaleshwar is the most important field of Gujarat.
Petroleum • Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan
are the important oil fields in the state.
• Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in India after coal. It provides
fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of
manufacturing industries.
• Associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age.
• Since it has low carbon dioxide emissions is called the fuel for the present century.
Natural gas • Resource found in association with or without petroleum. It is used as a source of energy
as well as an industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry.
• 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline links Mumbai High
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and Bassien with the fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in western and northern
India.
• This artery has provided an impetus to India’s gas production. The power and fertilizer
industries are the key users of natural gas. Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for
vehicles to replace liquid fuels is gaining wide popularity in the country.
• As per the NITI Aayog Report, India has 96
Trillion Cubic feet of recoverable Shale gas
resources.
• Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that can
be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas.
• Shale Gas refers to the natural gas that is
trapped within shale formations.
• Lately Shale gas has become an important source
Shale gas of fuel in the United States and the rest of the world
itself has taken interest in the shale formations
within their geographical boundaries.
• Shale Gas is produced through a method known as
hydraulic fracturing, most popularly known as fracking. Shale gas reserves are usually
distributed horizontally rather than vertically
• To strengthen its hydrocarbon resource base, India has identified six basins as areas for
shale gas exploration: Cambay (Gujarat), Assam-Arakan (North East), Gondwana (Central
India), Krishna Godavari onshore (East Coast), Cauvery onshore, and Indo-Gangetic
basins.
STUDENT NOTES:

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CH.20 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
ROAD TRANSPORT IN INDIA:

• India has one of the second largest road networks in the world with a total length of 54.8 lakh km.
• After Independence, twenty-year road plan (1961) was introduced to improve the conditions of roads.
• However, roads continue to concentrate in and around urban centres.
• Rural and remote areas had the least connectivity by road.
• For the purpose of construction and maintenance, roads are classified as National Highways (NH), State
Highways (SH), Major District Roads and Rural Roads.
• About 85 per cent of passenger and 70 per cent of freight traffic are carried by roads every year.
• Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) road to strengthen and consolidate his empire from the Indus Valley to
the Sonar Valley in Bengal.
• This road was renamed the Grand Trunk (GT) road during the British period, connecting Calcutta and
Peshawar. At present, it extends from Amritsar to Kolkata.
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
National Highways • The main roads which are constructed and maintained by the Central Government

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are known as the National Highways.

• These roads are meant for inter-state transport and movement of defence men and
material in strategic areas.
• These also connect the state capitals, major cities, important ports, railway
junctions, etc.
• The length of the National Highways is about 132,500 kms.
• The National Highways constitute only about 2 per cent of the total road length but
carry 40 per cent of the road traffic.
• The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was operationalized in 1995.
• It is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface Transport.
• It is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance and operation
of National Highways.
• This is also the apex body to improve the quality of the roads designated as
National Highways.
• National Highways Development Projects NHAI has taken up some major projects
in the country under different phases.
• It comprises construction of 5,846-km long 4/6 lane, high density traffic corridor,
Golden Quadrilateral to connect India’s four big metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata.
• With the construction of Golden Quadrilateral, the time, distance and cost of
movement among the mega cities of India will be considerably minimized.
• North-South corridor aims at connecting Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with
North-South and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including Kochi-Salem Spur) with 4,076-km long
East-West Corridors road.
• The East-West Corridor has been planned to connect Silchar in Assam with the
port town of Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640-km of road length
• These are constructed and maintained by state governments.
State Highways • They join the state capitals with district headquarters and other important towns.
• These roads are connected to the National Highways.
• These constitute 4 per cent of total road length in the country.
• These roads are the connecting link between District Headquarters and the other
District Roads important nodes in the district.
• They account for 14 per cent of the total road length of the country.
• These roads are vital for providing links in the rural areas.
Rural Road • About 80 per cent of the total road length in India are categorised as rural roads.
• • There is regional variation in the density of rural road because these are
influenced by the nature of the terrain
• established in 1960 for strengthening defence preparedness through improvement
of strategically important roads along the northern and north-eastern boundary.
Border Road • Premier multifaceted construction agency.
Organisation (BRO) • It has constructed roads in high altitude mountainous terrain joining Chandigarh
with Manali (Himachal Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh).
• This road runs at an average altitude of 4,270 metres above the mean sea level
Bharatmala is a proposed umbrella scheme for:
• Development of State roads along coastal border areas, including connectivity of
non-major ports;
• Backward areas religious and tourist places connectivity programme;
Bharatmala • Setu Bharatam Pariyojana, which is for the construction of about 1500 major
bridges and 200 rails over bridges rail under bridges;
• District Headquarters connectivity Scheme for the development of about 9000 km
newly declared National Highways.
• The programme is targeted for completion by 2022.

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RAIL TRANSPORT IN INDIA

• Indian Railways network is one of the longest in the world.
• It facilitates the movement of both freight and passengers.
• First train in India was started by Lord Dalhousie on April 16, 1853 from Bombay to thane (34 Kms)
• Slogan of Indian Railway: Lifeline of the Nation
• Longest rail route in India: From Dibrugarh (Assam) To Kanyakumari (Vivek express Train) 4273 Km.
• Indian Railways has a mascot – Bholu, the Guard Elephant.
• Northernmost railway station is Baramulla in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Westernmost is Naliya near Bhuj in Gujarat.
• Southernmost railway station is Kanyakumari,
• Eastmost of India is Ledo on branch line from Tinsukia.
• Mahatma Gandhi said, the Indian railways “...brought people of diverse cultures together to contribute to
India’s freedom struggle”.
• Indian Railways is the largest government undertaking in the country.
• The length of Indian Railways network was 67,368 km as on 2021
• It’s very large size puts a lot of pressure on a centralised railway management system.
• Thus, in India, the railway system has been divided into 18 zones  Northern Railway (Largest), North
Eastern Railway, Northeast Frontier Railway (Smallest), Eastern Railway, South Eastern Railway, South
Central Railway, Southern Railway, Central Railway, Western Railway, South Western Railway, North Western
Railway, West Central Railway, North Central Railway, South East Central Railway, East Coast Railway, East
Central Railway, Kolkata Metro, South Coast Railway.
IR has two UNESCO World Heritage Sites:

• The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, Mumbai and
• The mountain railways of India  Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway, Kalka-Shimla
Railway.
On the basis of the width of track of the Indian Railways, three categories:
Broad gauge: The distance between rails in broad gauge is 1.676 metre. The total length of broad gauge
lines was 60510 km in March 2016.
Metre gauge: The distance between rails is one metre. Its total length was 3880 km in March 2016.
Narrow gauge: The distance between the rails in this case is 0.762 metre or 0.610 metre. The total length of
narrow guage was 2297 km in March 2016. It is generally confined to hilly areas.
WATER TRANSPORT
• It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport.
• The water transport is of two types– (a) inland waterways, and (b) oceanic waterways.
INLAND WATERWAYS
• It was the chief mode of transport before the advent of railways.
• It, however, faced tough competition from road and railway transport.
• Moreover, diversion of river water for irrigation purposes made them non-navigable in large parts of their
courses.
• India has 14,500 km of navigable waterways, contributing about 1% to the country’s transportation.
• It comprises rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc.
• At present, 5,685 km of major rivers are navigable by mechanized flat bottom vessels.
• For the development, maintenance and regulation of national waterways in the country, the Inland Waterways
Authority was set up in 1986.
• The backwaters (Kadal) of Kerala have special significance in Inland Waterway.
163
• Apart from providing cheap means of transport, they are also attracting a large number of tourists in Kerala.
WATERWAYS STRETCH
NW-1 Allahabad-Haldia stretch (1,620 km)
NW-2 Sadiya-Dhubri stretch (891 km)
NW-3 Kottapuram -Kollam stretch
NW-4 Specified streches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry stretch of
canals (1078 km)
NW-5 Specified stretches of river Brahmani along with Matai river, delta channels of Mahanadi and
Brahmani rivers and East Coast canals (588km).
OCEANIC ROUTES
• India has a vast coastline of approximate 7,517 km, including islands.
• Thirteen major and 200 minor ports provide infrastructural support to these routes.
• Approximately 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70 per cent by value moves through ocean
routes.
AIR TRANSPORTATION
• Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced over a little distance of 10
km between Allahabad and Naini.
• But its real development took place in post-Independent period.
• The Airport Authority of India is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic and aeronautical
communication services in the Indian Air Space.
• The authority manages 125 airports.
• The air transport in India is managed by Air India.
• Now, many private companies have also started passenger services.
OIL AND GAS PIPELINES

• Pipelines are the most convenient and efficient mode of transporting liquids and gases over long distances.
• Even solids can also be transported by pipelines after converting them into slurry.
• Oil India Limited (OIL) under the administrative set up of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas is engaged
in the exploration, production and transportation of crude oil and natural gas.
• It was incorporated in 1959 as a company.
• Asia’s first cross country pipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km was constructed by OIL from Naharkatiya
oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar.
• It was further extended up to Kanpur in 1966.
• Another extensive network of pipelines has been constructed in the western region of India of which
Ankleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai High-Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) are most important.
• Recently, a 1256 km long pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with Mathura (U.P.) has been constructed.
• It supplies crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar) via Mathura.
• OIL is in the process of constructing of 660 km long pipeline from Numaligarh to Siliguri.
STUDENTS NOTE:

164
CH.21 CONTINENTS
1. ASIA
• World’s most diverse and largest continent
• Home to the largest (Russia) and most populous (China)
nations
• Occupies the eastern four-fifths of the giant Eurasian
Landmass
• Asia is bounded by the Arctic Ocean to the north,
the Pacific Ocean to the east, the Indian Ocean to the south,
the Red Sea (as well as the inland seas of the Atlantic Ocean—the Mediterranean and the Black) to the
southwest, and Europe to the west
• Countries in Asia: 48.
• Dependencies or Areas of Special Sovereignty: Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Mountain Ranges of Asia:
• Altay (or Altai): Mountain range in East-Central Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come
together.
• Caucasus: Mountain system at the intersection of Europe and Asia, stretching between Black sea in the west
and Caspian Sea in the east.
• Himalayas: The world's highest mountain range, located north to the Indian sub-continent and home to the
world's highest peaks.
• Kunlun: One of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending across western China and the Tibetan Plateau.
• Tien (or Tian) Shan: Located in Central Asia. It's positioned to the north and west of the Taklamakan Desert
near the border region of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and western China.
• Ural: They form a natural border between Asia and Europe Russia.
• Zagros: are the largest mountain range in Iran and Iraq spanning the whole length of the western and
southwestern Iranian plateau and ending at the Strait of Hormuz.
Plains:

165
• West Siberian plain – between the Ural mountains in the west and the Yenisey river valley in the east,
drained by Ob, Irtysh, Yenisey rivers and their tributaries.
• Manchurian plain – heart of the central lowland of north eastern China, drained by Liao River system.
Peninsula:
• Indian Peninsula – south to Indo-Gangetic Plain, formed following the Gondwana Breakup and presence of
two types of landscape: Granite-gneissic (undulating plains) and Deccan Trappean (flat-topped, stepped
hills)
• Arabian Peninsula – is the largest peninsula, second largest desert on Earth. (Bedouin tribes are common
inhabitants)
Plateau:
• Central Siberian plateau – is situated in Krasnoyarsk kray region, bounded by Yenisey and Lena rivers.
• Tibetan plateau – highest plateau on Earth, also called “Roof of the World”, source of various rivers such as
Salween, Mekong, Yellow, Yangtse rivers etc.
RIVER SYSTEM
RIVER SOURCE MOUTH
Ob- Forms longest estuary Altai Mountains Gulf of Ob (Arctic Ocean)
Yenisey North Mongolia Yenisey Gulf (Arctic Ocean)
Lena (Fifth longest river) Lake Baikal Lavtev Sea (Arctic Ocean)
Irtysh Altai Mountains Ob river
Yellow or Hwang He Bayan Har Mountains (Qinghai Bohai Sea (ultimately Yellow River)
Province)
Yangtze (3rd longest River) Qinghai Province East China Sea
Amur (longest river of the Confluence of river Argun and Shilka Sea of Okhotsk (Pacific Ocean)
Russian Far East)

166
Brahmaputra (Yarlung Chemayungdung Glacier Bay of Bengal

Zangpo)
Salween (Nu) Tibetan Plateau Andaman Sea
Mekong (longest river in Lasagongma Spring Mekong River delta
Southeast Asia)
Ganges Gangotri glacier Bay of Bengal
Indus (Singi river) Bokhar Chu Rann of Kutch, Arabian Sea
Irrawady Mali Kha river Andaman Sea
Tigris Lake Hazar Persian Gulf
Euphratus Armenian Highland Persian Gulf
LAKES
• Caspian Sea: Located in western Asia on the eastern edges of Europe. Largest lake on the planet (area).
• Lake Baikal: Positioned in south eastern (Siberia) Russia, directly to the north of Mongolia. Largest
freshwater lake by volume.
• Aral Sea: Positioned in far-western Asia, just to the east of the Caspian Sea, located in the countries of
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. It is disappearing (evaporating) and is almost totally polluted by fertilizer runoff,
weapon testing residue.
• Lop Nur: former saline lake, now largely dried up, remains as salt-encrusted lake bed (China’s nuclear
weapons test site)
• Dead Sea Saline: lake bordered by Jordan, Israel and West Bank territory. Jordan river flows into it.
• Sea of Galilee: World’s lowest freshwater lake (second lowest after Dead Sea, which is saline) in Israel.
OTHER DETAILS
Asia is dominated by a varied mix of climatic regions:
• Polar, subarctic and temperate climates occur along the continent’s northern and
Climatic north eastern fringes.
Conditions • Arid and highland climates occur in the continent’s interior and southwestern
reaches.
• A mix of grassland and tropical rainforest climates occur along its southern fringe.
• Six areas of prime industrial significance of Russia are:
o The Moscow Region
o The Ukraine Region
o Leningrad Region
Industrial o Middle Volga Region
Regions o The Urals Region
o Siberian Region
• Most industrialized nations are Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore
o Iron and Steel industry – China, Japan, Russia, India
o Textile industry – India, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan,
• IT industry – Bangalore Region of India
• China - Largest producer of rice, wheat, tea, honey, many vegetables and fruits
including potatoes, lettuce, tomatoes, grapes, apples etc.
Miscellaneous • China – largest shale gas reserve.
• India- Largest producer of milk, pulses, jute, banana, mango. Largest exporter of rice
• Indonesia – Largest producer of palm oil, followed by Malaysia, Thailand

167
2. AFRICA
• Second largest continent (after Asia)
• Covers about one-fifth of the total land
surface of Earth.
• The continent is bounded on the west by
the Atlantic Ocean, on the north by
the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by
the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and on
the south by the mingling waters of the
Atlantic and Indian oceans
• It is known as "Dark Continent" and is
divided roughly into two parts by the
equator and surrounded by sea except
where the Isthmus of Suez joins it to Asia.
• 54 Sovereign Countries
• Dependencies: Western Sahara (disputed)
o Reunion (France)
o Mayote (France)
o Saint Helena (UK)
• Highest elevation (Africa): Mount
Kilimanjaro (Dormant volcano in Tanzania)
• Longest River (World): Nile (4132miles)
• Largest hot desert: Sahara
• Largest lake (Africa, 2nd largest in world):
Lake Victoria
PHYSICAL FEATURES
• Atlas: mountain range across the north-
western stretch of Africa through Algeria,
Morocco and Tunisia
• Drakensberg: mountain range in south east
Africa, enclosing Central Southern African
Plateau
• Ethiopian Highland: rugged mass of
mountains, covers much part of Ethiopia and
Central Eritrea
• Katanga Plateau: occupies south eastern
Democratic Republic of Congo, rich of
copper, cobalt, uranium etc
• Sahara Desert: largest hot desert on earth,
Tuaregs: main inhabitants
• Kalahari Desert: large semi-arid sandy
savannah in Southern Africa
• Namib Desert: coastal desert in southern
Africa
• Congo Basin: second largest tropical
rainforest in the world, defined by the
watershed of Congo River, located primarily
in Democratic Republic of Congo.
RIVER SYSTEM

168
RIVER SOURCE MOUTH

Nile White Nile (Lake Victoria) & Mediterranean Sea (Forms arcuate delta)
Blue Nile (Lake Tana)
Niger Guinea highlands Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean)
Congo (Zaire) 2nd largest Lualaba river (Katanga Atlantic Ocean
river by discharge volume Plateau)
Zambezi (Victoria Falls) Mwinilunga Indian Ocean
Limpopo Marico and Crocodile rivers Indian Ocean
Orange Drakensberg, Lesotho Atlantic Ocean
AFRICAN GREAT LAKES SYSTEM – CONSTITUTING PART OF RIFT VALLEY

• Danakil Depression: part of East African Rift Valley (An active and naturally occurring life cannot be
sustained in it).
LAKE (from south to north)

• Lake Malawi
• Lake Rukwa
• Lake Tanganyika Western Rift Valley
• Lake Kivu
• Lake Edward
• Lake Albert
• Lake Turkana Eastern Rift Valley
• Lake Chad: Large, shallow, endorheic lake in Africa

• Lake Volta: Largest artificial reservoir in the world based by surface area
• Lake Kariba: Largest man-made lake and reservoir by volume
• Lake Victoria: Largest lake in Africa, occupies depression between eastern and western rift valleys, not a
part of rift valley.
OTHER DETAILS
Climatic • The Equator, the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer pass through this
Conditions continent
• Africa records high temperatures throughout the year as it lies in the tropical zone.
• Africa has agro-based industries which produce items like sugar, cigarette, wine,
Industrial and cotton clothes.
Regions • The leather and woollen industries have also flourished in several areas of Africa.
• Heavy industries like the cement industry and the iron and steel industry are mostly
located in South Africa and Egypt.
• World’s major gold reserves are found in the African continent. Example:
Witwatersrand mines in South Africa (produced more than 40 percent of world’s
produce)
Miscellaneous • South Africa, Southern Rhodesia, Central African Republic, and Ghana are leading
producers of gold.
• Diamond mines are found in Botswana, Angola, Congo, South Africa and Namibia.
• Africa is the largest producer and exporter of diamonds.
STUDENT NOTES:

169
3. EUROPE
• Second smallest of the world’s continents
• Occupies nearly one-fifteenth of the world’s total land area.
• It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south (west to
east) by the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Caspian Sea.
• Total countries: 44
• Highest mountain: Mount Elbrus
• Longest River: River Volga
PHYSICAL FEATURES
• Alps: Highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe. Highest Peak: Mount
Blanc; it is also home to Matterhorn Mountain (Switzerland has expressed solidarity with India in its fight
against Coronavirus Pandemic by projecting Tricolour on it)
• Caucasus: Located at the intersection of Europe and Asia, between Black Sea and Caspian Sea. It is home to
Mount Elbrus.
• Pyrenees: Separates the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe, small glaciers on Mount Perdu (World
Heritage Site) has been projected to fully get disappeared by 2040
• Balkans: Mountain range in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The countries present in the Balkan
Peninsula are also known as Balkans (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina etc.)
• Carpathian: WWF’s Gift to the Earth was awarded to Carpathian Convention for its exceptional role in
promoting Sustainable Development in the Carpathian mountain region.
• Iberian Peninsula: Mountainous region that is most associated with the countries of Spain and Portugal. Its
name derives from its ancient inhabitants called Iberians, after the Ebro (Iberus) river.
• North European Plain: It is part of Great European Plain. It is home to many navigable rivers. Including
Rhine, Elbe, Oder etc.
• Central Plateau of France: also called Massif Central, is a highland region in the middle of Southern France.
• Vosages and Black Forest: Block mountains, Hercynian mountains. Rhine river valley is enclosed by it.
• Bohemian Plateau: also called Bohemian-Moravian Highlands which separates the former historic
provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, now in the Czech Republic.

170
RIVER SYSTEM
RIVER SOURCE MOUTH
Danube Black Forest Danube Delta (Black Sea)
Rhine Swiss Alps North Sea
Seine Seinne, Commune English Channel
Rhone Rhone Glacier, Swiss Alps Mediterranean Sea
Loire Central Massif Atlantic Ocean
Volga Valdai Hills Caspian Sea
OTHER DETAILS
Climatic • Europe’s Climate varies from subtropical to polar
Conditions
• Great Britain
o The Midlands
Industrial o Yorkshire Nottinghamshire
Regions o Lancashire Region
• Ruhr region in Germany
• Lorraine region of France
• Po river valley in Northern Italy
• Steppe region of Ukraine is called the Granary of the world or ‘Bread Basket of the
world’
• 3-4th of potato produced in the world is grown on European soil
Miscellaneous • Milan: Manchester of Italy
• Moscow: Port of Five Seas as it is connected to five seas – Caspian Sea, Black Sea,
Baltic Sea, White Sea and Lake Ladoga.
• International Seed Bank is established in the Svalbard Island of Norway.

171
4. NORTH AMERICA
• Third largest of the world’s continents, lying for the most part between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of
Cancer.
• Mainland NA is shaped roughly like a triangle, with its base in the north and its apex in the south; associated
with the continent is Greenland, the largest island in the world
• It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the south by
the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean.
• Largest lake in the world: Lake Superior
• Highest Peak: Mount Mckinley
• Longest River: Mississippi River
PHYSICAL FEATURES
• Rocky Mountains: forms a part of the American Cordillera (Volcanic in origin, created by Ocean-Continent
Convergence). The Cordillera includes Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Cascades, Brooks Range, Alaska Range and
small Pacific coastal ranges.
• Appalachian Mountains: is a great highland system of North America, among oldest mountains on Earth
(presence of most ancient crystalline rock)
• Mackenzie Mountains: an extension of Rocky Mountains and Canadian mountain range forming part of
Yukon territory
• Canadian Shield: also called Laurentian Plateau, it constitutes the largest mass of exposed Precambrian rock
on the face of Earth
• Great Plains: lies between west of the Mississippi river tallgrass prairie in the U.S. and east of the Rocky
Mountains in the U.S. and Canada
• Yucatan Peninsula: separates Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean Sea
172
LAKES
• Great Lakes:
o Lake Superior: Largest of the Great Lakes, also world’s largest freshwater (by area)
o Lake Michigan: Only Great Lake located entirely in USA
o Lake Huron: Third largest freshwater lake in world
o Lake Erie: Second smallest lake among Great Lake
o Lake Ontario: Easternmost and smallest in area of the Great Lakes
• Great Slave Lake – Deepest lake in North America, located in Canada
• Great Bear lake
• Lake Winnipeg
RIVER SYSTEM
RIVER SOURCE MOUTH
Mackenzie (Longest river system in Great Slave Lake Beaufort Sea (Arctic Ocean)
Canada)
Mississippi (forms a bird’s foot delta) Lake Itasca, USA Gulf of Mexico
Missouri Rockies, USA Mississippi
Hudson Adirondack mountains Atlantic Ocean
St. Lawrence Lake Ontario, USA Atlantic Ocean
Colorado (forms Colorado) Rockies, USA Gulf of California
Columbia Rockies, USA Pacific Ocean
Yukon British Columbia, Canada Bering Sea

173
OTHER DETAILS
• North America embraces every climatic zone, from tropical rain forest and savanna
on the lowlands of Central America to areas of permanent ice cap in central
Climatic Greenland.
Conditions • Subarctic and tundra climates prevail in N Canada and N Alaska, and desert and
semiarid conditions are found in interior regions cut off by high mountains from
rain-bearing westerly winds.
Major manufacturing and industrial regions are:
• Western Great Lakes
• St. Lawrence Valley
• Mohawk Valley
Industrial • New England states
Regions • Middle Atlantic states
• Pittsburgh-Lake Erie regions
• Detroit Industrial Region
• Canada: St. Lawrence Valley and southern Ontario between the two cities of Quebec
and Windsor
• Grand Bank near Newfoundland and Georges Bank near Nova Scotia are extensive
Miscellaneous fishing grounds in North America
• Cuba is the major producer of sugarcane, hence called ‘Sugar Bowl of the World’
• Silicon Valley in San Francisco is famous for software and computer industry
• The U.S.A. is the world’s largest producer of crude oil.
STUDENT NOTES:

174
5. SOUTH AMERICA
• Fourth largest of the world’s continents
• It is the southern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere,
or simply the Americas.
• South America is bounded by the Caribbean Sea to the northwest and north, the Atlantic Ocean to the
northeast, east, and southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.
• In the northwest it is joined to North America by the Isthmus of Panama.
• Drake Passage, south of Cape Horn, separates South America from Antarctica.
• Highest Peak: Mount Aconcagua
• Largest drainage system (by volume, in World): Amazon River
• Largest country in South America: Brazil
• Brazil touches border of every countries of South America except Chile and Ecuador
• Highest Waterfall (in World): Angel waterfall in the Guyana Highland
PHYSICAL FEATURES
• Andes: Created by Ocean-Continent Convergence, majority of the Andean mountain chains are volcanic,
home to Lake Titicaca-world’s highest navigable body of water. Mount Cotopaxi, an active stratovolcano is
also located in it.

175
• Brazilian Highlands: This highland meets the Atlantic Coast in a steep slope called “the Great Escarpment”.
Three major river systems – the Amazon, the Parana and the Sao Francisco drain the region.
• Guyana Highlands: Geologically similar to the Brazilian Highlands, mostly tropical rainforest
• Bolivian Plateau: or Altiplano Plateau is an intermontane plateau which is located between two ranges of
Andes Mountain
• Mato Grosso Plateau: Part of Brazilian Highlands and is an ancient erosional plateau that occupies much of
Central Mato Grosso state.
• Patagonia desert: Mix of desert and semidesert that covers the Patagonian tableland that extends from the
Andes to the Atlantic Ocean
• Atacama Desert: Coastal desert plateau in Chile. One of the driest places on Earth and the only non-polar
region to receive less precipitation than polar regions.
• Amazon Basin: Drained by the Amazon river and its tributaries. The Basin’s tropical rainforest generates
more than 20% of the world’s oxygen and home to 10% of world’s known biodiversity.
RIVER SYSTEM
RIVER SOURCE MOUTH
Amazon Rio Mantaro, Peru Atlantic Ocean
Orinoco Guiana Highlands, Venezuela Atlantic Ocean
Rio de la Plata Paranaiba River, Brazil Atlantic Ocean
Parana Confluence of Parana and Uruguay river Atlantic Ocean
176
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OTHER DETAILS
• North America embraces every climatic zone, from tropical rain forest and savanna
on the lowlands of Central America to areas of permanent ice cap in central
Climatic Greenland.
Conditions • Subarctic and tundra climates prevail in N Canada and N Alaska, and desert and
semiarid conditions are found in interior regions cut off by high mountains from
rain-bearing westerly winds.
Industrial development has been most marked in South America, perhaps the best
endowed of all the southern continents. Major industrial centres are:
Industrial • Brazil – Sao Polo, Rio de Janeiro
Regions • Argentina
• Uruguay
• Chile – Santiago, Valparaiso
• Brazil is the largest producer of sugarcane, coffee.
Miscellaneous • Chile is the largest producer of nitrate Chuquicamata plateau of Chile – famous for
the production of copper, thus known as “Copper Capital of the World”.
• The Galapagos island is the natural fertility centre of Olive Ridley Turtle.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:

177
6. AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA

• Oceania is a collective name for the islands scattered throughout most of the Pacific Ocean between Asia and
the Americas.
• Oceania has traditionally been divided into four parts: Australasia (Australia and New
Zealand), Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
• Australia: is the smallest continent and one of the largest countries on Earth, lying between
the Pacific and Indian oceans in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• It is separated from Indonesia to the
northwest by
the Timor and Arafura seas, from
Papua New Guinea to the northeast by
the Coral Sea and the Torres Strait,
from the Coral Sea Islands
Territory by the Great Barrier Reef,
from New Zealand to the southeast by
the Tasman Sea, and
from Antarctica in the far south by
the Indian Ocean.
• Highest Peak in Australia: Mount
Kosciuszko
• Highest Peak in New Zealand: Mount
Cook
• Longest River: Murray
PHYSICAL FEATURES
• Great Dividing Range: It is also
called Eastern Highland, Australia's
largest mountain range. It is the third
longest land-based range in the world.
It is a block mountain range with a
complex of plateaus and uplands.
• Central Lowlands: It stretches from
Australia’s largest river basin, the
Murray-Darling, through the Great
Artesian Basin and extend north to the
Gulf of Carpentaria.
• Australian Alps: are the highest range
in the Great Dividing Range. Mount
Kosciuszko (2228 m) is the highest
peak in mainland Australia located in
Australian Alps. Eastern coast of
Australia experiences good
orographic rainfall because of this
range.
• Kimberley Plateau: Located in
Western Australia, composed chiefly
of sandstone with patches of basalt
(Kimberley Block).
• Great Victoria Desert: Largest of
Australia’s Desert, an active sand-ridge desert and home to many reserves such as Great Sandy Desert Nature
Reserve, Yeolake Nature Reserve etc.
• Gibson Desert: Lies south to Tropic of Capricorn between Great Sandy Desert and Great Victoria Desert

178
• Great Artesian Basin: It is one of the largest and deepest artisan Basin in the world. It connects with the
Murray – Darling Basin and the Lake Eyre Basin and lies beneath parts of Northern Territory.
OTHER DETAILS
• The continental islands of Australia, New Zealand, and to a lesser degree, Papua
New Guinea, have a diversity of climates.
Climatic • Australia’s north coast is tropical while the southern region has a Mediterranean
Conditions climate.
• Climate in New Zealand is colder and suited to livestock grazing and ranching.
• Main industrial area is in south-east where the presence of coalfields around Sydney
and iron ore resources led to the establishment of the iron and steel industry,
Industrial especially at Newcastle and Port Kembla
Regions • Other industrial centres are:
o Melbourne
o Brisbane
o Perth
• Zealandia – was identified as an eight geological continent, formerly a part of
Miscellaneous Gondwana and today it is 94% submerged.
• Australia is the world’s leading producer of bauxite, alumina in the world.
• Second largest producer of Uranium, lead, zircon, lithium
STUDENT NOTES:

179
MAJOR STRAITS OF THE WORLD

STRAIT CONTIGUOUS LANDMASS JOINING SEAS/WATER BODIES
Formosa Strait China and Taiwan The South China Sea and the East
China Sea
Strait of Tartary Russia (East Russia-Sakhalin Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan
Islands)
Yucatan Strait Mexico and Cuba The Gulf of Mexico and the
Caribbean Sea
Mesina Strait Italy and Sicily The Tyrrhenian Sea and the Ionian
Sea, within the central
Mediterranean
Otranto Strait Italy and Albania Adriatic Sea & Ionian Sea
Cook Strait New Zealand The Tasman Sea and South Pacific
Ocean
Mozambique Channel Mozambique and Madagascar Indian Ocean
North Channel Ireland and Scotland Irish Sea and Atlantic Ocean
Hormuz Strait Iran and Oman The Gulf of Oman and the Persian
Gulf
Bab-el-Mandeb Djibouti, Yemen, and Eritrea of the The Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea
Somali Peninsula
Ten Degree Channel Car Nicobar Islands and Little Andaman Sea and the Bay of
Andaman Bengal
Sunda Strait Java island of Indonesia with its Java Sea and the Indian Ocean
Sumatra island.
Florida Strait Cuba and the USA Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic
Ocean
Bering Strait Asia from America The Arctic Ocean and East Pacific
Ocean
Strait of Gibraltar Spain and Morocco The Atlantic Ocean and the
Mediterranean Sea
Korea Strait Japan and South Korea The East China Sea and the Sea of
Japan
Strait of Malacca Malaysia and Sumatra The Pacific Ocean to the east with
the Indian Ocean to the west
Bonifacio Strait Corsica island of France and The Tyrrhenian Sea and the
Sardinia islands of Italy Mediterranean Sea
Palk Strait India and Sri Lanka The Bay of Bengal in the northeast
with the Palk Bay/Arabian Sea in
the southwest
Bosphorus Strait Divides Europe from Asia The Black Sea to Sea of Marmara
Bass Strait Tasmania island and mainland The Great Australian Bight and the
Australia Tasman Sea
Davis Strait Between Greenland and Canada The Baffin Bay and the Labrador
Sea
Jamaica Channel Jamaica and Hispaniola The Caribbean Sea and North
Atlantic
Hudson Strait Baffin Island and Labrador Hudson Bay and the Labrador Sea
Peninsula

180
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“UDAAN” - Quick and Comprehensive Revision Series GEOGRAPHY: INDIA AND WORLD

Sr. CHAPTER Pg. No

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CH.1 ORIGIN OF EARTH

BIG BANG THEORY:

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OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

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These planets are divided into:

PARAMETERS TERRESTRIAL PLANETS JOVIAN PLANETS

EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH:

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH:

MANTLE • The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere. (=400KM)

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EARTH

EARTH’S GEOMAGNETIC FIELD

CAUSES OF GEOMAGNETIC FIELD:

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SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOMAGNETIC FIELD:

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Daily GS Test GS Test

NCERT Test Essay Test

CSAT Test Daily Practice

Free NCERT Dedicated Ask Your Doubt

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SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT INTERIOR OF EARTH

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COUNTRIES PASSING COUNTRIES

• South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay

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HEAT ZONES OF THE EARTH:

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH:

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What would happen if the earth did not rotate?

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LOCAL AND STANDARD TIME:

GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT):

How we determine our time with respect to GMT:

CURRENT AFFAIRS PRAGYAN

SUNDAY Free Online

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MINERALS AND ROCKS

• Minerals found in the crust are in solid form

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS;

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Specific gravity (SG) is the measurement used to determine the density of

IMPORTANT MINERALS OF THE EARTH CRUST

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FEATURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS;

MAGMA AS SOURCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

FELSIC ROCKS AND MAFIC ROCKS

FEATURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

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