General Knowledge

Indian Geography
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 Table of Contents

Sr. Chapter & Topic Page

No No.
1. INDIAN GEOGRAPHY_________________
A. Introduction ___________________________ 1
B. Physiography of India __________________ 10
C. The Drainage System and River Water __ 74
D. River Indus____________________________ 90
E. Ganga - Brahmaputra River System_____ 96
F. Climate of India ________________________ 135
G. Natural Vegetation in India _____________ 177
H. Soil ___________________________________ 181
I. Wildlife in India _________________________ 201
J. Natural Hazards _______________________ 226
K. Map Glossary _________________________ 294
2. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY_____________ 298

Transport & Communication Network_____ 412

3. GEOGRAPHY GLOSSARY_____________
A. Smog _________________________________ 456
B. Haze __________________________________ 459
C. El Nino /La Nina/ India Ocean 459
Diapole/Enso _____________________________
D. Polar Vortex ___________________________ 472
E. Ozone Hole ____________________________ 476
F. Atlantic Meridional Overturning 478
Circulation (Amoc) _______________________
G. Heat Wave_____________________________ 483
H. List of study of different things_________ 490
5. Geography Test 1-10 ________________ 493

6. Answer Key__________________________ 597

 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
A. INTRODUCTION
“India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of
human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of
legend and the great grandmother of tradition. Our most
valuable and most instructive materials in the history of
man are treasured up in India only.”-Mark Twain
India has a unique culture and is one of the oldest and
greatest civilizations of the world. It stretches from the
snow-capped Himalayas in the
India as a Geographical Unit

1
East-West Extent of Main Land 68° 7′ east to 97° 25′ east
India (Including Pak occupied longitude
Kashmir-POK):
South-North Extent of Main 8° 4′ north to 37° 6′ north
Land India: latitude
Locational Extent: 8° 4′ N to 37° 6′ N latitude
and 68° 7′ E to 97° 25′ East
longitude.

Top 10 Largest Countries in the World by Area

Rank Country Capital Continent Area
City (square km)
1 Russia Moscow Europe 17098242
2 Canada Ottawa North 9984670
America
3 United Washing North 9826675
States of ton DC America
America
4 China Beijing Asia 9596961
5 Brazil Brasilia South 8514877
America
6 Australia Canberra Oceania 7741220
7 India New Asia 3287263
Delhi
8 Argentina Buenos South 2780400
Aires America

2
 9 Kazakhstan Astana Asia 2724900
10 Algeria Algiers Africa 2381741

 The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of

the country dividing it into two latitudinal halves.
 The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is
nearly twice the area which lies to the south of it.
 South of 22° north latitude, the country tapers off
over 800 km into the Indian Ocean as a peninsula.
East-West time difference is nearly 2 hrs.
 The earth moves [rotation and revolution] around
its axis through 360° in 24 hours. Thus, a difference
of 1° longitude will make a difference of 4 minutes
in time.
 Therefore the difference of local time between
western-most point and eastern-most point is 30 x
4 = 120 minutes or 2 hours.
Is India Tropical or Temperate Country?
 The temperate part (north of Tropic of Cancer) is
twice the area of tropical part.

3
  But India has always been treated as a tropical
country for two different reasons – physical and
cultural.
1. Physical Geographical Reasons
 The country is separated from the rest of Asia by
Himalayas.
 Its climate is dominated by the tropical
monsoons and the temperate air masses are
blocked by Himalayas.
 Entire area south of the Himalayas is essentially
tropical from climatic point of view: Although the
night temperatures in winter at several places in
North India may come down to the level of those
prevailing in temperate lands, yet clear skies and
intense insolation raise the day temperatures to a
tropical level.
2. Cultural Geographical Reasons
 Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary
economic activities are all tropical in nature.
 It is primarily because of Himalayas that India is a
tropical country.

4
India’s Frontiers
Data from Ministry Of Home Affairs (Department Of
Border Management)
 India has 15106.7 Km of land border running
through 92 districts in 17 States and a coastline
of 7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline +
coastline of 1197 Indian islands] touching 13
States and Union Territories (UTs).
 Barring Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Delhi, Haryana and Telangana, all other States in
the country have one or more international borders
or a coastline and can be regarded as frontline
States from the point of view of border
management.
 India’s longest border is with BANGLADESH while
the shortest border is with Afghanistan.
 The length of India’s land borders with neighboring
countries is as under:
Name of the country Length of the border (in Km)
Bangladesh 4,096.7
China 3,488
Pakistan 3,323

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 Nepal 1,751
Myanmar 1,643
Bhutan 699
Afghanistan 106
Total 15,106.7

1. Border with China

 This is the second longest border of India, next only
to its border with Bangladesh.
 The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into
three sectors namely:
(i) the Western sector, (ii) the Middle sector, and
(iii) the Eastern sector.
The Western Sector
 Separates Union territory Ladakh of India from the
Sinkiang (Xinjiang) province of China.
 The western sector boundary is largely the
outcome of the British policy towards the region of
Jammu and Kashmir.
 China claims the Aksai Chin district, the Changmo
valley, Pangong Tso and the Sponggar Tso area of

6
 north-east Ladakh as well as a strip of about 5,000
sq km down the entire length of eastern Ladakh.
 China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit area in
North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963 by Pakistan).
The Middle Sector
 Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand touch this border.
The Eastern Sector
 The 1,140 km long boundary between India and
China runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a
point near Diphu pass (Talu Pass) at the trijunction
of India, Tibet and Myanmar.
 This line is usually referred to as the Mc Mahon
Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon, then foreign
secretary of British India, who negotiated the
boundary agreement between Great Britain and
Tibet at Shimla accord in 1913-14.
The India-Nepal Boundary
 Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim touch the
Nepalese border with India. The border is

7
 a porous one with unrestricted movement of goods
and people between Indian and Nepal.
 Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs in the
east-west direction almost along the foothill of
the Shiwalik Range.
The India-Bhutan Boundary
 Quite peaceful border and there is no boundary
dispute between the two countries.
The Indo-Pakistan Boundary
 The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of
partition of the country in 1947 under the Radcliffe
award of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the
chairman
 Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major
disputed regions.

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The India-Bangladesh Border
 India’s 4,096 km long border with Bangladesh is the
longest.
 This boundary has been determined under
the Radcliffe Award which divided the erstwhile
province of Bengal into two parts.

India-Myanmar Boundary
 This boundary runs roughly along the watershed
between the Brahmaputra and Ayeyarwady
[Irrawaddy].

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  It passes through thickly forested regions, with
Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on the Indian
side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills and Kachin state on
the Myanmar side.

India-Sri Lanka Boundary

 India and Sri Lanka are separated from each other
by a narrow and shallow sea called Palk Strait.
 Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in India is
only 32 km away from Talaimanar in Jaffna
peninsula in Sri Lanka. These two points are joined
by a group of islets forming Adam’s Bridge
B. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA
India is a land of physical diversities. Almost all types of
landforms are found here. The Indian landmass can be
broadly divided into:
a. the northern mountain region
b. the great plains of North India
c. The Peninsular Uplands
d. the coastal plains
e. The Islands

10
11
1. The Northern Mountain Region
It is divided into three groups. They are:
(i) The Himalayas
(ii) The Trans Himalayas
(iii) The Purvanchal hills
The Himalayan Mountains
 Himalayas are the young fold mountains. This is
the highest mountain range of the world.
Himalayas act as natural barrier. The extreme cold,
snow and rugged topography discourage the
neighbours to enter India through Himalayas. They
run from west-east direction from Indus to
Brahmaputra along the northern boundary of India
covering a distance of 2500 km. Their width varies
from 400 km in the west and 150 km in the East.
The Himalayas may be divided into three parallel
ranges:
a) Greater Himalayas or Himadari
b) Lesser Himalayas or Himachal
c) Outer Himalayas or Shiwaliks.

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Shiwalik Range
 Also known as Outer Himalayas.
 Located in between the Great Plains and Lesser
Himalayas.
 The altitude varies from 600 to 1500 meters.
 Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the Potwar
Plateau to the Brahmaputra valley.
 The southern slopes are steep while the northern
slopes are gentle.
 The width of the Shiwaliks varies from 50 km in
Himachal Pradesh to less than 15 km in Arunachal
Pradesh.
 They are almost unbroken chain of low hills except
for a gap of 80-90 km which is occupied by the
valley of the Tista River and Raidak River.
 Shiwalik range from North-East India up to Nepal is
covered with thick forests but the forest cover
decreases towards west from Nepal (The quantum
of rainfall decreases from east to west in Shiwalik
and Ganga Plains).
 The southern slopes of Shiwalik range in Punjab
and Himachal Pradesh are almost devoid of forest

13
 cover. These slopes are highly dissected by
seasonal streams called Chos.
 Valleys are part of synclines and hills are part of
anticlines or antisynclines.

Formation (Formation of Himalayas already explained)

 Shiwaliks were formed last of all the ranges (2-20
million years ago).
 The Shiwaliks are consolidated sands, gravels and
conglomerate deposits [Alluvial fans] which were
brought by the rivers flowing from the higher
ranges.
 These deposits were folded and hardened due to
compression offered by the northward movement
of Indian plate.

14
The Shiwaliks are known by different names in different
areas
Region Name of Shiwaliks
Jammu Region Jammu Hills
Dafla, Miri, Abor and Arunachal Pradesh
Mishmi Hills
The Dhang Range, Dundwa Uttarakhand
Range
Churia Ghat Hills Nepal

Explain the formation of Duns (Duras)

 Shiwalik Hills were formed by the accumulation of
conglomerates (sand, stone, silt, gravel, debris
etc.).
 These conglomerates, in the initial stages of
deposition, obstructed the courses of the rivers
draining from the higher reaches of the Himalayas
and formed temporary lakes.
 With passage of time, these temporary lakes
accumulated more and more conglomerates. The
conglomerates were well settled at the bottom of
the lakes.

15
  When the rivers were able to cut their courses
through the lakes filled with conglomerate
deposits, the lakes were drained away leaving
behind plains called ‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the west
and ‘duars’ in the east.
 Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the best example [75
km long and 15-20 km wide]
 Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda, Chaukhamba,
Udhampur and Kotli are other important duns.
Middle or the Lesser Himalaya
 In between the Shiwaliks in the south and the
Greater Himalayas in the north.
 Runs almost parallel to both the ranges.
 It is also called the Himachal or Lower Himalaya.
 Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km wide and
about 2400 km in length.
 Elevations vary from 3,500 m to 4,500 m above sea
level.
 Many peaks are more than 5,050 m above sea level
and are snow covered throughout the year.

16
  Lower Himalayas have steep, bare southern slopes
[steep slopes prevent soil formation] and a more
gentle, forest covered northern slopes.
 In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are marked
by the Mussoorie and the Nag Tibba ranges.
 The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal is a
continuation of the Mussoorie Range
 East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, Sikkim,
Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills represent the
lower Himalayas.
 The Middle Himalayan ranges are more friendly to
human contact.
Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like Shimla,
Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling,
etc. are located here.
Important ranges of Lesser Region
Himalayas
The Pir Panjal Range Jammu and Kashmir (They
are to the south of Kashmir
Valley)
The Dhaola Dhar Range Himachal Pradesh
The Mussoorie Range and Uttarakhand
The Nag Tiba Range
Mahabharat Lekh Nepal

17
The Pir Panjal range
 The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the longest and
the most important range.
 It extends from the Jhelum river to the upper
Beas river for over 300 km.
 It rises to 5,000 meters and contains mostly
volcanic rocks.
Passes in Pir Panjal
 Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270 m),
Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and Banihal Pass (2,835
m).
 The Banihal Pass is used by the Jammu-Srinagar
highway and Jammu-Baramula railway.
 The Kishanganga, the Jhelum and the Chenab cut
through the range.
 Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal continues
as Dhaola Dhar range, passing through Dalhousie,
Dharmshala, and Shimla.
Important Valleys
 Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Range of the
main Himalayas, lies the valley of Kashmir.

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 (average elevation is 1,585 m above mean sea
level)
 The synclinal basin of the valley is floored with
alluvial, lacustrine [lake deposits], fluvial [river
action] and glacial deposits. {Fluvial Landforms,
Glacial Landforms}
 Jehlum River meanders through these deposits
and cuts a deep gorge in Pir Panjal through which
it drains. (Kashmir is like a basin with very few
outlets)
 In Himachal Pradesh there is Kangra Valley. It is
a strike valley and extends from the foot of the
Dhaola Dhar Range to the south of Beas.
 On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the upper
course of the Ravi is transverse valley.
Strike valley vs. Transverse valley
 A valley perpendicular to the slope or parallel to the
ridge [also called as longitudinal valley]
 In contrast, transverse streams cut valleys parallel
to the slope (along the dip).

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The Great Himalaya
 Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central Himalaya or
Himadri.
 Average elevation of 6,100 m above sea level and
an average width of about 25 km.
 It is mainly formed of the central crystallines
(granites and gneisses) overlain by

20
 metamorphosed sediments [limestone]. {Rock
System}
 The folds in this range are asymmetrical with steep
south slope and gentle North Slope giving ‘hog
back (a long, steep hill or mountain ridge)’
topography.
 This mountain arc convexes to the south just like
the other two.
 Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends. One in
the Nanga Parbat in north-west and the other in
the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
 This mountain range boasts of the tallest peaks of
the world, most of which remain under perpetual
snow.

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Regional name of Mount Everest Region
Sagarmatha (The Goddess of the Sky) Nepal
Chomlungma (Mother of the World) China (Tibet)

 Mount Everest was first located by George Everest,

the then Surveyor General of India in 1841 and in
1852 it was established as the highest peak of the
world by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India.
Passes in the Greater Himalayas
 The passes because they are generally higher than
4,570 m above sea level and are snowbound for
most of the year.

22
 State Passes of Greater Himalayas
Jammu and 1. Burzil Pass
Kashmir 2. Zoji La [La means pass]
Himachal 1. Bara Lacha La
Pradesh 2. Shipki La [The Hindustan-Tibet Road
connecting Shimla with Gartok in Western
Tibet]
Uttarakhand 1. Thaga La
2. Niti Pass
3. Lipu Lekh
Sikkim 1. Nathu La
2. Jelep La [important trade route connecting
Kalimpong (near Darjeeling) with Lhasa in
Tibet, passes through Jelep La (4,386 m)]

The Trans Himalayas

 The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the
Great Himalayan range.
 Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because most of
it lies in Tibet.
 The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and the
Karakoram are the main ranges.

23
 It stretches for a distance of about 1,000 km in
east-west direction.
 Average elevation is 3000 m above mean sea level.
 The average width of this region is 40 km at the
extremities and about 225 km in the central part.
 The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an important range
which is in The Zaskar Range.
 North of the Zaskar Range and running parallel to it
is the Ladakh Range. Only a few peaks of this
range attain heights of over 6000 metres.
 The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in western
Tibet is an offshoot of the Ladakh Range. The
highest peak is Mount Kailas (6714 m). River Indus
originates from the northern slopes of the Kailas
range.
 The northern most range of the Trans-Himalayan
Ranges in India is the Great Karakoram Range also
known as the Krishnagiri range.
 Karakoram Range extends eastwards from the
Pamir for about 800 km. It is a range with lofty
peaks [elevation 5,500 m and above]. It is

24
 the abode of some of the greatest glaciers of the
world outside the Polar Regions.
 Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 meter
above sea level. K2 (8,611 m) [Godwin Austen or
Qogir] is the second highest peak in the world and
the highest peak in the Indian Union.
 The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east of the
Karakoram Range. It has been dissected into a
number of plains and mountains [Soda Plains,
Aksai Chin, Lingzi Tang, Depsang Plains and Chang
Chenmo]
Purvanchal or Eastern Hills
 Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal is the southward
extension of Himalayas running along the north-
eastern edge of India.
 At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden
southward bend and form a series of
comparatively low hills which are collectively
called as the Purvanchal.
 Purvanchal hills are convex to the west.

25
 They run along the India-Myanmar Border
extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to
Mizoram in the south.
 Patkai Bum hills are made up of strong sandstone;
elevation varying from 2,000 m to 3,000 m; merges
into Naga Hills where Saramati (3,826 m) is the
highest peak.
 Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the watershed
between India and Myanmar.
 South of Naga Hills are the Manipur hills which are
generally less than 2,500 metres in elevation.
 The Barail range separates Naga Hills from
Manipur Hills.
 Further south the Barail Range swings to west
into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills which are an
eastward continuation of the Indian peninsular
block. They are separated from the main block by
Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
 South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Hills
(previously known as the Lushai hills) which have
an elevation of less than 1,500 metres. The highest
point is the Blue Mountain (2,157 m) in the south.

26
Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas
 Himalayas extend in the east-west direction from
the Indus gorge in the west to the Brahmaputra
gorge in the east.

27
  Himalayan ranges take sharp southward bends at
these gorges. These bends are called syntaxial
bends of the Himalayas.
 The western syntaxial bend occurs near the Nanga
Parbat where the Indus River has cut a deep gorge.
 The eastern syntaxial bend occurs near
the Namche Barwa.

Regional Division of Himalayan range

Punjab Himalayas
 Between the Indus and the Satluj rivers [560 km
long].

28
  All the major rivers of Indus river system flow
through Punjab Himalayas.
 A large portion of Punjab Himalayas is in Jammu
and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Hence they
are also called the Kashmir and Himachal
Himalaya.
 Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar and Dhaola
Dhar are the major ranges in this section.
 The general elevation falls westwards.
Assam Himalayas
 Spreads over Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh.
 Elevation here is much lesser than that of the
Nepal Himalayas.
 The southern slopes are very steep but the
northern slopes are gentle.
 The Lesser Himalayas are very narrow and are very
close to the Great Himalayas.
Western Himalayas
 Between the Indus in the west and the Kali river in
the east (880 km).

29
 Spread across three states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
 It encompasses three physiographic provinces
namely Kashmir Himalaya, Himachal Himalaya and
Kumaon Himalaya (Uttarakhand Himalayas).
 The Ladakh plateau and the Kashmir valley are two
important areas of the Kashmir Himalayan region.
 In Himachal Himalayas, The Greater Himalaya is
represented by the Zaskar range, lesser Himalaya
by Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges and the Outer
Himalaya by the Shiwalik range.
 The southern slopes are rugged, steep and forested
while the northern slopes are bare, gentle and show
plains with lakes.
 The Kumaon Himalayas lie in Uttarakhand and
extend from the Satluj to the Kali River.
 The Lesser Himalayas in Kumaon Himalaya is
represented by the Mussoorie and Nag Tiba
ranges.
 The Shiwalik in this region runs south of the
Mussoori range between the Ganga and the
Yamuna rivers.

30
  The flat valleys between the Lesser Himalaya and
the Shiwalik range are called ‘doons’ or ‘Duns’ of
which Dehra Dun is the most famous.
Central Himalayas
 800 km between river Kali in the west and river
Tista in the east.
 The Great Himalaya range attains maximum height
in this portion.
 Some of the world famous peaks Mt. Everest,
Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Annapurna, Gosainthan
and Dhaulagiri are located here.
 The Lesser Himalaya is known as Mahabharat
Lekh in this region.
 The range is crossed by rivers like Ghaghara,
Gandak, Kosi, etc.
 In between the Great and the Lesser Himalayas,
there are Kathmandu and Pokhra lacustrine
valleys (previously, they were lakes).
 The Shiwalik range come very close to the lesser
Himalaya towards the east and is almost non-
existent beyond Narayani (Gandak).

31
Eastern Himalayas
 This part of the Himalayas lies between the Tista
river in the west and the Brahmaputra river in the
east and stretches for a distance of about 720 km.
 Also known as the Assam Himalayas, the Eastern
Himalayas occupy mainly the areas of Arunachal
Pradesh and Bhutan.
 The Assam Himalayas show a marked dominance
of fluvial erosion due to heavy rainfall.
 The Himalayas take a sudden southward turn after
the Dihang gorge and the hill ranges running in
more or less north-south direction along India’s
border with Myanmar are collectively known as the
Purvanchal.
These are known by various local names such as Patkai
Bum, Naga hills, Kohima hills, Manipur hills, Mizo hills
(previously known as the Lushai hills), Tripura hills and
Barail range.
2. Greater Plains of North India
The Northern Plains are located between south of the
Himalayas and north of the Peninsular plateau. It is
formed by the deposition of the sediments brought by

32
three main river systems namely: the Indus, the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra. From Punjab in the west to Assam
in the east, this plain is about 2400 km long. Its width
varies from about 300 km in the west to about 150 km in
the east. It mainly includes the states of Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam.
This plain is very fertile due to alluvial sediments brought
by the rivers from the Himalayas. This plain is one of the
largest and most fertile plains of the world. Major crops
such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses, oil seeds and jute
are grown here.
 The Northern plain is broadly divided into two
parts:
a. The Western plain
b. The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain

a) The Western Plain

 This plain is formed by the river system of the
Indus. It lies to the west of Aravallis. This plain is
formed due to deposits brought by the rivers like
the Satluj, the Beas and the Ravi. This part of the
plain has doabs.

33
b) The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain
 It is also formed by the deposition of the sediments
brought by two main river systems, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra. The early civilizations like
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa also called river valley
civilizations were spread over plain areas. This is
because of the availability of fertile land and water
through the river networks.

Formation of Indo – Gangetic – Brahmaputra trough

 The rivers which were previously flowing
into Tethys Sea (Before Indian Plate collided with
Eurasian Plate – continental drift, plate tectonics)

34
 deposited huge amount of sediments in the Tethys
Geosyncline. [Geosyncline – a huge depression]
 Himalayas are formed out of these sediments
which were uplifted, folded and compressed due to
northern movement of Indian Plate.
 Northern movement of Indian Plate also created a
trough to the south of Himalayas.
 The raising of Himalayas and subsequent
formation of glaciers gave rise to many new rivers.
These rivers along with glacial erosion {Glacial
Landforms}, supplied more alluvium which
intensified the filling of the depression.
 With the accumulation of more and more
sediments (conglomerates), the Tethys Sea started
receding.
 With passage of the time, the depression was
completely filled with alluvium, gravel, rock debris
(conglomerates) and the Tethys completely
disappeared leaving behind a monotonous
aggradational plain.
 [monotonous ==featureless topography;
aggradational plain = = plain formed due to
depositional activity. Indo-Gangetic plain is a

35
 monotonous aggradational plain formed due to
fluvial depositions].
 Upper peninsula rivers have also contributed to the
formation of plains, but to a very small extent.
 During the recent times (since few million years),
depositional work of three major river systems viz.,
the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra have
become predominant.
 Hence this arcuate (curved) plain is also known
as Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain.

Features of Indo – Gangetic – Brahmaputra Plain’

 Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain is the largest
alluvial tract of the world.

36
 It stretches for about 3,200 km from the mouth of
the Indus to the mouth of the Ganga. Indian sector
of the plain accounts for 2,400 km.
 The northern boundary is well marked by
the Shiwaliks and the southern boundary is a wavy
irregular line along the northern edge of the
Peninsular India.
 The western boarder is marked by Sulaiman and
Kirthar ranges. On the eastern side, the plains are
bordered by Purvanchal hills.
 The width of the plain varies from region to region.
It is widest in the west where it stretches for about
500 km. Its width decreases in the east.
 The thickness of the alluvium deposits also vary
from place to place. The maximum depth of the
alluvium up to the basement rocks is about 6,100
m (not uniform and varies greatly from place to
place).
 The cones or alluvial fans of Kosi in the north and
those of Son in the south exhibit greater alluvial
thickness while the intra-cone areas have relatively
shallower deposits.

37
  Extreme horizontality of this monotonous plain is
its chief characteristic.
 Its average elevation is about 200 m above mean
sea level, highest elevation being 291 m above
mean sea level near Ambala (This elevation forms
the drainage divide or watershed between Indus
system and Ganga system).
 Its average gradient from Saharanpur to Kolkata is
only 20 cm per km and it decreases to 15 cm per
km from Varanasi to the Ganga delta.
Geomorphological features of Indo – Gangetic –
Brahmaputra Plain
The Bhabar
 It is a narrow, porous, northern most stretch of
Indo-Gangetic plain.
 It is about 8-16 km wide running in east-west
direction along the foothills (alluvial fans) of the
Shiwaliks.
 They show a remarkable continuity from the Indus
to the Tista.

38
  Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit
their load along the foothills in the form of alluvial
fans.
 These alluvial fans have merged together to build
up the bhabar belt.
 The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature.
 The porosity is due to deposition of huge number
of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans.
 The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar
region because of this porosity.
 Therefore, the area is marked by dry river
courses except in the rainy season.
 The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow in the
east and extensive in the western and north-
western hilly region.
The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees
with large roots thrive in this belt.
The Terai
 Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly
forested narrow tract to the south of Bhabar
running parallel to it.

39
  The Terai is about15-30 km wide.
 The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-
emerge in this belt.
This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety
of wild life. [Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
and Kaziranga National Park in Assam lie in terai region]

 The Terai is more marked in the eastern part than

in the west because the eastern parts receive
comparatively higher amount of rainfall.
 Most of the Terai land, especially in Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh and Uttarakhand, has been turned into
agricultural land which gives good crops
of sugarcane, rice and wheat.
The Bhangar
 The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river
beds forming terraces higher than the flood plain.

40
  The terraces are often impregnated with
calcareous concretions known as ‘KANKAR’.
 ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region of Bengal
and the ‘bhur formations’ in the middle Ganga and
Yamuna doab are regional variations of Bhangar.
[Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land situated along
the banks of the Ganga River especially in the upper
Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This has been formed due to
accumulation of wind-blown sands during the hot dry
months of the year]
 Bhangar contains fossils of animals like
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants, etc.
The Khadar
 The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and
forms the flood plains along the river banks.
 A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood
almost every year.
 This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.
Reh or Kollar
 Reh or Kollar comprises saline efflorescence of
drier areas in Haryana.

41
  Reh areas have spread in recent times with
increase in irrigation (capillary action brings salts
to the surface).
REGIONAL DIVISION OF GREAT PLAINS IN INDIA
 Sindh Plain
 Rajasthan Plain.
 Punjab Plain.
 Ganga Plain.
 Brahmaputra Plain.
 Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta

Sindh Plain [Pakistan]

 Mainly formed of Bhangar Plains.
 Dhors: Long narrow depressions which are the
remnants of the course of former rivers.
 Dhand: Alkaline lakes on some dhors.
Rajasthan Plain
 Occupied by Thar or the Great Indian Desert.
 This plain is an undulating plain [wave like] whose
average elevation is about 325 m above mean sea
level.

42
  The desert region is called Marusthali and forms a
greater part of the Marwar plain.
 It has a few outcrops of gneisses, schists and
granites which proves that geologically it is a part
of the Peninsular Plateau. It is only at the surface
that it looks like an aggradational plain.
 In general, the eastern part of the Marusthali is
rocky while its western part is covered by shifting
sand dunes locally known as
 The eastern part of the Thar Desert up to the
Aravali Range is a semi-arid plain known
as Rajasthan Bagar.
 It is drained by a number of short seasonal
streams originating from the Aravali and supports
agriculture in some patches of fertile tracts.
 Luni is an important seasonal stream which flows
into Rann of Kuchchh. The tract north of the Luni is
known as thali or sandy plain.
Saline Lakes
 North of the Luni, there is inland drainage having
several saline lakes. They are a source of common
salt and many other salts.

43
  Sambhar, Didwana, Degana, Kuchaman, etc. are
some of the important lakes. The largest is the
Sambhar Lake near Jaipur.

Punjab Plain
The plain is primarily made up of ‘doabs’ —the land
between two rivers. The depositional process by the
rivers has united these doabs giving an homogenous
appearance. Punjab literally means “(The Land of) Five
Waters” referring to the following rivers: the Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. The total area of this
plain is about 1.75 lakh sq km. The average elevation of
the plain is about 250 m above mean sea level. The
eastern boundary of Punjab Haryana plain is marked by
subsurface Delhi-Aravali ridge. The northern part of this
plain [Shiwalik hills] has been intensively eroded by
numerous streams called Chos. This has led to
enormous gullying [Arid Landforms].To the south of the
Satluj River there is Malwa plain of Punjab. The area
between the Ghaggar and the Yamuna rivers lies in
Haryana and often termed as ‘Haryana Tract’. It acts as
water-divide between the Yamuna and the Satluj rivers.
The only river between the Yamuna and the Satluj is the
Ghaggar which is considered to be the present day
Successor of the legendary Saraswati River

44
Ganga Plain
This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India
stretching from Delhi to Kolkata (about 3.75 lakh sq km).
The Ganga along with its large number of tributaries
originating in the Himalayans have brought large
quantities of alluvium from the mountains and deposited
it here to build this extensive plain. The peninsular rivers
such as Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining the Ganga
river system have also contributed to the formation of
this plain. The general slope of the entire plain is to the
east and south east. Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower
sections of Ganges as a result of which the area is
marked by local prominences such as levees, bluffs,
oxbow lakes, marshes, ravines, etc. {Fluvial Landforms,
Arid Landforms} Almost all the rivers keep on shifting
their courses making this area prone to frequent floods.
The Kosi River is very notorious in this respect. It has
long been called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
Regional divisions of Ganga plains
 Rohilkhand plains
 Avadh Plains
 Mithila Plain
 Magadh Plain.

45
Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta
 This is the largest delta in the world.
 The Ganga River divides itself into several
channels in the delta area. The slope of the land
here is a mere 2 cm per km. Two thirds of the area
is below 30 m above mean sea level. [Highly
vulnerable to sea level changes]
 The seaward face of the delta is studded with a
large number of estuaries, mud flats, mangrove
swamps, sandbanks, islands and forelands.
 Large part of the coastal delta is covered tidal
forests. These are called the Sunderbans because
of the predominance of Sundri tree here.
Brahmaputra Plain
 This is also known as the Brahmaputra valley
or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as most of the
Brahmaputra valley is situated in Assam.
 Its western boundary is formed by the Indo-
Bangladesh border as well as the boundary of the
lower Ganga Plain. Its eastern boundary is formed
by Purvanchal hills.

46
  It is an aggradational plain built up by the
depositional work of the Brahmaputra and its
tributaries.
 The innumerable tributaries of the Brahmaputra
River coming from the north form a number of
alluvial fans. Consequently, the tributaries branch
out in many channels giving birth to river
meandering leading to formation of bill and ox-bow
lakes.
 There are large marshy tracts in this area. The
alluvial fans formed by the coarse alluvial debris
have led to the formation of terai or semi-terai
conditions.
3. THE PENINSULAR PLATEAUS

47
 Peninsular plateau is a triangular shaped table
land. It is part of ancient land mass called
Gondwana level. It covers an area of nearly 5 lakh
sq.km. It is spread over the states of Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
River Narmada divides the peninsular plateau into
two parts: The central highlands and Deccan
Plateau.
 The central Highlands: It extends from Narmada
River and the northern plains. Aravallis is the
important mountain which extends from Gujarat
through Rajasthan to Delhi. The highest peak of the
Aravallis hills is Gurushikhar (1722m) near Mt. Abu.
The Malwa Plateau and Chhota Nagpur plateau are
parts of the central highlands. River Betwa,
chambal and Ken are the important river of Malwa
plateau while Mahadeo, Kaimur and Maikal are the
important hills of Chhota Nagpur plateau. The
valley of Narmada lies between the Vindhyas and
the Satpura which flows east to west and joins the
Arabian sea.
 The Deccan Plateau: The Deccan plateau is
separated by a fault (A fracture in the rock along
which rocks have been relatively replaced), from

48
 Chota Nagpur plateau. The black soil area in the
Deccan plateau is known as Deccan trap. It is
formed due to volcanic eruptions. This soil is good
for cotton & sugarcane cultivation. The Deccan
plateau is broadly divided into:
(a) The Western Ghats
(b) The Eastern Ghats
(a) The Western Ghats: Western Ghats or Sahyadris lie
on the Western edge of the Deccan plateau. It runs
parallel to the western coast for about 1600 km.
The average elevation of the Western Ghats is
1000 metres. The famous peaks in this area are
Doda Betta, Anaimudi amd Makurti. The highest
peak in this region is Anaimudi (2695m.). Western
ghats are continuous and can be crossed through
passes like Pal Ghat, Thal Ghot and Bhor Ghat. The
rivers like Godavari, Bhima and Krishna flow
eastward while the river Tapti flows westward. The
streams form rapids & water falls before entering
the Arabian Sea. The famous water falls are Jog
falls on Sharavati, Shiva Samudram falls on Kaveri
etc.

49
(b) The Eastern Ghats: The Eastern Ghats are
discontinuous low belt. Their average elevation is
600m. They run parallel to the east coast from
south of Mahanadi valley to the Nilgiri hills. The
highest peak in this region is Mahendragiri (1501
m). The famous hills are Mahendragiri hills,
Nimaigiri hills in Orissa, Nallamallai hills in
Southern Andhra Pradesh, Kollimalai and
Pachaimalai in Tamilnadu. The area is drained by
the Mahanadi, Godawari, Krishna and Kaveri river
systems. The Nilgiri hills join Western & Eastern
Ghats in the south.
HILLS OF PENINSULAR INDIA

50
Aravali Range
They are aligned in north-east to south-west direction.
They run for about 800 km between Delhi and Palanpur
in Gujarat. They are one of the oldest (very old) fold
mountains of the world and the oldest in India. After its
formation in Archaean Era (several 100 million years
ago), its summits were nourishing glaciers and several
summits were probably higher than the present day
Himalayas. Now they are relict (remnants after severe
weathering and erosion since millions of years) of the
world’s oldest mountain formed as a result of folding
(Archaean Era).They continue up to Haridwar buried

51
under the alluvium of Ganga Plains. The range is
conspicuous in Rajasthan (continuous range south of
Ajmer where it rises to 900 m.) but becomes less distinct
in Haryana and Delhi (characterized by a chain of
detached and discontinuous ridges beyond Ajmer).
According to some geographers, one Branch of the
Aravalis extends to the Lakshadweep Archipelago
through the Gulf of Khambhat and the other into Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka. Its general elevation is only 400-
600 m, with few hills well above 1,000 m. At the south-
west extremity the range rises to over 1,000 m. Here Mt.
Abu (1,158 m), a small hilly block, is separated from the
main range by the valley of the Banas. Guru Sikhar
(1,722 m), the highest peak, is situated in Mt. Abu. Pipli
Ghat, Dewair and Desuri passes allow movement by
roads and railways.
Vindhyan Range
 The Vindhyan Range, overlooking (have a view of
from above) the Narmada valley, rises as an
escarpment (a long, steep slope at the edge of a
plateau or separating areas of land at different
heights) flanking (neighboring on one side) the
northern edge of the Narmada-Son Trough (the rift

52
 through which the Narmada river flows)(trough is
opposite of ridge. It is a narrow depression).
 It runs more or less parallel to the Narmada
Valley in an east-west direction from Jobat in
Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar for a distance of over
1,200 km.
 The general elevation of the Vindhyan Range is 300
to 650 m.
 Most parts of the Vindhayan Range are composed
of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks of
ancient age. {Rock System}
 The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as
the Bharner and Kaimur hills.
 This range acts as a watershed between the Ganga
system and the river systems of south India.
 The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken rise within 30
km of the Narmada.
Satpura Range
 Satpura range is a series of seven mountains (‘Sat’
= seven and ‘pura’ = mountains)

53
  It runs in an east-west direction south of the
Vindhyas and in between the Narmada and the
Tapi, roughly parallel to these rivers.
 It stretches for a distance of about 900 km.
 Parts of the Satpuras have been folded and
upheaved. They are regarded as structural uplift
or ‘horst’.
 Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on Mahadev
Hills is the highest peak.
 Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another important peak.
Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)
 They form the western edge of the Deccan
tableland.
 Run from the Tapi valley (21° N latitude) to a little
north of Kanyakumari (11° N latitude) for a
distance of 1,600 km.
 The Western Ghats are steep-sided, terraced, flat-
topped hills presenting a stepped topography
facing the Arabian Sea coast.
 This is due to the horizontally bedded lavas, which
on weathering, have given a characteristic ‘landing
stair aspect’ to the relief of this mountain chain.

54
  The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a sheer wall to
an average elevation of 1,000 m from the Western
Coastal Plain.
 But they slope gently on their eastern flank and
hardly appear to be a mountain when viewed from
the Deccan tableland.
 South of Malabar, the Nilgiris, Anaimalai, etc.
present quite different landscape due to the
difference in geological structure.
The northern section
 The northern section of the Ghats from Tapi valley
to a little north of Goa is made of horizontal sheets
of Deccan lavas (Deccan Traps).
 The average height of this section of the Ghats is
1,200 m above mean sea level, but some peaks
attain more heights.
 Kalasubai (1,646 m) near Igatpuri, Salher (1,567 m)
about 90 km north of Nashik, Mahabaleshwar
(1,438 m) and Harishchandragarh (1,424 m) are
important peaks.
 Thal Ghat and Bhor Ghat are important passes
which provide passage by road and rail between

55
 the Konkan Plains in the west and the Deccan
Plateau in the east.
[Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast and Goa coast;
Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka coast]
The Middle Sahyadri
 The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16°N latitude up to
Nilgiri hills.
 This part is made of granites and gneisses.
 This area is covered with dense forests.
 The western scarp is considerably dissected by
headward erosion of the west flowing streams.
 The average height is 1200 m but many peaks
exceed 1500 m.
 The Vavul Mala (2,339 m), the Kudremukh (1,892
m) and Pashpagiri (1,714 m) are important peaks.
 The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris near the
trijunction of Karnataka, Kerala and TN, rise
abruptly to over 2,000 m.
 They mark the junction of the Western Ghats with
Eastern Ghats.

56
  Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti (2,554 m) are
important peaks of this area.
The southern section
 The southern part of the Western Ghats is
separated from the main Sahyadri range by Pal
ghat Gap [Palakkad Gap].
 The high ranges terminate abruptly on either side
of this gap.
 Pal Ghat Gap it is a rift valley. This gap is used by a
number of roads and railway lines to connect the
plains of Tamil Nadu with the coastal plain of
Kerala.
 It is through this gap that moist-bearing clouds of
the south-west monsoon can penetrate some
distance inland, bringing rain to Mysore region.
 South of the Pal Ghat gap there is an intricate
system of steep and rugged slopes on both the
eastern and western sides of the Ghats.
 Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak in the
whole of southern India.
 Three ranges radiate in different directions from
Anai Mudi. These ranges are the Anaimalai (1800-

57
 2000 m) to the north, the Palani (900-1,200 m) to
the north-east and the Cardamom Hills or
the Ealaimalai to the south.
Eastern Ghats
It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting
from the Mahanadi in Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu.
They almost disappear between the Godavari and the
Krishna. They neither have structural unity nor
physiographic continuity. Therefore these hill groups are
generally treated as independent units. It is only in the
northern part, between the Mahanadi and the Godavari
that the Eastern Ghats exhibit true mountain character.
This part comprises the Maliya and the Madugula
Konda ranges. The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range
have a general elevation of 900-1,200 m and Mahendra
Giri (1,501 m) is the tallest peak here. The Madugula
Konda range has higher elevations ranging from 1,100 m
and 1,400 m with several peaks exceeding 1,600 m.
Jindhagada Peak (1690 m) in Araku Valley, Arma Konda
(1,680 m), Gali Konda (1,643 m) and Sinkram Gutta
(1,620 m) are important peaks. Between the Godavari
and the Krishna rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly
character and are occupied by Gondwana formations (KG
Basin is here).The Eastern Ghats reappear as more or

58
less a continuous hill range in Cuddapah and Kurnool
districts of Andhra Pradesh where they are called
as Nallamalai Range [Naxalite hideout in AP] with general
elevation of 600-850 m. The southern part of this range is
called the Palkodna range. To the south, the hills and
plateaus attain very low altitudes; only Javadi Hills and
the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills form two distinct features of
1,000 m elevation. The Biligiri Rangan Hills in Karnataka
(at its border with Tamil Nadu) attain a height of 1,279 m.
Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge with the Western
Ghats.
4. THE COASTAL REGION
 The coastal plains in India run parallel to the
Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal along the Peninsular
Plateau. The western coastal plain is a narrow belt
along the Arabian sea of about 10-20 km wide. It
stretches from Rann of Kachchh to Kanya Kumari.
 Western coastal plains comprises of three sectors
(i) Konkan Coast (Mumbai to Goa), (ii) Karnataka
coast from Goa to Mangalore (iii) Malabar Coast
(Mangalore to Kanya Kumari).
 The eastern coast runs along Bay of Bengal. It is
wider than the western coastal plain. Its average

59
 width is about 120 kms. The northern part of the
coast is called Northern Circar and the southern
part is called Coromandal Coast.
 Eastern coastal plain is marked by Deltas made by
the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.
The Chilka largest salt water lake in India in Odisha
is located to the south of Mahanadi Delta. The
coastal plains are belts for growing spices, rice,
coconut, pepper etc. They are centers of trade &
commerce.
 The coastal areas are known for fishing activities,
therefore large number of fishing villages have
developed along the coasts. Vembanad is famous
lagoon which is located at Malabar Coast.
Western Coastal Plains of India
 Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanyakumari in
the South.
 These are narrow plains with an average width of
about 65 km.

60
Kutch and Kathiawar region
 Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of
Peninsular plateau (because Kathiawar is made of
the Deccan Lava and there are tertiary rocks in the
Kutch area), they are still treated as integral part of
the Western Coastal Plains as they are now
levelled down.
 The Kutch Peninsula was an island surrounded by
seas and lagoons. These seas and lagoons were
later filled by sediment brought by the Indus River
which used to flow through this area. Lack of rains
in recent times has turned it into arid and semi-arid
landscape.
 Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is the Great
Rann. Its southern continuation, known as
the Little Rann lies on the coast and south-east of
Kachchh.
 The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south of the
Kachchh. The central part is a highland of Mandav
Hills from which small streams radiate in all
directions (Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117
m) is the highest point and is of volcanic origin.

61
 The Gir Range is located in the southern part of the
Kathiawar peninsula. It is covered with dense
forests and is famous as home of the Gir lion.

62
Gujarat Plain
 The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and
Kathiawar and slopes towards the west and south
west.
 Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and
Sabarmati, the plain includes the southern part of
Gujarat and the coastal areas of the Gulf of
Khambhat.
 The eastern part of this plain is fertile enough to
support agriculture, but the greater part near the
coast is covered by windblown loess (heaps of
sand).
Konkan Plain
 The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat plain
extends from Daman to Goa (50 to 80 km wide).
 It has some features of marine erosion including
cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands in the Arabian Sea.
 The Thane creek around Mumbai is an important
embayment (a recess in a coastline forming a bay)
which provides an excellent natural harbour.

63
Karnataka Coastal Plain
 Goa to Mangalore.
 It is a narrow plain with an average width of 30-50
km, the maximum being 70 km near Mangalore.
 At some places the streams originating in the
Western Ghats descend along steep slopes and
make waterfalls.
 The Sharavati while descending over such a steep
slope makes an impressive waterfall known as
Gersoppa (Jog) Falls which is 271 m high. [Angel
falls (979 m) in Venezuela is the highest waterfall
on earth. Tugela Falls (948 m) in Drakensberg
Mountains in South Africa is the second highest.]
 Marine topography is quite marked on the coast.
Kerala Plain
 The Kerala Plain also known as the Malabar Plain.
 Between Mangalore and Kanyakumari.
 This is much wider than the Karnataka plain. It is a
low lying plain.

64
  The existence of lakes, lagoons, backwaters, spits,
etc. is a significant characteristic of the Kerala
coast.
 The backwaters, locally known as kayals are the
shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying parallel
to the coastline.
 The largest among these is the Vembanad
Lake which is about 75 km long and 5-10 km wide
and gives rise to a 55 km long spit.
Eastern Coastal Plains of India
 Extending from the Subarnarekha River along the
West Bengal-Odisha border to Kanyakumari.
 A major part of the plains is formed as a result of
the alluvial fillings of the littoral zone (relating to or
on the shore of the sea or a lake) by the rivers
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery
comprising some of the largest deltas.
 In contrast to the West Coastal Plains, these
are extensive plains with an average width of 120
km.
 This plain is known as the Northern Circars
between the Mahanadi and the Krishna rivers and

65
 Carnatic between the Krishna and the Cauvery
rivers.
Utkal Plain
 The Utkal Plain comprises coastal areas of Odisha.
 It includes the Mahanadi delta.
 The most prominent physiographic feature of this
plain is the Chilka Lake.
 It is the biggest lake in the country and its area
varies between 780 sq km in winter to 1,144 sq km
in the monsoon months.
 South of Chilka Lake, low hills dot the plain.
Andhra Plain
 South of the Utkal Plain and extends upto Pulicat
Lake. This lake has been barred by a long sand spit
known as Sriharikota Island (ISRO launch facility).
 The most significant feature of this plain is the
delta formation by the rivers Godavari and Krishna.
 The two deltas have merged with each other and
formed a single physiographic unit.
 The combined delta has advanced by about 35 km
towards the sea during the recent years. This is

66
 clear from the present location of the Kolleru
Lake which was once a lagoon at the shore but
now lies far inland {Coastline of Emergence}.
 This part of the plain has a straight coast and badly
lacks good harbours with the exception
of Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam.
Tamil Nadu Plain
 The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 km from
Pulicat Lake to Kanyakumari along the coast of
Tamil Nadu. Its average width is 100 km.
 The most important feature of this plain is the
Cauvery delta where the plain is 130 km wide.
 The fertile soil and large scale irrigation facilities
have made the Cauvery delta the granary of South
India.
5. THE INDIAN DESERT
 The Indian Desert lies towards the western margin
of Aravali Hills. It is also called Thar Desert. It is the
ninth largest desert in the world. It spreads over
the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. This region
has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It
receives less than 150 mm of rainfall per year. The

67
 vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes. Luni is
the main river in this area. All other streams appear
only at the time of rainfall otherwise they disappear
into the sand.

6. THE ISLANDS
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 This archipelago is composed of 265 big and small
islands [203 Andaman Islands + 62 Nicobar
Islands]. The Andaman and Nicobar islands extend

68
 from 6° 45′ N to 13° 45′ N and from 92° 10′ E to 94°
15′ E for a distance of about 590 km.
 The Andaman Islands are divided into three main
islands i.e. North, Middle and South. Duncan
passage separates Little Andaman from South
Andaman.
 The Great Andaman group of islands in the north is
separated by the Ten Degree Channel from the
Nicobar group in the south
 Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar Islands
lies in the South Andaman.
 Among the Nicobar Islands, the Great Nicobar is
the largest. It is the southernmost island and is
very close to Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Car
Nicobar is the northernmost.
 Most of these islands are made of tertiary
sandstone, limestone and shale resting on basic
and ultrabasic volcanoes [Similar to Himalayas].
 THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM ISLANDS, north of
Port Blair, are volcanic islands [these are the only
active volcanoes in India][There are no active
volcanoes in main land India].

69
 Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs.
Many of them are covered with thick forests. Most
of the islands are mountainous.
 Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the
highest peak.

70
Lakshadweep Islands

 In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of islands.

1. Amindivi Islands (consisting of six main islands of
Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadmat, Bitra and Perumul
Par).
2. Laccadive Islands (consisting of five major islands
of Androth, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and Suheli Par)

71
3. Minicoy Island.
 At present these islands are collectively known as
Lakshadweep. The Lakshadweep Islands are a
group of 25 small islands. They are widely
scattered about 200-500 km south-west of the
Kerala coast.
 Amendivi Islands are the northern most while
the Minicoy islands are the southernmost. All are
tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll} and are
surrounded by fringing reefs. The largest and the
most advanced are the Minicoy islands with an
area of 4.53 sq km. Most of the islands have low
elevation and do not rise more than five meters
above sea level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level
change). Their topography is flat and relief features
such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are absent.

72
New Moore Island
 It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform
{Marine Landforms} in the Bay of Bengal, off the
coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region.
 It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of
the Bhola cyclone in 1970. It keeps on emerging
and disappearing.
 Although the island was uninhabited and there
were no permanent settlements or stations located
on it, both India and Bangladesh claimed
sovereignty over it because of speculation over the
existence of oil and natural gas in the region.

73
  The issue of sovereignty was also a part of the
larger dispute over the Radcliffe
Award methodology of settling the maritime
boundary between the two nations.
C. THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM AND RIVER WATER
The term drainage describes the river system of an area.
The area drained by a single river system is called a
drainage basin. A closer observation on a map will
indicate that any elevated area, such as a mountain or
upland, separates two drainage basins. Such an upland
is known as a water divide

74
 Adjacent drainage basins are separated from one
another by a drainage divide. Drainage divide is
usually a ridge or a high platform.
 Drainage divide is conspicuous in case of youthful
topography [Himalayas] and it is not well marked in
plains [Ganga plains] and senile topography [old
featureless landforms – Rolling plateaus of
peninsular region though which South Indian rivers
flow].

75
Difference between a River Basin and a Watershed
 Both river basins and watersheds are areas of land
that drain to a particular water body, such as a
lake, stream, river or estuary.
 In a river basin, all the water drains to a large river.
The term watershed is used to describe a smaller
area of land that drains to a smaller stream, lake or
wetland. There are many smaller watersheds
within a river basin.
 Example: watershed of Yamuna + water shed of
Chambal + watershed of Gandak + …. = Drainage
basin of Ganga.
Tributary: A stream or river that flows into a larger
river. e.g. Yamuna
Delta: A triangular shaped land at the mouth of a river
formed from the deposition of silt, sand and small
rocks that flow downstream in the river. eg. Ganga
delta.
Estuary: A partially enclosed coastal body of water
where the salty tidal water mixes with the fresh water
of the river. eg. Narmada river makes an estuary.

76
Drainage patterns
Based on the shape and formation of river patterns, there
are different drainage patterns.
1. Discordant drainage patterns
 A drainage pattern is described as discordant if
it does not correlate to the topology [surface relief
features] and geology [geological features based
on both Endogenetic movements and exogenetic
movements] of the area.
 Discordant drainage patterns are classified into
two main types: antecedent and superimposed.
Antecedent Drainage or Inconsequent Drainage
 A part of a river slope and the surrounding area
gets uplifted and the river sticks to its original
slope, cutting through the uplifted portion like a
saw [Vertical erosion or Vertical down cutting], and
forming deep gorges: this type of drainage is called
Antecedent drainage. Example: Indus, Sutlej,
Brahmaputra and other Himalayan rivers those are
older than the Himalayas themselves. There are
usually called as ANTECEDENT RIVERS.

77
Superimposed or Epigenetic (Discordant) or
Superinduced Drainage
 When a river flowing over a softer rock stratum
reaches the harder basal rocks but continues to
follow the initial slope, it seems to have no relation
with the harder rock bed. This type of drainage is
called superimposed drainage.
 Usually, the drainage patterns (dendritic, trellis,
etc.) are strongly influenced by the hardness and
softness of the rock and patterns of faults or
fractures.
 Sometimes, however, the land rises rapidly relative
to the base level of the stream. This increases the
gradient of the stream and therefore, gives the
stream more erosive power.
 The stream has enough erosive power that it cuts
its way through any kind of bedrock, maintaining
its former drainage pattern.
 It is a drainage pattern which exhibits discordance
with the underlying rock structure because it
originally developed on a cover of rocks that has
now disappeared due to denudation.

78
  Consequently, river directions relate to the former
cover rocks and, as the latter were being eroded,
the rivers have been able to retain their courses
unaffected by the newly exposed structures.
 The stream pattern is thus superposed on, or
placed on structural features that were previously
buried.
 The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal,
the Banas and the rivers flowing at the Rewa
Plateau present some good examples of
superimposed drainage.
 Examples: The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the
Chambal, the Banas and the rivers flowing at the
Rewa Plateau, rivers of eastern USA and southern
France.
2. Concordant Drainage Patterns
 A drainage pattern is described as concordant if
it correlates to the topology and geology of the
area.
 In simple words: In a concordant drainage pattern,
the path of the river is highly dependent on the slope
of the river and topography.

79
  Concordant drainage patterns are the most
commonly found drainage patterns and are
classified into many types.
Consequent Rivers
 The rivers which follow the general direction of
slope are known as the consequent rivers. Most of
the rivers of peninsular India are consequent rivers.
 For example, rivers like Godavari, Krishna and
Cauvery, descending from the Western Ghats and
flowing into the Bay of Bengal, are some of the
consequent rivers of Peninsular India.
Subsequent Rivers
 A tributary stream that is eroded along an
underlying belt of non-resistant rock after the main
drainage pattern (Consequent River) has been
established is known as a subsequent river.
 The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and
Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at right
angles. They are the subsequent drainage of the
Ganga drainage system.
 These streams have generally developed after the
original stream.

80
Dendritic or Pinnate Drainage Pattern

 This is an irregular tree branch shaped pattern.

 Drainage which is branching or ramifying (branch
out or cause to branch out) thereby giving the
appearance of a tree. A dendritic pattern develops
in a terrain which has uniform lithology, and where
faulting and jointing are insignificant.
Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi, Cauvery,
Krishna.

81
Trellis Drainage Pattern

 In this type of pattern the short subsequent

streams meet the main stream at right angles, and
differential erosion through soft rocks paves the
way for tributaries.
Examples: The old folded mountains of
the Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) and Seine
and its tributaries in Paris basin (France) have
drainage of trellis pattern.

82
Angular Drainage Pattern

 The tributaries join the main stream at acute

angles. This pattern is common in Himalayan
foothill regions.
Rectangular Drainage Pattern

83
  The main stream bends at right angles and the
tributaries join at right angles creating rectangular
patterns. This pattern has a subsequent origin.
Example: Colorado River (USA), streams found is
the Vindhyan Mountains of India.
Radial Drainage Pattern

 The tributaries from a summit follow the slope

downwards and drain down in all directions.
Examples: Streams of Saurashtra region, Central
French Plateau, Mt. Kilimanjaro.
 A good example of a radial drainage pattern is
provided by the rivers originating from the
Amarkantak Mountain.

84
  Rivers like Narmada, Son and Mahanadi originating
from Amarkantak Hills flow in different directions
and are good examples of radial pattern.
 Radial drainage patterns are also found/in the
Girnar Hills (Kathiwar, Gujarat), and Mikir Hills of
Assam.
Annular Drainage Pattern

 When the upland has an outer soft stratum, the

radial streams develop subsequent tributaries
which try to follow a circular drainage around the
summit. Example: Black Hill streams of South
Dakota.
 This is not a very common drainage pattern in
India. Some examples of this are however found

85
 in Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil
Nadu and Kerala.
Parallel Drainage Pattern

The tributaries seem to be running parallel to each other

in a uniformly sloping region. Example: Rivers of lesser
Himalayas and The small and swift rivers originating in
the Western Ghats that flow into Arabian Sea.
Centripetal Drainage Pattern

86
  In a low lying basin the streams converge from all
sides. Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and the
Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.
Deranged Drainage Pattern
 This is an uncoordinated pattern of drainage
characteristic of a region recently vacated by an
ice-sheet. This type of drainage is found in the
glaciated valleys of Karakoram.
Barbed Drainage Pattern
A pattern of drainage in which the confluence of a
tributary with the main river is characterized by a
discordant junction—as if the tributary intends to flow
upstream and not downstream. This pattern is the result
of capture of the main river which completely reverses its
direction of flow, while the tributaries continue to point in
the direction of former flow. The Arun River (Nepal), a
tributary of the Kosi is an interesting example of barbed
drainage pattern

87
DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN INDIA
Classification of Drainage Systems of India
Drainage Systems Based on the Size of the Catchment
Area
Division Size of catchment area in sq km
Major river 20,000
Medium river 20,000 – 2,000
Minor river 2,000 and below

Drainage Systems Based on Origin

 The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: Indus, the
Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their tributaries.
 The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial rivers:
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery,
the Narmada and the Tapi and their tributaries.
Drainage Systems Based on the Type of Drainage
The river systems of India can be classified into
following groups:
 Himalayan rivers, Deccan Rivers and Coastal Rivers
that drain into the sea.

88
  Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic
basin). Streams like the Sambhar in western
Rajasthan are mainly seasonal in character,
draining into the inland basins and salt lakes. In
the Rann of Kutch, the only river that flows through
the salt desert is the Luni.
Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea
 The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers that drain into
Bay of Bengal)(East flowing rivers)
 Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain into
Arabian sea)(West flowing rivers).
The Bay of Bengal drainage Arabian Sea drainage
Rivers that drain into Bay of Rivers that drain into Arabian
Bengal sea
East flowing rivers West flowing rivers
~ 77 percent of the drainage ~ 23 percent of the drainage
area of the country is area of the country is oriented
oriented towards the Bay of towards the Arabian sea
Bengal
The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, The Indus, the Narmada,
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Tapi, the Sabarmati,
the Krishna, the Cauvery, the the Mahi and the large number
Penneru, the Penneiyar, the of swift flowing western coast

89
Vaigai, etc. rivers descending from the
Sahyadris.

MAJOR RIVERS IN INDIA

Accordingly, the Indian rivers are divided into two major
groups:
 The Himalayan Rivers; and
 The Peninsular Rivers.
1. THE HIMALAYAN RIVERS
The Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra comprise the
Himalayan river systems.
D. RIVER INDUS
Indus River System
Sindhu Sanskrit
Sinthos Greek
Sindus Latin
Indus Glaciers of Kailas Range (Close to Manasarovar
Lake)
Jhelum Verinag
Chenab Bara Lacha Pass
Ravi Near Rohtang Pass

90
Beas Near Rohtang Pass
Satluj Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes

Indus River
 India got her name from Indus. ‘The Indus Valley
Civilization’ was born around this river.
 It flows in north-west direction from its
source (Glaciers of Kailas Range – Kailash range in
Tibet near Lake Manasarovar) till the Nanga
Parbhat Range.
 It’s length is about 2,900 km. Its total drainage area
is about 1,165,000 square km [more than half of it
lies in semiarid plains of Pakistan]. It is joined
by Dhar River near Indo-China border.
 After entering J&K it flows between the Ladakh and
the Zaskar Ranges. It flows through the regions of
Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit. Average elevation at
which the Indus flows through JK is about 4000
m above sea level. It is joined by the Zaskar River
at Leh. Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok at an
elevation of about 2,700 m. The Gilgit, Gartang,
Dras, Shiger, Hunza are the other Himalayan
tributaries of the Indus. It crosses the Himalayas

91
(ends its mountainous journey) through a 5181 m
deep gorge near Attock, lying north of the Nanga
Parbat. It takes a sharp southerly bend
here (syntaxial bend). Kabul River from
Afghanistan joins Indus near Attock. Thereafter it
flows through the Potwar plateau and crosses
the Salt Range (South Eastern edge of Potwar
Plateau). Some of the important tributaries below
Attock include the Kurram, Toch and the Zhob-
Gomal. Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives
from Panjnad (Panchnad), the accumulated waters
of the five eastern tributaries—the Jhelum, the
Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj. The river
empties into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi after
forming a huge delta.

92
Major Tributaries of Indus River
Jhelum River
 The Jhelum has its source in a spring at Verinag in
the south-eastern part of the Kashmir Valley. It
flows northwards into Wular Lake (north-western
part of Kashmir Valley). After flowing through the
spurs of the Salt Range it debouches (emerge from

93
 a confined space into a wide, open area) on the
plains near the city of Jhelum. It joins the Chenab
at Trimmu.
 The river is navigable for about 160 km out of a
total length of 724 km.
Chenab River
 The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha
Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the Zaskar Range.
 Two small streams on opposite sides of the pass,
namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its headwaters at
an altitude of 4,900 m. It enters the plain area
near Akhnur in Jammu and Kashmir. From here it
through the plains of Pakistani Punjab to reach
Panchnad where it joins the Satluj after receiving
the waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
Ravi River
 The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near
the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh. It enters
Punjab Plains near Madhopur and later enters
Pakistan below Amritsar. It debouches into the
Chenab a little above Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab.

94
Beas River
 The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, at a
height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the southern
end of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the source of
the Ravi. It crosses the Dhaola Dhar range and it
takes a south-westerly direction and meets the
Satluj River at Harike in Punjab. It is a
comparatively small river which is only 460 km
long but lies entirely within the Indian Territory.
Satluj River
 The Satluj rises from the Manasarovar-Rakas
Lakes in western Tibet at a height of 4,570 m
within 80 km of the source of the Indus. Out of its
total length of 1,450 km, it flows for 1,050 km in
Indian Territory.
Indus water treaty
 The waters of the Indus river system are shared by
India and Pakistan according to the Indus Water
Treaty signed between the two countries on 19th
September, 1960. According to this treaty, India
can utilize only 20 per cent of its total discharge of
water.

95
E. GANGA - BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM

 The Ganga river system consists of the River

Ganga and a large number of its tributaries. This
system drains a very large area comprising the
middle part of the Himalayas in the north, the
northern part of the Indian Plateau in the south and
the Ganga Plain in-between. The total area of the
Ganga basin in India is 861,404 sq. km which
accounts for 26.3 percent of the geographical area
of the country. This basin is shared by ten states.
These states are Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh
(34.2%), Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
(23.1%), Bihar and Jharkhand (16.7%), Rajasthan
(13.0%), West Bengal (8.3%), Haryana (4.0%) and

96
 Himachal Pradesh (0.5%). The Union Territory of
Delhi accounts for 0.2% of the total area of the
Ganga Basin. The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi
from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi District of
Uttaranchal at an elevation of 7,010 m. Alakhnanda
joins it at Devaprayag. But before Devaprayag, the
Pindar, the Mandakini, the Dhauliganga and the
Bishenganga rivers pour into the Alaknanda and
the Bheling flows into the Bhagirathi. The total
length of the Ganga River from its source to its
mouth (measured along the Hugli) is 2525 km, of
which 310 km in Uttaranchal, 1140 km in Uttar
Pradesh, 445 km in Bihar and 520 km in West
Bengal. The remaining 110 km stretch of the Ganga
forms the boundary between Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar.
 Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga, along
with Brahmaputra, forms the largest delta of the
world between two arms: the Bhagirathi Hugli and
the Padma/Meghna covering an area of 58,752 sq
km. The delta front of the Ganga is a highly
indented area of about 400 km length extending
from the mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the
Meghna. The delta is made of a web of
distributaries and islands and is covered by dense

97
 forests called the Sunderbans. A major part of the
delta is a low-lying swamp which is flooded by
marine water during high tide.
Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga
 Most of them except Yamuna originate in the
peninsular region.
Yamuna River
 Largest and the most important tributary.
 It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on
the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal region in
Uttarakhand at an elevation of about 6,000 meters.
It unites with the Ganga near Triveni Sangam,
Allahabad.
 The total length of the Yamuna from its origin till
Allahabad is 1,376 km.
 It creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges
Doab region between itself and the Ganges in the
Indo-Gangetic plain.

98
Non – Peninsular Peninsular Tributaries
Tributaries Most of the Peninsular rivers
1. Rishiganga flow into the Yamuna
2. Uma between Agra and Allahabad.

3. Hanuman Ganga and 1. Chambal

4. Tons join it in the 2. Sind

mountains. 3. Betwa
5. Hindon joins at 4. Ken.
Ghaziabad in the plain
area

99
Chambal River
 The Chambal rises in the highlands of Janapao
Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan Range. It flows
through the Malwa Plateau. It joins the Yamuna
in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh. The total length
of the river is 1,050 km.
Dams on the Chambal
 The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams
built on the Chambal River, located on the
Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border.
 The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam located 52
km downstream of Gandhi Sagar dam on across
the Chambal River in Chittorgarh district in
Rajasthan.
 The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam in the
series of Chambal Valley Projects, located 29 km
upstream of Kota city and 26 km downstream of
Rana Pratap Sagar dam.
 The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the series of
Chambal Valley Projects, located about 0.8 km
upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan.

100
  Water released after power generation at Gandhi
Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar
Sagar Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for
irrigation in Rajasthan and in Madhya Pradesh
through canals.
Keoladeo National Park is supplied with water from
Chambal river irrigation project.
Banas River
 The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal. It
originates in the southern part of the Aravali
Range. It joins the Chambal on Rajasthan –
Madhya Pradesh border near Sawai Madhopur.
Sind River
 The Sind originates in Vidisha Plateau of Madhya
Pradesh. It flows for a distance of 415 km before it
joins the Yamuna.
Betwa River
 The Betwa rises in Bhopal district (Vindhyan
Range) and joins the Yamuna near. It has a total
length of 590 km. The Dhasan is its important
tributary.

101
Ken River
 The Ken River rising from the Barner Range of
Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna near Chila.
Son River
 The Son River rises in the Amarkantak Plateau. Its
source is close to the origin of the Narmada. It
joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna district of
Bihar. It flows for a distance of 784 km from its
source. The important tributaries of the Son are the
Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the Kanhar and the
North Koel. Almost all the tributaries join it on its
right bank.
Damodar River
 The Damodar River rises in the hills of
the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift
valley.
 Rich in mineral resources, the valley is home to
large-scale mining and industrial activity.
 It has a number of tributaries and subtributaries,
such as Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Haharo, etc.
 The Barakar is the most important tributary of the
Damodar.

102
  Several dams have been constructed in the valley,
for the generation of hydroelectric power. The
valley is called “the Ruhr of India”.
 The first dam was built across the Barakar River, a
tributary of the Damodar River.
 It used to cause devastating floods as a result of
which it earned the name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’. Now
the river is tamed by constructing numerous dams.
 It joins the Hugli River 48 km below Kolkata.
 The total length of the river is 541 km.
Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River
 These rivers originate in the Himalayas.
 The major tributaries apart from the Yamuna,
are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghra, the
Gandak, the Burhi Gandak, the Bagmati, and the
Kosi.
Ramganga River
 The Ramganga River rises in the Garhwal district of
Uttarakhand.
 It enters the Ganga Plain near Kalagarh.

103
  It joins the Ganga at The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril,
the Kosi, and the Deoha (Gorra) are important
tributaries of Ramganga.
Ghaghra River
 Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak, south of
Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans-Himalayan
origin).
 It is known as the Karnaili in Western Nepal.
 Its important tributaries are the Sarda, the Sarju
(Ayodhya is located on its bank) and the Rapti.
 The Ghaghara joins the Ganga a few kilometers
downstream of Chhapra in Bihar.
 After reaching the plain area, its stream gets
divided into many branches of which, Koriyab and
Garwa are important.
Kali River
 Rises in the high glaciers of trans-Himalaya.
 It forms the boundary between Nepal and Kumaon.
It is known as the Sarda after it reaches the plains
near Tanakpur.

104
Gandak River
 Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at a height
of 7,620 m. It receives a large number of tributaries
in Nepal Himalaya. Its important tributaries are
the Kali , Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the
Trishuli. It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.
Kosi River
 The Kosi river consists of seven streams
namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha, Doodh Kosi,
Botia Kosi, Arun and Tamber. These streams flow
through eastern Nepal which is known as the Sapt
Kaushik region.
 The sources of seven streams of the Kosi are
located in snow covered areas which also receive
heavy rainfall. Consequently, huge volume of water
flows with tremendous speed. Seven streams
mingle with each other to form three streams
named the Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi. They unite
at Triveni north of the Mahabharata Range to form
the Kosi. The river enters the Tarai of Nepal after
cutting a narrow gorge in the Mahabharata Range.
 The river channel is braided and it shifts its course
frequently. This has resulted in frequent

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 devastating floods and has converted large tracts
of cultivable land into waste land in Bihar. Thus the
river is often termed as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
 In order to tame this river, a barrage was
constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal.
Embankments for flood control have been
constructed as a joint venture of India and Nepal.
BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM:

 The river Brahmaputra covers a catchment area of

about 5,80,000 Sq.km. right from its origin in
Himalayan Lake Manasarover at an elevation of
about 5,150 m in Tibet to the outfall in the Bay of

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 Bengal. It flows eastward in Tibet and south, south-
west in India and traverses a distance of about
2900 km out of which 1,700 km is in Tibet, 900 km
is in India and 300 km is in Bangladesh. In the
upper reaches, the river is fed by the glaciers and in
the lower reaches, it is joined by a number of
tributaries which originates at different elevation in
the hills encircling the catchment, forming
watershed. Among its tributaries Subansiri, Manas,
Jiabharali, Pagladiya, Puthimari and Sankosh, etc
are snow fed.
 The Tibetan name of river is “TSANGPO” and
Chinese name is “YALUZANGBU”. The watershed
area is mostly on the northern side of the river in
this region. After traversing a distance of about
1700 km eastwardly, the river changes its course
from east to south and then enters the Arunachal
Pradesh in Indian Territory. Its name also changes
from “TSANGPO” to Siang and Dehang in
Arunachal Pradesh. The river then flows almost in
Southern direction for another distance of about
200 km upto Passighat. Before touching plains it is
joined by two major Himalayan tributaries viz. Lohit
and Debang. The combined flow of these rivers is
known as the Brahmaputra and passes through the

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 plains of Assam and Bangladesh before falling into
the Bay of Bengal. From Passighat to Dhubri where
it travels in plains of Assam is well known as
Brahmaputra valley.
 The important tributaries of River Brahmaputra are:
 Left bank tributaries: Dhansiri, Kapili, Barak.
 Right bank tributaries: Subansiri, Jia Bhoraeli,
Manas, Sankosh, Tista & Raidak
 Dhansiri: Rises from Naga Hills.
 Sankosh: It’s the main river of Bhutan, meets
Brahmaputra at Dhubri, Assam.
 Manas: Rises from Tibet and joins Brahmaputra
on its right bank.
 Subansiri: It is flows in between the Mikir hills &
Abor hills and later joins Brahmaputra on its
right bank.
 Tista: Rises from Kanchanjunga, fed by the
tributaries like Rangit & Rangpo, it joins the
Brahmaputra river in Bangladesh.
 Barak: Rises in Nagaland. It enters Bangladesh
as River Surma which falls into River Padma at
Chandpur.

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DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF PENINSULAR INDIA
Origin of Peninsular Drainage
 Subsidence of western flank of peninsula during
early tertiary period. It his disturbed the symmetry
of peninsular block’s river watershed.
 Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank
of peninsular block was subjected to subsidence
and consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and
Tapi flow in trough faults and fill the original cracks
with detritus materials. Hence there is lack of
alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
 Slight tilting of peninsular block from North-West
to South-East has caused entire drainage system
to flow towards Bay of Bengal.
 Types of Peninsular River System (On the basis of
direction of flow)
 West flowing rivers
 East flowing Rivers

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1. EAST FLOWING RIVERS
Mahanadi River
 The Mahanadi basin extends over states of
Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively
smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh, draining an area of 1.4 lakh
Sq.km.
 It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north,
by the Eastern Ghats on the south and east and by
the Maikala range on the west.
 The Mahanadi (“Great River”) follows a total course
of 560 miles (900 km).
 It has its source in the northern foothills
of Dandakaranya in Raipur District of Chhattisgarh
at an elevation of 442 m.
 Other small streams between the Mahanadi and
the Rushikulya draining directly into the Chilka
Lake also forms the part of the basin.
 The major part of basin is covered with agricultural
land accounting to 54.27% of the total area.
 It is one of the most-active silt-depositing streams
in the Indian subcontinent.

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 After receiving the Seonath River, it turns east and
enters Odisha state.
 At Sambalpur the Hirakud Dam (one of the largest
dams in India) on the river has formed a man-made
lake 35 miles (55 km) long.
 It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack and enters
the Bay of Bengal at False Point by several
channels.
 Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous pilgrimage
site.

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Tributaries of Mahanadi River
 Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped basin
called the ‘Chhattisgarh Plain’.
 This basin is surrounded by hills on the north, west
and south as a result of which a large number of
tributaries join the main river from these sides.
 Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the Hasdeo,
the Mand and the Ib.
 Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel and
the Jonk.
Projects on Mahanadi River
 Two important projects completed during pre-plan
period in the basin are the Mahanadi main
canal and Tandula reservoir in Chhattisgarh.
 During the plan period, the Hirakud dam, Mahanadi
delta project, Hasdeo Bango, Mahanadi Reservoir
Project were completed.
Godavari River
 The Godavari is the largest river system of the
Peninsular India and is revered as Dakshina Ganga.

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 The Godavari basin extends over states of
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and
Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka and Union territory of
Puducherry (Yanam) having a total area of ~ 3 lakh
Sq.km.
 The basin is bounded by Satmala hills, the Ajanta
range and the Mahadeo hills on the north, by the
Eastern Ghats on the south and the east and by the
Western Ghats on the west.
 The Godavari River rises from Trimbakeshwar in
the Nashik district of Maharashtra about 80 km
from the Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 m.
 The total length of Godavari from its origin to
outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465 km.

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Tributaries of Godavari River
 The left bank tributaries are more in number
and larger in size than the right bank tributaries.
 The Manjra (724 km) is the only important right
bank tributary. It joins the Godavari after passing
through the Nizam Sagar.
 Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga,
Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita [conveying the
combined waters of Penganga, the Wardha and
Wainganga], Pench, Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati etc.

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  Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjra,
Peddavagu, Maner etc.
 Below Rajahmundry, the river divides itself into two
main streams, the Gautami Godavari on the east
and the Vashishta Godavari on the west and forms
a large delta before it pours into the Bay of Bengal.
 The delta of the Godavari is of lobate type with a
round bulge and many distributaries.
Projects on Godavari River
 Important projects completed during the plan
period are Srirama Sagar, Godavari barrage, Upper
Penganga, Jaikwadi, Upper Wainganga, Upper
Indravati, Upper Wardha.
Krishna River
 The Krishna is the second largest east flowing river
of the Peninsula.
 The Krishna Basin extends over Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Karnataka having a total area of
~2.6 lakh Sq.km.
 It is bounded by Balaghat range on the north, by
the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east and by
the Western Ghats on the west.

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 The Krishna River rises from the Western
Ghats near Jor village of Satara district of
Maharashtra at an altitude of 1,337 m just north
of Mahabaleshwar.
 The total length of river from origin to its outfall
into the Bay of Bengal is 1,400 km.
 The major part of basin is covered with agricultural
land accounting to 75.86% of the total area.
 The Krishna forms a large delta with a shoreline of
about 120 km. The Krishna delta appears to merge
with that formed by the Godavari and extends
about 35 km into the sea.

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Tributaries of Krishna River
 Right bank: the Ghatprabha, the Malprabha and the
Tungabhadra.
 Left Bank: the Bhima, the Musi and the Munneru.
 The Koyna is a small tributary but is known
for Koyna Dam. This dam was perhaps the main
cause of the devastating earthquake (6.4 on
Richter scale) in 1967 that killed 150 people.
 The Bhima originates from the Matheron Hills and
joins the Krishna near Raichur after for a distance
of 861 km.
 The Tungabhadra is formed by the unification of
the Tunga and the Bhadra originating from
Gangamula in the Central Sahyadri. Its total length
is 531 km.
 At Wazirabad, it receives its last important
tributary, the Musi, on whose banks the city of
Hyderabad is located.
Projects on Krishna River
 Important ones are the Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha,
Nagarjunasagar, Malaprabha, Bhima,
Bhadra and Telugu Ganga.

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  The major Hydro Power stations in the basin
are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri Sailam, Nagarjuna
Sagar, Almatti, Naryanpur, Bhadra.
 Tunagabhadra is a major inter-States project in the
basin. In order to operate the project and to
regulate the flows among the beneficiary States of
Karnataka and Andhara Pradesh must agree.
Cauvery River
 The Cauvery River rises at an elevation of 1,341 m
at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range near
Cherangala village of Kodagu (Coorg) district of
Karnataka. The total length of the river from origin
to outfall is 800 km.
 The Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union Territory of
Puducherry with draining of an area of 81 thousand
km2.
 It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the west, by
the Eastern Ghats on the east and the south and by
the ridges separating it from Krishna basin and
Pennar basin on the north.

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  Physiographically, the basin can be divided into
three parts – the Western Ghats, the Plateau of
Mysore and the Delta.
 The delta area is the most fertile tract in the basin.
The principal soil types found in the basin are black
soils, red soils, laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils
and mixed soils. Red soils occupy large areas in
the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the delta
areas.
 It is, almost a perennial river with comparatively
less fluctuations in flow and is very useful for
irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.
 Thus the Cauvery is one of the best regulated
rivers and 90 to 95 per cent of its irrigation and
power production potential already stands
harnessed.
 The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The major
part of basin is covered with agricultural land
accounting to 66.21% of the total area.
Tributaries of the Cauvery River
 Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha
and the Arkavati.

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 Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the
Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil and the
Amaravati join from right.
 The river descends from the South Karnataka
Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through
the Sivasamudram waterfalls (101 m high).
 The two branches of the river join after the fall and
flow through a wide gorge which is known
as ‘Mekedatu’ (Goats leap) and continues its
journey to form the boundary between Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu States for a distance of 64 km.
 At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes Southerly direction
and enters the Mettur Reservoir. A tributary called
Bhavani joins Cauvery on the Right bank about 45
Kms below Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter it enters
the plains of Tamil Nadu.
 On the Cauvery branch lays the “Grand Anicut” said
to have been constructed by a Chola King in 1st
Century A.D.
 Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery branch splits
into two, Cauvery and Vennar.

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Projects on Cauvery River
 During the pre-plan period many projects were
completed in this basin which
included Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka, Mettur
dam and Cauvery delta system in Tamil Nadu.
 Lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi, Kabini are
important projects completed during the plan
period..

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Pennar River
 The Pennar (also known as Uttara Pinakini) is one
of the major rivers of the peninsula. The Pennar
rises in the Chenna Kasava hill of the Nandidurg
range, in Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka and
flows towards east eventually draining into the Bay
of Bengal. The total length of the river from origin
to its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597 km.
 Located in peninsular India, the Pennar basin
extends over states of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka having an area of ~55 thousand km2 .
 The fan shaped basin is bounded by the Erramala
range on the north, by the Nallamala and Velikonda
ranges of the Eastern Ghats on the east, by
the Nandidurg hills on the south and by the narrow
ridge separating it from the Vedavati valley of the
Krishna Basin on the west.
 The other hill ranges in the basin to the south of
the river are the Seshachalam [famous for Red
Sanders] and Paliconda ranges.
 The major part of basin is covered with agriculture
accounting to 58.64% of the total area.

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Tributaries of Pennar River
 Left Bank: the Jayamangali, the Kunderu and the
 Right bank: the Chiravati, the Papagni etc.

Subarnarekha
 The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi
Plateau in Jharkhand forming the boundary
between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower
course.

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  It joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between
the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas. Its total length is
395 km.
Brahamani River
 The Brahmani River comes into existence by the
confluence of the Koel and the Sankh rivers near
Rourkela. It has a total length of 800 km.
 The basin is bounded in the North by
Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and South by
the Mahanadi basin and in the East by the Bay of
Bengal.
 The basin flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh
and Orissa States and drains into Bay of Bengal.
Vaigai River
 South of the Cauvery delta, there are several
streams, of which the Vaigai is the longest. The
Vaigai basin is an important basin among the 12
basins lying between the Cauvery and
Kanyakumari. This basin is bounded by the
Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the
Cardaman hills and the Palani hills on the West and
by the Palk Strait and Palk Bay on the East. The

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 Vaigai drains an area of 7,741 Sq.Km, which
entirely lies in the state of Tamil Nadu.
WEST FLOWING RIVERS IN INDIA
 The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular India are
fewer and smaller as compared to their east
flowing counterparts. The two major west flowing
rivers are the Narmada and the Tapi.
 This exceptional behavior is because these rivers
didn’t form valleys and instead they flow through
faults (linear rift, rift valley, trough) created due to
the bending of the northern peninsula during the
formation process of Himalayas. The Sabarmati,
Mahi and Luni are other rivers of the Peninsular
India which flow westwards.
 It is interesting to note that the Peninsular Rivers
which fall into the Arabian Sea do not form deltas,
but only estuaries. {Fluvial Depositional
Landforms}
 This is due to the fact that the west flowing rivers,
especially the Narmada and the Tapi flow
through hard rocks and hence do not carry any
good amount of silt. Moreover, the tributaries of
these rivers are very small and hence they don’t

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 contribute any silt. Hence these rivers are not able
to form distributaries or a delta before they enter
the sea.
Estuary
An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the
coast where freshwater from rivers and streams meets
and mixes with salt water from the ocean. Primary
productivity in estuaries is very high. Fishing is a
dominant occupation around estuaries. Most of the
estuaries are good bird sanctuaries. Estuarine
environments are among the most productive on earth,
creating more organic matter each year than
comparably-sized areas of forest, grassland, or
agricultural land. The protected coastal waters of
estuaries also support important public infrastructure,
serving as harbors and ports vital for shipping and
transportation. Estuaries also perform other valuable
services. Water draining from uplands carries sediments,
nutrients, and other pollutants to estuaries. As the water
flows through wetlands such as swamps and salt
marshes, much of the sediments and pollutants are
filtered out. Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine
plants also help prevent erosion and stabilize shorelines
[Mangroves].

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Narmada River
 Narmada is the largest west flowing river of the
peninsular India.
 Narmada flows westwards through a rift
valley between the Vindhyan Range on the north
and the Satpura Range on the south.
 It rises from Maikala range near
Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of
about 1057 m.
 Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh
having an area ~1 Lakh Sq.km.
 It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, Maikala
range on the east, Satpuras on the south and by
the Arabian Sea on the west.
 Its total length from its source in Amarkantak to its
estuary in the Gulf of Khambhat is 1,310 km.
 The hilly regions are in the upper part of the basin,
and lower middle reaches are broad and fertile
areas well suited for cultivation.
 Jabalpur is the only important urban centre in the
basin.

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  The river slopes down near Jabalpur where it
cascades (a small waterfall, especially one in a
series) 15m into a gorge to form the Dhuan Dhar
(Cloud of Mist) Falls.
 Since the gorge is composed of marble, it is
popularly known as the Marble Rocks.
 It makes two waterfalls of 12 m each at Mandhar
and Dardi. Near Maheshwar the river again
descends from another small fall of 8 m, known as
the Sahasradhara Falls.
 There are several islands in the estuary of the
Narmada of which Aliabet is the largest.
 The Narmada is navigable up to 112 km from its
mouth.
Tributaries of Narmada River
 Since the river flows through a narrow valley
confined by precipitous (dangerously high or
steep) hills, it does not have many tributaries.
 The absence of tributaries is especially noted on
the right bank of the river where the Hiran is the
only exception.

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  The other right bank tributaries are the Orsang, the
Barna and the Kolar.
 A few left bank tributaries drain the northern slopes
of the Satpura Range and join the Narmada at
different places.
 The major Hydro Power Projects in the basin
are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar,
Bargi & Maheshwar.

Tapti River
 The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the second
largest west flowing river of the Peninsular India
and is known as ‘the twin’ or ‘the handmaid’ of the
Narmada.

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 It originates near Multai reserve forest in Madhya
Pradesh at an elevation of 752 m.
 Flows for about 724 km before out falling into the
Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay [Gulf of
Khambhat].
 The Tapti River along with its tributaries flows over
the plains of Vidharbha, Khandesh and Gujarat and
over large areas in the state of Maharashtra and a
small area in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
 The basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Gujarat having an area of ~
65,000 km2
 Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin is
bounded by the Satpura range on the
north, Mahadev hills on the east, Ajanta Range and
the Satmala hills on the south and by the Arabian
Sea on the west.
 The hilly region of the basin is well forested while
the plains are broad and fertile areas suitable for
cultivation.
 There are two well defined physical regions, in the
basin, viz. hilly region and plains; the hilly regions

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 comprising Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo,
Ajanta and Gawilgarh hills are well forested.
 The plain covers the Khandesh areas (Khandesh is
a region of central India, which forms the
northwestern portion of Maharashtra state) which
are broad and fertile suitable for cultivation
primarily.
Tributaries of Tapti River
 Right Bank: the Suki, the Gomai, the Arunavati and
the Aner.
 Left Bank: the Vaghur, the Amravati, the Buray,
the Panjhra, the Bori, the Girna, the Purna,
the Mona and the Sipna.
Projects on Tapti River
 Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project (Maharashtra)
 Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai Project
(Gujarat)
 Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna Project
(Maharashtra)

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Sabarmati River
 The Sabarmati is the name given to the combined
streams the Sabar and Hathmati.
 The Sabarmati basin extends over states of
Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area of 21,674 Sq
km.
 The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north
and north-east, by Rann of Kutch on the west and
by Gulf of Khambhat on the south.

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  The basin is roughly triangular in shape with the
Sabarmati River as the base and the source of
the Vatrak River as the apex point.
 Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills at an
elevation of 762 m near village Tepur, in Udaipur
district of Rajasthan.
 The total length of river from origin to outfall into
the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
 The major part of basin is covered with agriculture
accounting to 74.68% of the total area.
 Rainfall varies from a meager few mm in Saurastra
to over 1000 mm in southern part.
 Left bank tributaries: the Wakal, the Hathmati and
the Vatrak.
 Right bank tributaries: the Sei.
 Projects: Sabarmati reservoir (Dharoi), Hathmati
reservoir and Meshwo reservoir project are major
projects completed during the plan period.
Mahi River
 The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat having total area
of 34,842 km2. It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the

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 north and the north-west, by Malwa Plateau on the
east, by the Vindhyas on the south and by the Gulf
of Khambhat on the west. Mahi is one of the major
interstate west flowing rivers of India.
 It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas
at an altitude of 500m in Dhar district of Madhya
Pradesh. The total length of Mahi is 583 km. It
drains into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of
Khambhat.
 The major part of basin is covered with agricultural
land accounting to 63.63% of the total area
Luni River
 The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or Lavanavari in
Sanskrit) is named so because its water is brackish
below Balotra.
 Luni is the only river basin of any significance in
Western Rajasthan, which forms the bulk of arid
zone.
 Luni originates from western slopes of the Aravalli
ranges at an elevation of 772 m near Ajmer flowing
in South West direction and traversing a course of
511 km in Rajasthan, it finally flow into the Rann of
Kachchh (it gets lost in the marsh). The peculiarity

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 of this river is that it tends to increase its
width rather than deepening the bed because the
banks are of soils, which are easily erodible
whereas beds are of sand. The floods develop and
disappear so rapidly that they have no time to
scour the bed.
F. CLIMATE OF INDIA
Weather is the momentary state of the atmosphere while
climate refers to the average of the weather conditions
over a longer period of time. India has hot monsoonal
climate which is the prevalent climate in south and
Southeast Asia. The monsoon regime emphasizes the
unity of India with the rest of Southeast Asian region.
Factors determining the climate of India
India’s climate is controlled by a number of factors which
are explained below:
Factors related to Location and Relief
 Latitude: The Tropic of Cancer passes through the
central part of India in east-west direction. Thus,
northern part of the India lies in sub-tropical and
temperate zone and the part lying south of the
Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone. The
tropical zone being nearer to the equator,

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 experiences high temperatures throughout the year
with small daily and annual range. Area north of
the Tropic of Cancer being away from the equator,
experiences extreme climate with high daily and
annual range of temperature.
 The Himalayan Mountains: The lofty Himalayas in
the north along with its extensions act as an
effective climatic divide. The towering mountain
chain provides an invincible shield to protect the
subcontinent from the cold northern winds. These
cold and chilly winds originate near the Arctic
Circle and blow across central and eastern Asia.
The Himalayas also trap the monsoon winds,
forcing them to shed their moisture within the
subcontinent.
 Distribution of Land and Water: India is flanked by
the Indian Ocean on three sides in the south and
girdled by a high and continuous mountain-wall in
the north. As compared to the landmass, water
heats up or cools down slowly. This differential
heating of land and sea creates different air
pressure zones in different seasons in and around
the Indian subcontinent. Difference in air pressure
causes reversal in the direction of monsoon winds.

136
 Distance from the Sea: With a long coastline, large
coastal areas have an equable climate. Areas in the
interior of India are far away from the moderating
influence of the sea. Such areas have extremes of
climate. That is why; the people of Mumbai and the
Konkan coast have hardly any idea of extremes of
temperature and the seasonal rhythm of weather.
On the other hand, the seasonal contrasts in
weather at places in the interior of the country
such as Delhi, Kanpur and Amritsar affect the
entire sphere of life.
 Altitude: Temperature decreases with height. Due
to thin air, places in the mountains are cooler than
places on the plains. For example, Agra and
Darjeeling are located on the same latitude, but
temperature of January in Agra is 16°C whereas it
is only 4°C in Darjeeling.
 Relief: The physiography or relief of India also
affects the temperature, air pressure, direction and
speed of wind and the amount and distribution of
rainfall. The windward sides of Western Ghats and
Assam receive high rainfall during June-September
whereas the southern plateau remains dry due to
its leeward situation along the Western Ghats.

137
HIMALAYAN CLIMATE SYSTEM
 India is separated from rest of the Asia by the wall
of Himalayan mountain ranges. It restricts the cold
and dry winds of Central Asia to the North of
Himalayas. These mountain ranges also act as an
effective physical barrier for rain bearing
southwest monsoon winds and force them to shed
their moisture within the country. Thus, it acts as
an effective climatic divide between the Indian
subcontinent and the central Asia.
 Within the Himalayas, Climate varies depending
upon elevation and location. Climate ranges from
subtropical in the southern foothills to warm
temperate conditions in the middle Himalayas to
cold temperate conditions in the higher parts of
middle Himalayas to a cold alpine climate at higher
elevations.
Seasonal Rhythm
 Winter Season: The temperature in the winter
season falls progressively with the increase in
altitude from sea level. At the foothill, the
temperature in winter is about 18°C in the day time,
at the middle Himalayas it is about 6 to 12°C and
above this, the temperature is below freezing point.

138
 The higher elevations above 5000 meter are
permafrost and Tundra type of climate. Dras valley
in Kashmir is the coldest place in India. The
minimum temperature recorded here on 28th
December 1908 was –45°C.
 During the winter season, the westerly jet streams
sets in on the south of the Himalayas due to the
shift of the ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone)
southward. These jet streams often bring the low
pressure depression created over the
Mediterranean Sea to Himalayan region while its
journey from Mediterranean Sea to Himalayas, the
moisture content gets augmented by Caspian Sea
and Persian Gulf. They even reach up to Arunachal
Pradesh. Due to orographic upliftment, they cause
precipitation in the form of snowfall. After the
passage of the disturbance, widespread fog and
cold waves set in the region thus lowering the
minimum temperature by 5°C to 10°C below the
normal average. The range of diurnal temperature
increases and winters become more severe. Haze
is common in morning and evening. These
situations cause great problems to day to day
activities. The roads get blocked, commercial
setups cannot work due to snow cover creating

139
 difficulty, fiights are affected and the people
struggle to get everyday requirements and
groceries.
 The frequencies of western disturbances vary from
year to year but on an average 3 to 5 disturbance
per month are experienced. The average
precipitation during the three months of winter
season i.e. from December to February is about
60cm in the Himalayan region. The eastern
Himalayan region also gets rainfall from the north
east monsoon. Although it is not so significant as
the north east monsoon winds are coming from
land and do not have sufficient moisture content
due to lack of source, but the combined effect of
western disturbances and north east monsoon
causes an average precipitation of about 50 cm in
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.

140
Summer Season

 The period from March to June in India is the

summer season. This season is mostly dry and
hot. At the foothills of Himalayas, the maximum
average temperature is about 30°C. Due to the
effect of the lapse rate (6.5°C per 1000m of
elevation) with altitude, the maximum temperature
in the middle Himalayas ranges from 15°C to 25°C,
varying in accordance with the altitude, latitude,

141
 and other governing factors of temperature. Above
the elevation of 5000m, the temperature is almost
below freezing point throughout the year.
 Due to heating of land surface in the area of Chota
Nagpur plateau region, a low pressure is created
locally which leads to convectional movement of
the air. This low pressure depression is carried to
the eastern Himalayan region by the westerly jet
streams. This air mass further gets cooled
adiabatically due to orographic upliftment and
causes precipitation in the eastern Himalayan
region in the sates of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Nagaland, etc. The western disturbances still
persist, although, their frequency is reduced. It
brings precipitation in the upper reaches of the
Himalayas. The weather condition changes
abruptly with the arrival of western disturbances.
The sky is overcast with clouds. The precipitation
is in the form of snowfall and sleet. This condition
persists till early April but can be experienced in
May also in the upper reaches. These disturbances
move eastward and can cause snowfall and
thunderstorms in central and eastern Himalayas
also till the end of April.

142
  The diurnal temperature range gradually reduces
and is in the range of 11°C to 16°C varying with
altitude, distance from sea, wind direction and
other governing factors.
Rainy Season
 This season is also called as monsoon season as it
starts with the onset of northwest monsoon in
India. The monsoon season in India generally
starts in last week of May and first week of June
varying year to year. The weather conditions
change. The relative humidity of the atmosphere
increases, sky is over cast with clouds,
atmospheric temperature increases before the
outbreak of monsoon and there may be some
spells of pre monsoon showers.
 As the monsoon comes, there is significant fall in
the atmospheric temperature ranging from 3°C to
6°C lower than the month of June in the Himalayan
region. After this sudden fall in temperature, there
is no further fall in temperature throughout the
season. However in the month of September, as
the monsoon starts to retreat there is an increase
in temperature for a short time period. The night
temperature is more or less constant while the day

143
 temperature fluctuates on day to day basis. The
diurnal temperature range is less and varies
between 4°C to 6°C due to the greenhouse effect
created by the clouds.
 The eastern Himalayas get the monsoonal rain
earlier than the western Himalayas due to nearness
to the sea and the direction of movement of the
Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon wind. Around
June 5, the monsoon breaks in eastern Himalayas.
From here, due to the barrier effect of the
Himalayas and the orientation of the Himalayas,
the Bay of Bengal branch moves westerly along the
foothills of Himalayas into the Ganga plains.
 The Arabian Sea branch moving on the eastern
side of the Aravalis after being defected due to the
orientation of Western Ghats meets Bay of Bengal
branch at Agra and moves towards Kashmir. The
monsoon breaks in the western Himalayan region
around 1st of July.
 But in the western Himalayan region, the
precipitation is not as intensive as in the eastern
region because most of the moisture is lost during
journey of the monsoon winds up till here due to
precipitation.

144
  However the Arabian Sea branch brings more
precipitation due to its shorter length of journey
until western Himalayas. Heavy rainfall is caused
in the eastern Himalayas, sub Himalayan regions
and the southern slopes of Himalayas. This leads
to high flooding of the rivers having their
catchment areas in Himalayas.
 For eg.: Brahmaputra receives the water of the
eastern Himalayas causing floods in the Assam
plains, Kosi River receives the water of eastern
Nepal Himalayas by Saptakosi catchment area
causing floods in Bihar plains, etc. The western
Himalayan region receives around 65 cm of
average rainfall in the monsoon season, while the
eastern Himalayas, as explained earlier, experience
the precipitation around 200 cm to 410 cm on an
average, while on some places, it reaches to as
high as 600 cm also.
Cold Season
 The beginning of withdrawal of southwest
monsoon marks the start of cold season which
continues up till November after which the winter
season starts.

145
 In the Himalayan region, the monsoon in the
western Himalayas reaches its last in the first
week of July and withdraws from their first i.e. in
the second week of September, which gives only
two and a half month for the monsoonal activity in
the western Himalayas. While in the eastern
Himalayan region the monsoon strikes in the first
week of June and withdraws in second week of
October giving a period of four and a quarter of
month for monsoonal activity. Added to this, the
eastern Himalayas get a good amount of
precipitation from north east monsoon also. This is
why there is a great regional disparity in the
amount of total rainfall and precipitation received
among the different regions of the Himalayas.
 In the season with the cession of the monsoon
initially the temperature rises in the range of 3°C to
5°C but within a week or two, the temperature
starts falling steeply. Within a month and half i.e.
from second week of December, the minimum
temperature in the Himalayan region falls below
the freezing point. The diurnal temperature range
increases steeply due to lack of clouds and
absorption of latent heat of melting by the ice
sheets.

146
  During this season from the last week of October
the western disturbances start to appear and their
frequency increase on the monthly basis as the
westerly jet stream gets stronger progressively
with the southward movement of Sun and the
ITCZ. These western disturbances bring snow fall
in the upper reaches.
 This season draws huge amount of tourists in the
Himalayan region because of the snow cover. It
provides them a perfect place for the skiing and
other winter sports.
Annual Rainfall
 The areas receiving an annual rainfall of 200 cm
and above are termed as areas of very high rainfall.
 The eastern Himalayas receive an annual rainfall of
about 200 cm to 400 cm and even up to 400 to 800
cm in few pockets. Almost the whole of Arunachal
Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam & Nagaland come under
the area of heavy rainfall.
 The areas receiving a rainfall of 100 cm to 200 cm
annually come under the zone of high rainfall. The
southern parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand in Western Himalayas

147
 and other regions on the southern slopes of
western Himalayas come under the zone of high
rainfall.
 The areas receiving 50 cm to 100 cm of rainfall
comes under the region of low rainfall. The leeward
side of the southern Himalayas in Jammu and
Kashmir and the valley areas of western Himalayas
come under the zone of low rainfall.
 The areas receiving a rainfall of less than 50 cm
comes under the zone of very low rainfall. The only
area which is receiving less than 50 cm of rainfall
in the Himalayan region is the Ladakh region of the
state of Jammu and Kashmir. This area does not
have the temperature as high as that of tropical
and subtropical region that is why Ladakh region is
also called as cold desert.

148
149
Indian Monsoon
 Monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind that lasts
for several months. The term was first used in
English in India, to refer to the big seasonal winds
blowing from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea in
the Southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area.
 The unique monsoon circulation in the Indian
Ocean and associated rainfall over India has a
fundamental impact on socio-economic and
agricultural development in this densely populated
country. The monsoon accounts for 80 per cent of
the rainfall in the country.
Factors Affecting Indian Monsoon
1. Tibet Plateau (TP)
 It is the most mountainous in the world, with a
mean height that exceeds 4000 m above sea level.
The mechanical effect of the plateau has
determinative roles upon the formation of a
regional climate system in Asia.
 The thermal effect of the plateau may profoundly
affect the atmospheric circulation as well because
the sensible and latent heat fluxes from TP reach a
higher altitude than its surroundings. The

150
 atmosphere above TP is heated more strongly than
the surrounding atmosphere at the same level.
 The roles of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) upon the
transition of precipitation in the South Asian
summer monsoon are investigated using a
simplified regional climate model. Before the onset
of the south Asian monsoon, descending flow in
the mid-troposphere, which can be considered as a
suppressor against precipitation, prevails over
northern India.
 The descending motion gradually weakens and
retreats from this region before July, consistent
with the northwestward migration of the monsoon
rainfall. To examine a hypothesis that the
dynamical and thermal effects of TP cause the
mid-tropospheric subsidence and its seasonal
variation, a series of numerical experiments are
conducted using a simplified regional climate
model. The mechanical effect of the TP generates
robust descending flow over northern India during
winter and spring when the zonal westerly flow is
relatively strong, but the effect becomes weaker
after April as the westerly flow tends to be weaker.

151
 The thermal effect of the TP, contrastingly,
enhances the descending flow over north India in
the pre-monsoonal season. The descending flow
enhanced by the thermal effect of the TP has a
seasonal cycle because the global-scale upper-
level westerly changes the energy propagation of
the thermal forcing response.
 The subsidence formed by the mechanical and
thermal effects of the TP disappears over northern
India after the subtropical westerly shifts north of
the plateau, the seasonal change of which is in
good agreement with that in the re-analysis data.
The retreat of the descending flow can be regarded
as the withdrawal of the pre-monsoon season and
the commencement of the South Asian monsoon.
After that, the deep convection, indicating the
onset of the Indian summer monsoon, is able to
develop over north India in relation to the ocean-
atmosphere and land-atmosphere interaction
processes. Northwest India is known to be the
latest region of summer monsoon onset in south
Asia. Thus, the thermal and mechanical forcing of
the TP has great impact on the transition of the
Indian monsoon rainfall by changing the mid-
troposphere circulation.

152
  Recently it has been found that there is a positive
correlation between Tibetan snow cover and Indian
summer monsoon rainfall (IMR). The seasonal
monsoon wind shift and weather associated with
the heating and cooling of the Tibetan plateau is
the strongest such monsoon on earth.
2. Jet Stream Theory
 This theory tries to explain the establishment of
both the NE and SW Monsoons as well their unique
features like bursting and variability. The jet
streams are a system of upper-air westerlies. It
gives rise to slowly moving upper-air waves, with
250 knots winds in some air streams.
 Over India, a subtropical westerly jet develops in
the winter season which is replaced by the tropical
easterly jet in the summer season. The high
temperature over the Tibetan Plateau, as well as
over Central Asia in general, during the summer is
believed to be the critical factor leading to the
formation of the tropical easterly jet over India in
summer. The mechanism affecting monsoon is
that the westerly jet causes high pressure over
northern parts of the subcontinent during the
winter. This results in the north to south flow of the

153
 winds in the form of the NE Monsoon. With the
northwards shift of the vertical sun, this jet shifts
northwards too. The intense heat over the Tibetan
Plateau, coupled with associated terrain features
of high altitude of the plateau, etc. generate the
tropical easterly jet over Central India. This jet
creates a low pressure zone over the northern
Indian plains influencing the wind flow towards
these plains, assisting the establishment of the SW
Monsoon.
3. Tropical easterly jet
 Due to low pressure over Tibetan plateau, high
pressure exists in upper troposphere. Due to high
pressure, tropical easterly jet stream blow from
Tibetan plateau to Mascrene high (low pressure at
troposphere) near Madagascar. This helps in
sudden onset of monsoon.
4. Subtropical westerly jet stream
 Subtropical westerly jet stream flows entirely south
of Himalayas over north India (During winter). They
form depressions and high pressure over northern
India.

154
5. Somali current and Somali jet stream (Phinlander
jet)
 During June-July-August due to creation of high
pressure at Mascrene high basin, air diverges due
to which it goes towards horn of Africa. Here it is
divided into two parts - one goes towards Africa
and another goes towards Indian subcontinent.
 It is a low level jet stream (appear only in
summer)
 Its occurrence predicts good monsoon in India.
 Somali jet Stream is a low level jet stream which
flows from Somalia to Indian mainland

155
6. Shifting of ITCZ to Tibetan Plateau
 Inter Tropical Covergence Zone (ITCZ) is a zone of
low-pressure system which lies at equator
normally. But during summer in Northern
hemisphere, due to intense heating of Tibetan
Plateau, a low pressure system is developed and
ITCZ shifts to Tibet Plateau. This causes a
thermally induced condition to attract southwest
monsoon towards Indian sub-continent.
7. Indian Ocean dipole
 Two poles are formed as :
 Mascrence high basin & Tibetan plateau
 Mascrene high basin & Western pacific pool
 When strong low pressure is created over
western pacific pool then more winds will flow
towards Mascrene high basin and more will be
the flow of winds towards low pressure Tibetan
plateau. (Sign of good monsoon) this dipole like
situation in Indian ocean is called IOD (Indian
Ocean Dipole)
 EI-Nino - Due to impact of EI-Nino, western
pacific pool becomes high pressure (due to

156
 reversal of walker cell) and low pressure system
develops at Peruvian coast dipole system is
destroyed and hence no wind blow from
western pacific pool towards Mascrene high
and hence Indian monsoon is impacted.
 Due to unusual heating of Peruvian current at
western margin L.P. system does not develop in
east Australian coast which causes break in
dipole. Instead, a new system is emerged by
H.P. at west Pacific Ocean.

157
Theory of Bursting Monsoon
The unique feature of bursting of the Monsoon is
primarily explained by the Jet Stream theory and the
Dynamic Theory.
Dynamic Theory
 According to this theory, during the summer
months of Northern Hemisphere, the ITCZ shifts
northwards pulling the SW Monsoon winds onto
the land from the sea. However the huge landmass
of the Himalayas continues to restrict the low
pressure zone onto the Himalayas itself. It is only
when the Tibetan Plateau heats up a lot more than

158
the Himalayas does the ITCZ abruptly and swiftly
shift northwards leading to burst of Monsoon
showers over the Indian subcontinent. The reverse
shift takes place for the NE Monsoon winds
leading to a second minor burst during the
Northern Hemisphere winter Months of NE
Monsoon rainfall over Eastern Indian peninsula.

159
Jet Stream Theory
According to the theory the onset of SW Monsoon over
Indian subcontinent is driven by the shift of the
subtropical westerly jet northwards from over the plains
of India towards the Tibetan Plateau. This shift is due to
the intense heating of the Plateau during the summer
months. This shift of the westerly jet to the north of the
Himalayas is not a slow and gradual process, as
expected for most changes in weather pattern. The
primary cause of these is believed to be the height of the
Himalayas. As the Tibetan Plateau heats up the low
pressure created over it pulls the westerly jet
northwards. Due to lofty Himalayas, the westerly jet is
inhibited from moving northwards. However, with
continuous dropping pressure sufficient force is created
for the movement of the westerly jet across the
Himalayas after a significant period. As such, the shift of
the jet is sudden and abrupt causing the bursting of SW
Monsoon rains onto the Indian plains. The reverse shift
happens for the NE Monsoon.

160
161
Retreating Monsoon
 This season starts, when monsoon after drenching
all of India, begins to retreat. By late September
and early October the circulation pattern near the
Himalayas returns to its winter regime. The low
pressure centre in the northwestern part of India
appears to be broken up. Now, the low pressure
centre becomes weaker and weaker, and ultimately
shifts to the equatorial region. The monsoons
begin to retreat.
 Rainfall is the criterion adopted by the
Meteorological Department of India for fixing the
dates of onset and withdrawal of southwest
monsoon over different parts of India. The
Department chooses the middle dates of the five-
day periods during which the characteristic rise or
fall occurs in average rainfall.
 By the end of September the rainfall starts
decreasing in the northern plain of India until it
ceases by the month of October. However, in the
southern part of Indian Peninsula it continues to
rain until the middle of December. It may be
pointed out that, unlike the sudden burst of
monsoon, the retreat of monsoon is gradual. Now,

162
 the anti-cyclonic conditions take the place of
cyclonic conditions in the northern plain. The
monsoon retreats to the south giving place to cold
and dry winds of winter monsoon. By about
September 15, the monsoon withdraws from the
Punjab. The approximate dates of the retreat of
monsoon from Uttar Pradesh and Bengal are
October 1 and October 15 respectively. The earlier
retreat of southwest monsoon is always viewed
with great concern, for it dries up the standing
crops which need a continuance of rainfall.
 It is well to remember that the retreating southwest
monsoons give rainfall to Karnataka in the months
of October and November. Madras receives about
55 cm of rainfall in the months of October and
November by these winds coming from the
northern margin of cyclonic circulation. At this
period some depressions develop over the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Sometimes they
attain the hurricane intensity and produce
occasional heavy rain and strong winds. Thus,
winter precipitation of Southern India is due to the
retreating southwest monsoon.

163
Seasonal Rhythm of Monsoon in Peninsular India
The Cold Weather Season or Winter Season
 The southern peninsula has rather warm condition
and does not have distinctly defined winter
weather. The isotherm of 20ºC runs in east-west
direction roughly parallel to the tropic of cancer
and divides India climatically in the northern and
southern parts. In the peninsula temperatures are
invariably above 20ºC. In the extreme south the
temperature may be well above 25ºC.
 The pressure is comparatively lower in south India.
The isobar of 1013mb touches the southern tip of
India. The wind starts blowing in the direction of
North West to south east. However the wind
velocity is low due to low pressure gradient.
 The retreating winter monsoon picks moisture
while crossing Bay of Bengal and causes Winter
rainfall in Tamil Nadu and south Andhra Pradesh,
south east Karnataka and south- east Kerala. The
highest seasonal rainfall of about 75cm between
October and December occurs along the south-
eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of
south Andhra Pradesh

164
The Summer Season
 The period from March to June is called the
summer season. Sometimes also referred to as pre
monsoon period. As the season advances, sun’s
vertical rays move northwards and large parts of
the country including south of Satpura range are
heated up. The southern parts are distinctly
warmer in March and April. In March, the highest
temperatures are nearly 40ºC in the southern parts
of the Deccan plateau. Even the night temperature
ranges between 20ºC to 25ºC and even 27ºC in the
Deccan region.
 However, the maximum summer temperatures are
comparatively lower in the southern parts of the
country due to moderating effect of sea. The mean
maximum temperature at most places is about
26ºC to 30ºC. The temperatures along the West
coast are comparatively lower than those
prevailing on the east coast due to prevailing
westerly winds.
 The pressure difference from north does exceed 3
to 4 MB. The isobar runs more or less parallel to
the coast indicating differences in pressure over
land and sea. There is marked change in the

165
 direction of winds from the winter conditions. The
thunderstorms occur in Kerala and adjoining parts
of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, particularly during
evening and nights.
 Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive
about 25 cm of rainfall from thunderstorms. These
thunderstorms also cause about 10cm of rainfall in
the interior of south India. In Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh they are very beneficial to mango
crop. In Karnataka they are called cherry blossoms
due to their salutary effects on the coffee
plantation.
Rainy Season
 The June temperature in south India is 3ºC to 6ºC
lower than the May temperature. The temperatures
are quite low over the Western Ghats due to high
elevation and also due to heavy rainfall, but the rain
shadow area is comparatively warmer on account
of low elevation and scanty rainfall. The coastal
areas of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of Andhra
Pradesh have temperatures above 30ºC because
they receive little rainfall during this season.
 The atmospheric pressure steadily increases
southwards where it ranges between 1008mb and

166
 1010mb. The isobar of 1009mb crosses parts of
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Besides Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal the winds blow in a South West
to Northeast direction from Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal. They maintain this direction throughout
the peninsular India. The normal date of the arrival
of the monsoon is 20th may in Andaman and
Nicobar islands.
 The normal date of onset of the South West
monsoon over Kerala i.e. the first place of
mainland of India is 1st June. The monsoon
advances with startling suddenness accompanied
with a lot of thunder, lighting and heavy downpour.
This sudden onset of rain is termed as monsoon
burst. The date of arrival of monsoon on the
southern tip is 1st June. Beyond Kerala, the
monsoon progresses in two branches viz the
Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.
The Arabian Sea branch gradually advances
northwards after hitting Malabar Coast and
reaches Mumbai by 10th June. While the Bay of
Bengal branch hits Meghalaya by 5th of June.

167
The Season of Retreating Monsoon
 The monsoons withdraw from the peninsula by
October and from the extreme South Eastern tip by
December. Due to retreat of the monsoon, this
season is also called as the Season of retreating
monsoon. Unlike the sudden burst of the
advancing monsoons, the withdrawal is rather
gradual and takes about three months. The
temperature decreases to 33ºC in the peninsular
and to 30ºC in the Meghalaya Plateau.
 The surface atmospheric pressure is mostly
between 1010-1012mb. Consequently the pressure
gradient is low.
 This is the season of the most severe and
devastating tropical cyclones originating in the
Indian seas especially in the Bay of Bengal. The
highest frequency of the cyclones is in the month
of October and the first half of November.
 Initially they move in a West or North Westerly
direction, but many of them later recurve and move
towards the Northeast direction. The area that is
most vulnerable to these storms includes the
coastal belts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Orissa. They cross the peninsula and enter the

168
 Arabian Sea. Some of them again recurve
northeast and strike Maharashtra and Gujarat
coast.
 October and November is the main rainy season in
Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh
to the south of Krishna river delta as well as
secondary rainy period for Kerala. The retreating
monsoon absorbs moisture while passing over the
Bay of Bengal and causes this rainfall.

169
170
 INDIAN CLIMATIC REGIONS
Koeppen’s Scheme – Climatic Regions of India
Climate type Region Annual
rainfall
Amw Western coastal region, over 300 cm
(Monsoon type south of Mumbai
with short dry
winter season)
As Coromandel coast = 75 – 100 cm
(Monsoon type Coastal Tamil Nadu and [wet winters,
with dry season in adjoining areas of Andhra dry summers]
high sun period) Pradesh
Aw Most parts of the 75 cm
(Tropical Savanah peninsular plateau barring
type) Coromandel and Malabar
coastal strips
BShw Some rain shadow areas of 12 to 25 cm
(Semi-arid Steppe Western Ghats, large part
type) of Rajasthan and areas of
Haryana and Gujarat
BWhw Most of western Rajasthan less than 12
(Hot desert type) cm
Cwg Most parts of the Ganga 100 – 200 cm
(Monsoon type Plain, eastern Rajasthan,
Assam and in Malwa

171
with dry winters) Plateau
Dfc Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh ~200 cm
(Cold, Humid and parts of Assam
winters type with
shorter summer)
Et Mountain areas of Rainfall
(Tundra Type) Uttarakhand varies from
The average temperature year to year.
varies from 0 to 10°C
E Higher areas of Jammu & Precipitation
(Polar Type) Kashmir and Himachal occurs in the
Pradesh in which the form of snow
temperature of the
warmest month varies
from 0° to 10°C

172
173
Stamp’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India

174
 Temperate or Continental India
Region Avg Temperature Annual Rainfall
Himalayan Region Sumer = 4°-7°C East = Over 200
cm
Winter = 13°-18°C
West = much less
North-western Summer = 16°C Below 200 cm
Region Winter = 24°C
Northern parts of
Punjab and
southern parts of
Jammu and
Kashmir
Arid Lowland Winter = 16° to 24°C Below 40 cm
Thar desert of Summer = 48°C
Rajasthan, south
western part of
Haryana and
Kachchh of Gujarat
Region of moderate Winter = 15°-18°C 40 – 80 cm
rainfall Summer = 33°-35°C
Punjab, Haryana,
western Uttar
Pradesh, Union
Territory of Delhi,

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north-west Plateau
area of Madhya
Pradesh and eastern
Rajasthan
Transitional Zone Winter = 15°-19°C 100 -150 cm
Eastern Uttar Summer = 30° –
35°C
Pradesh and Bihar

Tropical India
Region of very heavy Winter = 18°C in Over 200
rainfall Summer = 32°-35°C
Meghalaya, Assam,
Tripura, Mizoram and
Nagaland
Region of heavy Winter = 18°-24°C 100 – 200 cm
rainfall Summer = 29°-35°C
Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Gangetic
West Bengal, Odisha
and coastal Andhra
Pradesh
Region of moderate Winter = 18°-24°C 50 -100 cm
rainfall Summer = 32°C in
between Western and

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Eastern Ghats

Konkan Coast Annual = 24°-27°C. Over 200 cm

Mumbai in the north
to Goa in the south
Malabar Coast Annual = 27°C Over 250 cm
Goa to Kanniyakumari
Tamil Nadu Annual = 24°C 100 to 150 cm
Tamil Nadu and (Retreating
adjoining areas of monsoon)
Andhra Pradesh

G. NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA

What is natural vegetation?
It refers to a plant community which has grown naturally
without human aid and has been left undisturbed by
humans for a long time (also called as virgin vegetation).
 Cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of
vegetation but not natural vegetation
 The virgin vegetation, which are purely Indian are
known as endemic or indigenous species but those
which have come from outside India are termed as
exotic plants.

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  The term flora is used to denote plants of a
particular region or period. The species of animals
are referred to as fauna.
Types of Forests
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Mountain forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests

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179
180
H. SOIL
 Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s crust
comprising rock particles mixed with organic
matter.
 Pedology is the study of soils in their natural
environment. Pedogenesis is the natural process of
soil formation that includes a variety of processes
such as weathering, leaching, calcification etc.
Factors that influence soil formation in Indian Conditions

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Major Soil Types of India
 Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided
into soils of peninsular India and soils of extra-
peninsular India.
 The soils of Peninsular India are formed by the
decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e. directly from the
underlying rocks.
 Soils of Peninsular India are transported and re-
deposited to a limited extent and are known
as sedentary soils.
 The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are formed due to
the depositional work of rivers and wind. They are
very deep. They are often referred to as transported
or azonal soils.
Major groups:
 Alluvial soils,
 Black soils,
 Red soils,
 Laterite and Lateritic soils,
 Forest and Mountain soils,
 Arid and Desert soils,

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  Saline and Alkaline soils and
 Peaty and Marshy soils.
Alluvial Soils
 Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt
deposited by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Rivers. In
coastal regions some alluvial deposits are formed
due to wave action.
 Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material.
Thus the parent material of these soils is of
transported origin.
 They are the largest soil group covering about 15
lakh sq km or about 46% of the total area.
 They support more than 40% of the India’s
population by providing the most productive
agricultural lands.
Characteristics of Alluvial Soils
 The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.
 The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid and
alkalies are adequate
 The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a
wide range.

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Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India
 They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-
Brahmaputra plains except in few places where the
top layer is covered by desert sand.
 They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, where they
are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium)
 Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi
valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.
Crops in Alluvial Soils
 They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best
suited for agriculture.
 They are best suited to irrigation and respond well
to canal and well/tube-well irrigation.
 They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane,
tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oilseeds, vegetables
and fruits.
Geological divisions of alluvial soils
 Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India
is divided into newer or younger khadar and older
bhangar soils.

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Bhabar
 The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide running
along the Shiwalik foothills. It is a porous, northern
most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.
 Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit
their load along the foothills in the form of alluvial
fans. These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have
merged together to build up the bhabar belt.
 The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature.
The porosity is due to deposition of huge number
of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans.
 The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar
region because of this porosity. Therefore, the area
is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy
season.
 The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big
trees with large roots thrive in this belt.
Terai
 Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly
forested narrow tract (15-30 km wide) to the south
of Bhabar running parallel to it.

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  The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-
emerge in this belt. It is swampy lowland with silty
soils.
 The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic
matter but are deficient in phosphate.
 These soils are generally covered by tall grasses
and forests but are suitable for a number of crops
such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute etc.
 This thickly forested region provides shelter to a
variety of wild life.
Bhangar
 The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river
beds forming terraces higher than the flood plain
(about 30 metres above the flood level).
 It is of a more clayey composition and is generally
dark colored.
 A few metres below the terrace of the bhangar are
beds of lime nodules known as “Kankar”.
Khadar
 The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and
forms the flood plains along the river banks.

186
  The banks are flooded almost every year and a new
layer of alluvium is deposited with every flood. This
makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.
 They are sandy clays and loams, more dry and
leached, less calcareous and carbonaceous (less
kankary). A new layer of alluvium is deposited by
river flood almost every year.
Black Soils
 The parent material for most of the black soil is the
volcanic rocks that were formed in the Deccan
Plateau (Deccan and the Rajmahal trap).
 In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the
parent material. The former are sufficiently deep
while the later are generally shallow.
 These are the region of high temperature and low
rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical to the
dry and hot regions of the Peninsula.
Characteristics of Black Soils
 A typical black soil is highly argillaceous [Geology
(of rocks or sediment) consisting of or containing
clay] with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or more.

187
  In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility
while those in the valleys are very fertile.
 The black soil is highly retentive of moisture. It
swells greatly on accumulating moisture.
Strenuous effort is required to work on such soil in
rainy season as it gets very sticky.
 In summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil
shrinks and is seamed with broad and deep cracks.
The lower layers can still retain moisture. The
cracks permits oxygenation of the soil to sufficient
depths and the soil has extraordinary fertility.
Colour of Black Soils
 The black colour is due to the presence of a small
proportion of titaniferous magnetite or iron and
black constituents of the parent rock.
 In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the
black colour is derived from crystalline schists and
basic gneisses.
 Various tints of the black colour such as deep
black, medium black, shallow black , a mixture of
red and black may be found in this group of soils.

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Chemical Composition of Black Soils
 10 per cent of alumina,
 9-10 per cent of iron oxide,
 6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium carbonates,
 Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) and
 phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.
Distribution of Black Soils
 Spread over 46 lakh km2 (16.6 per cent of the total
area) across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts
of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat
and Tamil Nadu.
Crops in Black Soils
 These soils are best suited for cotton crop. Hence
these soils are called as regur and black cotton
soils.
 Other major crops grown on the black soils include
wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia tobacco, castor,
sunflower and millets.
 Rice and sugarcane are equally important where
irrigation facilities are available.

189
  Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also
successfully grown on the black soils.
 This soil has been used for growing a variety of
crops for centuries without adding fertilizers and
manures, with little or no evidence of exhaustion.
Red Soils
 Red soils along with its minor groups form
the largest soil group of India.
 The main parent rocks are crystalline
and metamorphic rocks like acid granites, gneisses
and quartzites.
Characteristics of Red Soils
 The texture of these soils can vary from sand to
clay, the majority being loams.
 On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, and
porous. But in the lower areas they are rich, deep
dark and fertile.
Chemical Composition of Red Soils
 They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the
parent rocks. The alkali content is fair.

190
  They are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates,
nitrogen and humus.
 They are fairly rich in potash and potassium.
Color of Red Soils
 The red colour is due to the presence of iron oxide.
 When limestone, granites, gneisses and quartzites
are eroded the clay enclosed within the rocks
remains intact with other forms of non-soluble
materials.
 In oxidizing conditions, rust or iron oxide develops
in the clay, when the soil is present above the
water table giving the soil a characteristic red
colour.
 The colour is more due to the wide diffusion rather
than high percentage of iron oxide content.
Distribution of Red Soils
 These soils mostly occur in the regions of low
rainfall.
 They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6 per cent)
of the total area of the country.

191
  These soils are spread on almost the whole
of Tamil Nadu.
 Other regions with red soil include parts of
Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau; parts of south Bihar,
West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and the
eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or Marwar
Plateau), parts of North-Eastern states.
Crops in Red Soils
 The red soils are mostly loamy and hence cannot
retain water like the black soils.
 The red soils, with the proper use of fertilizers and
irrigation techniques, give good yield of cotton,
wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oil seeds,
potatoes and fruits.
Laterite – Lateritic Soils
 Laterite soils are mostly the end products of
weathering.
 They are formed under conditions of high
temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet
and dry periods.

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  Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets
washed away by water) of soil whereby lime and
silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of
iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
 ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden greatly
on loosing moisture.
 Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and
more gravel of red sand-stones.
Chemical composition of Laterite – Lateritic Soils
 Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric oxides.
 They are very poor in lime, magnesia, potash and
nitrogen.
 Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in
the form of iron phosphate.
 In wetter places, there may be higher content of
humus.
Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic Soils
 Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq km.
 Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the
summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m

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 above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal
Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
 They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in
several other parts of the country.
 They are well developed in south Maharashtra,
parts of Karnataka etc. and are widely scattered in
other regions.
Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils
 Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive leaching.
 When manured and irrigated, some laterites are
suitable for growing plantation crops like tea,
coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
 In some areas, these soils support grazing grounds
and scrub forests.
Economic value of Laterite – Lateritic Soils
 Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable building
material.
 These soils can be easily cut into cakes but
hardens like iron when exposed to air.
 As it is the end-product of weathering, it cannot be
weathered much further and is durable.

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Forest – Mountain Soils
 These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km or 8.67%
of the total land area of India.
 They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on the
hill slopes covered by forests.
 The formation of these soils is mainly governed by
the characteristic deposition of organic matter
derived from forests and their character changes
with parent rocks, ground-configuration and
climate.
 Consequently, they differ greatly even if they occur
in close proximity to one another.
Distribution of Forest – Mountain Soils
 In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly
found in valleys, less steep and north facing
slopes. The south facing slopes are very steep and
exposed to denudation and hence do not support
soil formation.
 Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats
also.

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Chemical properties of Forest – Mountain Soils
 The forest soils are very rich in humus.
 They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime.
 They require good deal of fertilizers for high yields.
Crops in Forest – Mountain Soils
 They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee,
spices and tropical fruits in peninsular forest
region.
 Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are
grown in the Himalayan forest region.
Arid – Desert Soils
 The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand (90 to 95
per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent).
 They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km (4.32%).
 The presence of sand inhibits soil growth.
Desertification of neighboring soils is common due
to intrusion of desert sand under the influence of
wind [Aeolian sand].

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Distribution of Arid – Desert Soils
 Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan,
Punjab and Haryana. The sand here is blown from
the Indus basin and the coast by the prevailing
south-west monsoon winds.
 Sandy soils without clay factor are also common in
coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Chemical properties of Arid – Desert Soils
 They are usually poor in organic matter.
 Some desert soils are alkaline with varying degree
of soluble salts like calcium carbonate.
 Calcium content increases downwards and the
subsoil has ten times more calcium.
 The phosphate content of these soils is as high as
in normal alluvial soils.
 Nitrogen is originally low but some of it is available
in the form of nitrates.
Crops of Arid – Desert Soils
 Phosphates and nitrates make this soil fertile
wherever moisture is available.

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  There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if
proper irrigation facilities are available.
 In large areas, only the drought resistant and salt
tolerant crops such as barley, cotton, millets, maize
and pulses are grown.
Saline – Alkaline Soils
 In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil
is impregnated (soak or saturate with a substance)
with saline and alkaline efflorescences (become
covered with salt particles).
 Undecomposed rock fragments, on weathering,
give rise to sodium, magnesium and calcium salts
and sulphurous acid.
 Some of the salts are transported in solution by the
rivers.
 In regions with low water table, the salts percolate
into sub soil and in regions with good drainage, the
salts are wasted away by flowing water.
 But in places where the drainage system is poor,
the water with high salt concentration becomes
stagnant and deposits all the salts in the top soil
once the water evaporates.

198
  In regions with high sub-soil water table, injurious
salts are transferred from below by the capillary
action as a result of evaporation in dry season.
Peaty – Marshy Soils
 These are soils with large amount of organic
matter and considerable amount of soluble salts.
 The most humid regions have this type of soil.
 They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils
 Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where
it is called Kari.
 Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha and Tamil
Nadu, Sunderbans of West Bengal, in Bihar and
Almora district of Uttarakhand.
Chemical Properties of Peaty – Marshy Soils
 They are deficient in potash and phosphate.
Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils
 Most of the peaty soils are under water during the
rainy season but as soon the rains cease, they are
put under paddy cultivation.

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200
I. WILDLIFE IN INDIA
Wildlife of India is a great natural heritage. It is estimated
that about 80 percent of all known plant and animal
species on the earth are found in India. Many plants
synthesize substances that are useful to the
maintenance of health in humans and other animals. In
recent decades, human encroachment has posed a
threat to India’s wildlife. In response to this, the system
of National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries and protected
areas, first established in 1935, has substantially
expanded through wildlife protection Act 1972. In India,
for the purpose of effective conservation of natural
habitat of wildlife, special schemes like Project Tiger
1973 and Project Elephant 1992 have been launched.
These are very important as many species are at the
brink of extinction. However, none of these efforts will be
truly successful unless all Indian recognize their role in
conserving bio-diversity.

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Biodiversity Conservation methods

In Situ Conservation Methods: In this method, the

protection of species in their natural habitats is
considered the apt means of conserving biodiversity.
Preserving the areas where the populations of species
subsist naturally is a primary condition for the
conservation of biodiversity.
Ex Situ Conservation Methods: It is the conservation of
elements of biological diversity exterior to their natural
habitats.

202
 India has a network of 868 Protected Areas
covering a total of 1,65,088 km2 of geographical
area of the country which is approximately 5.02%.
 BR: Biosphere Reserve. A BR may consist of a few
NPs, wildlife sanctuaries, protected and reserve
forests.
 NP: National Park
 TR: Tiger Reserve. A TR may consist of a NP, a
few wildlife sanctuaries and protected and
reserve forests.
 WS: Wildlife Sanctuary
 BS: Bird Sanctuary
 PF: Protected Forest
 RF: Reserve Forest
 ER: Elephant Reserve
 RS: Ramsar Site

203
 Protected Areas of India (as of July 2019)
Protected Area Type Number Total Area Coverage %
(Km2) of Country
National Parks (NPs) 104 40501.13 1.23
Wildlife Sanctuaries 551 119775.80 3.64
(WLSs)
Conservation Reserves 88 4356.49 0.13
(CRs)
Community Reserves 127 525.22 0.02
Protected Areas (PAs) 870 165158.54 5.02

What is a National Park?

An area, whether within a sanctuary or not, can be
notified by the state government to be constituted as a
National Park, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral,
geomorphological, or zoological association or
importance, needed to for the purpose of protecting &
propagating or developing wildlife therein or its
environment. No human activity is permitted inside the
national park except for the ones permitted by the Chief
Wildlife Warden of the state under the conditions given in
CHAPTER IV, WPA 1972. There are 104 existing national
parks in India covering an area of 40501.13 km2, which is

204
1.23% of the geographical area of the country (National
Wildlife Database, May, 2019).

205
What is Wildlife Sanctuary?
 Any area other than area comprised with any
reserve forest or the territorial waters can be
notified by the State Government to constitute as a
sanctuary if such area is of adequate ecological,
faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or
zoological significance, for the purpose of
protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its
environment. Some restricted human activities are
allowed inside the Sanctuary area details of which
are given in CHAPTER IV, WPA 1972.
 There are 551 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India
covering an area of 119775.80 km2, which is 3.64 %
of the geographical area of the country (National
Wildlife Database, May, 2019).
What is Conservation Reserves?
Conservation reserves and community reserves in India
are terms denoting protected areas of India which
typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and
migration corridors between established national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests
of India. Such areas are designated as conservation
areas if they are uninhabited and completely owned by
the Government of India but used for subsistence by

206
communities and community areas if part of the lands is
privately owned.
These protected area categories were first introduced in
the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 − the
amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. These
categories were added because of reduced protection in
and around existing or proposed protected areas due to
private ownership of land, and land use.
What is Community Reserves?
 Conservation reserves and community reserves in
India are terms denoting protected areas of India
which typically act as buffer zones to or
connectors and migration corridors between
established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and
reserved and protected forests of India.
 Such areas are designated as conservation areas if
they are uninhabited and completely owned by the
Government of India but used for subsistence by
communities and community areas if part of the
land is privately owned.
 These protected area categories were first
introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment

207
 Act of 2002, the amendment to the Wildlife
Protection Act of 1972.
 These categories were added because of reduced
protection in and around existing or proposed
protected areas due to private ownership of land,
and land use.
What is Marine Protected Areas
 A marine protected area (MPA) is essentially a
space in the ocean where human activities are
more strictly regulated than the surrounding
waters - similar to parks we have on land.
 These places are given special protections for
natural or historic marine resources by local, state,
territorial, native, regional, or national authorities.
 105 protected areas in Andaman Island and 1 in
Lakshadweep.
 25 marine protected areas in peninsula
Tiger Reserves:
Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India in
the year 1973 to save the endangered species of tiger in
the country. Starting from nine (9) reserves in 1973-2016

208
the number is grown up to fifty (50). A total area of
71027.10 km2 is covered by these project tiger areas.
Some interesting facts related to Tigers in India:
1. Nagpur is also known as the ‘Tiger Capital’ of India
2. There are 13 tiger reserves in this Vidharbha
(including the Nagpur division of eastern) alone.
3. The national parks around Nagpur include Umred
Karhandla Wildlife Sanctuary, Pench National Park,
Nagzira-Navegaon Tiger Reserve, Tadoba-Andhari
Tiger Reserve, Melghat Tiger Reserve, and Bor
Tiger Reserve.
4. The Climatic condition of this forested region is
very appropriate for tiger conservation.
5. Every year, July 29 is celebrated as Global Tiger
Day. Global Tiger Day was observed for the first
time in 2010 at the St. Petersburg Tiger Summit in
Russia when all 13 tiger range countries came
together for the first time with the commitment of
doubling the number of wild tigers by 2022.
6. Indian Tiger or Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris)
 It is the tiger species native to India.

209
  The largest populations of Bengal tigers are in
India, but there are some smaller groups in
Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan. It may also be
present in areas of China and Burma.
 India is home to 80 per cent of global tiger
population. Bengal tiger habitats usually are
tropical rainforests, marshes, and tall grasses.
 The tigers are an "umbrella" species as by rescuing
them, we save everything beneath their ecological
umbrella - everything connected to them.
Conservation status of Tiger
 IUCN Red List: Endangered
 Wild life protection Act : Schedule 1
 CITES: Appendix 1
Threat to Tiger in India:
 Habitats loss
 Poaching and Wildlife Crime
 Growing incidents of Man-Animal conflict Tiger
Reserve and National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary

210
 A National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary that is
considered significant for protecting tigers can be
additionally designated as a Tiger Reserve.
 A Tiger Reserve consists of a ‘Core’ or ‘Critical Tiger
Habitat’, which is to be managed as an inviolate
area.
 ‘Buffer’ or Peripheral area immediately abutting a
Core area, which may be accorded a lesser degree
of habitat protection.
 Global Conservation Efforts :
 Global Tiger Initiative (GTI): It was launched in
2008 as a global alliance of governments,
international organizations, civil society, the
conservation and scientific communities and the
private sector, with the aim of working together to
save wild tigers from extinction. In 2013, the scope
was broadened to include Snow Leopards.
 Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP): It seeks to
empower Tiger Range Countries to address the
entire spectrum of threats, domestic as well as
those that are transboundary in nature, and work
toward increased financial sustainability through

211
 the integration of conservation objectives into
development.
 Global Tiger Forum: It is an international
collaboration of tiger bearing countries which has
set a goal of doubling the count of wild tigers by
2022.
 TX2: Its goal was to double the number of wild
tigers across their geographical areas. The WWF is
implementing the programme in 13 tiger range
countries.
 Conservation Assured Tiger Standards CA|TS: It is
a set of criteria which allows tiger sites to check if
their management will lead to successful tiger
conservation. It is an important part of Tx2
programme.
Sl. Name of Tiger State Total area(In
No. Reserve Sq.Kms.)
1 Nagarjunsagar Andhra Pradesh 3296.31*
Srisailam (part)*
2 Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh 2052.82
3 Kamlang Tiger Arunachal Pradesh 783.00
Reserve
4 Pakke Arunachal Pradesh 1198.45
5 Manas Assam 3150.92

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6 Nameri Assam 344
7 Orang Tiger Assam 492.46
Reserve
8 Kaziranga Assam 1173.58
9 Valmiki Bihar 899.38
10 Udanti-Sitanadi Chattisgarh 1842.54
11 Achanakmar Chattisgarh 914.017
12 Indravati Chhattisgarh 2799.07
13 Palamau Jharkhand 1129.93
14 Bandipur Karnataka 1456.3
15 Bhadra Karnataka 1064.29
16 Dandeli-Anshi Karnataka 1097.514
17 Nagarahole Karnataka 1205.76
18 Biligiri Karnataka 574.82
Ranganatha
Temple
19 Periyar Kerala 925
20 Parambikulam Kerala 643.662
21 Kanha Madhya Pradesh 2051.791
22 Pench Madhya Pradesh 1179.63225
23 Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh 1598.1
24 Panna Madhya Pradesh 1578.55
25 Satpura Madhya Pradesh 2133.30797
26 Sanjay-Dubri Madhya Pradesh 1674.502
27 Melghat Maharashtra 2768.52
28 Tadoba-Andhari Maharashtra 1727.5911
29 Pench Maharashtra 741.22
30 Sahyadri Maharashtra 1165.57

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31 Nawegaon- Maharashtra 653.674
Nagzira
32 Bor Maharashtra 138.12
33 Dampa Mizoram 988
34 Similipal Odisha 2750
35 Satkosia Odisha 963.87
36 Ranthambore Rajasthan 1411.291
37 Sariska Rajasthan 1213.342
38 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan 759.99
39 Kalakad- Tamil Nadu 1601.542
Mundanthurai
40 Anamalai Tamil Nadu 1479.87
41 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 688.59
42 Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu 1408.4
43 Kawal Telangana 2019.12
44 Amrabad Telangana 2611.39*
45 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh 2201.7748
46 Pilibhit Uttar Pradesh 730.2498
47 Amangarh (buffer Uttar Pradesh 80.6
of Corbett TR)
Corbett Uttarakhand 1288.31
48 Rajaji TR Uttarakhand 1075.17
49 Sunderbans West Bengal 2584.89
50 Buxa West Bengal 757.9038
TOTAL 71027.10

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Elephant Reserves
The Indian elephant, Elephas maximus occurs in the
central and southern Western Ghats, North-east India,
eastern India and northern India and in some parts of
southern peninsular India. It is included in Schedule I of
the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in Appendix
I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). It occurs in 16 of the
28 states in the country and is showing an increasing
trend across its distributional range. Its population in
2007 was estimated to be in the range from 27,657 to
27,682, whereas in 2012 the population was estimated to
be between 27,785 and 31,368.
Elephant – The National Heritage Animal
 The government of India in the year 2010 declared
Elephant as the national heritage animal of the
country on the recommendations of the standing
committee of the national board for wildlife.
 This was done to make sure that sufficient
protection to elephants was provided before their
numbers fall to panic levels like in the case of
tigers.

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Project Elephant – MIKE Programme
 MIKE the abbreviation of the Monitoring of Illegal
Killing of Elephants program was started in South
Asia in 2003 after the conference of parties a
resolution of CITES.
 The aim of MIKE was to provide information
required by the elephant range countries for proper
management and long-term protection of their
elephant populations.
The objectives of the MIKE program are as follows:
 To measure the levels and trends in the illegal
poaching and ensure changes in the trends for
elephant protection.
 To determine the factors responsible for such
changes, and to assess the impact of decisions by
the conference of parties to CITES.
Campaign Haathi Mere Saathi
 The Ministry of Environment and forests in
partnership with Wildlife Trust of India has
launched a campaign Hathi Mere Sathi.
 The aim of the campaign was to increase public
awareness and develop friendships between

216
 elephants and the local population. The campaign
Haathi Mere Saathi was for the welfare of the
elephants, to conserve and protect the elephants in
India.
 The campaign was launched in Delhi on 24th May
2011 at Elephant- 8 ministerial meetings. The
countries that are a part of the Elephant-8
ministerial meeting are Kenya, Sri Lanka,
Botswana, Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Indonesia,
Thailand, and India.
Elephant Task Force
 The increased tension due to rampant retaliatory
killing of elephants and human-elephant conflict
prompted the government to set up the Elephant
Task Force along the lines of the Tiger Task Force.
The focus of the Elephant Task Force was to bring
pragmatic solutions for the conservation of
elephants in the long-term.
 The ETF was headed by a wildlife historian and
political analyst, Dr. Mahesh Rangarajan. And the
other members included were conservation and
animal welfare activists, elephant biologists, and a
veterinarian.

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  India has around 25000 – 29000 elephants in the
wild. However, the tuskers (male) in India are as
threatened as the Tigers as there are only around
1200 tusker elephants left in India.
 The Asian elephants are threatened by habitat
degradation, man-elephant conflict, and poaching
for the Ivory.
 This problem is more intense in India which has
around 50% of the total population of the world’s
Asian elephants.
BIOSPHERE RESERVES:
Introduction
 Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international
designation by United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for
representative parts of natural and cultural
landscapes extending over large areas of terrestrial
or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination of
both.
 Biosphere Reserves tries to balance economic and
social development and maintenance of
associated cultural values along with the
preservation of nature.

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  Biosphere Reserves are thus special environments
for both people and nature and are living examples
of how human beings and nature can co-exist while
respecting each others’ needs.
Criteria for Designation of Biosphere Reserve
 A site must contain a protected and minimally
disturbed core area of value of nature
conservation.
 Core area must be a bio-geographical unit and
should be large enough to sustain viable
populations representing all trophic levels.
 The involvement of local communities and use of
their knowledge in biodiversity preservation.
 Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal
or rural modes of living for harmonious use of the
environment.
Structure of Biosphere Reserve
 Core Areas:
 It is the most protected area of a biosphere
reserve. It may contain endemic plants and
animals.

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  They conserve the wild relatives of economic
species and also represent important genetic
reservoirs having exceptional scientific interest.
 A core zone is a protected region, like a National
Park or Sanctuary/protected/regulated mostly
under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is
kept free from human interference.
 Buffer Zone:
 The buffer zone surrounds the core zone and its
activities are managed in this area in the ways
that help in the protection of the core zone in its
natural condition.
 It includes restoration, limited tourism, fishing,
grazing, etc; which are permitted to reduce its
effect on the core zone.
 Research and educational activities are to be
encouraged.
 Transition Zone:
 It is the outermost part of the biosphere
reserve. It is the zone of cooperation where
human ventures and conservation are done in
harmony.

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  It includes settlements, croplands, managed
forests and areas for intensive recreation and
other economic uses characteristics of the
region.

Functions of Biosphere Reserve

 Conservation:
 Managing Biosphere Reserve’s genetic
resources, endemic species, ecosystems, and
landscapes.
 It may prevent man-animal conflict eg. death of
tiger Avni who was shot dead when she turned
man-eater

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  Along with the wildlife, culture and customs of
tribals are also protected
 Development: Promoting economic and human
growth that is sustainable on a sociocultural and
ecological level. It seeks to strengthen the three
pillars of sustainable development: social,
economic and protection of the environment.
 Logistic support: Promoting research activities,
environmental education, training and monitoring
in the context of local, national and international
conservation and sustainable development.
Biosphere Reserves in India
 There are 18 biosphere reserves in India:
 Cold Desert, Himachal Pradesh
 Nanda Devi, Uttrakhand
 Khangchendzonga, Sikkim
 Dehang-Debang, Arunachal Pradesh
 Manas, Assam
 Dibru-Saikhowa, Assam
 Nokrek, Meghalaya
 Panna, Madhya Pradesh

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  Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh
 Achanakmar-Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh-
Chhattisgarh
 Kachchh, Gujarat (Largest Area)
 Similipal, Odisha
 Sundarban, West Bengal
 Seshachalam, Andhra Pradesh
 Agasthyamala, Karnataka-Tamil Nadu-Kerala
 Nilgiri, Tamil Nadu-Kerala (First to be Included)
 Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu
 Great Nicobar, Andaman & Nicobar Island
International Status of Biosphere Reserve
 The UNESCO has introduced the designation
‘Biosphere Reserve’ for natural areas to minimize
conflict between development and conservation.
Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national
government which meets a minimal set of criteria
under the Man and Biosphere Reserve Program of
UNESCO. Globally, there are 686 biosphere
reserves in 122 countries, including 20
transboundary sites.

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Man and Biosphere Programme
 Launched in 1971, UNESCO’s Man and the
Biosphere Programme (MAB) is an
intergovernmental scientific programme that aims
to establish a scientific basis for the improvement
of relationships between people and their
environments.
 MAB combines natural and social sciences,
economics and education to improve human
livelihoods and the equitable sharing of benefits,
and to safeguard natural and managed
ecosystems, thus promoting innovative
approaches to economic development that are
socially and culturally appropriate, and
environmentally sustainable.
 There are total 11 biosphere reserves of India
which have been recognized internationally under
Man and Biosphere Reserve program:
 Nilgiri (First to be included)
 Gulf of Mannar
 Sunderban
 Nanda Devi

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  Nokrek
 Pachmarhi
 Similipal
 Achanakmar - Amarkantak
 Great Nicobar
 Agasthyamalai
 Khangchendzonga (Added under Man and
Biosphere Reserve Program in 2018)
Biosphere Conservation
 A scheme called Biosphere Reserve is being
implemented by the Government of India since
1986, in which financial assistance is given in
90:10 ratio to the North Eastern Region States and
three Himalayan states and in the ratio of 60:40 to
other states for maintenance, improvement, and
development of certain items.
 The State Government prepares the Management
Action Plan which is approved and monitored by
the Central MAB Committee.

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J. NATURAL HAZARDS
What is a Disaster?
A disaster is defined as a disruption on a massive scale,
either natural or man-made, occurring in short or long
periods of time. Disasters can lead to human, material,
economic or environmental hardships, which can be
beyond the bearable capacity of the affected society. As
per statistics, India as a whole is vulnerable to 30
different types of disasters that will affect the economic,
social and human development potential to such an
extent that it will have long-term effects on productivity
and macro-economic performance.
Natural Hazards are elements of circumstances in the
Natural environment that have the potential to cause
harm to people or property or both. These may be swift
or permanent aspects of the respective environmental
settings like currents in the oceans, steep slope and
unstable structural features in the Himalayas or extreme
climatic conditions in deserts or glaciated areas. As
compared to natural hazards, natural disasters are
relatively sudden and cause large scale, widespread
death, loss of property and disturbance to social systems
and life over which people have a little or no control.
Thus, any event can be classed as disaster when the

226
magnitude of destruction and damage caused by it is
very high. The types of disasters are classified below:

Atmospheric Terrestrial Aquatic Biological

Bizzards Earthquakes Floods Plants and Animals
as colonisers
Thudnerstorms Volcanic Tidal
(Locusts. etc.).
Eruptions waves
Insects infestation-
Lightning Landslides Ocean fungal, bacterial and
Currents viral diseases such
Tornadoes Avalances Storm as bird flu, dengue,
Surge etc.

Tropical Subsidence Tsunami

Cyclone
Drought Soil erosion
Hailstorm
Frost, Heat
Wave or loo,
Cold Waves.
Etc.

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NATURAL DISASTERS AND HAZARDS IN INDIA
 Disasters are classified as per origin, into natural
and man-made disasters. As per severity, disasters
are classified as minor or major (in impact).
 Natural disasters are sudden ecological
disruptions or threats that exceed the adjustment
capacity of the affected community and require
external assistance.
 Natural disasters can be broadly classified into
categories including geophysical such as
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions;
hydrological such as floods; meteorological
such as hurricanes; climatological such as heat
and cold waves and droughts; and biological
such as epidemics.
 Man-made disasters can include hazardous
material spills, fires, groundwater
contamination, transportation accidents,
structure failures, mining accidents, explosions
and acts of terrorism.
The various disaster-prone zones in India can be inferred
from the map on the next page:

228
229
Causes for Occurrence of Disaster
 Environmental degradation: Removal of trees and
forest cover from a watershed area have caused,
soil erosion, expansion of flood plain area in upper
and middle course of rivers and groundwater
depletion.
 Developmental process: Exploitation of land use,
development of infrastructure, rapid urbanization
and technological development has caused
increasing pressure over the natural resources.
 Political issues: War, nuclear power aspirations,
fight between countries to become super power
and conquering land, sea and skies. These have
resulted into wide range of disaster events such as
Hiroshima nuclear explosion, Syrian civil war,
growing militarisation of oceans and outer space.
 Industrialization: This has resulted into warming of
earth and frequency of extreme weather events has
also increased.
Impacts of Disaster
 Disaster impacts individuals physically (through
loss of life, injury, health, disability) as well
as psychologically.

230
  Disaster results in huge economic loss due to
destruction of property, human settlements and
infrastructure etc.
 Disaster can alter the natural environment, loss of
habitat to many plants and animals and cause
ecological stress that can result in biodiversity
loss.
 After natural disasters, food and other natural
resources like water often becomes scarce
resulting into food and water scarcity.
 The disaster results in displacement of people, and
displaced population often face several challenges
in new settlements, in this process poorer
becomes more poor.
 Disaster increases the level of vulnerability and
hence multiplies the effects of disaster.
Vulnerability Profile of India
 India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large
number of disasters. Around 59% of the landmass
is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high
intensity.

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 About 12% (over 40 million hectares) of its land is
prone to floods and river erosion.
 Close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms long
coastline is prone to cyclones and tsunamis.
 68% of its cultivable area is vulnerable to
droughts; and, the hilly areas are at risk from
landslides and avalanches.
 Moreover, India is also vulnerable to chemical,
biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN)
emergencies and other man-made disasters.
 Disaster risks in India are further compounded by
increasing vulnerabilities related to changing
demographics and socio-economic conditions,
unplanned urbanization, development within high-
risk zones, environmental degradation, climate
change, geological hazards, epidemics and
pandemics.
 Clearly, all these contribute to a situation where
disasters seriously threaten India’s economy, its
population and sustainable development.

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Worst Disasters in India
 Kashmir Floods (2014) affected Srinagar, Bandipur,
Rajouri etc. areas of J&K have resulted into death
of more than 500 people.
 Uttarakhand Flash Floods (2013) affected
Govindghat, Kedar Dome, Rudraprayag district of
Uttarakhand and resulted into death of more than
5,000 people.
 The Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004) affected parts of
southern India and Andaman Nicobar Islands, Sri
Lanka, Indonesia etc., and resulted in the death of
more than 2 lakh people.
 Gujarat Earthquake (2001) affected Bhuj,
Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Kutch, Surat,
Surendranagar, Rajkot district, Jamnagar and
Jodia districts of Gujarat and resulted in death of
more than 20,000 people.
 Odisha Super Cyclone or Paradip cyclone
(1999) affected the coastal districts of Bhadrak,
Kendrapara, Balasore, Jagatsinghpur, Puri, Ganjam
etc., and resulted into death of more than 10,000
people.

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 The Great Famine (1876-1878) affected Madras,
Mysore, Hyderabad, and Bombay and resulted into
death of around 3 crore people. Even today, it is
considered as one of the worst natural calamities
in India of all time.
 Coringa Cyclone (1839) that affected Coringa
district of Andhra Pradesh and Calcutta Cyclone
(1737) are some other instances of natural
calamities faced by the country in the past.
 The Bengal Famine in the years 1770 and 1943
affected Bengal, Odisha, Bihar very badly and
resulted into death of nearly 1 crore people.
 Bhopal Gas tragedy (December, 1984) is one of the
worst chemical disasters globally that resulted in
over 10,000 losing their lives (the actual number
remains disputed) and over 5.5 lakh persons
affected and suffering from agonizing injuries.

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Disasters in detail:

1. Droughts :
 Drought is a phenomenon that comes under
geography in the strict sense of the word but has
reverberations across various fields. This is
because droughts affect the livelihood and
economies and even lives of people affected by it.
 The term ‘Drought’ in simple words is the absence
of water for a long period of time, at a place where
it is considered abnormal as compared to its usual
conditions. The distribution of water on the earth’s
surface is not even. Some places have lots of

235
 freshwater e.g. rivers, lakes, lagoons, ponds etc.
and they are continuously replenished by rainfall
and water from underground.
 Ifa region that has had lots of rainfall, goes for a
couple of weeks without rains, and people, animals
and plants begin to experience a bit of dryness, it
can be called a drought.
 Drought can be defined as a relatively long time
where there is not enough water than there usually
is, as a result of dry weather, to support human,
animal and plant life.
 Droughts become an issue only when it begins to
affect water supply for irrigation, municipal,
industrial, energy, and ecosystem function. Severe
droughts can have serious consequences.
Types of Drought
There are three types of droughts known to the scientific
community:
1. Meteorological drought occurs when there is a
prolonged time with less than average
precipitation. Such type of droughts can be
triggered by a high level of reflected sunlight and
above-average prevalence of high-pressure

236
 systems, winds carrying continental, rather than
oceanic air masses.
2. Agricultural droughts affect crop production or the
ecology of the range. This condition can also arise
independently from any change in precipitation
levels when either increased irrigation or soil
conditions or erosion triggered by poorly planned
agricultural activities cause a shortfall in water
available to the crops.
3. Hydrological drought is brought about when the
water reserves available in sources such as
aquifers, lakes and reservoirs fall below a locally
significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends
to show up more slowly because it involves stored
water that is used but not replenished. Like an
agricultural drought, this can be triggered by more
than just a loss of rainfall.
Drought Declaration in India
 Drought is generally considered as a deficiency in
rainfall /precipitation over an extended period,
usually a season or more, resulting in a water
shortage causing adverse impacts on vegetation,
animals, and/or people.

237
 There is no single, legally accepted definition of
drought in India. Some states resort to their own
definitions of drought. State Government is the
final authority when it comes to declaring a region
as drought affected. Government of India has
published two important documents in respect of
managing a drought.
 The first step is to look at two mandatory
indicators:
 Rainfall deviation and dry spell. Depending on
the extent of the deviation, and whether or not
there is a dry spell, the manual specifies various
situations that may or may not be considered a
drought trigger.
 The second step is to look at four impact indicators
— agriculture, vegetation indices based on remote
sensing, soil moisture, and hydrology. Each impact
can be assessed on the basis of various indices.
 The intensity of drought: The States may
consider any three of the four types of the
Impact Indicators (one from each) for
assessment of drought, the intensity of the
calamity and make a judgment.

238
  If all three chosen indicators are in the ‘severe’
category, it amounts to severe drought; and if
two of the three chosen impact indicators are in
the ‘moderate’ or ‘severe’ class, it amounts to
moderate drought.
 The third step comes in after both previous triggers
have been set off. In that event, “States will
conduct sample survey for ground in order to make
a final determination of drought. The finding of
field verification exercise will be the final basis for
judging the intensity of drought as ‘severe’ or
‘moderate’”.
 Once a drought is determined, the state
government needs to issue a notification
specifying the geographical extent. The notification
is valid for six months unless de-notified earlier.
2. FLOODS:
 Flood is such a high stage in a water course i.e.
river, river tributary or a water retaining body i.e.
lake, pond, reservoir, seas, ocean or other low lying
areas – the level at which water over flows over its
banks and inundates the adjoining areas.

239
  They are one of the natural calamities that India
faces almost every year in varying degree of
magnitude.
What are the types of the flood?
1. Coastal (Surge Flood): As the name suggests, it
occurs in areas that lie on the coast of a sea,
ocean, or another large body of open water. It is
typically the result of extreme tidal conditions
caused by severe weather. Often produced when
the hurricanes and other storm pushes water
onshore.
2. Fluvial (River Flood): It occurs when excessive
rainfall over an extended period of time causes a
river to exceed its capacity. Riverine flooding is
further classified into two types i.e.
 Overbank flooding – this is the most common type
of flooding where the water level rises and
breaches the banks over time.
 Flash flooding – it is characterized by an intense,
high velocity of water that occurs in an existing
river channel with little to no notice.
3. Pluvial (Surface Flood): It is caused when heavy
rainfall creates a flood event independent of an

240
 overflowing water body. It is widely conceived that
one must be living near to the water body to be at
the risk of flooding. Pluvial flooding debunks that
myth, as it can happen in any urban area — even
higher elevation areas that lie above coastal and
river floodplains. There are two main reasons for
pluvial flooding. First, torrential downpour making
the urban drainage system saturated and making
the roads flooded. The second one, run-off or
flowing water from rain falling on hillsides that are
unable to absorb the water.
Flood management:
 The flood management mechanism in India at the
moment is operational at two levels – central level
and state level.
 The state level mechanism is made up of the water
resource department, the Flood Control Board,
State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA),
State Technical Advisory Committee.
 The central level mechanism is made up of bodies
such as the Central Water Commission (CWC), the
Farakka Barrage Project Authority, the Ganga Flood
Control Commission, the National Disaster

241
 Management Authority (NDMA) and the
Brahmaputra Board
Other initiatives in order to deal with floods include:
 Policy Statement 1954
 Policy Statement of 1958
 High Level Committee on Floods, 1957
 National Flood Commission, 1980
 Expert Committee to Review the Implementation of
the Recommendations of National Flood
Commission – 2003 (R. Rangachari Committee)
 National Water Policy (1987/2002/2012)
 NDMA Act, 2005
The flood management measures that are being used in
India can be broadly classified into engineering or
structural measures and administrative or non-structural
measures. The engineering measures comprise the
following:
 Reservoirs
 Drainage improvement
 Embankments

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  Diversion of flood waters
 Channelization of rivers
 Watershed management
 Channel improvement
3. EARTHQUAKE

Earthquake
 All natural earthquakes occur in the lithosphere.
 Seismic wave’s studies offer a full picture of the
layered interior.
 An earthquake is, simply put, shaking of the earth’s
crust.
 It is caused due to the energy release, which
triggers waves that travel in all directions.
 The emanation of energy occurs along a fault.

243
  A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
 Rocks along a fault generally move in opposing
directions.
Types of Earthquakes
 Tectonic earthquakes: The most common form of
earthquakes, it is caused by the movement of loose
fragmented pieces of land on earth’s crust known
as tectonic plates.
 Volcanic earthquake: The less prevalent compared
to the tectonic variety, these earthquakes happen
before or after the eruption of a volcano. It is
caused when magma leaving the volcano is filled
by rocks being pushed to the surface.
 Collapse earthquake: This earthquake occurs in
underground mines. The main cause is due to
pressure generated within the rocks.
 Explosion earthquakes: The occurrence of this type
of earthquake is artificial in nature. High-density
explosion such as nuclear explosions is the
primary cause.

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Causes of Earthquakes
 It is caused due to the tectonic movements of the
earth.
 The energy release produces waves which travel in
all directions.
 The point where energy is released is called
the focus or hypocenter. It is generally located at a
depth of 60 km.
 This causes a release of energy, and the energy
waves travel in all directions.
 The point where the energy is released is called the
focus of an earthquake or hypocentre.
 The point on the surface of the earth which is
vertically above the focus is called the epicenter. It
is the first place to experience the waves.
Body Waves
 Earthquake waves are of two types — body waves
and surface waves.
P- Waves
 P-waves are also known as the Primary waves.
They are the first waves to arrive at the surface.

245
  The characteristics of P-waves are like sound
waves. They travel through all three mediums-
solid, liquid and gas.
 These waves have a tendency to vibrate parallel to
the direction of wave propagation. This causes
density differences in the material through which
they travel.
 These waves are responsible for elongating and
squeezing of material.
S- Waves
 S- Waves arrive after some time after the
happening of Earthquake and they are called
secondary waves.
 A significant characteristic of these S-waves is that
they travel only through a solid medium.
 The direction of vibration of this S-wave is
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation,
thereby creating crests and troughs in the material
of their transmission.

246
Shadow Zone

 The shadow zone is the zone of the earth from

angular distances of 104 to 140 degrees from a
given earthquake that does not receive any direct P
waves.
 The shadow zone results from P waves being
refracted by the liquid core and S waves being
stopped completely by the liquid core.
 A zone between 105° and 145° from the epicenter
was recognised as the shadow zone for both the
waves types.

247
  The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-
waves.
 The shadow zone of S-wave is larger than that of
the P-waves.
 The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band
around the earth between 105° and 145° away from
the epicenter.
Effects of earthquake
The following are the immediate hazardous effects of
Earthquake:
 Shaking of ground
 The disparity in ground settlement
 Natural disasters like Tsunami, landslide,
mudslides and avalanches
 Soil liquefaction
 Ground lurching and displacement
 Floods and fires
 Infrastructure collapse.

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Measurement
All earthquakes are different in their intensity and
magnitude. The instrument for the measurement of the
vibrations is known as Seismograph.
Magnitude scale
 Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude of
the earthquake
 The energy released during a quake is expressed in
absolute numbers of 0-10.
Intensity scale
 The Mercalli scale is used to measure the intensity
of an earthquake
 It measures the visible damage caused due to the
quake.
 It is expressed in the range of 1-12.
4. VOLCANO

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Volcanoes
 A volcano is a vent or fissure in Earth’s crust
through which lava, ash, rocks, and gases erupt.
 An active volcano is a volcano that has erupted in
the recent past.
 The mantle contains a weaker zone known as the
asthenosphere.
 Magma is the material present in the
asthenosphere.
 Material that flows to or reaches the ground
comprises lava flows, volcanic bombs, pyroclastic
debris, dust, ash and gases. The gases may be
sulphur compounds, nitrogen compounds, and
trace amounts of argon, hydrogen and chlorine.
Major types of volcanoes
 Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature of
eruption and the form developed at the surface.
Shield Volcanoes
 The Shield volcanoes are the largest of all the
volcanoes on the earth, which are not steep.
 These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt.

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  They become explosive if in some way water gets
into the vent, otherwise, they are characterized by
low-explosivity.
 The lava that is moving upwards does so in a
fountain-form and emanates the cone at the vent’s
top and then develops into cinder cone.
Eg: Hawaiian shield volcanoes
Composite Volcanoes
 Composite Volcanoes are characterized by
outbreaks of cooler and more viscous lavas than
basalt.
 They are constructed from numerous explosive
eruptions.
 Large quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes
find their way to the ground along with lava.
 This material gathers near the vent openings
resulting in the creation of layers.
 Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, Mount Fuji in
Japan, and Mount Rainier in Washington are the
major composite volcanoes in the world.

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Caldera
 Calderas are known as the most explosive
volcanoes of Earth.
 They are generally explosive in nature.
 When they erupt, they incline to collapse on
themselves rather than constructing any structure.
 The collapsed depressions are known as calderas.
Flood Basalt Provinces
 Flood Basalt Province volcanoes discharge highly
fluid lava that flows for long distances.
 Many parts of the world are covered by thick basalt
lava flows.
Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
 These volcanoes are found in the oceanic areas.
 There exists a system of mid-ocean ridges
stretching for over 70,000 km all through the ocean
basins.
 The central region of this ridge gets frequent
eruptions.

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5. CYCLONES
Introduction
 Cyclones are rapid inward air circulation around a
low-pressure area. The air circulates in an
anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere
and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere.
 Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent
storms and bad weather.
 The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word
‘Cyclos’ meaning the coils of a snake. It was coined
by Henry Peddington because the tropical storms
in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea appear
like coiled serpents of the sea.
Classification
 There are two types of cyclones:
 Tropical cyclones;
 Extra Tropical cyclones (also called Temperate
cyclones or middle latitude cyclones or Frontal
cyclones or Wave Cyclones).
 The World Meteorological Organisation uses the
term 'Tropical Cyclone’ to cover weather systems in

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 which winds exceed ‘Gale Force’ (minimum of 63
km per hour).
 Tropical cyclones develop in the region between
the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer. They are
large-scale weather systems developing over
tropical or subtropical waters, where they get
organized into surface wind circulation.
 Extra tropical cyclones occur in temperate zones
and high latitude regions, though they are known
to originate in the Polar Regions.
Tropical Cyclones
 Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate
over oceans in tropical areas and move over to the
coastal areas bringing about large scale
destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy
rainfall and storm surges.
 Tropical Cyclones are one of the most devastating
natural calamities in the world.
 Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over
warm tropical oceans. The conditions favourable
for the formation and intensification of tropical
storms are:

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  Large sea surface with temperature higher than
27° C.
 Presence of the Coriolis force.
 Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
 A pre-existing weak low- pressure area or low-
level-cyclonic circulation.
 Upper divergence above the sea level system.
Anticyclones
 An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone i.e. it
has an outward-spiraling air circulation around a
high pressure centre.
 An anticyclone’s winds rotate clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere around a center of high
pressure.
 In anticyclones, air comes in from above and sinks
to the ground. High pressure centers generally
have fair weather.
Pressure Pressure Pattern of Wind Direction
System Condition at
Northern Southern
the Centre
Hemispher Hemisphere
e

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Cyclone Low High Anticlockw Clockwise
Anticyclone ise Anticlockwise
Clockwise
Table: Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and Anticyclones
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has released
a list with the names of 169 tropical cyclones that are
likely to emerge over the north Indian Ocean, including
the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.
 The report was adopted by WMO/ESCAP Panel on
Tropical Cyclones (PTC) with consensus in April,
2020.
 The current list has a total of 169 names including
13 names each for 13 WMO/ESCAP member
countries.
Key Points
 IMD, one of the six Regional Specialised
Meteorological Centres (RSMC) in the world, is
mandated to issue advisories and name tropical
cyclones in the north Indian Ocean region.
 The advisories are issued to 13 member countries
under WMO/ESCAP Panel including Bangladesh,
India, Iran, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan,

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 Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, United
Arab Emirates and Yemen.
 Benefits of naming : Naming of tropical cyclones
helps the scientific community, disaster managers,
media and general masses to
 Identify each individual cyclone.
 Create awareness of its development.
 Remove confusion in case of simultaneous
occurrence of tropical cyclones over a region.
 Remember a tropical cyclone easily,
 Rapidly and effectively disseminate warnings to
a much wider audience.
Naming of the Tropical Cyclones
 The WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones
(PTC) at its 27th Session held in 2000 in Muscat,
Oman agreed in principle to assign names to the
tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea.
 The naming of the tropical cyclones over the north
Indian Ocean commenced from September 2004.

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  This list contained names proposed by then eight
member countries of WMO/ESCAP PTC, viz.,
Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
 The requirement for a fresh list of tropical
cyclones including representation from five new
member countries: Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United
Arab Emirates and Yemen (total 13 member
countries) was tabled during the 45th session of
WMO/ESCAP, held in September 2018. The
session was hosted by Oman.
Panel on Tropical Cyclones
 The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and
the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific (ESCAP) jointly established the Panel
on Tropical Cyclones (PTC) in 1972 as an
intergovernmental body.
 Its membership comprises countries affected by
tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea.
 The Panel is one of the five regional tropical
cyclone bodies established as part of the WMO
Tropical Cyclone Programme (TCP) which aims at

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 promoting and coordinating the planning and
implementation of measures to mitigate tropical
cyclone disasters on a worldwide basis.
 For this purpose, there are Regional Specialized
Meteorological Centre (RSMC)- Tropical cyclone
and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWC)
for different regions.
 The main objective of the WMO/ESCAP Panel on
Tropical Cyclones is to promote measures to
improve tropical cyclone warning systems in the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
Worldwide Terminology of Tropical Cyclones
 They are given many names in different regions of
the world – eg. they are known as Typhoons in the
China Sea and Pacific Ocean; Hurricanes in the
West Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and
Atlantic Ocean; Tornados in the Guinea lands of
West Africa and southern USA.; Willy-willies in
north-western Australia and Tropical Cyclones in
the Indian Ocean.

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Extratropical Cyclone
 Extratropical cyclones are referred to as mid-
latitude depressions, temperate cyclones, frontal
depressions and wave cyclones.
 These are active above the mid-latitudinal region
between 35° and 65° latitude in both the
hemispheres. The direction of movement is from
west to east and more pronounced in the winter

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 seasons. It is in these latitude zones the polar and
tropical air masses meet and form fronts
Formation of Extratropical Cyclones
 The origin and development of temperate cyclones
is best explained by the Polar Front theory.
 According to this theory, the warm-humid air
masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air
masses from the poles and thus a polar front is
formed.
 The cold air mass is denser and heavier and due to
this reason, warm air mass is pushed up.
 This interaction of cold and warm air masses
creates instability and a low pressure is created at
the junction particularly in the center of
interactions.
 Thus, a void is created because of lessening of
pressure. The surrounding air rushed in to occupy
this void and coupled with the earth’s rotation a
cyclone is formed.
 Extratropical cyclones present a contrast to the
more violent cyclones or hurricanes of the tropics,

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 which form in regions of relatively uniform
temperatures.
6. CLOUDBURST
The cloudburst is a localised weather phenomena
representing highly concentrated rainfall over a small
area lasting for few hours. This leads to flash floods/
landslides, house collapse, dislocation of traffic and
human casualties on large scale.

Meteorologists say the rain from a cloudburst is usually

of the shower type with a fall rate equal to or greater than
100 mm (4.94 inches) per hour.

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Impact of Cloudburst
It cause flood, huge distraction, destroy vegetation and
loss to human life.
How does it form?
Generally cloudbursts are associated with
thunderstorms. The air currents rushing upwards in a
rainstorm hold up a large amount of water. If these
currents suddenly cease, the entire amount of water
descends on to a small area with catastrophic force all of
a sudden and causes mass destruction. This is due to a
rapid condensation of the clouds. They occur most often
in desert and mountainous regions, and in interior
regions of continental landmasses.
Prone areas
 They occur most often in desert and mountainous
regions, and in interior regions of continental
landmasses.
 The topographical conditions like steep hills favour
the formation of these clouds in the mountainous
regions. And also the devastations, as water
flowing down the steep slopes bring debris,
boulders and uprooted trees with great velocity
damaging any structure that comes in their way.

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  The Chhotanagpur plateau spread across north
Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand is the world’s
most vulnerable spot for formation of severest
thunderstorms.
 Cloudburst can occur not only in the monsoon
seasons but also during March to May which is
known for severe convective weather activities.
Examples of cloudburst
 2010 Ladakh Floods: A major cloudburst and heavy
rainfall on the intervening night of August 6, 2010
triggered mudslides, flash floods and debris flow in
Jammu and Kashmir's Ladakh. 71 towns and
villages in Leh were affected in the region and at
least 255 people died.
 2013 Uttarakhand Floods: The multi-day cloudburst
in the hill state of Uttarakhand triggered flash
floods and massive landslides.
7. LANDSLIDES
A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of
rock, debris, or earth down a slope. Landslides are a type
of "mass wasting (a geomorphic process)," which
denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock
under the direct influence of gravity.

264
India has the highest mountain chain on earth, the
Himalayas, which are formed due to collision of Indian
and Eurasian plate, the northward movement of the
Indian plate towards China causes continuous stress on
the rocks rendering them friable, weak and prone to
landslides and earthquakes.
The slow-motion of the Indian crust, about 5 cm/year
accumulates stress to which natural disasters are
attributed. Some landslides make unique and
unparalleled catastrophes. Landslides and avalanches
are among the major hydro-geological hazards that
affect large parts of India besides the Himalayas, the
Northeastern hill ranges, the Western Ghats, the Nilgiris,
the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyans, in that order,
covering about 15 % of the landmass.
Loss Due To Landslides
 Based on Global Fatal Landslide database 2004-
2016, globally in 4,862 distinct landslide
events 55,997 fatalities were recorded (earthquake
triggered landslide events were not taken in
account in this study).
 Continent-wise, Asia suffers the maximum
damages / losses due to landslides. Among the
Asian countries, South Asian nations are the worst

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 sufferers and India is one of the worst affected by
landslides.
 As landslides are frequent and widespread,
the annual cumulative losses worldwide amount to
tens of billions of USD in terms of lost property,
environmental damage, repair works, and the
maintenance of defence measures.
 As per Geological Survey of India, the window of
economic loss due to landslides may reach
between 1-2% of the gross national product in
many developing countries.
The National Institute of Disaster Management
(NIDM) organized the 1st International Conference on
“Landslides Risk Reduction and Resilience" on
28th November, 2019 in New Delhi.
 The aim was to bring together all stakeholders
including relevant ministries, universities, as well
as experts to discuss/debate/disseminate
practically useful knowledge, experiences,
information and innovations for landslides risk
reduction and resilience at national and
international levels.

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8. AVALANCHES
Snow Avalanche is a rapid, down slope movement of
large detached mass of snow, ice and associated debris
such as rock fragments, soil and vegetation. Small
avalanches, or sluffs, occur in large numbers whereas
large avalanches that may encompass slopes a
kilometer or more in length with millions of tons of snow,
occur infrequently bust cause lot of damage.
There are two basic types of avalanches viz. loose snow
avalanches and slab avalanches. Loose snow
avalanches form in snow masses with little internal
cohesion among the individual snow crystals. Such an
avalanche originates at a point and grows wider as it
sweeps up more snow in its descent. Slab avalanches
originate in snow with sufficient internal cohesion to
enable a snow layer, or layers, to react mechanically as a
single entity. A slab release may take place across an
entire mountainside, with the fracture racing from slope
to slope to adjacent or even distant slide paths.

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Causes and effects of Snow Avalanches
 Avalanches occur due to combination of fixed
(prime factors) and variable factors (exciting
factors). The prime factors include topographic
factors and vegetative factors. The variable factors
include weather conditions and the weight of the
snow cover.
 The force generated by a medium to large
avalanches can damage or destroy man-made
structures. The debris from even small avalanches
is enough to block a highway or rail-road and in
some cases passing vehicles can be swept away

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 and destroyed. Generally, use of avalanche areas in
the summer does not constitute any hazard.
Avalanche prone areas in India
In India, Himalayan region is well known for occurrence
of snow avalanches particularly the Western Himalayan
region (snowy regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand).
SNOW AND AVALANCHE STUDY ESTABLISHMENT
 SASE’s objective: To be a centre of excellence in
‘Cryospheric Science and Technology’ to facilitate
high operational mobility for troops in snow bound
regions of Indian Himalayas.
 HQ of SASE is located near Manali, Himachal
Pradesh.
 The cryosphere is the frozen water part of the Earth
system. Thus it includes those portions of Earth’s
surface where water is in solid form, including sea
ice, lake ice, river ice, snow cover, glaciers, ice
caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground.

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9. TSUNAMI
 Tsunami is a Japanese word for “Harbour wave”. A
tsunami is a series of very long-wavelength waves
in large water bodies like seas or large lakes
caused by a major disturbance above or below the
water surface or due to the displacement of a large
volume of water.

 They are sometimes referred to as tidal waves

because of long wavelengths, although the
attractions of the Moon and Sun play no role in
their formation.
 Earthquakes (e.g. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami),
volcanic eruptions (e.g. tsunami caused by the
violent eruption of Krakatoa in 1883), landslides

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 (tsunami caused by the collapse of a section of
Anak Krakatoa in 2018), underwater explosions,
meteorite impacts, etc. have the potential to
generate a tsunami.
Tsunami Warning Systems
 While the earthquake cannot be predicted in
advance, it is possible to give a three-hour notice of
a potential tsunami.
 Such early warning systems are in place across the
Pacific Ocean. Post-2004, they were installed in the
Indian Ocean as well.
 In 1965, early warning system was started by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA). The member states of the NOAA include
the major Pacific Rim countries.
 NOAA has developed the ‘Deep Ocean Assessment
and Reporting of Tsunamis’ (DART) gauge.
 Each gauge has a very sensitive pressure recorder
on the sea floor. Data is generated whenever
changes in water pressure occur.
 The data is transmitted to a surface buoy which
then relays it over satellite.

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  Computer systems at the Pacific Tsunami Warning
Centre (PTWC) in Hawaii monitor data.

India’s preparedness
 The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting
System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian Ocean
post-2004.
 The Indian government plans to set up a network
with Indonesia, Myanmar and Thailand etc.
 A National Tsunami Early Warning Centre, which
can detect earthquakes of more than 6 magnitude

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 in the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in 2007 in
India.
 Set up by the Ministry of Earth Sciences in
the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information
Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad, the tsunami warning
system would take 10-30 minutes to analyse
the seismic data following an earthquake.
10. FOREST FIRES
A forest fire is a natural disaster and poses a threat not
only to the forest wealth but disturb the bio-diversity and
the ecology and environment of a region. Forests fires
are as old as the forests themselves. Natural fires have
been a disturbance of several ecosystems throughout
evolution thus plants have adapted to this regime. Man-
made fires have also coexisted in equilibrium with
ecosystems for centuries, but the continuous increment
in pressure on forests and unmanaged fire caused by
stakeholders, has led to adverse consequences for the
diversity and structure of forests
Causes of forest fire
Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as
Man-made causes

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Natural Causes
 Many forest fires start from natural causes such as
lightning which set trees on fire
 High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low
humidity) offer favourable circumstance for a fire
to start. In dry season, friction leading to sparks by
rolling stones in the mountainous areas may lead
to forest fires
 In bamboo areas, forest fires may occur by the
rubbing together of clumps of dry bamboos.
 Volcanic eruptions also lead to forest fires
naturally
 In the past twenty years, the fire events in India
have strongly been linked with the presence of El
Nino conditions affecting the monsoon
movements.
Man-made causes
 More than 90% forest fires are caused by human
beings, deliberately (for personal gains or rivalry) or
merely due to negligence or just by accident.
Forest fires sometimes originate due to accidental
or unintentional reasons.

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 Graziers and gatherers of various forest products
starting small fires to obtain good grazing grass as
well as to facilitate gathering of minor forest
produce like flowers of Madhuca indica and leaves
of Diospyros melanoxylon
 The centuries old practice of shifting cultivation
(especially in the North-Eastern region of India and
in parts of the States of Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh).
 The use of fires by villagers to ward off wild
animals
 For concealing the illicit felling – Smugglers and
poachers many times start forest fires to hide the
stumps of illicit felling. The poachers use forest
fires for terrorizing wild animals and hunting too.
 Fires started accidentally by careless visitors to
forests who discard cigarette butts.
 Burning farm residue- After a harvest, farmers set
fire to their agricultural fields. Many times, when
these fires are not put out completely, may spread
to the adjoining forest areas

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National Action Plan on Forest Fires
 National Action Plan on Forest Fires (NAPFF) was
launched in 2018 to minimise forest fires by
informing, enabling and empowering forest fringe
communities and incentivizing them to work with
the State Forest Departments.
 The plan also intends to substantially reduce the
vulnerability of forests across diverse forest
ecosystems in the country against fire hazards.
 It also aims to enhance capabilities of forest
personnel and institutions in fighting fires and
swift recovery subsequent to fire incidents.
Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme
 The Forest Fire Prevention and Management
Scheme (FPM) is the only centrally funded
program specifically dedicated to assist the states
in dealing with forest fires.
 The FPM replaced the Intensification of Forest
Management Scheme (IFMS) in 2017. By
revamping the IFMS, the FPM has increased the
amount dedicated for forest fire work.

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  Funds allocated under the FPM are according to a
center-state cost-sharing formula, with a 90:10
ratio of central to state funding in the Northeast
and Western Himalayan regions and a 60:40 ratio
for all other states.
 It also provides the states to have the flexibility to
direct a portion of the National Afforestation
Programme (NAP) and Mission for Green India
(GIM) funding toward forest fire work.
11. BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
Definition: The devastating effects caused by an
enormous spread of a certain kind of living organism that
may spread disease, viruses or infestation of plant,
animal or insect life on an epidemic or pandemic level.
1. Epidemic Level – Indicates a disaster that affects
many people in a given area or community.
2. Pandemic Level – Indicates a disaster that affects
a much larger region, sometimes an entire
continent or even the whole planet. For example,
the recent COVID-19 or Swine Flu pandemic.

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Biological Disasters – Important points to remember
1. Nodal agency for handling epidemics – Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare
 Decision-making
 Advisory body
 Emergency medical relief providing
2. Primary responsibility of dealing with biological
disasters is with the State Governments.
(Reason – Health is a State Subject).
3. Nodal agency for investigating outbreaks – National
Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD)
4. Nodal ministry for Biological Warfare – Ministry of
Home Affairs (Biological warfare is the use of
biological agents as an act of war)

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Biological Disasters – Classifications

Charles Baldwin developed the symbol for biohazard in

1966.
The US Centres for Disease Control classifies biohazards
into four biosafety levels as follows:
1. BSL-1: Bacteria and Viruses including Bacillus
subtilis, some cell cultures, canine hepatitis, and
non-infections bacteria. Protection is only facial
protection and gloves.
2. BSL-2: Bacteria and viruses that cause only mild
disease to humans, or are difficult to contract via
aerosol in a lab setting such as hepatitis A, B, C,
mumps, measles, HIV, etc. Protection – use of

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 autoclaves for sterilizing and biological safety
cabinets.
3. BSL-3: Bacteria and viruses causing severe to fatal
disease in humans. Example: West Nile virus,
anthrax, MERS coronavirus. Protection – Stringent
safety protocols such as the use of respirators to
prevent airborne infection.
4. BSL-4: Potentially fatal (to human beings) viruses
like Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Lassa fever virus,
etc. Protection – use of a positive pressure
personnel suit, with a segregated air supply.
Legislations for prevention of Biohazards in India
The following legislations have been enacted in India for
the prevention of biohazards and implementation of
protective, eradicative and containing measures when
there is an outbreak:
1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974
2. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1981
3. The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 and the
Rules (1986)

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 4. Disaster Management Act 2005, this provides for
the institutional and operational framework for
disaster prevention, mitigation, response,
preparedness and recovery at all levels.
Post-disaster Epidemics Prevention
The risk of epidemics is increased after any biological
disaster. Integrated Disease Surveillance Systems (IDSS)
monitors the sources, modes of diseases spreading, and
investigates the epidemics.
Legal Framework for Biological Disasters
1. The Epidemic Diseases Act was enacted in the year
1897.
2. This Act does not provide any power to the centre
to intervene in biological emergencies.
3. It has to be substituted by an Act which takes care
of the prevailing and foreseeable public health
needs including emergencies such as BT attacks
and use of biological weapons by an adversary,
cross-border issues and international spread of
diseases.
4. It should give enough powers to the central and
state governments and local authorities to act with

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 impunity, notify affected areas, restrict movement
or quarantine the affected area, enter any premises
to take samples of suspected materials and seal
them.
5. The Act should also establish controls over
biological sample transfer, biosecurity and
biosafety of materials/laboratories.
Institutional Framework
 In the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare
(MoH&FW), public health needs to be accorded
high priority with a separate Additional Directorate
General of Health and Sanitation (DGHS) for public
health. In some states, there is a separate
department of public health. States that do not
have such arrangements will also have to take
initiatives to establish such a department.
 Organisations related to Disaster Management
Framework at Global level:
 In 1994 the World Conference on Natural
Disaster Reduction was held in Yokohama,
Japan.
 The conference adopted the Yokohama
strategy and declared the decade 1990-2000 as

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 the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR).
 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
Reduction (UNISDR) is the successor to the
secretariat of IDNDR and was created in 1999 to
implement UN Disaster Risk Reduction strategy.
 The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) is a 10-
year plan (2005-2015) to make the world safer
from natural hazards. Priorities such as,
Disaster risk reduction, identification,
assessment through legal and policy
frameworks, disaster preparedness and use of
innovation were adopted.
 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-2030, is the successor
instrument to the Hyogo Framework.
 It is a non-binding agreement, which the
signatory nations, including India, will attempt
to comply with on a voluntary basis.
 There are three international agreements within
the context of the post- 2015 development
agenda.

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These are:
 The Sendai Framework.
 Sustainable Development Goals 2015-2030
 The Paris agreement (COP 21) on Climate Change.
 These three agreements recognize the desired
outcomes in Disaster Risk Reduction as a product
of interconnected social and economic processes,
which overlap across the agendas of the three
agreements.
Sendai Framework

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Organisations and Policies related to Disaster
Management Framework at National level
National Disaster Management Authority of India
(NDMA)
 It was established in 2005, under the Disaster
Management Act 2005.
 The objective of NDMA is, to build a safer and
disaster resilient India by a holistic, proactive,
technology driven and sustainable development
strategy.
 The NDMA is chaired by the Prime Minister of
India and has a vice chairman with the status of
Cabinet Minister and eight members with the
status of Ministers of State.
 The NDMA Secretariat is headed by a Secretary
and deals with mitigation, preparedness, plans,
reconstruction, community awareness and
financial and administrative aspects.

285
National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP)
 It was released in 2016, it is the first ever national
plan prepared in the country for disaster
management.
 With National Disaster Management Plan (2016)
India has aligned its National plan with the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030,
to which India is a signatory.
 The objective of the plan is to make India disaster
resilient, achieve substantial disaster risk
reduction. It aims to significantly decrease the
losses of life, livelihoods, and assets in terms of
economic, physical, social, cultural, and
environmental. To maximize the ability to cope
with disasters at all levels of administration as well
as among communities.
State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
 At State level, State Disaster Management
Authorities are established under Disaster
Management Act 2005.
 SDMA is chaired by the Chief Minister of the
State and has not more than eight members who
are appointed by the Chief Minister.

286
  The SDMA prepares the state disaster
management plan and implements the National
Disaster Management Plan.
District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
 Under Disaster Management Act 2005, every State
government shall establish a DDMA for every
district in the State.
 The DDM Authority shall consist of:
 Chairperson - the Collector or District
Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner act as
Chairperson of DDMA.
 Co-Chairperson - is the elected representative of
the local authority. In the Tribal Areas, the Chief
Executive Member of the district council of
autonomous district is the co-chairperson.
 There are not more than seven other members in
DDMA.
 The Disaster Management Committee governed
under District Magistrate will formulate village
level disaster management plans for concern
villages.

287
 The DDMA makes District Disaster Management
Plan and implements the state Disaster
Management Plan.

288
Government Initiatives
 India is a signatory to the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction and is committed to
achieve the priorities and objectives through
systematic and institutional efforts.
 With multi-dimensional initiatives and expertise,
India is taking a leading role in strengthening
regional cooperation among South Asian countries
for reducing disasters.
 India is one of the participating countries
and works closely with the United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(UNISDR). India has been working closely with
many countries for the exchange of ideas and
expertise in disaster management.
 National Disaster Management Plan
(NDMP) defines the roles and responsibilities of
various stakeholders including Central Ministries/
Departments, State Governments, UT
Administrations, District Authorities and local self
Governments.
 Primary responsibility of disaster management
rests with the States. The Central Government

289
 conducts regular mock drill, community training
and awareness programme to prepare the civilian
populations for disasters.
 National Disaster Management Services
(NDMS) was conceived by NDMA during 2015-16
for setting up of Very Small Aperture Terminal
(VSAT) Network connecting MHA, NDMA, NDRF
etc. to provide the failsafe communication
infrastructure and technical support for Emergency
Operation Centre (EOC) operations across the
country.
 NDMA has taken an initiative on Earthquake
Disaster Risk Indexing (EDRI) for 50 important
cities and 1 District in Seismic Zone IV & V areas.
 This kind of indexing will be helpful in
comparing the overall risk across large number
of cities or region and also in prioritization of
cities to implement appropriate disaster
mitigation measures.
 NDMA through Building Materials & Technology
Promotion Council (BMTPC) has prepared
Upgraded Earthquake Hazard Maps and Atlases for
the country for better planning and policies.

290
 Leveraging the technology of geographic
information system (GIS), NDMA have taken up a
project for disaster risk management by
establishing GIS Server and creation of database
to integrate data obtained from various
stakeholders to increase disaster preparedness,
mitigation, damage assessment, response and
relief management efforts.
 Under the National School Safety Programme
(NSSP), 8600 schools (with 200 schools in 43
districts in 22 States/UTs falling seismic zones IV
and V) have been selected for providing training on
school safety and disaster preparedness.
 The Aapdamitra scheme of NDMA has provision for
training 6000 community volunteers in disaster
response in 30 most flood prone districts (200
volunteers per district) in 25 States.
 The government has set up National Crisis
Management Committee and Crisis Management
Group.
 The state governments have set up state crisis
management groups headed by chief
secretaries, institutes of relief commissioners and
state/district contingency plans.

291
 The disaster management policy of the
government stresses on forecasting and warning
using advanced technologies, contingency
agricultural planning to ensure availability of food
grains, and preparedness and mitigation through
specific programmes.
 Project on deployment of Mobile Radiation
Detection Systems (MRDS) to handle Radiological
Hazards in Metros/Capital Cities/Big Cities in India
to detect unclaimed radioactive
materials/substances and save public from its
hazardous effects.
 Landslide Risk Mitigation Scheme
(LRMS) envisages financial support for site
specific Landslide Mitigation Projects
recommended by landslide prone States, covering
disaster prevention strategy, disaster mitigation
and R&D in monitoring of critical Landslides
thereby leading to the development of Early
Warning System and Capacity Building initiatives.
The Scheme is under preparation.
 Core Group has been formed for Preparation of
Guidelines to avert Boat Tragedies in India.

292
Disaster Management in India: Success stories
 The Indian government's "zero casualty" policy for
cyclones and the pinpoint accuracy of the India
Meteorological Department's (IMD) early warning
system has helped reduce the possibility of deaths
from cyclone Fani in Odisha.
 India's policy of minimising fatalities from cyclones
has been proven by past performances as in
cyclone Phailin in 2013, when famously the
casualty rate was kept to as low as 45 despite the
intensity of the storm.
 In August 2010 during the flash floods due to
cloudburst in Leh in Ladakh region by the Indian
Army. The Army's immediate search, rescue, and
relief operations and mass casualty management
effectively and efficiently mitigated the impact of
flash floods, and restored normal life.
 Bihar suffers from floods almost every year during
the monsoon season, predominantly due to the
Ganges and its tributaries. The State has
successfully scaled up disaster preparedness and
mitigation efforts since 2011.

293
K. MAP GLOSSARY

294
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296
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 ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
Agriculture
 According to Food and Agriculture organisation
(FAO), at present some 11 percent (1.5 billion ha)
of the globe’s land surface (13.4 billion ha) is used
in crop production (arable land and land under
permanent crops).
 This area represents slightly over a third (36
percent) of the land estimated to be to some
degree suitable for crop production.
 The fact that there remain some 2.7 billion ha with
crop production potential suggests that there is
still scope for further expansion of agricultural
land.
 40% of today’s global population works in
agriculture sector making it the single largest
employer in the world. Nearly 80% of world
cultivated area is rain fed.
Classification
 The framework of the agricultural systems of the
world, except collective farming as outlined by
Whittlesey can be presented as under —

298
1. Ecological or Near-Ecological Systems
 Nomadic herding
 Shifting cultivation/Simple Subsistence Farming
2. Subsistence Systems
 Rudimentary Sedentary Tillage
 Intensive Subsistence Tillage (with paddy
dominance)
 Intensive Subsistence Tillage (without paddy
dominance)
 Subsistence Crop and Livestock Farming
 Mediterranean Agriculture (near subsistence in the
occidental world)
3. Commercial Systems
 Mediterranean Agriculture (commercial)
 Livestock Ranching
 Commercial Grain Farming
 Commercial Livestock and Crop Farming
 Commercial Dairy Farming
 Specialised Horticulture and Olericulture (fruit &
vegetable culture)

299
4. Cash-Cropping System
 Commercial Plantation Tillage
Shifting cultivation/Simple Subsistence Farming
 It is the oldest form of ‘agriculture’ having its origin
in 7000/8000 B.C.
 Shifting cultivation is the primitive form of soil
utilisation, usually of tropical rainforests and bush
areas of Central Africa, Central America and
Southeast Asia. Farming is on a self-sufficient
basis and farmers grow food only for themselves
and their families. Shifting cultivation has two
particularly important characteristics— First,
farmers usually clear the land for planting in part
by slashing the vegetation and burning the debris.
Second, farmers grow crops on a cleared field for
only a few years and then leave it fallow for many
years.
 It has significant negative environment impacts
which include: deforestation inadequate land
management practices soil erosion, flooding
and siltation in lower reaches.
 Shifting cultivation can support only a low level
of population.

300
  Shifting cultivation is carried on chiefly in
regions with a tropical forest climate. It is widely
spread in and along its borders. The
tropical regions of Americas, Central Africa, and
Southeast Asia (including Indonesia) may be
identified as the home of shifting cultivation.
 In these regions, agriculture is known as
migratory, primitive, cut-and-burn, slash-and-
burn and bush fallow agriculture.

Rudimentary Sedentary Tillage

 This form of agriculture is practiced at one place
by a settled farmer, in which fields are not rotated
and very primitive methods of cultivation is
practiced. Nevertheless, the agricultural system is
more reliable.

301
  Rudimentary sedentary tillage is mostly confined
to the tropical lands of Central and South America,
Africa and Southeast Asia.
 Crop rotation, rather than field rotation, is practiced
and greater attention is paid to the land and the
crop sown.
 Tilling methods are more intensive; however, all the
work is done by hand. Ploughing and hoeing of the
soil is done with crude hand implements. There is
more employment of manpower in the field.
 Most of the crops grown under rudimentary
sedentary tillage belong to the tuber and cereal
family, such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize
and sorghum, cassava, banana etc are also grown.
Subsistence Crop and Livestock Farming
In this type of farming, farmers produce crops and raise
livestock mainly for their own subsistence and sell
nothing in the local market. The returns are so low that
they are sometimes unable to save the best seeds from
their produce to re-sow them for obtaining the best
harvests.

302
  This type of agriculture is practiced in some parts
of south Mexico, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, etc. but the
agricultural activities are increasingly becoming
more commercial in organisation and practice in
these countries. Thus, at present, subsistence crop
and livestock farming covers a very limited part of
the global arable land.
 The most important crops grown are barley and
wheat in cereals. Rye and maize are the chief food
grains for the people, and potatoes and barley are
other staples.
Mediterranean Agriculture
It derives its name from the Mediterranean region of
Europe where the agricultural characteristics are
representative.
 It exists primarily in the lands that border the
Mediterranean Sea in southern Europe, northern
Africa and western Asia.
 Farmers in California, central Chile and the
southwestern part of South Africa and Australia
practice Mediterranean agriculture as well.

303
 The most common feature of Mediterranean
agriculture is that both subsistence and cash crops
figure in the economy of each of its regions.
 Two-thirds of the world’s wine is produced in
countries that border the Mediterranean Sea,
especially Italy, France and Spain. Greece
specializes in producing raisins and wine and
Spain in oranges, olive oil and wine. Mediterranean
regions elsewhere produce the remaining one-third.
 California specializes in growing citrus fruits and
deciduous fruits. Horticulture is practiced in other
Mediterranean climates but not to the extent found
in California.
 Farmers derive a smaller percentage of income
from animal products in the Mediterranean region.
Livestock production is hindered by the lack of
water and good grazing land during the summer.
Small livestock herding, particularly of sheep,
goats, pigs, is practiced in the region.

304
Mediterranean and Monsoon Agriculture
The Mediterranean agriculture and Monsoon agriculture
have many similarities and dissimilarities.
Similarities
 There is a marked dry and rainy season.
 The agriculture is largely of intensive type.
 Dry farming and wet farming both are practiced.
Differences
 Monsoon region is associated with higher rainfall
than Mediterranean region.
 In Mediterranean, the rainfall is received in the
winters while it is summers in the monsoonal
region.
 The farming in monsoonal region is largely
subsistence while in the Mediterranean, it is largely
near subsistence.
 The Monsoonal agriculture is largely concerned
with grain farming while the Mediterranean is
concerned with Horticulture and Olericulture.

305
  Rice is the dominant crop in the Monsoonal
regions. However, in the Mediterranean region,
there is dominance of horticultural crops.
 The arable area in the Monsoon region is very large
while it is restricted in the Mediterranean lands.
 Farming in monsoonal region is done on alluvial
plains, delta, loess and lava soil region covering
large areas while in the Mediterranean, it is
confined to small valleys, narrows floodplains
deltas, piedmont plains and lower slopes of the
mountains.
Livestock Ranching
 Livestock ranching is the commercial grazing of
livestock over an extensive area. It is a form of
agriculture adapted to semi-arid or arid land.
 The major livestock ranching areas are:
 The western United States and the adjacent
parts of Canada and Mexico;
 The Llanos of Venezuela;
 The Sertao of Brazil, the Pampas of Uruguay, the
southeastern part Argentinean Pampas, the
Chaco and Patagonia;

306
  The Karroo of South Africa;
 The arid interiors of Australia; and
 The high country of South Island in New
Zealand
 The livestock ranchers specialize in animal
husbanding to the exclusion of crop raising even
though both live in arid or semi-arid region.
 The livestock ranchers have fixed place of
residence and operate as individuals rather than
with in a tribal organization.
 Livestock ranching differs from nomadic herding in
some important aspects
 The vegetation cover is continuous.
 There is little or no migration.
 Ranches are scientifically managed.
 Commercial grazing supports the development
of town’s communication.
 Livestock ranching is an extensive form of land
use, which is associated with a very large land
requirement and modest input of capital and
human resources, labour and management.

307
  The major types of livestock are sheep, cattle,
goats and horses. They were mostly introduced
from the European stock, and at the same time are
greatly improved by the adoption of scientific
methods of breeding.
Extensive Commercial Grain Farming
 Commercial grain farming is the outcome of great
economic and technological, changes that took
place in the wake of the Industrial Revolution of the
nineteenth century. It is found in the continental
lands of the mid-latitudes, far away from marine
influence.
 Large scale commercial grain cultivation is found
in only five countries—the United States, Canada,
the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),
Argentina and Australia and is best developed in
the, Eurasian Steppes in region of chernozem soil,
east of the Volga River in northern Kazakhstan and
the southern part of western Siberia; the Canadian
and American Prairies; the Pampas of Argentina
popularly known as wheat crescent from Rosario
to Bahia Blanca; the Veld of South Africa; the
Australian Downs; and the Canterbury Plain of New
Zealand.

308
 The commercial grain fanning is basically
extensive. The main characteristics of these
systems are
 Big farm size
 Comprehensive use of heavy machines
 Low use of irrigation fertilizer
 Low production rate
 Long distance between farm and market.
 Widespread use of machinery enables commercial
grain farmer to operate on this large scale.
 Wheat is the main crop; Maize, Barley, Oat ore
another important crops. The wheat production
regions are divided into two belts:
 Winter wheat belt
 Spring wheat belt
 Winter wheat (planted in autumn (fall) and
harvested in mid-summer) is grown in the warmer
south, where winters are sufficiently mild to enable
the seeds to survive the winter. In the United
States, the winter wheat belt extends through
Kansas, Colorado and Oklahoma. The spring wheat

309
 is planted in the spring and harvested in the late
summer. It is grown in the colder north. In North
America, the spring wheat belt runs through
Dakota, Montana and southern Saskatchewan.
 Although wheat is the main crop of commercial
grain farming in semi-arid regions; barley, flax and
corn are also grown with wheat as subsidiary
crops. In Argentina and the Russian steppes, flax
for oil seed is often grown and other oil seeds such
as soya beans are also very important crops. Oats,
rye, hay, etc. are grown chiefly to feed draught and
non-draught animals; although the draught animals
have been largely replaced by tractors.
 In the Prairies and the Steppes, irrigation is not
very much significant, Grains are raised on un-
irrigated lands since wheat or barley requires a
little-inch of annual precipitation. Irrigation is
required only in unfavorable locations.
 Complexes of farm buildings are located on farms.
They include large machinery sheds and temporary
storage facilities for grain. At such places, Railroad
silos or elevators for wheat storage prior to
shipment are most common.

310
Specialized Horticulture and Floriculture (Flower Culture)
 Specialized horticulture and floriculture involves
production of fruits, flowers and, vegetables in
orchards and kitchen gardens solely for the urban
market.
 Market gardening is well developed in the densely
populated industrial districts of northwestern
Europe— in Britain, Denmark, Belgium, Germany
and the Netherlands, and in the northeastern
U.S.A., where the demands are very high.
 In the southeast U.S.A., this type of farming is
called truck farming because trucks are used to
transport the fruits and vegetables from the farm
to the buyers. In tropical region, truck farming may

311
 be established for climatic regions. Upland areas
may produce temperate fruits and vegetables,
which are in great demand in urban areas.
 The market gardens are located just outside the
city in suburban areas or in areas where climatic
and soil conditions are particularly favorable.
 The scale of farming is small and intensive
Attention is paid to individual plants. Labour,
capital and organization are intensively applied to
land. During peak periods, farmers and their family
members have to work almost round the clock.
 The methods employed to grow crops are generally
traditional and since most of the work is done by
hand the farming is labour intensive. Where soil is
good and favouring early harvest, intensive labour
and consummate human skill devoted to the
growing of a large number of crops on minimum
hectares.
Plantation Agriculture
 Plantation is a form of commercial agriculture
found in the tropics and the subtropics of Latin
America, Africa and Asia. It refers to the large
scale, capitalised and often highly centralised

312
 cultivation in the plantations of cash crops for
export. It is, therefore, one of the best examples of
an export-oriented system.
 Among the most important crops found on
plantations are cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber
and tobacco. Latin American plantations are most
likely to grow coffee, sugarcane and bananas while
Asian plantations may provide rubber and palm oil.
 Most estates have foreign ownership but the
labour employed is local. The largest estates are
owned by the Europeans. For example, the
Malaysian rubber plantations are owned by
Europeans while the tapping and processing of the
rubber is done entirely by local people or by
immigrant labourers from southern India.
 The British established large tea gardens in India
and Sri Lanka and banana and sugarcane
plantations in West Indies. The French have
established cocoa and coffee plantations in West
Africa, e.g. in -Cameroon and Ivory Coast.
 The Dutch once monopolised the sugarcane
plantations in Indonesia, especially in Java;
Spanish and American capitalists invested in
coconut, abaca and sugar plantations in the

313
 Philippines; the Portuguese still own fazendas in
Brazil. Sugarcane plantations in Queensland,
Australia are an exception in the sense that they
employ white labour.
Indian Agriculture
 Agriculture plays a vital role in Indian economy.
 6% of the population is engaged in agriculture and
allied activities (census 2011) and it contributes
17.1% to the country’s Gross Value Added for the
year 2017-18 (at current prices).
 India is the second largest fruit producer in the
world. Production of horticulture crops is
estimated at record 314.7 million tonnes (mt) in
2018-19 as per third advance estimates. India is
also the largest producer, consumer and exporter
of spices and spice products.
 India ranks second in agricultural output and India
is in top five positions for about 80 percent of
products produced from farm.
 The major research institute for agricultural
research is Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR).

314
 The main food grain of India is Rice. India ranks
second worldwide in rice production.
 West Bengal is the top state in rice production
followed by Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Punjab, and Bihar.
 Yield wise, Tamil Nadu ranks first in rice
production.
 Central rice research institute is located in Cuttack,
Odisha.
 India ranks second in wheat production.
 Uttar Pradesh is the highest wheat producing state
of India followed by Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, and
Haryana.
 India is the second most tea producing country
and in India, Assam is the most tea producing
state.
 Karnataka is the highest coffee producing state.
 Sugarcane is one of the main crops produced by
India. Uttar Pradesh is the key state in producing
sugarcane.
 Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research is located
in Lucknow.

315
  Cotton and Jute are the main fiber crops produced
in India. Maharashtra is the largest producer of
cotton and West Bengal is the largest producer of
Jute in India.
Salient Features of Indian Agriculture
Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about
58 per cent of India’s population. India has the 10th
largest arable land resources in the world. With 20 Agro-
climatic regions, all 15 major climates in the world exist
in India. The country also possesses 46 of the 60 soil
types in the world.
 Subsistence agriculture: Most parts of India have
subsistence agriculture. The farmer owns a small
piece of land, grows crops with the help of his
family members and consumes almost the entire
farm produce with little surplus to sell in the
market.
 Pressure of population on agriculture: The
population in India is increasing at a rapid pace
and exerts heavy pressure on agriculture. While
looking into the present need of food grains, we
require an additional 12-15 million hectares of land
to cope with the increasing demands.

316
 Importance of animals: Animal force has always
played a significant role in agricultural operations
such as ploughing, irrigation, threshing and
transporting the agricultural produce.
 Dependent upon monsoon: Indian agriculture is
mainly dependent upon monsoon which is
uncertain, unreliable and irregular. Nearly 60% area
is rain fed.
 Variety of crops: India is a vast country with varied
types of relief, climate and soil conditions.
Therefore, there is a large variety of crops grown in
India. Both the tropical and temperate crops are
successfully grown in India.
 Predominance of food crops: Since Indian
agriculture has to feed a large population,
production of food crops is the first priority of the
farmers almost everywhere in the country. More
than two-thirds of the total cropped area is devoted
to the cultivation of food crops. More than 85 per
cent of the net sown area is already under food
grains.
 Insignificant place given to fodder crops: Although
India has the largest population of livestock in the
world; fodder crops are given a very insignificant

317
 place in our cropping pattern. Only four per cent of
the reporting area is devoted to permanent
pastures and other grazing lands.
 Mixed Cropping: Mixed cropping is one of the chief
characteristics of Indian agriculture particularly in
the rain-fed areas. The popular crops are millets,
maize and pulses in the kharif season and wheat,
gram and barley in the Rabi season.
 High percentage of reporting area under
cultivation: In the year 2013-14, 141.43 million
hectares was the net sown area out of total
reporting area of 307.8 million hectares. Thus
nearly 46 per cent of the total reporting area is
under cultivation. This is a very high percentage
when compared to some of the advanced countries
like 16.3% in U.S.A., 14.9% in Japan, 11.8% in China,
and only 4.3% in Canada.
 Labour intensive: In large part of India, agriculture
is labour intensive as most of agricultural
operations like ploughing, levelling, sowing,
weeding, pruning, sprinkling, spraying, harvesting,
threshing, etc. are done by the farmers and their
animals.

318
Food grains
 The importance of food grains in Indian agricultural
economy may be gauged from the fact these crops
occupy about two-third of total cropped area in the
country.
 Food grains are dominant crops in all parts of the
country whether they have subsistence or
commercial agricultural economy.
Cereals
 The cereals occupy more than half of the total
cropped area in India.
 The country produces about 11 per cent cereals of
the world and ranks third in production after China
and U.S.A.
 India produces a variety of cereals, which are
classified as fine grains (rice, wheat), and coarse
grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc. Account of
important cereals has been given in the following
paragraphs:

319
Major Temperat Rainfall Soil Area Other
Crops ure
Rice 22-30 150-300 Deep West Bengal, India
degree cm clayey Punjab, Uttar contributes
Celsius and Pradesh 21.6 per
loamy Tamil Nadu, cent of rice
soli Haryana, production
Andhra in the
Pradesh, world and
Telangana ranked
and Kerala second
after China
Wheat 10-15 75-100 Well About 85 per Wheat is
degree cm drained cent of total the second
Celsius fertile area under most
(sowing loamy this crop is important
time) 21- and concentrate cereal crop
26 clayey d in north in India
degree loamy and central produces
Celsius regions of about 12
(ripening the country per cent of
& i.e. indo- total wheat
harvestin gangetic production
g) Plain, Malwa of world; it
Plateau and is primarily
Himalayas a crop of
up to 2,700 temperate
m Madhya zone.
Pradesh ,
Punjab

320
 Haryana &
Rajasthan.
Jowar 25-32 30-100 Can be Semi-arid Jowar is
degree cm grown areas of the third
Celsius in central and most
inferior southern important
alluvial India, food crop
or Maharashtra, with
loamy Karnataka, respect to
soil Andhra area and
Pradesh and production,
Madhya it is a rain
Pradesh fed crop
mostly
grown in
the moist
areas
which
hardly
needs
irrigation.
Bajra 25-30 40-60 Grows Hot and dry It is a
degree cm well on climatic hardy crop
Celsius sandy conditions in which
soil northwester spells and
and n and drought in
shallow western this region.
black parts of the It is
soil country cultivated
Rajasthan, alone as

321
 Uttar well as
Pradesh part of
Gujarat & mixed
Haryana cropping.
Maize 22-27 50-100 Can be Grown under Maize is a
degree cm grown semi-arid food as
Celsius in climatic well as
inferior conditions, fodder
alluvial Chambal crop
or region,
loamy southern
soil states
karnataka,
Madhya
Pradesh,
Bihar &
Tamil Nadu.
Pulses Both in 50-75 Can be Largely India is the
Kharif cm grown concentrate largest
and rabi in d in the dry producer
season inferior lands of (about one
alluvial Deccan and fifth of
or central world) as
loamy plateaus and well as the
soil north consumer
western of pulses
parts of the in the
country world,
pulses
occupy

322
 about 11
per cent of
the total
cropped
areas in
the
country.
Millets 27-32 50-75 Can be Rain fed and Drought
degree cm grown dry region resistant
Celsius in crop, high
inferior in nutrients
alluvial
or
loamy
soil
Gram 20-25 40-45 Loamy Rain fed and
degree cm Soil dry region
Celsius Rajasthan
(Mild Madhya
cool & Pradesh
Dry Uttar
Climate) Pradesh
Cotton 21-30 50-100 Black Deccan and India
degree cm soil of Malwa grows bot
Celsius Deccan Plateau, short
and Maharashtra, staple
Malwa Tamil Nadu, (Indian)
Plateau Gujarat, cotton as
Madhya well as
Pradesh long staple

323
 Karnataka (American)
cotton
called
narma in
north
western
parts of
the
country.
Cotton
requires
clear sky
during
flowering
stage.
Oilsee 20-30 50-100 Well Dry lands of Groundnut,
ds degree cm drained Malwa rapeseed
Celsius light plateau, and
sandy Marathwada, mustard
loams, Gujarat, soyabean
red Rajasthan, and
yellow Telangana sunflower
and and are the
black Rayaiseema main
soils region of oilseed
Andhra crops
Pradesh and grown in
Kamataka India.
plateau
Tea 20-30 150-300 Undula Sub- India is

324
 degree cm ting Himalayan ranked
Celsius topogra region of fourth in
phy of West Bengal terms of
hilly (Darjeeling, tea
areas Jalpaiguri exports,
and and Cooch Assam
well- Bihar produces
drained districts). almost
soils in Lower slopes 50% of
humid of Nilgiri and country’s
and Cardamom production
sub- hills in
humid Western,
tropics Brahmaputra
and valley of
sub- Assam
tropics.
Coffee 15-28 150-250 Well Highlands of Karnataka
degree cm drained Western alone
Celsius deep Ghats in accounts
friable Karnataka, for more
loamy Kerala and than two
soil Tamil Nadu third of
total
production
of coffee in
the
country.
Indian
coffee is

325
 known in
the world
for its good
quality
Jute 24-35 150-200 Grows West Bengal India
degree cm well on and produces
Celsius well- adjoining about
drained eastern parts three-fifth
fertile of the of jute
soils in country production
the of the
flood world.
plains West
Bengal
accounts
of about
three-
fourth of
the
production
in the
country.
Bihar and
Assam are
other jute
growing
areas.
Sugarc 22- 75-150 Indo- Its India is the
ane 28degree cm Gangeti cultivation is second
Celsius c plain largely largest

326
 concentrate producer
d in Uttar of
Pradesh and sugarcane
Maharashtra, after Brazil
Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka,
Andhra
Pradesh.

Major Crops Producing States of India

Crops States
Rice West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Punjab
Wheat Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka
Jowar Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Telangana, Gujarat
Bajra Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat
Ragi Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Tea Assam, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh
Coffee Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Cotton Maharashtra, Gujarat
Jute West Bengal, Bihar, Assam
Rubber Kerala, North East States

327
Silk Karnataka, Kerala
Maize Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar
Gram Rajasthan
Millets Madhya Pradesh
Pulse Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan
Tobacco Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
Onion Maharashtra
Groundnut Gujarat
Banana Tamil Nadu
Potato Uttar Pradesh

Soils Crops
1. Alluvial soils Wheat, maize, barley, gram,
oilseeds, pulses, sugarcane.
2. Clayey loams, fine and Rice, Jute
heavy soils
3. Volcanic black soils or Cotton, Wheat, oilseeds
regur
4. Sandy loams and sandy Jawar, bajra, groundnut, guar,
soils pulses (green gram, red gram,
black gram etc.)
5. Red and yellow soils Jawar, groundnut, sugarcane.

328
329
330
331
332
333
Agro-Climatic Regions
 Climate plays an important role in evolving crop
ecology of a region and is responsible for regional
variations in agriculture. Such variations are more
prominent in a large country like India, where there
are large variations in climatic elements. Effects of
climatic elements are reflected in crop calendars,
crop productivity and cropping patterns in different
parts of the country.
 The Planning Commission divided India into 15
major agro-climatic regions in 1989. These regions
are :
 The Western Himalayas
 The Eastern Himalayas
 The Lower Gangetic Plains
 The Middle Gangetic Plains
 The Upper Gangetic Plains
 The Trans-Gangetic Plain
 The Eastern Plateaus and Hills
 The Central Plateaus and Hills
 The Western Plateaus and Hills

334
  The Southern Plateaus and Hills
 The East Coastal Plains and Hills
 The West Coastal Plains and Western Ghats
 The Gujarat Plains and Hills
 The Western Dry Region
 The Islands Region.
Problems of Indian Agriculture
1. Dependence on Erratic Monsoon: Irrigation covers
only about 33 per cent of the cultivated area in
India. The crop production in rest of the cultivated
land directly depends on rainfall.
2. Low productivity: The yield of the crops in the
country is low in comparison to the international
level. Per hectare output of most of the crops such
as rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in India is much
lower than that of U.S.A., Russia and Japan.
3. Constraints of Financial Resources and
Indebtedness: The inputs of modern agriculture are
very expensive. This resource intensive approach
has become unmanageable for marginal and small
farmers as they have very meager or no saving to
invest in agriculture.

335
4. Lack of Land Reforms: Indian peasantry had been
exploited for a long time as there had been unequal
distribution of land. After independence, land
reforms were accorded priority, but these reforms
were not implemented effectively due to lack of
strong political will.
5. Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of
Landholdings: There are a large number of
marginal and small farmers in the country. More
than 60 per cent of the ownership holdings have a
size smaller than one hectare. Furthermore, about
40 per cent of the farmers have Operational holding
size smaller than 0.5 hectare. The average size of
land holding is shrinking further under increasing
population pressure. Furthermore, in India, the land
holdings are mostly fragmented.
6. Lack of Commercialization: A large number of
farmers produce crops for self-consumption. These
farmers do not have enough land resources to
produce more than their requirement. Most of the
small and marginal farmers grow food grains,
which are meant for their own family consumption.
Modernization and commercialization of

336
 agriculture have, however, taken place in the
irrigated areas.
7. Vast Under-employment: There is a massive under-
employment in the agricultural sector in India,
particularly in the un-irrigated tracts. In these
areas, there is a seasonal unemployment ranging
from 4 to 8 months. People engaged in agriculture
do not have the opportunity to work round the year.
ENERGY RESOURCES
 Energy is the name given to the ability to do work.
 In order that anything may be done energy is
required. All human life depends on energy in the
universe.
 Most of the energy on the earth comes from the
sun.
 It is the sun, which is the source of all forms of
energy on the earth and related to the formation of
energy fuels either directly or indirectly.
 It is the sun only, which makes all the motions on
earth possible be it winds, wave or anything.

337
Types of Energy Resources
Commercial Energy Sources
Solid Fuels
 Hard coal: Coals with a gross calorific value (moist,
ash-free basis) which is not less than 24 MJ/kg or
which is less than 24 MJ/kg provided that the coal
has a vitrinite mean random reflectance rather than
or equal to 0.6 per cent. Hard coal comprises
anthracite and bituminous coals.
 Lignite: Brown coal with a gross calorific value
(moist, ash-free basis) less than 20 MJ/kg.
 Coke: Products derived directly or indirectly from
the various classes of coal by carbonisation or
pyrolysis processes, or by the aggregation of finely
divided coal or by chemical reactions with
oxidising agents, including water
Liquid Fuels
 Crude petroleum: A mineral oil of fossil origin
extracted by conventional means from
underground reservoirs, and comprises liquid or
near-liquid hydrocarbons and associated impurities
such as sulphur and metals.

338
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas: LPG refers to liquefied
propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) or mixtures of
both. Commercial grades are usually mixtures of
the gases with small amounts of propylene,
butylene, isobutene and isobutylene stored under
pressure in containers.
 Motor gasoline: A mixture of some aromatics (e.g.,
benzene and toluene) and aliphatic hydrocarbons
in the C5 to C12 range. The distillation range is
25°C to 220°C.
 Naphtha’s Light or medium oils distilling between
30°C and 210°C, which do not meet the
specification for motor gasoline.
 Kerosene: Mixtures of hydrocarbons in the range
C9 to C16 and distilling over the temperature
interval 145°C to 300°C, but not usually above
250°C and with a flash point above 38°C.
 Gasoline type Jet fuels: Light hydrocarbons for use
in aviation turbine power units, distilling between
100°C and 250°C. They are obtained by blending
kerosene and gasoline or naphtha in such a way
that the aromatic content does not exceed 25 per
cent in volume and the vapour pressure is between
13.7 kPa and 20.6 kPa.

339
  Gas oil/Diesel oil: Gas oils are middle distillation;
predominantly of carbon number range C11 to C25
and with a distillation range of 160°C to 420°C.
 Fuel oil: Comprises residual fuel oil and heavy fuel
oil. Residual fuel oils have a distillation range of
350°C to 650°C and a kinematic viscosity in the
range 6 to 55 cSt at 100°C. Their flash point is
always above 60°C and their specific gravity is
above 0.95. Heavy fuel oil is a general term
describing a blended product based on the
residues from various refinery processes.
Gaseous Fuels
 Natural Gas: It is mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons,
primarily methane, but generally also including
ethane, propane and higher hydrocarbons in much
smaller amounts and some non-combustible gases
such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
 Coke-oven gas: A gas produced from coke ovens
during the manufacture of coke.
 Biogases: Gases arising from the anaerobic
fermentation of biomass and the gasification of
solid biomass (including biomass in wastes).

340
  The gases are divided into two groups according to
their production: biogases from anaerobic
fermentation and biogases from thermal
processes. They are used mainly as a fuel but can
be used as a chemical feedstock.
Non-commercial Energy Sources
 Fuel wood, wood residues and by-products: Fuel
wood or firewood (in log, brushwood, pellet or chip
form) obtained from natural or managed forests or
isolated trees. Also included are wood residues
used as fuel and in which the original composition
of wood is retained.
 Remark: Charcoal and black liquor is excluded.
 Charcoal: The solid residue from the carbonization
of wood or other vegetable matter through slow
pyrolysis.
 Bagasse: The fuel obtained from the fiber, which
remains after juice extracts in sugar cane
processing.
Based on the availability in near future and
replenishments, energy resources can be classified as:

341
  Non-renewable resources, which when exhausted
are exhausted forever, and
 Renewable resources, which can also be called
inexhaustible.
Other classification can be made between:
 Conventional, which has been in use by mankind
for quite some time and which are more or less,
direct form of energy.
 Non-conventional such as biogas, biomass in
which one has to perform some processes before
getting energy.
Natural Gas
 Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon
gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but
commonly includes varying amounts of other
higher alkanes and even a lesser percentage of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulphide.
Natural gas is an energy source often used for
heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is
also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical
feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other
commercially important organic chemicals.

342
  Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as
gas, especially when compared to other energy
sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not the
same as gasoline, especially in North America,
where the term gasoline is often shortened in
colloquial usage to gas.
Major Natural Gas Deposits of the World

Natural gas as an energy source has certain merits and

limitations.

343
Merits
 Burns clean compared to other energy resources.
 70% loss carbon dioxide emission compared to
other fossil fuel
 Helps improve quality of air and water (not a
pollutant)
 Does not produce ashes after energy release
 Has high heating value of 24,000 Btu per pound
 Inexpensive compared to coal
 No odour until added
Limitations
 Natural gas is not a renewable source it is a finite
resource trapped in the earth.
 Inability to recover all in-place gas from a
producible deposit because of unfavorable
economics and lack of technology (it costs more to
recover the remaining natural gas because of flow,
access, etc.)

344
Coal
 Coal is a sedimentary deposit formed by the slow
action of heat and pressure on forests buried in the
long past. It is a mechanical mixture of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, etc. And it is the
content of carbon which determines the quality of
coal.
 In terms of fixed carbon, coals are classified into
 Anthracite (>95%)-As gas coal it is used for the
manufacture of city gas with coke as a by-
product.
 Bituminous (42-83%)-80% world’s coal output
 As coking coal it is used in coke ovens for the
manufacture of metallurgical coke, with gas as
a by- product.
 As household coal it is used for domestic heating
purposes.
 Lignite or Brown’ coal (38%) - about 15% world’s
coal output is from lignite.
 Having low heating capacity, it is sometimes
used in steel plants.

345
  Sometime used as fuel in power plants and
mainly it is used, as a soil conditioner.
 Peat (<38%).
Distribution of Coal
 North America
U.S.A.
 Eastern province (a) Pennsylvania anthracite
field—Scranton, Carbondale and Wilkes Barre; (b)
Appalachian bituminous field—Pittsburgh,
Kentucky and West Virginia, Alabama and
Tennessee
 The interior province (Bituminous)—(a) Eastern
interior field—Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky (b)
Western interior field—Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma
and Arkansas, (c) Northern interior field— Michigan
(d) Southwestern fields— Texas.
 Gulf Province (lignite) Texas, Alabama and
Arkansas
 Rocky Mountain Province (lignite and low-grade
bituminous)—Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana,
New Mexico and North Dakota.

346
  Pacific Province—Washington, Oregon, California
and Alaska
Canada
 Prairie Province—Alberta (bituminous & lignite);
British Columbia Coalfields—Vancouver Islands;
Nova Scotia Coal fields—Cape Breton Island
Asia
 China— Shansi, Shensi, Inner Mongolia, Kansu,
Hopei and Manchurian coalfields—Fushun (the
world’s longest strip mines and have thickest seam
recorded anywhere), Fushin, Kailan and Hegang.
 Japan— Chikugo coalfield in the northwestern
Kyushu, Ishikari fields of Hokkaido and Joban and
Ube in Honshu
 India— Damodar valley in the states of Bengal,
Jharkhand, Orissa and important mines are
Raniganj, Bokaro, Jharia. Smaller deposits are at
Chanda, Singareni, Tundur and Pench.
 Pakistan— Quetta and Kalabagh;
 Iran—Kermanshah.

347
Energy Resources: India
Energy is now a major input in sectors such as industry.
Commerce, transport and telecommunications, besides
the wide range of services required in the household
sector
Conventional Sources of Energy
 Coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity are
conventional sources of energy.
Occurrence of Coal in India:
The coal bearing strata of India are geologically
classified into two main categories viz. the Gondwana
coal fields and the Tertiary coal fields.

348
  Gondwana Coal- Gondwana coal contributes
overwhelmingly large proportion of both the
reserves and production of coal, accounting for 98
per cent of the total reserves and 99 per cent of the
production of coal in India. It is the store house of
India’s metallurgical as well as superior quality
coal. Of the 113 major coal fields found all over
India, 80 are located in the rock systems of the
lower Gondwana Age.
 Tertiary Coal -The tertiary rock systems bears coals
of younger age; from 15 to 60 million years and are
mainly confined to the extra-Peninsula. This coal
generally has low carbon and high percentage of
moisture and Sulphur. Important areas of Tertiary
coal include parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of
Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir,
Uttar Pradesh. Rajasthan, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
the union territory of Puducherry.
Distribution of Coal in India
 Majority of the coal-fields are found in the eastern
part of India particularly to the east of 78° E
longitude. Maximum concentration of coal fields is
in the north-eastern pan of the peninsular plateau

349
 of India comprising pans of Jharkhand and
Chhattisgarh.
 Odisha and eastern Madhya Pradesh and western
part of West Bengal adjoining Jharkhand.
 Southern part of Madhya Pradesh, eastern part of
Andhra Pradesh and eastern coast also have large
deposits.
 About three-fourth of India’s coal is produced by
four states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha and
Madhya Pradesh.
 More than 40 per cent of India’s total coal
production comes from just two states of
Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand.
 About one-third of the total coal of the country is
obtained from Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West
Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Meghalaya.

350
351
Petroleum & Mineral Oil
 Oil in India is obtained both from on-shore and off-
shore areas, but off-shore areas made a major
contribution.
On-shore Oil Production:
 On-shore oil fields are located in the Brahmaputra
valley of north-cast India, Barmer area of
Rajasthan, Gujarat coast in western India and
Cauvery on-shore basin in Tamil Nadu. Besides
Andhra Pradesh has both on-shore and off-shore
oil reserves.
 One of the largest inland oil discoveries was made
in Barmer district of Rajasthan in 2004. The oil
block covers an area of approximately 5,000 sq km.
State-of-the-art technology with innovative
geological modeling was used in discovering this
oil field.
Western Coast Off-Shore Oil fields
 Extensive surveys have been conducted by ONGC
in the offshore areas of Kachchh, Khambhat,
Konkan, Malabar and Coromandal coasts, Krishna-
Godavari delta and Sunderbans.

352
 Success on commercial scale has been achieved
at Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet.
 Mumbai High: The greatest success achieved by
the ONGC with respect to offshore surveys for oil
was that of Mumbai High in 1974. It is located on
the continental shelf off the coast of Maharashtra
about 176 km north-west of Mumbai.
 Bassein: Located to the south of Mumbai High, this
is a recent discovery endowed with reserves which
may prove to be higher than those of the Mumbai
High. Huge reserves have been found at a depth of
1,900 metre. Production has started and has
picked up fast.
 Aliabet: It is located at Aliabet Island in the Gulf of
Khambhat about 45 km off Bhavnagar. Huge
reserves have been found in this field. Commercial
production is expected to start soon.

353
Natural Gas
 Natural gas usually accompanies petroleum
accumulations. Whenever a well for oil is drilled, it
is natural gas which is available before oil is
struck. Natural gas is fast becoming an important
source of energy in India. The recoverable reserves

354
 of natural gas as on 1 April 2003 were around 700
BCM (billion cubic meters).
 The estimated production of natural gas was 118
million metric standard cubic metres per day in
2012-13 the major part of which came from off-
shore areas. Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu are the major on-shore producing
states.
 Discovery of gas made rapid strides after 1985. Oil
strikes at Cauvery off-shore and at Nanda in
Khambhat basin as also gas found at Talot in
Jaisalmer Basin in Rajasthan were major
discoveries during 1988-89. Production from South
Bassein Gas Field started in September 1988.
 During 1989-90 oil gas structures had been
discovered in Adiyakkamanglam in Tamil Nadu,
Andada in Gujarat, Khovaghat in Assam, Lingla in
Andhra Pradesh.
 Mumbai off-shore and Kachchh offshore reserve.
Another survey conducted in 1997 in the
Andamans has revealed 1.700 billion cubic feet of
gas reserves which can meet the country’s
requirements for the next 30 years.

355
356
Nuclear Energy
 Nuclear energy is obtained from uranium and
thorium. India has vast untapped uranium
resources and there is urgent need to make use of
these resources if India really wants to get out of
the present scenario of power shortages and
energy crisis.
 Although nuclear power contributes only a little
over 3 Percent of our total power generation at
present, it has vast potential for future
development.
 It requires quite higher technology to develop
nuclear which India has fortunately attained now.
India is one of the few countries which have
developed the capability of designing, constructing,
commissioning and operating a nuclear power
station without any help from outside.
 Most of the nuclear power stations in India have
been constructed near sources of water, as water
is required in great quantity for cooling purposes.

357
Non-Conventional Energy Sources
 With increasing demand for energy and with fast
depleting conventional sources of energy such as
coal, petroleum, natural gas. Etc. the non-
conventional sources of energy such as energy
from sun, wind, biomass, tidal energy, geo-thermal
energy and even energy from waste material are
gaining importance.

358
  This energy is abundant, renewable, pollution free
and eco-friendly. It can be more conveniently
supplied to urban, rural and even remote areas.
Thus it is capable of solving the twin problems of
energy supply in a decentralized manner and
helping in sustaining cleaner environment. It is the
energy of the future.
Solar Energy
 The radiation from the Sun is capable of producing
heat, causing chemical reactions, or generating
electricity.
 The total amount of solar energy incident on Earth
is vastly in excess of the world’s current and
anticipated energy requirements.
 If suitably harnessed, this highly diffused source
has the potential to satisfy all future energy needs.
 In the 21st century solar energy is expected to
become increasingly attractive as a renewable
energy source because of its inexhaustible supply
and its nonpolluting character, in stark contrast to
the finite fossil fuels coal, petroleum, and natural
gas.

359
  It is an important source of renewable energy and
its technologies are broadly characterized as either
passive solar or active solar depending on how
they capture and distribute solar energy or convert
it into solar power.
 Active solar techniques include the use of
photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power
and solar water heating to harness the energy.
 Passive solar techniques include orienting a
building to the Sun, selecting materials with
favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing
properties, and designing spaces that naturally
circulate air.
Wind Energy
 Wind is another important source of non-
conventional energy. The cost inputs are only at
the initial stage and the power generation starts
immediately after commissioning.
 Once the generation starts, cost-free power is
available for about 20 years because there is no
recurring cost on fuel. India has vast wind potential
and wind farms have emerged as a viable option

360
 with the advancement of wind technology in the
country.
 Since 1985, the Indian Government has carried out
an extensive wind monitoring and mapping
program to identify better sites and to assess the
resource potential.
 The program has been implemented in a very
systematic manner. The compiled data has been
analyzed and is being published with the ultimate
objective of preparing a wind atlas of the country.
This data has been utilized in identifying some
excellent sites for wind farms.

361
MINERAL RESOURCES
 We live during an age of high consumption rates of
matter and energy resources.
 Modern industrial nations depend on aluminium,
chromium, iron, copper, lead, mercury, zinc, tin and
other metals; on materials such as sand, gravel,

362
 stone and clay; and on coal, oil, natural gas,
uranium and other energy resources.
 The exploitation of mineral resources depends on
their occurrence as concentrations, which render
them economically viable.
 Such concentrations reflect both crustal and
denudation processes that promote the
segregation (fractionation) of materials involved in
geochemical cycles.
 Mineral resources are formed via different
processes.
Ores
 An ore is a rock containing a sufficient proportion
of metal to make its extraction an economic
proposition.
 For an ore to be mined, it must be economically
profitable to do so.
 However, it is important to note that a
metalliferous rock that is valueless as a source of a
metal at one time may be worthwhile mining some
other time.

363
Origin of Mineral Deposits
In order for a deposit to form, some process or
combination of processes must bring about a localized
enrichment of one or more minerals. A convenient way to
classify mineral deposits is through the principal
concentrating process. Minerals become concentrated in
five ways:
 Concentration by magmatic processes within a
body of igneous rock to form magmatic mineral
deposits.
 Concentration by hot, aqueous solutions flowing
through fractures and pore spaces in crustal rock
to form hydrothermal mineral deposits.
 Concentration by precipitation from lake water or
seawater to form sedimentary mineral deposits.
 Concentration by flowing surface water in streams
or along the shore to form placer or detrital mineral
deposits.
 Concentration by weathering processes from
residual mineral deposits.

364
Types of Minerals
Normally two types of minerals are recognised:
 Metallic Minerals- These minerals contain metal.
Iron ore, copper, manganese, nickel, etc. are
important examples of metallic minerals. Metallic
minerals are further sub-divided into ferrous and
non-ferrous minerals.
 Ferrous Minerals- These minerals have iron
content. Iron-ore, manganese, chromite, pyrites,
tungsten, nickel, cobalt, etc. are important
examples of ferrous minerals.
 Non-ferrous Minerals- These minerals do not have
iron content. Gold, silver, copper, lead, bauxite, tin,
magnesium, etc. are important examples of non-
ferrous minerals.
 Non-metallic Minerals- These minerals do not
contain metal. Limestone, nitrate, potash, dolomite,
mica, gypsum, etc. are important examples of non-
metallic minerals. Coal and petroleum are also non-
metallic minerals. They are used as fuel and are
also known as mineral fuels.

365
Other Classification of Minerals
 The wide varieties of minerals that have been
explored by man for general and commercial
purposes to satisfy his needs are classified in to
the following groups:
 Industrial metallic minerals: Iron Ore
 Ferroalloy metallic minerals: Manganese,
Chromium, Cobalt, Molybdenum Vanadium,
Nickel.
 Precious metallic minerals: Gold (Au), Silver
(Ag) and Platinum (Pt).
 Non-metallic minerals: Salt, Tin, Potash,
Asbestos, and Sulphur.
 Power Minerals (Mineral fuels): Coal, Petroleum
and Natural Gas which are non-metallic
minerals derived from vegetable remains
 Other: Uranium
Mineralized Regions
 The injection of metalliferous and other minerals
into the earth’s crust is intimately associated with
the movement of the plates or slabs of continental
rock of which the crust is composed.

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  Many of the concentrations of metalliferous ores
are thus found in close association either with
areas of ancient rock or with areas of recent
tectonic movement in the course of which magma
rose to the Surface.
Continental Europe
 Continental Europe was formerly endowed with
many deposits of the metalliferous minerals, but
many are now exhausted and abandoned. Most lay
in the belt of ancient rock, which extends from the
Meseta (plateau) of Spain, through France and
Germany to Czechoslovakia and Poland.
 Lead, zinc and copper remain of some importance.
A second highly mineralized region is the ‘shield’ of
very old rock, which makes up much of Finland and
northern Sweden. Many metalliferous ores are
obtained here, but the most important is the high-
grade Swedish iron ore.
 Europe also contains extensive deposits of low-
grade bedded iron ores. The most extensive and
important are those of Lorraine in eastern France
and of the Harz region in West Germany.

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CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States)
 The Ukrainian plateau Ural Mountains and the
rocks of the Siberian ‘shield’ are highly mineralized
and the CIS has very large reserves of iron ore and
of some non-ferrous metals.
Asia
 Metalliferous resources in Asia, outside the Soviet
Union, do not appear to be very extensive. China
has large reserves of tin and tungsten, Malaya of
tin and India of iron ore, but Japan, the most
industrialized Asian country, is also one of the
least well endowed.
Africa and Australia
 These two landmasses are both made up largely of
massifs or shields of hard, ancient rocks, intruded
by numerous lodes or ore bodies. Africa, especially
south of the Sahara Desert, is richly endowed.
 Among its most important resources are the
copper of Zambia and Zaire, the gold and
diamonds of South Africa and the tin of Nigeria.
But there are also important reserves of chrome,
zinc, manganese, cobalt, the radioactive minerals
and of bauxite-the ore of aluminium.

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  Australia has a number of rich sources of lead-zinc-
silver. Its gold mines are no longer of great
importance, but Australia is now one of the world’s
leading sources of iron ore, much of which is mined
in Western Australia and shipped to Japan.
North America
 This is probably the most richly endowed of all the
continents, and in none have mineral resources
been exploited more actively during the past
century. There is today very little active mining in
the eastern half of the United States, but there are
large reserves of copper, lead, zinc and the alloy
metals in the mountainous west.
 In Canada copper, nickel and iron are being worked
in the old rocks of the Laurentian Shield,
Latin America
 Gold and silver, which attracted the early explorers,
are today of little Importance except in Mexico. Far
more important are the copper of Chile, the tin of
Bolivia, the bauxite of Guyana, Surinam and some
of the West Indian islands, and the iron ores of
Venezuela and Brazil.

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Industrial Metallic Mineral
Iron Ores (Fe)
Magnetite (Fe3O4):
 Iron content up to 72.4%.
 It is a black mineral formed in igneous or
metamorphic rocks in veins or lodes.
 It has excellent magnetic qualities.
 Uses: Magnetite iron is used as natural magnets
and in electrical industry.
Haematite (Fe2O3):
 Iron content is 70%
 It is most important iron ore.
 They are red ores derived from sedimentary rocks
and occur in crystalline or in powdery forms.
 Uses: Iron is most important for the purpose of
industrial use.
Limonite (2Fe2O3H 2O):
 Iron content is 60%

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  This is brown ore occurring in thick beds in
sedimentary rock sequence or in swamps or lakes,
(lake or bog iron).
Siderite (FeCo3):
 Iron content up to 48%
 This is ash-grey in colour and is found interbedded
with other sedimentary rocks.
 It is basically used for making steel
Distribution
 USA
 Lake Superior Region—(Mainly haematite ores)
Mesabi Range, Vermilion, Cuyuna, Gogebic,
Menominee and Marquette Ranges.
 North-eastern Region—(Mainly Magnetite ores)
Adirondacks region of New York and Cornwall
area of Pennsylvania.
 South-western Region—(Both haematite and
limonite ores) Birmingham and Alabama.
 Western Region— Utah (magnetite), Nevada,
Wyoming (haematite) and California.

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 Canada— Lake Superior Region, Labrador and
Quebec (Haematite), the main centers being
Schefferville and Wabush city. Newfoundland,
British Columbia.
 CIS — Near Moscow and at Krivoi Rog in the
Ukraine (haematite ore); Siberia and the Urals
region near Magnitogorsk; Kuzbas at Kustanay.
Kursk Magnetic Anomaly—Lipetsk and Donbass.
 Sweden— Kiruna and Gallivare (Magnetite ores);
 Central Sweden—Dannemora and Grangeborg;
 Southern Sweden—Kopparberg.
 France— Lorraine (Siderite ores); Normandy in
Pyrenees; and central Massif.
 Britain— Scunthorpe (Siderite ores) and
Frodingham.
 Germany— Siegerland.
 Spain— Bilbao, Santander and Oviedo (haematite).
 Norway— Kirkenes.
 Finland— Jussaro in the Ekenas Archipelago.
 Austria— Erzberg (siderite) and Huttenburg in
Karnten.

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 ErstwhileYugoslavia— North of Sarajevo and
Zagreb and Banjalanka.
 China— Manchurian deposits at Anshan, Yangtze
valley and in Hopei.
 India— Jharkhand and Orissa.
 South Africa— Postmasburg in Griqualand and
Thabazimbi in the Transvaal (haematite).
 Liberia— BomiHtlls and Mt. Nimba.
 Mauritania— Zouerate.
 Australia— Western -Australia at Mt. Goldsworthy,
Mt. Whaleback, Mt. Bruce, Mt. Tom Price and
Yampi Sound; South Australia at Iron Knob.
 Brazil— Itabira and near Belo Horizonte in Minas
Gerais.
 Venezuela— Guiana Highlands at Cerro Bolivar and
El Pau.
 Chile— Algarrobo in Central Chile.
 Peru— Nazca-Marcona area.

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Chromium (Cr)
Characteristics
Nature: It is a hard, silvery metal with a bluish tinge and a
metallic lustre.
Uses:
 Increases the hardenability of steel if mixed along
with nickel.
 It is used for making stainless steel which is widely
used in manufacture of machinery where steam,
water, moist air or acids would corrode ordinary
steels quickly.

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  Larger amounts, 12-15% increase high temperature
strength and corrosion resistance, as well as
resistance to wear. Therefore, kitchen utensils,
cutlery, oil burner components and bearings are
made.
 Chromite ore is also used as a refractory material
in basic brick linings of various metallurgical
furnaces—chromite or chrome magnetite brick.
 Chromium, used in making nickel-chromium alloys
(nichrome), is highly resistant to electric current
and is thus used as a safety measure in electric
wires, toasters and other electrical appliances.
 Chromium salts and compounds (chromates) are
used in the manufacture of paint pigments,
chemical industry, for leather tanning, metal and
Wood to prevent rotting.
Distribution
 Common Wealth of Independent States (CIS)—
Sarany, north of Sverdlovsk and Chromtay in
Urals; Balkan countries—Kukas in Albania;
 Philippines—Zambales in northern Luzon;
 Turkey— Fethiye and Guleman; ;

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  Africa—Selukwe;
 Zimbabwe—Kildonan; Brazil
 India
Mineral Resources: India
 India is endowed with a rich variety of minerals. It
has been estimated that nearly 100 minerals are
known to be produced or worked in India, of which
nearly 30 may be considered more important
including several which although comparatively
unimportant in quantity today are capable of
material development in future with expansion of
industries.
 The country has fairly abundant reserves of coal,
iron and mica, adequate supplies of manganese
ore, titanium and Aluminum, raw materials for
refractories and limestone; but there is a deficiency
in ores of copper, lead and zinc.
 There are workable deposits of tin and nickel. India
earns a lot of foreign exchange by exporting a large
variety of minerals such as iron ore, titanium,
manganese, bauxite, granite and a host of other
minerals.

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  At the same time India has to depend upon imports
to meet her requirements of some other minerals
such as copper, silver, nickel, cobalt, zinc, lead, tin,
mercury, limestone, platinum, graphite and so
many other minerals.

Metallic Minerals
 Metallic minerals form an important section of
mining activity in India and provide solid base to
metallurgical industries in the country.

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Iron Ore
Iron is a metal of universal use. It is the backbone of
modem civilization. It is the foundation of our basic
industry and is used all over the world. The standard of
living of the people of a country is judged by the
consumption of iron. Following four varieties of iron ore
are generally recognized:
Haematite:
 This is the best quality of iron ore with about 70 per
cent metallic content and occurs as massive, hard
compact and bumpy ore having reddish or coral
red colour.
 Most of the haematite ores are found in Dharwad
and Cuddapah rock systems of the peninsular
India.
 Over 80 per cent of the hematite ores are
concentrated in eastern parts of India comprising
of important iron ore producing states of Odisha,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. In
the western section, the major concentration is in
Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa.

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Magnetite
 Also known as ‘black ore’, due to blackish colour,
this is the second best ore, next only to haematite
with metallic content varying from 60 to 70 per
cent.
 Like hematite, magnetite ores occurs in the
Dharward and Cuddapah systems of the peninsular
India.
 Magnetite ores have magnetic quality as a result of
which they are known as magnetite ores. Most of
the reserves are found in Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Limonite
 Limonites are inferior ores, yellowish in colour,
which contain 40 to 60 per cent iron metal.
 These are found in Damuda series in Raniganj coal
field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar
Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.
 Though poor in quality, these have the advantage
of easy and cheap mining.

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Siderite:
 Also known as ‘iron carbonate’ this type of iron ore
is of inferior quality and contains less than 40 per
cent iron.
 It also contains many impurities and its mining is
not economically viable.
 However, it is self-fluxing due to presence of lime.
Important Producers

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Odisha
 Odisha produces over 40 per cent iron ore of India.
 The most important deposits occur in Sundargarh,
Mayurbhanj, Cuttack, Sambalpur, Keonjhar and
Koraput districts.
 India’s richest haematite deposits are located in
Barabil-Koira valley.
Chhattisgarh
 Chhattisgarh has about 18 per cent of the total iron
ore reserves of India.
 This state produced about 18 per cent of the total
iron ore production of the country in 2011-12.
 The iron ores are widely distributed, the prominent
deposits being those of Bastar and Durg districts.
 These reserves are of high grade ore, containing
over 65 per cent iron. Bailadila in Dakshin Bastar,
Dantewada and Bijapur district, and Dalli Rajhara in
Durg district are important producers.

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Karnataka
 Karnataka is the fifth largest producer and
accounts for nearly 8 per cent of the total iron ore
produced in India.
 Iron ores are widely distributed in the state, but
high grade ore deposits are those of Kemmangundi
in Bababudan hills of Chikmagalur district and
Sandur and Hospet in Bellary district.
 Most of the ores are high grade haematite and
magnetite.
 The other important producing districts are
Chitradurga, Uttar Kannad, Shimoga, Dharwar and
Tumkur.
Manganese
 It is an important mineral which is used for making
iron and steel and it acts as a basic raw material
for manufacturing alloy.
 Nearly 6 kilograms of manganese is required for
manufacturing one tonne of steel.
 It is also used for the manufacture of bleaching
powder, insecticides, paints, and batteries

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Production and Distribution
 India has the second largest manganese ore
reserves in the world after Zimbabwe.
 The total reserves of manganese ore as in 2015 are
496 million tonnes.
 The main concentration is in Odisha (44%),
Karnataka (22%), Madhya Pradesh (12%), Goa and
Maharashtra (7% each), Andhra Pradesh (4%),
Jharkhand (2%).
 Rajasthan, Gujarat and West Bengal together share
the remaining 2 per cent resources
 India is the world’s fifth largest producer of
manganese ore after Brazil, Gabon, South Africa
and Australia.
 Maharashtra - The main belt is in Nagpur and
Bhandara districts. High grade ore is found in
Ratnagiri district also.
 Madhya Pradesh-Maharashtra is closely followed
by Madhya Pradesh. The state produced only 11
per cent of India’s manganese ore just two
decades ago. The main belt extends in Balaghat

383
 and Chhindwara districts. It is just an extension of
the Nagpur- Bhandara belt of Maharashtra.
 Odisha-It is obtained from Gondite deposits in
Sundargarh district and Kodurite and Khondolite
deposits in Kalahandi and Koraput Districts.
Manganese is also mined from the lateritic
deposits in Bolangir and Sambalpur districts.
 Andhra Pradesh - The main belt is found between
Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam districts.
Srikakulam district has the distinction of being the
earliest producer (1892) of manganese ore in India.
Cuddapah, Vijayanagaram and Guntur are other
producing districts.
 Karnataka-The main deposits occur in Uttara
Kannada, Shimoga, Bellary, Chitradurg and Tumkur
districts
 Other producers- Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Goa,
Panchmahals and Vadodara in Gujarat, Udaipur
and Banswara in Rajasthan and Singhbhum and
Dhanbad districts in Jharkhand are other
producers of manganese.

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Bauxite
 Bauxite is an important ore which is used for
making aluminium. It is an oxide of aluminium.
 It is not a specific mineral but a rock consisting
mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides.
 It is a clay-like substance which is pinkish, whitish
or reddish in colour depending on the amount of
iron content.
 80 % of bauxite [ore of aluminium] ore is used for
making aluminium.
Odisha
 Odisha is the largest bauxite producing state
accounting for more than one-third of the total
production of India.
 The main bauxite belt is in Kalahandi and Koraput
districts and extends further into Andhra Pradesh.
It is 300 km long. 40 to 100 km wide and 950 to
1300 meter thick belt is the largest bauxite bearing
region of the country.
 The main deposits occur in Kalahandi, Koraput,
Sundargarh, Bolangir and Sambalpur districts.

385
  The important mining areas include Chandgiri,
Baphalimoli Parbat, Kathakal, Manjimali,
Pasenmali, Kunnumali, Kodingandi, Pottangi and
Karalput in Kalahandi and Koraput districts.
Chhattisgarh
 Chhattisgarh is the second largest producer of
bauxite in India and produces more than 18 per
cent bauxite of India.
 The Maikala range in Bilaspur, Durg districts and
the Amarkantak plateau regions of Surguja,
Raigarh and Bilaspur are some of the areas having
rich deposits of bauxite.
Maharashtra
 Maharashtra accounts for over 15 percent of the
total bauxite produced in India.
 The total recoverable reserves in the state have
been estimated to be of the order of 87.7 million
tonnes.
 The largest deposits occur in Kolhapur district
capping the plateau basalts.

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  Udgeri, Dhangarwadi, Radhanagari and Inderganj in
Kolhapur district contain rich deposits with
alumina content 52 to 89 percent.
 The other districts with considerable deposits are
Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara and Pune.
Jharkhand
 Jharkhand is an important bauxite producing state
of India accounting for over 14 per cent of the total
production. The reserves of this state are found in
extensive areas of Ranchi, Lohardaga, Palamu and
Gumla districts. Some bauxite is also found in
Dumka and Munger districts. High grade ore
occurs in Lohardaga and adjoining areas.

387
388
Non-Metallic Minerals
 India also produces a large number of non-metallic
minerals although only a few of them have
assumed as much industrial and economic
importance as is done by the metallic minerals.
 However, they are used in a large variety of
industries; the major industries being cement,
fertilizers, electrical, etc.
Mica
 Most important mica-bearing pegmatites occur in
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Maharashtra
and Occurrences of mica pegmatites are also
reported from Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala,
Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The total
resources of mica in the country are estimated at
5, 32,237 tonnes out of which 1, 90,741 tonnes are
placed under reserves category and 3, 41,496
tonnes under remaining resources category.
Andhra Pradesh leads with 41 per cent share in
country’s total resources followed by Rajasthan
(21 per cent), Odisha (20 per cent), Maharashtra
(15 per cent), Bihar (2 per cent) and balance (less
than 1 per cent) in Jharkhand.

389
  India has a near monopoly in the production of
mica, producing about 60 per cent of world’s total
production.
 About 95 per cent of India’s mica is found in just
three states of Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Jharkhand. Some mica is produced in Bihar also.
Limestone
 Limestone is associated with rocks composed of
either calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of
calcium and magnesium, or mixture of these two
constituents. In addition to the main constituents
of calcium and magnesium carbonates, limestone
also contains small quantities of silica, alumina,
iron oxides, phosphorus and sulphur. Limestone
deposits are of sedimentary origin and exist in
almost all the geological sequences from pre-
cambrian to recent except in Gondwana.
 The total resources of limestone of all categories
and grades are estimated at 2, 03,225 million
tonnes in 2015. Karnataka is the leading state
having 27 per cent of total resources followed by
Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan (12 per cent each),
Gujarat (10 per cent), Meghalaya (9 per cent),
Telangana (8 per cent) and Chhattisgarh (5 per

390
 cent). The total production of limestone was 293
million tonnes in 2014-15, an increase by 4% as
compared to that of the previous year. As much as
87.22% of the total output in 201415 was
contributed by eight principal states, viz.,
Rajasthan (21.02%), Madhya Pradesh (13.31%),
Andhra Pradesh (12.10%), Gujarat (8.79%),
Karnataka (8.21%), Telangana (8.18%),
Chhattisgarh (8.03%) and Tamil Nadu (7.58%). The
remaining 12.78% of the total production was
shared by other limestone producing states.
 Limestone is used for a large variety of purposes.
Of the total consumption, 75 per cent is used in
cement industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel
industry and 4 per cent in the chemical industries.
Rest of the limestone is used in paper, sugar,
fertilizers, glass, rubber and ferromanganese
industries.
Diamonds
 Diamonds have been highly valued and cherished
throughout the ages because of their brilliance,
adamantine, luster, transparency and hardness.
They are widely used for ornaments and for

391
 polishing the surface metals, minerals and gem
cutting.
 The most important industrial use of diamonds is
in cutting-edges of drills used for exploration and
mining of minerals. The production of diamonds
had increased from 1,674 carats valued at 5.34
lakh in 1950 to 18,489 carats valued at 19.8 crore
in 2011-12. The main diamond bearing areas are
Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh; Wajrakarur
Kimberlite pipe in Anantapur district and the
gravels of the Krishna river basin in Andhra
Pradesh.
 Reserves have been estimated only in Panna belt
and Krishna Gravels in Andhra Pradesh. The total
in situ reserves are about 26, 43,824 carats. There
are conditional resources of 19, 36,512 carat. The
new Kimberlite fields are discovered recently in
Raichur-Gulbarga districts of Karnataka.
 Further investigations for diamonds are being
carried out in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
and Karnataka. Reserves of diamonds in India are
not yet exhausted and modern methods are being
applied for intensive prospecting and mining in
Panna, Kumool, Bellary and some other selected

392
 places in central India. Indian diamonds are in
great demand in the international market,
especially for jewels.
 Cutting and polishing of diamonds is done by
modern techniques at important centers like Surat,
Navasari, and Ahmedabad. Palanpur, Bhavnagar
and Mumbai. Khambhat, Jaipur, Trichur and Goa
are comparatively new centers
INDUSTRIAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD

393
North American Region
About four-fifth of the industrial output in this region is
contributed from United States of America. Another
major industrial country is Canada.
United States of America
 USA is the most dominant industrial super-power
in the world.
 At least 26% of the population is directly or
indirectly involved in manufacturing activities. The
manufacturing activities are available almost in all
states, though some regions have wider
concentration of industries, particularly in the
north-eastern states.
 It is, however, very difficult to delineate the
boundaries of different industrial regions, because
most of the regions are geographically inseparable.
 The industrial regions in USA may broadly fall into
following regions:
 The New England Regions
 The New York-Mid-Atlantic Region
 The Mid-lake Region

394
  The North-Eastern Region
 The Southern industrial Region
 The Western Region
 The Pacific Region

European Region
In Europe, particularly in Western Europe, most of the
countries are highly industrialized. Some of the countries

395
are leading manufacturing countries in the world. These
are Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, France, Spain etc
United Kingdom

 United Kingdom is one of the most industrialized

countries of the world. In fact, modern
industrialization largely took its birth in British soil.
 29 per cent of the labour force is directly engaged
in industry. Great Britain is having almost all types
of manufacturing industries.

396
  The major manufacturing items are engineering,
ferrous, chemical, textile, ceramic, electrical,
leather, food and beverages and even electronics.
 The manufacturing region of Britain may be sub-
divided into following groups:
 The Midland
 The Lower Scotland
 The North-East Coast
 The South Wales
 The Lancashire
 The London Basin
Germany
 The United Germany is one of the most dominant
industrial powers in Europe. Even before
unification, West Germany was considered as a
great industrial power.
 In 1996, industry contributed 38.2 per cent of the
total GDP About 38% people were engaged in
manufacturing activities.
 The major manufacturing regions in Germany are:
 The Rhine Industrial Region

397
 The Saar and Middle Rhine Industrial Region
 The Hamburg Industrial Region
 The Berlin Industrial Region
 The Leipzig Industrial Region

398
CIS: Commonwealth of Independent States
 The CIS is one of the mighty industrial powers of
the world. In 1995, industry contributed nearly 40
per cent of the gross national product in Russian
Federation.
 Nearly 47 per cent of work forces in 1991 were
engaged in manufacturing industry.
 Soviet industrial regions may be sub-divided into
following regions:
 The Moscow-Tula Industrial Region
 The Southern Industrial Region
 The Caucasus Industrial Region
 The Ural Industrial Region
 The Volga Industrial Region
 The Kuznetsk Industrial Region
 The Central Asia Industrial Region

399
Asian Region
Until very recent period, no country in Asia had a sound
industrial base. But, with the emergence of some
countries like Japan, China, India, Korea, and Taiwan in
industrial sector, this region is now posing grave threat
to the traditionally developed nations. In fact, regarding
future industrialization of the world, Asia is frequently
regarded as the dark horse.

400
Japan

 The meteoric rise of Japan in the industrial

scenario has shattered the long-established
domination of European and North American
countries. The output and efficiency of Japanese
industry is now comparable with any other
industrialized country in the world.

401
 Japan now dominates almost all key industries,
ranging from heavy chemical, iron-steel, petro-
chemical to Ferro-alloy, electrical, electronics,
motor vehicles and other consumer products.
 At present, 35 percent of the working people in
Japan are engaged in manufacturing activities. In
1995, manufacturing in Japan contributed 38 per
cent of the country’s GNP.
 Though Japanese industry had undergone a
massive transformation, the spatial distribution
pattern of industries remained unchanged. The
intricate relationship between import of raw
materials and export of finished products forced
the industries to locate near coastal areas.
 The major industrial regions in Japan may be sub-
divided into the following zones:
 The Tokyo-Yokohama Region
 The Osaka-Kobe Region
 The Chukyo Region
 The North Kyushu Region

402
China

 China is gradually becoming one of the most

dominant industrial powers in the world.
 The real development of industry in China began
only after the installation of Communist rule in
1949.

403
  Chinese industrial system had gone through a
complete transformation in last 50 years of
Communist Rules. Old industrial policies were
discarded and new policies were adopted. States
power is supervising industrial development of the
country in a planned manner. Eradication of
regional imbalance and dispersion of the industries
were encouraged. Basic industries like iron-steel,
chemicals, textiles were given priority. On the basis
of concentration of industries and their output,
Chinese industrial regions may be sub-divided into
following regions:
 The Manchuria Region
 The Yantze Valley Region
 The North China Region
 The South China Region
 Other Regions
India
 Since independence (1947), India has gradually
emerged as a moderately industrialized nation. In
some fields of manufacturing activity, Indian
advancement is really spectacular. It is now

404
 considered as one of the leading industrialized
country in the world.
 Spatially, Indian manufacturing establishments are
mal-distributed. Some states are having very high
concentration, while other regions are devoid of
industries. It has been observed that regions
situated in the plain, fertile lands and colonial
heritage are historically having sound industrial
base.
 Due to the failure of new centers to compete with
old traditional centers, almost a status quo is
maintained even today. Of late, some new
industrial centers were evolved, specially around
the steel cities.
 Among the states, Maharashtra contributes largest
amount of industrial products, followed by Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Karnataka etc. According to the regional
concentration of industries, Indian manufacturing
regions may be sub-divided into six broad regions.
 India Industrial Regions
 The Calcutta Conurbation
 The Bombay-Poona Megalopolis

405
  The Ahmedabad-Vadodara Region
 The Southern Industrial Region
 The Damodar Valley Region
 The Capital Regions
The Calcutta Conurbation:
 Broadly, a narrow strip running from Banshberia
and Naihati in the north to Budge Budge and
Uluberia in the south along the river Hooghly may
be taken as the demarcating line of this oldest and
vast industrial region in India. Several suburban
and satellite townships were developed within this
region.
 Notable among these are Howrah, Liluah, Bally,
Uttarpara, Hind Motor, Konnagar, Rishra, Srirampur,
Chandannagar, Bandel, Uluberia in the western
bank and Budge Budge, Birlapur, DumDum,
Belghoria, Sodepur, Titagarh, Barrackpur,
Shyamnagar, Naithati in the eastern bank of river
Hooghly.
 The major industries located in this region are jute
mills, cotton textiles, chemicals, drugs and
pharmaceuticals, engineering, machine tools,

406
 automobiles, tobacco, food processing, leather,
fabrication, paper, match, etc.
 Several factors proved to be advantageous for the
growth of these industrial regions. These were:
 The port facilities of Calcutta
 Calcutta was then the seat of administration
and capital of imperialist power
 Good transportation, through rail, road and
water ways
 The proximity of the region towards mineral
belts of Chotanagpur plateau
 Large market within Calcutta metropolis
 Extensive hinterland over eastern India
 Development of science and technology in
renaissance period
 Cheap, available labour force from adjoining
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
 Entrepreneurial ability of the foreign and
national bourgeoisie etc

407
The Bombay-Poona Megalopolis:
 This region stretches from Bombay metropolis to
Poona in the south. Major industrial centres are
Andheri, Belapur, Thane, Kalyan, Pimpri and Poona.
The major manufacturing items produced here are:
Textile, drugs and pharmaceuticals, chemical,
petro-chemical, paper, leather, engineering,
fertilizer and precision instruments.
 The major factors responsible for the growth of
this industrial region were:
 Development and growth of Bombay port
 Development of communication system through
rail and road
 Vast hinterland
 Managerial and entrepreneurship ability of Parsi,
Bhatia people
 Huge capital from foreign and indigenous
source
 Development of science and technology in the
region
 Cheap power resources

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  Cheap labour from Konakan and other regions
etc
The Ahmedabad-Vadodara Region:
 Due to growing congestion and related problems,
cotton textile industry gradually shifted from
Bombay and grew in this region. Later on
numerous other industries like petrochemical,
chemical, fertilizer and engineering factories were
evolved.
 The other centers of manufacturing industries are
Bharuch, Surat etc. Exploration of petroleum in this
region gives it a distinct advantage. This is one of
the highly growing industrial regions in India.
The Southern Industrial Region:
 The extensive industrial region of South India is
popularly known as Madras-Coimbatore-Bangalore
region. This is also an old region. The major
products of the region are textile, sugar,
engineering, refinery, chemical, drugs and
pharmaceuticals, automobiles, fertilizer etc.
 The reasons for the development of the region are:

409
  The facilities of export-import through Madras
Port,
 Easy communication through rail and road,
 Large hinterland etc
The Damodar Valley Region:
 The mineral-rich area of Chotanagpur area is now
one of the most developed industrial regions in
India. The availability of local coal, iron ore, bauxite,
limestone, manganese, mica and other minerals,
attracted a large number of mineral based
industries. Besides mineral, proximity to Calcutta
market, cheap labour and high demand also
facilitated the development.
 The major industrial areas are steel cities of
Jamshedpur, Durgapur, Bokaro, Burnpur, Hirapur,
Kulti, Asansol; coal centers like Raniganj, Jharia,
Dhanbad and township Ranchi etc. Apart from iron-
steel, heavy engineering, metallurgical, glass,
ceramics, machine tools, alloy steel, agricultural
machinery etc. are produced in this region.

410
The Capital Regions:
 Adjacent to the Delhi metropolitan area, several
industrial establishments developed. This is the
new industrial area, compared to the others. The
major centers of production are Faridabad,
Ghaziabad, Mathura, Saharanpur etc. The major
products of the region are textile, engineering,
leather, drugs and pharmaceuticals, petroleum
refinery, toilet and cosmetic products, detergents
etc.

411
 TRANSPORT & COMMUICATION NETWORK
Transport in India consists of transport by land, water
and air. Public transport is the primary mode of road
transport for most of the Indian citizens, and India's
public transport systems are among the most heavily
used in the world.
1. ROAD TRANPORTATION
Introduction
 India has the one of largest road network across
the world. This road network transports 64.5 per
cent of all goods in the country and 90 per cent of
India’s total passenger traffic uses road network to
commute. Road transportation has gradually
increased over the years with the improvement in
connectivity between cities, towns and villages in
the country.
 The Indian roads carry almost 90 per cent of the
country’s passenger traffic. In India sales of
automobiles and movement of freight by roads is
growing at a rapid rate.

412
Market size
 The construction of highways reached 9,829 km
during FY18 which was constructed at an average
of 26.93 km per day. The Government of India has
set a target for construction of 10,000 km national
highway in FY19. The length of national highways
constructed reached 6,715 km at a pace of 24.42
kms per day between April-December 2018. As of
March 01, 2019, the total length of National
Highways in India stood at 132,500 km.
 Total length of roads constructed under Prime
Minister’s Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) was
47,447 km in 2017-18.
 Huge investments have been made in the sector
with total investment increasing more than three
times from Rs 51,914 crore (US$ 7.43 billion) in
2014-15 to Rs 158,839 crore (US$ 22.73 billion) in
2018-19.
Key Investments/Developments
The Union Minister of State for Road, Transport and
Shipping has stated that the Government aims to boost
corporate investment in roads and shipping sector, along
with introducing business-friendly strategies that will

413
balance profitability with effective project execution.
According to data released by the Department for
Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade Policy (DPIIT),
construction development including Townships, housing,
built-up infrastructure and construction-development
projects attracted Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
inflows worth US$ 25.12 billion were recorded in the
construction development sector between April 2000 and
June 2019.
Some of the key investments and developments in the
Indian roads sector are as follows:
 A total of 892 km and 2,345 km national highway
projects were awarded and constructed,
respectively between April–August 2018.
 In March 2019, National Highway projects worth Rs
1,10,154 crore (US$ 15.99 billion) were
inaugurated.
 As on September 2019, the total amount of
investments is estimated to reach Rs 81,000 crore
(US$ 11.59 billion).

414
Government Initiatives
Some of the recent government initiatives are as follows:
 The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways is
expected to award road projects with a total length
of around 4,500 km worth Rs 50,000 crore (US$
7.15 billion) in 2020.
 To widen and revamp 1.25-lakh km of roads
government of India has approved the launch of
Phase-III of its rural road programme Pradhan
Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY).
 Under the Union Budget 2020-21, the Government
of India has allocated Rs 91,823 crore (US$ 13.14
billion) under the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways.
 For 2019-20, the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways is estimated the total expenditure of Rs
83,016 crore (US$ 118.4 billion).
 30,000 kms of PMGSY roads have been built using
Green Technology, Waste Plastic and Cold Mix
Technology, thereby reducing carbon footprint.

415
  The Government of India has set a target to
complete one road projects every two days as a
part of 100-day plan.
Achievements
Following are the achievements of the government in the
past four years:
 As on December 2019, 824 projects were
recommended for development by the Public
Private Partnership Appraisal Committee (PPPAC).
 A total of 65,000 km of roads and highways are to
be constructed under Bharatmala Pariyojana.
 In the month of December 2018, the Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) touched a
record 31.87 kilometre per day average of national
highway construction.
 The total national highways length increased to
122,434 kms in FY19 from 92,851 kms in FY14.
 The length of national highways awarded
increased to 51,073 kms between FY15-FY18 from
25,158 kms in FY11-FY14.

416
  The construction of national highways increased to
28,531 kms between FY15-FY18 from 16,505 kms
between FY11-FY14.
 The construction of national highway per day
increased to 26.9 kms per day in FY18 from 11.6
kms per day in FY14
2. RAILWAYS
Introduction
 The Indian Railways is among the world’s largest
rail networks. The Indian Railways route length
network is spread over 1,23,236 km, with 13,452
passenger trains and 9,141 freight trains from
7,349 stations plying 23 million travellers and 3
million tonnes (MT) of freight daily. India's railway
network is recognised as one of the largest railway
systems in the world under single management.
 The railway network is also ideal for long-distance
travel and movement of bulk commodities, apart
from being an energy efficient and economic mode
of conveyance and transport. Indian Railways was
the preferred carrier of automobiles in the country
with loading from automobiles traffic growing 16
per cent in 2017-18.

417
Evolution
 The first railway on Indian sub-continent ran over a
stretch of 21 miles from Bombay to Thane. The
idea of a railway to connect Bombay with Thane,
Kalyan and with the Thal and Bhore Ghats inclines
first occurred to Mr. George Clark, the Chief
Engineer of the Bombay Government, during a visit
to Bhandup in 1843.
 The formal inauguration ceremony was performed
on 16th April 1853, when 14 railway carriages
carrying about 400 guests left Bori Bunder at 3.30
pm "amidst the loud applause of a vast multitude
and to the salute of 21 guns."
 The first passenger train steamed out of Howrah
station destined for Hooghly, a distance of 24
miles, on 15th August, 1854. Thus the first section
of the East Indian Railway was opened to public
traffic, inaugurating the beginning of railway
transport on the Eastern side of the sub-continent.
 In south the first line was opened on Ist July, 1856
by the Madras Railway Company. It ran between
Vyasarpadi Jeeva Nilayam (Veyasarpandy) and
Walajah Road (Arcot), a distance of 63 miles.

418
  In the North a length of 119 miles of line was laid
from Allahabad to Kanpur on 3rd March 1859. The
first section from Hathras Road to Mathura
Cantonment was opened to traffic on 19th October,
1875.
 These were the small beginnings which is due
course developed into a network of railway lines all
over the country. By 1880 the Indian Railway
system had a route mileage of about 9000 miles.
 INDIAN RAILWAYS, the premier transport
organization of the country is the largest rail
network in Asia and the world's second largest
under one management.
New Technologies:
 India became the first developing country and the
5th country in the world to roll out the first
indigenously built "state-of-the-art" high horse
power three phase electric locomotive when the
first such loco was flagged off from Chittranjan
Locomotive Works (CLW). CLW has been achieving
progressive indigenisation and the cost of
locomotives has come down to the level of
Rs.13.65 crore.

419
  Diesel Locomotives Works, Varanasi has produced
state-of-the-art 4000 HP AC/AC diesel locomotive
in April this year. These locos are capable of
hauling 4,800 tonne freight trains at a speed of 100
KMPH and can run continuously up to 90 days in
one stretch without any major maintenance.
Honours and Awards
 Indian Railways achieved a number of recognitions
and awards in sports, tourism sector and for
excellence in operational matters.
 In the Common Wealth Games in Manchester, the
Indian team’s record performance has been mainly
due to Railway team's excellence in sports.
 Except one member the entire women's Hockey
team which bagged the gold medal belonged to
Railways.
 Mohd Ali Qamar of Indian Railways has bagged
gold medal for boxing and other participants from
Railways helped India win medals in many a team
events.
 A number of sportspersons from Railways were
conferred with the coveted Arjuna Awards and
other major sports awards.

420
  Darjeeling Himalayan Railways attained the World
Heritage Status from UNESCO.
 Fairy Queen, the oldest functioning steam engine
in the world, which finds a place in the Guinness
Book of World Records, got Heritage Award at the
International Tourist Bureau, Berlin in March, 2000.
On operational front, Delhi Main station entered the
Guinness Book for having the world's largest route
relay interlocking system.
RAILWAY ZONES IN INDIA
Sr. Name CODE Year of Route Head Divisions
No Establis KMs quart
hment ers
1 Central CR 1951 3905 Mum Mumbai, Bhu
Railway bai sawal,
Pune, Solapur
,
Nagpur
2 East ECR 2001 3628 Hajip Danapur, Dha
Central ur nbad,
Railway Mughalsarai,
Samastipur,
Sonpur
3 East ECoR 2001 2572 Bhub Khurda Road,
Coast anes Sambalpur,

421
 Railway war Visakhapatna
m
4 Eastern ER 1952 2414 Kolk Howrah, Seal
Railway ata dah,
Asansol, Mal
da
5 North NCR 2003 3151 Allah Allahabad, Ag
Central abad ra,Jhansi
Railway
6 North NER 1952 3667 Gora Izzatnagar, L
Eastern khpu ucknow,
Railway r Varanasi
7 North NWR 2002 5459 Jaip Jaipur, Ajmer,
Western ur Bikaner, Jodh
Railway pur
8 Northea NFR 1958 3907 Guw Alipurduar, K
st ahati atihar,
Frontier Rangia,
Railway Lumding,
Tinsukia
9 Norther NR 1952 6968 Delhi Delhi, Ambala
n ,
Railway Firozpur, Luc
know,
Moradabad

10 South SCR 1966 5803 Secu Secunderaba

Central nder d, Hyderabad,

422
 Railway abad Nanded
11 South SECR 2003 2447 Bilas Bilaspur, Raip
East pur ur, Nagpur
Central
Railway
12 South SER 1955 2631 Kolk Adra,
Eastern ata Chakradharp
Railway ur,
Kharagpur,
Ranchi
13 South SWR 2003 3177 Hubli Hubli, Bangal
Western ore, Mysore
Railway
14 Souther SR 1951 5098 Chen Chennai, Tric
n nai hy,
Railway Madurai, Pala
kkad, Salem,
Thiruvananth
apuram
15 West WCR 2003 2965 Jabal Jabalpur, Bho
Central pur pal, Kota
Railway
16 Western WR 1951 6182 Mum Mumbai
Railway bai Central,
Ratlam, Ahm
edabad,
Rajkot, Bhavn
agar,

423
 Vadodara
17 Kolkata KNR 2009 Kolk Kolkata
Metro ata
Railway
18 Souther SCoR 2019 3496 Vish Vijayawada,
n Coast akha Guntakal, Gu
Railway patn ntur,
Zone am

3. CIVIL AVIATION
The civil aviation industry in India has emerged as one of
the fastest growing industries in the country during the
last three years. India is currently considered the third
largest domestic civil aviation market in the world. India
has become the third largest domestic aviation market in
the world and is expected to overtake UK to become the
third largest air passenger market by 2024.
EVOLUTION:
1. J.R.D. Tata was the first person to make a solo
flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931.
2. In 1935, the ‘Tata Air Lines’ started its operation
between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in
1937 between Mumbai and Delhi.

424
 3. In 1953, all the private Airline companies were
nationalised and Indian Airlines and Air India came
into existence.
4. Air India administers international flights while
Indian Airlines caters to the domestic circuit.
5. Indian Airlines is now known by the name of
‘Indian’.
6. Vayudoot Limited started in 1981 as a private air
carrier and later on it merged with Indian Airlines.
7. Pawan Hans Limited operates helicopter support
services to oil sector, hill stations and remote
areas.
8. A number of private airlines also operates is India.
They are Jet Airways, Sahara, etc.
9. The Civil Aviation Centre in Fursatgarh near
Allahabad provided, among other things, ground
training to the pilots.
List of International Airports in India
International Airport Name International Airport Location
Chhatrapati Shivaji Mumbai, Maharashtra
International Airport
Kempegowda International Bangalore, Karnataka
Airport

425
Chennai International Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Airport
Netaji Subhas Chandra Kolkata, West Bengal
Bose International Airport
Chaudhary Charan Singh Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
International Airport
Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee Amritsar
International Airport
Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam, Andhra
International Airport Pradesh
Kannur International Airport Kannur, Kerala
Swami Vivekananda Raipur, Chhattisgarh
International Airport
Surat International Airport Surat, Gujarat
Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar Indore, Madhya Pradesh
Airport
Cochin International Airport Kochi, Kerala
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Ahmedabad, Gujarat
International Airport
Indira Gandhi International Delhi
Airport
Dablom Airport Goa
Pune International Airport Pune, Maharashtra
Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
International Airport
Coimbatore International Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Airport
Calicut International Airport Calicut, Kerala

426
Biju Patnaik International Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Airport
Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi Guwahati, Assam
International Airport
Lal Bahadur Shastri Varanasi ,Uttar Pradesh
International Airport
Rajiv Gandhi International Hyderabad, Telangana
Airport
Tiruchirappalli International Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu
Airport
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Nagpur, Maharashtra
International Airport
Sheikhul Aalam Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir
International Airport
Imphal International Airport Imphal, Meghalya
Jaipur International Airport Jaipur, Rajasthan
Madurai International Madurai, Tamil Nadu
Airport
Bagdogra International Siliguri, West Bengal
Airport
Jay Prakash Narayan Patna, Bihar
International Airport
Mangaluru International Mangalore, Karnataka
Airport
Chandigarh International Chandigarh
Airport
Veer Savarkar International Port Blair, Andaman and
Airport Nicobar Islands

427
Top 9 busiest International Airports in India
 Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
 Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai
 Bengaluru International Airport, Bangalore
 Anna International Airport, Chennai
 Kolkata International Airport, Kolkata
 Hyderabad International Airport, Hyderabad
 Ahmedabad International Airport
 Cochin International Airport
 Goa International Airport

Market Size
 India’s passenger traffic stood at 293.99 million in
FY20 (till January 2020) where domestic passenger
traffic reached 235.44 million and International
passenger reached 58.55 million.
 In FY20 (till January 2020) domestic freight traffic
stood at 1.14 million tonnes, while international
freight traffic was at 1.70 million tonnes.

428
  India’s domestic and international aircraft
movements reached 1.82 million and 0.37 million
in FY20 (till January 2020), respectively.
 To cater to the rising air traffic, the Government of
India has been working towards increasing the
number of airports. As of March 2019, India has
103 operational airports. India has envisaged
increasing the number of operational airports to
190-200 by FY40.
 Further, the rising demand in the sector has
pushed the number of airplanes operating in the
sector. As of July 2018, there were nearly 620
aircraft being operated by scheduled airline
operators in India.
 The number of airplanes is expected to grow to
1,100 planes by 2027.
Investment
 According to data released by the Department for
Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT),
FDI inflows in India’s air transport sector (including
air freight) reached US$ 1,904.37 million between
April 2000 and June 2019. The government has
100 per cent FDI under automatic route in

429
 scheduled air transport service, regional air
transport service and domestic scheduled
passenger airline. However, FDI over 49 per cent
would require government approval.
 India’s aviation industry is expected to witness Rs
35,000 crore (US$ 4.99 billion) investment in the
next four years. The Indian government is planning
to invest US$ 1.83 billion for development of
airport infrastructure along with aviation
navigation services by 2026.
Key investments and developments in India’s aviation
industry include:
 In December 2019, AAI announced its plans to set
up India's first three water aerodromes in Andaman
& Nicobar.
 In January 2020, IndiGo became first Indian carrier
to have an aircraft fleet size of 250 planes and also
became the first airline to operate 1,500 flights per
day.
 As of December 2019, France-based Safran Group
is planning an investment of US$ 150 million in a
new aircraft engine maintenance, repair and

430
 overhaul (MRO) unit in India to cater to its airline
customers.
 In November 2019, the Competition Commission of
India (CCI) approves the acquisition of
shareholdings in Mumbai International Airport
Limited (MIAL) by Adani Properties Private Limited
(APPL).
 UK group to invest Rs 950 crore (US$ 135.9 million)
in Turbo Aviation's new airline TruStar
 AAI is going to invest Rs 15,000 crore (US$ 2.32
billion) in 2018-19 for expanding existing terminals
and constructing 15 new ones.
 In June 2018, India has signed an open sky
agreement with Australia allowing airlines on either
side to offer unlimited seats to six Indian metro
cities and various Australian cities.
 The AAI plans to develop Guwahati as an inter-
regional hub and Agartala, Imphal and Dibrugarh as
intra-regional hubs.
 Indian aircraft Manufacture, Repair and Overhaul
(MRO) service providers are exempted completely
from customs and countervailing duties

431
Government Initiatives
Some major initiatives undertaken by the government
are:
 Under Union Budget 2020-21, government
introduced Krishi Udan scheme on both domestic
and international routes to help farmers in
transporting agricultural products and improve the
product value.
 As per the Union Budget 2019-20, government will
promote aircraft financing and leasing activities to
make India's aviation market self-reliant.
 In February 2019, the Government of India
sanctioned the development of a new greenfield
airport in Hirasar, Gujarat, with an estimated
investment of Rs 1,405 crore (US$ 194.73 million).
 As of January 2019, the Government of India is
working on a blueprint to promote domestic
manufacturing of aircrafts and aircraft financing
within the country.
 In January 2019, the government organised the
Global Aviation Summit in Mumbai which
witnessed participation of over 1,200 delegates
from 83 countries.

432
  In January 2019, the Government of India’s
released the National Air Cargo Policy Outline 2019
which envisages making Indian air cargo and
logistics the most efficient, seamless and cost and
time effective globally by the end of the next
decade.
 Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS) has been
launched.
Achievements
Following are the achievements of the government:
 Under RCS-Udan scheme, approximately 34,74,000
passengers were flown, and 335 routes awarded
during the year 2019 covering 33 airports (20
unserved, 3 underserved, 10 water aerodromes).
 As on October 2019, 55 AAI airports were declared
as Single-Use Plastic Free Airport Terminals.
Road Ahead
 India’s aviation industry is largely untapped with
huge growth opportunities, considering that air
transport is still expensive for majority of the
country’s population, of which nearly 40 per cent is
the upwardly mobile middle class.

433
  The industry stakeholders should engage and
collaborate with policy makers to implement
efficient and rational decisions that would boost
India’s civil aviation industry. With the right policies
and relentless focus on quality, cost and passenger
interest, India would be well placed to achieve its
vision of becoming the third-largest aviation
market by 2020. The expenditure of Indian
travellers is expected to grow up to Rs 9.5 lakh
crore (US$ 136 billion) by 2021. Due to rise in
demand in air travel, India will need 2,380 new
commercial airplanes by 2038.
4. INLAND WATERWAYS
 Inland waterway is a network of rivers, canals,
backwaters, and creeks which can be utilized for
transportation instead of or in addition to roads
and rails.
 India has nearly 14,500 km of navigable waterways,
however, inland water transport (IWT) accounts for
less than 1% of its freight traffic, compared to 35%
in Bangladesh and 20% in Germany.
 Throughout history, rivers have been used as
effective waterways, carrying people as well as
goods over long distances. Even today, several

434
 countries heavily depend on inland water transport,
particularly for large and bulky cargo since it is
cheaper, more reliable and less polluting than
transporting goods by rail or road.
 Until about a century ago, the Ganga River was
also was a busy waterway. However, with the
introduction of the railways, this watercourse fell
into disuse.
 The Government has now revived the Ganga
watercourse known as National Waterway 1 or NW
1 – to ferry cargo from the eastern seaport of
Haldia to Varanasi, some 1,620 km inland. This
waterway has the potential to become a leading
logistics artery for northern India.
Why inland waterways transport? (Potential/Benefits)
 Low cost: Low capital, operation, and maintenance
costs.
 Least energy consumption: Inland water transport
is considered to be the most cost-effective mode
of transport from the point of view of fuel
efficiency.

435
  Fewer emissions: CO2 Emission from container
vessels range much lesser than road transport
vehicles.
 Capacity: It has an enormous capacity to carry bulk
cargo, coal etc.
 Navigable: In India, around 14,500 km of river
channels are navigable. But only 2000 km is used.
 Growth: The development of waterways will
stimulate industrial growth
What are the major National waterways in India?
The Inland Waterways Authority of India Act, 1985
empowers the Government to declare waterways with
potential for development of shipping and navigation as
National Waterways and develop such waterways for
efficient shipping and navigation. 5 National waterways
declared under it are as follows:-
 National Waterway-1 ------>Allahabad-Haldia --
Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system-- 1620 km
 National Waterway-2------> Dhubri-Sadiya-- River
Brahmaputra-- 891 km

436
  National Waterway-3------> Kottapuram-Kollam--
West Coast canal along with Udyogmandal and
Champakara Canals--- 205 km
 National Waterway-4-----> Kakinada-Puducherry---
Rivers Godavari and Krishna--- 1078 km
 National Waterway-5-----> East Coast canal
integrated with Brahmani and Mahanadi delta
rivers, 588km
Besides these five waterways, National Waterway Act,
2016 declared 106 additional national waterways in
India. Out of the 111, National Waterways declared under
the National Waterways Act, 2016, 13 are operational for
shipping and navigation and cargo/passenger vessels
are moving on them.
What are the measures taken?
Constitutional provisions
 Central list: Matters related to shipping and
navigation on inland waterways, declared by
Parliament to be national waterways, as regards
mechanically propelled vessels and the rule of the
road on such waterways are the responsibility of
the central government.

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  Concurrent list: Matters related to shipping and
navigation on inland waterways as regards
mechanically propelled vessels, and the rule of the
road on such waterways, and the carriage of
passengers and goods on inland waterways,
subject to the provisions with respect to national
waterways, fall under the purview of both the
Centre and the states.
Legislations and policies:
 The Inland Waterways Authority of India Act, 1985-
The Act provides for the establishment of an
authority for the regulation and development of
inland waterways for shipping and navigation and
matters related to it. Accordingly, The Inland
Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) was formed in
1986. It undertakes projects for development and
maintenance of IWT infrastructure on national
waterways via grant received from Ministry of
Shipping.
 Indian Vessels Act of 1917 (amended in 2007): It
deals with the survey and registration of inland
vessels, removal of obstructions in navigation,
carriage of goods and passengers, prevention and
control of pollution etc.

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  Inland Water Transport Policy 2001: Policy talks
about IWT being the economical, fuel-efficient and
environment-friendly mode of transport. It
recommends large-scale participation of the
private sector both for the creation of
infrastructure and for fleet operations.
 National Waterways Act 2016: The Act declared
111 rivers or river stretches, creeks, estuaries as
National (inland) Waterways. It allows the Central
Government to regulate these waterways for
development with respect to shipping, navigation,
and transport by means of mechanically propelled
vessels.
 Laws related to environmental and other impacts:
Forest Act 1980, Environmental Protection Act
1986 and various notifications under it like EIA
Notification 2006, Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
Notification 2011.
Initiatives:
 Jal Marg Vikas Project: Jal Marg Vikas Project
(JMVP) seeks to improve the navigational capacity
of National Waterway-1 (NW-1). The project is
being implemented by the Government of India

439
 with technical assistance and investment
assistance of the World Bank.
 Sagarmala Project: Along with the development of
coastal shipping routes, the project aims at inland
waterways to accelerate industrial development. It
seeks to minimize the logistics costs by increasing
the share of domestic waterways in the modal mix
from the current 6%.
 Interlinking of Rivers Programme: The project is
expected to offer potential benefits to the transport
sector through navigation.

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441
MAJOR SEA PORTS IN INDIA
 Marine transport in India is controlled and
administered by the state and the central
governments.
 While the shipping ministry manages the major
ports, the intermediate and the minor ports are
administered by the State government in which the
port is located.
 India’s 95% of trading is done through maritime
transport.
Important ports in India
Zone State Port Features
Eastern Tamil Nadu Chennai Artificial Port
Coast Second busiest port
Western Kerala Kochi Sited in the
Coast Vembanad lake
Exports of spices
and salts
Eastern Tamil Nadu Ennore India’s First
Coast corporatized port
Eastern West Bengal Haldia Riverine ports
Coast Situated on Hugli
river
Known as Diamond
Harbour

442
Western Gujarat Kandla Known as Tidal Port
Coast Acknowledged as
Trade Free Zone
Largest port by
volume of cargo
handled.
Western Karnataka Mangalore Deals with the iron
Coast ore exports
Western Goa Marmagoa Situated on the
Coast estuary of the river
Juari
Western Maharashtra Mumbai Largest Natural Port
Coast and harbor In India
Busiest port in India
Western Maharashtra Jawaharlal Largest Artificial
Coast Nehru Port Port
Eastern Odisha Paradip Natural Harbor deals
Coast with the export of
iron and aluminium
Eastern Tamil Nadu Tutikorin Major port in south
Coast India deals with the
fertilizers and
petrochemical
products
Eastern Andhra Vishakapat Deepest port of India
Coast Pradesh nam deals with the export
of iron ore to Japan,
Amenities of building

443
 and fixing of ships
are available
Eastern Tamil Nadu Chennai Artificial port
Coast

WHAT'S NEW:
The Union Cabinet has given its 'in-principle' approval
for setting up a major port at Vadhavan near Dahanu
in Maharashtra.
 With the development of Vadhavan port, India will
break into the countries with top 10 container
ports in the world. A container port is a port which
specializes in handling goods transported in
containers.
 The port will be developed on ‘land lord model’.
 In the landlord port model, the publicly governed
port authority acts as a regulatory body and as
landlord while private companies carry out port
operations—mainly cargo-handling activities.
 A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) will be formed
with Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (JNPT) as the
lead partner to implement the project.

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  The position of Jawaharlal Nehru Port, the biggest
container port in India, is 28th in the world in terms
of traffic handling capacity.
 With the completion of the 4th terminal at JN Port,
its capacity will increase to 10 million TEUs
(Twenty-Foot Equivalent Units) making it the
17th largest container port in the world.
COMMUNICATION:
1. TELECOMMUNICATION
Introduction
 India is currently the world’s second-largest
telecommunications market with a subscriber base
of 1.20 billion and has registered strong growth in
the past decade and a half.
 According to a report prepared by the Groupe
Speciale Mobile Association (GSMA), as of January
2019, India has witnessed a 165% growth in app
downloads in the past two years.
 Based on the data available from GSMA, this sector
will create close to 4 million additional jobs by
2020.

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 Teledensity of Indian telecom industry (wireless
plus wire line) has grown from a low of 3.60% in
March 2001 to 84% in March 2016.
 Telecom is the second highest revenue earner for
the government, after income tax: The sector is
expected to contribute as much as 90% of the
government’s non-tax revenue. Digital India
programme is also almost completely dependent
on the telecom sector.
 The liberal and reformist policies of the
Government of India have been instrumental along
with strong consumer demand in the rapid growth
in the Indian telecom sector. The deregulation of
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) norms has made
the sector one of the fastest growing and a top five
employment opportunity generator in the country.
 Evolution of the Telecom Sector in India
 Indian telecom sector is more than 165 years old.
 Telecommunications was first introduced in India
in 1851 when the first operational land lines were
laid by the government near Kolkata (then
Calcutta), although telephone services were
formally introduced in India much later in 1881.

446
 Further, in 1883, telephone services were merged
with the postal system. In 1947, after India
attained independence, all foreign
telecommunication companies were nationalised
to form the Posts, Telephone and Telegraph
(PTT), a body that was governed by the Ministry of
Communication.
 The Indian telecom sector was entirely under
government ownership until 1984, when the
private sector was allowed in telecommunication
equipment manufacturing only.
 The government concretised its earlier efforts
towards developing R&D in the sector by setting up
an autonomous body – Centre for Development of
Telematics (C-DOT) in 1984 to develop state-of-
the-art telecommunication technology to meet the
growing needs of the Indian telecommunication
network.
 The actual evolution of the industry started after
the Government separated the Department of Post
and Telegraph in 1985 by setting up the
Department of Posts and the Department of
Telecommunications (DoT).

447
Issues and Challenges of Telecom Sector
 High Right-of-Way (ROW) cost: Sometimes, state
governments charge a huge amount for permitting
the laying of fiber, etc.
 Lack of fixed line penetration: India has very little
penetration of fixed-line in its network whereas

448
 most of the developed countries have a very high
penetration of fixed lines (telephone line that
traveled through a metal wire or optical fiber as
part of a nationwide telephone network).
 Only around 25% of Towers in India are
connected with fiber networks, whereas in
developed nations, it is in excess of 70%.
 5G Network requires towers to be connected to
with very high-speed systems. Those high
speeds are not possible on the present radio
systems.
 Declining Average Revenue per User (ARPU): ARPU
decline now is sharp and steady, which, combined
with falling profits and in some cases serious
losses, is prompting the Indian telecom industry to
look at consolidation as the only way to boost
revenues.
 Recently, the Supreme Court allowed the
government’s plea to recover adjusted gross
revenue of about Rs 92,000 crore from telcos,
that further adds to their stress.

449
 Limited Spectrum Availability: Available spectrum
is less than 40% as compared to European nations
and 50% as compared to China.
 Low Broadband Penetration: Low broadband
penetration in the country is a matter of concern.
As per white paper presented on broadband at the
last International Telecommunication Union (ITU),
broadband penetration in India is only 7%.
 Over the Top (OTT) applications such as
WhatsApp, OLA and so on do not need permission
or a pact with a telecommunications company.
This hampers the revenue of telecommunication
service providers.
 Huge fluctuations in the duties on Telecom
Equipment which contribute to connecting the
whole system from the central server to the
consumer.
 Timeframe of policy execution: Government has
withdrawn a lot of things to benefit telecom sector
but by the time it gets executed to the market, it
becomes too late.

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  Lack of Telecom Infrastructure in Semi-rural and
Rural areas: Service providers have to incur huge
initial fixed cost to enter semi-rural and rural areas.
 Pressure on Margins Due to Stiff Competition: With
competition heating up post entry of Reliance Jio,
other telecom players are feeling the heat of
substantial drop in tariff rates both for voice and
data (more significant for data subscribers).
Steps Taken by the Government
 A new National Digital Communications Policy -
2018 (NDCP-2018) was unveiled in Oct 2018, to
replace National Telecom Policy-2012, to cater to
the modern needs of the digital communications
sector of India. The policy aims to attract USD 100
billion worth of investments and generate 4 million
jobs in the sector by 2022.
 Telecom Commission was re-designated as
the "Digital Communications Commission”.
 In 2017, Department of Telecom (DoT) came up
with a gazette notification, advising the state
governments to give quicker ROW permission and
charge very little amount to service providers.
Though, only some states responded.

451
 The government has provided benefits to telecom
sector by withdrawing some duties.
 The government has fast-tracked reforms in the
telecom sector and continues to be proactive in
providing room for growth for telecom companies.
 The Department of Information Technology intends
to set up over 1 million internet-enabled common
service centers across India as per the National e-
Governance Plan.
 FDI cap in the telecom sector has been increased
to 100% from 74%. Out of 100%, 49% will be done
through automatic route and the rest will be done
through the FIPB approval route.
 FDI of up to 100% is permitted for infrastructure
providers offering dark fiber, electronic mail and
voice mail.
 The Government of India has introduced Digital
India programme under which all the sectors such
as healthcare, retail, etc. will be connected through
the internet.

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Suggestions
 NDCP-2018 advocates:-
 Establishment of a National Digital Grid by
creating a National Fibre Authority;
 Establishing Common Service Ducts and utility
corridors in all new city and highway road
projects;
 Creating a collaborative institutional
mechanism between Centre, States and Local
Bodies for Common Rights of Way,
standardization of costs and timelines;
 Removal of barriers to approvals;
 Facilitating development of Open Access Next
Generation Networks.
 Explore the option of revenue sharing
agreement between Internet players and
telecommunication companies.
 Outsourcing non-core functions such as network
maintenance, IT operations and customer service.
 Divestment of tower assets into separate
companies will enable curb costs and focus on
core operations.

453
 Introduce new and efficient technologies such as
M2M (technology that enables networked devices
to exchange information and perform actions
without the manual assistance of humans) and
cloud computing.
 Benefits of industry status in line with other
infrastructure sectors in the country to be
implemented.
 Penetration of rural markets (72% of population
staying in rural areas) will be the key growth driver.
 The government should increase the network area
through optical fiber instead of copper which is
expensive. This is necessary to ensure last mile
connectivity.
 The government needs to prepare a ground
for easy right-of-way permissions and lower cost
of right-of-ways.
 It is time to go for a generational shift to ensure
that current tariff is financially viable for service
providers.
 Telecom Operators should leverage on the talent
pool in the country which is bringing in a lot of new
innovations in AI, blockchain technology etc.

454
  New Infrastructure on shareable basis just like the
way telecom service providers share the cost of
towers is need of the hour.
 The government should spend more on R&D and
create an environment that makes India capable of
manufacturing and exporting hardware
components like mobile handsets, CCTV Cameras,
touch screen monitors etc.
Conclusion
 The telecom sector in India has to deal with various
challenges like maintaining the sufficient spectrum,
adoption of new technologies faster to be able to use
the new features and techniques to serve the
customers with better and feature rich service.
 A proactive and facilitatory government role
regarding telecom sector is the need of the hour
given the huge opportunities provided by the sector.
 Independent and statutory body, Telecom Regulatory
Authority of India (TRAI) has an important role to
play as a watchdog of the sector. A more proactive
and timely Dispute Resolution by TDSAT (Telecom
Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal) is the
need of the hour.

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 GEOGRAPHY GLOSSARY
A. SMOG:
 Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the
burning of large amounts of coal, vehicular
emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants).
 Smog contains soot particulates like smoke,
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and other
components.
 At least two distinct types of smog are
recognized: sulfurous smog and photochemical
smog.
Sulfurous smog
 Sulfurous smog is also called “London smog,” (first
formed in London).
 Sulfurous smog results from a high concentration
of SULPHUR OXIDES in the air and is caused by
the use of sulphur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly
coal (Coal was the mains source of power in
London during nineteenth century. The effects of
coal burning were observed in early twentieth
century).

456
  This type of smog is aggravated by dampness and
a high concentration of suspended particulate
matter in the air.

Photochemical smog
 Photochemical smog is also known as “Los
Angeles smog”.
 Photochemical smog occurs most prominently in
urban areas that have large numbers of
automobiles (Nitrogen oxides are the primary
emissions).
 Photochemical (summer smog) forms when
pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (primary

457
 pollutant) and organic compounds (primary
pollutants) react together in the presence
of SUNLIGHT. A gas called OZONE (Secondary
pollutant) is formed.
Nitrogen Dioxide + Sunlight + Hydrocarbons = Ozone
(Ozone in stratosphere it is beneficial, but near the
earth’s surface it results in global warming as it is a
greenhouse gas)
 The resulting smog causes a light brownish
coloration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility,
plant damage, irritation of the eyes and respiratory
distress.

458
B. HAZE
 Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon
where dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure
the clarity of the sky (No condensation. Smog is
similar to haze but there is condensation in smog).
 Sources for haze particles include farming
(ploughing in dry weather), traffic, industry, and
wildfires.
C. EL NINO /LA NINA/ INDIA OCEAN DIAPOLE/ENSO
 El Niño is the name given to the occasional
development of warm ocean surface waters along
the coast of Ecuador and Peru.
 When this warming occurs the usual upwelling of
cold, nutrient rich deep ocean water is significantly
reduced.
 El Niño normally occurs around Christmas and
usually lasts for a few weeks to a few months.
 Sometimes an extremely warm event can develop
that lasts for much longer time periods. In the
1990s, strong El Niño developed in 1991 and lasted
until 1995, and from fall 1997 to spring 1998.

459
Normal Conditions
 In a normal year, a surface low pressure develops
in the region of northern Australia and
Indonesia and a high pressure system over
the coast of Peru. As a result, the trade winds over
the Pacific Ocean move strongly from east to west.
 The easterly flow of the trade winds carries warm
surface waters westward, bringing convective
storms (thunderstorms) to Indonesia and coastal
Australia. Along the coast of Peru, cold
bottom cold nutrient rich water wells up to the
surface to replace the warm water that is pulled to
the west.

460
During El Nino year
 In an El Niño year, air pressure drops over large
areas of the central Pacific and along the coast of
South America.
 The normal low pressure system is replaced by a
weak high in the western Pacific (the southern
oscillation). These changes in pressure pattern
causes the trade winds to be reduced == Weak
Walker Cell. Sometimes Walker Cell might even get
reversed.
 This reduction allows the equatorial counter
current (current along doldrums) to accumulate
warm ocean water along the coastlines of Peru and
Ecuador. Climatically, the development of an El
Niño brings drought to the western Pacific, rains to
the equatorial coast of South America,
and convective storms and hurricanes to the
central Pacific.
Effects of El Nino
 The warmer waters had a devastating effect on
marine life existing off the coast of Peru and
Ecuador.

461
  Fish catches off the coast of South America were
lower than in the normal year (Because there is no
upwelling).
 Severe droughts occur in Australia, Indonesia, India
and southern Africa.
 Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, and the Gulf of
Mexico.

How El Nino impacts monsoon rainfall in India

 El Nino and Indian monsoon are inversely related.
 The most prominent droughts in India – six of
them – since 1871 have been El Nino droughts,
including the recent ones in 2002 and 2009

462
  However, not all El Nino years led to a drought in
India. For instance, 1997/98 was a strong El Nino
year but there was no drought
 On the other hand, a moderate El Nino in 2002
resulted in one of the worst droughts.
 El Nino directly impacts India’s agrarian economy
as it tends to lower the production of summer
crops such as rice, sugarcane, cotton and oilseeds.
 The ultimate impact is seen in the form of high
inflation and low gross domestic product growth
as agriculture contributes around 14 per cent to
the Indian economy.
El Nino Southern Oscillation [ENSO]
 The formation of an El Niño [Circulation of Water] is
linked with Pacific Ocean circulation pattern known
as the southern oscillation [circulation of
atmospheric pressure]
 Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and
climatology, is a coherent inter-annual fluctuation
of atmospheric pressure over the tropical Indo-
Pacific region.

463
  El Nino and Southern Oscillation coincide most of
the times hence their combination is called ENSO
– El Nino Southern Oscillation.
Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons
 SO is a see-saw pattern of meteorological changes
observed between the Eastern Pacific and Western
Pacific.
 When the pressure was high over equatorial
Eastern Pacific, it was low over the equatorial
Western Pacific and vice versa.
 The pattern of low and high pressures gives rise to
vertical circulation along the equator with its rising
limb over low pressure area and descending limb
over high pressure area. This is known as Walker
Circulation.
 The location of low pressure and hence the rising
limb over Western Pacific is considered to be
conductive to good monsoon rainfall in India.
 Its shifting eastward from its normal position, such
as in El Nino years, reduces monsoon rainfall in
India.

464
  Due to the close association between an El Nino
(E.N.) and the Southern Oscillation SO the two are
jointly referred to as an ENSO event.
 The periodicity of SO is not fixed and its period
varies from two to five years.
 Southern Oscillation Index (SOD) is used to
measure the intensity of the Southern Oscillation.
 This is the difference in pressure between Tahiti in
French Polynesia (Central Pacific), representing the
Central Pacific Ocean and Port Darwin, in northern
Australia representing the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
 The positive and negative values of the SOI i.e.
Tahiti minus the Port Darwin pressure are pointers
towards good or bad rainfall in India.
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is
same in India)
 Although ENSO was statistically effective in
explaining several past droughts in India, in the
recent decades the ENSO-Monsoon relationship
seemed to weaken in the Indian subcontinent. For
e.g. the 1997, strong ENSO failed to cause drought
in India.

465
 However, it was later discovered that just like
ENSO was an event in the Pacific Ocean, a similar
seesaw ocean-atmosphere system in the Indian
Ocean was also at play. It was discovered in 1999
and named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by
the difference in sea surface temperature between
two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) – a western
pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and
an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south
of Indonesia.
 IOD develops in the equatorial region of Indian
Ocean from April to May peaking in October.
 With a positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean
blow from east to west (from Bay of Bengal
towards Arabian Sea). This results in the Arabian
Sea (western Indian Ocean near African Coast)
being much warmer and eastern Indian Ocean
around Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
 In the negative dipole year (negative IOD), reverse
happens making Indonesia much warmer and
rainier.

466
 It was demonstrated that a positive IOD index often
negated the effect of ENSO, resulting in increased
Monsoon rains in several ENSO years like the 1983,
1994 and 1997.
 Further, it was shown that the two poles of the IOD
– the eastern pole (around Indonesia) and the
western pole (off the African coast) were
independently and cumulatively affecting the
quantity of rains for the Monsoon in the Indian
subcontinent.

467
  Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of
the IOD was later discovered and named
as Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation [EQUINOO]
[Oscillation of warm water and atmospheric
pressure between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea].
Impact on IOD on Cyclonogeneis in Northern Indian
Ocean
 Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than Bay of
Bengal) results in more cyclones than usual in
Arabian Sea.
 Negative IOD results in stronger than usual
cyclonogenesis (Formation of Tropical Cyclones) in
Bay of Bengal. Cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea is
suppressed.
The El Niño Modoki
 El Niño Modoki is a coupled ocean-atmosphere
phenomenon in the tropical Pacific.
 It is different from another coupled phenomenon in
the tropical Pacific namely, El Niño.
 Conventional El Niño is characterized by strong
anomalous warming in the eastern equatorial
Pacific.

468
 Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated with strong
anomalous warming in the central tropical Pacific
and cooling in the eastern and western tropical
Pacific (see figure below).

469
El Nino Modoki Impacts
 The El Niño Modoki phenomenon is characterized
by the anomalously warm central equatorial Pacific
flanked by anomalously cool regions in both west
and east.
 Such zonal gradients result in anomalous two-cell
Walker Circulation over the tropical Pacific, with a
wet region in the central Pacific.
La Nina
 After El Niño event weather conditions usually
return back to normal.
 However, in some years the trade winds can
become extremely strong and an abnormal

470
 accumulation of cold water can occur in the central
and eastern Pacific. This event is called a La Niña.
 A strong La Niña occurred in 1988 and scientists
believe that it may have been responsible for the
summer drought over central North America.
During this period, the Atlantic Ocean has
seen very active hurricane seasons in 1998 and
1999.
 One of the hurricanes that developed,
named Mitch, was the strongest October hurricane
ever to develop in about 100 years of record
keeping.

471
Effects of La Nina
 Some of the other weather effects of La Niña
include
1. abnormally heavy monsoons in India and
Southeast Asia,
2. cool and wet winter weather in southeastern Africa,
wet weather in eastern Australia,
3. cold winter in western Canada and northwestern
United States,
4. Winter drought in the southern United States.
D. POLAR VORTEX
 The polar vortex is a large area of low
pressure and cold air surrounding both of the
Earth’s poles. It was also known as the Polar Pig.
 The term "vortex" refers to the counterclockwise
flow of air that helps keep the colder air near the
Poles. It always exists near the poles, but
weakens in summer and strengthens in winter.
 The Polar vortex is an upper-level low-pressure
area lying near one of the Earth's poles. The Earth's
atmosphere has two polar vortices which are
overlying the North and South Poles. Each polar

472
 vortex is a persistent, large-scale, low-pressure
zone less than 1,000 kilometers (620 miles) in
diameter, that rotates counter-clockwise at the
North Pole (called a cyclone) and clockwise at the
South Pole, i.e., both polar vortices rotate eastward
around the poles.
 In other words, we can say- The extreme cold has
been caused by a blast of Artic air, which in turn is
a result of what is known as “Polar Vortex” event.
These cold blasts of artic air are bottled up by the
strong jet stream or polar jet stream which is
circulated at the high latitudes.

473
How it slips
 The Polar jet traverses somewhere over 650 N and
S latitudes. When the temperature contrast
between polar and temperate regions is maximum,
the jet is very strong and the meandering is
negligible.
 But when the temperature contrast is low (doesn’t
mean its summer), the jet starts to meander.
 Meandering jet creates alternating low and high
pressure cells. High pressure cells are created
below the ridges and the low pressure cells below
the troughs (This is because of the upper air
circulations created by the jet).
 With severe meandering, the high pressure cells
push over to north and displace the polar cyclone
from its normal position i.e. the cyclone moves
away from the pole and slips into the temperate
regions where there is an intense low pressure.
 With the strengthening of the jet, the high pressure
cells become weak and retreat to their normal
latitudinal positions. With the retreat of the high
pressure cells, the polar cyclone moves back to its
normal position – poles.

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Nacreous clouds
 Nacreous clouds, sometimes called mother-of-
pearl clouds, are rare clouds.
 They are mostly visible within two hours after
sunset or before dawn.
 They form in frigid regions of the lower
stratosphere, some 15 – 25 km (9 -16 mile) high
and well above tropospheric clouds. They are
bright even after sunset and before dawn because
at those heights there is still sunlight.
 They are seen mostly during winter at high
latitudes like Scandinavia, Iceland, Alaska and

475
 Northern Canada. Sometimes, however, they occur
as far south as England.

 Polar Stratospheric Clouds or nacreous clouds

contain water, nitric acid and/or sulfuric acid.
 They are formed mainly during the event of polar
vertex in winter; more intense at South Pole.
E. OZONE HOLE
 Polar vortex and ozone depletion are two distinct
but related phenomena.
 There is a steady decline of about 4% in the total
volume of ozone in Earth’s stratosphere.

476
  Much larger decrease in stratospheric ozone is
observed around Earth’s Polar Regions.
 Depletion of ozone is due to increase
in halocarbons in the atmosphere.
 Halocarbon == a compound in which the
hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is replaced by
halogens like chlorine, bromine, iodine etc.
 Halogen == group of reactive non-metallic
elements like fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
and astatine.
 Ozone depleting substances are man-made gases
that destroy ozone once the gases reach the ozone
layer.
Ozone depleting substances include:
1. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
2. hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
3. hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs)
4. halons (were used in fire extinguishers)
5. Methyl bromide (was used as fumigant.
Fumigation is a method of pest control by
suffocating pests with poison)

477
 6. carbon tetrachloride (formerly widely used in fire
extinguishers, refrigerant and as a cleaning agent)
7. Methyl chloroform (solvent for organic
compounds; used for cleaning metal parts
and circuit boards).
They have been used as:
 refrigerants in commercial, home and vehicle air
conditioners and refrigerators
 foam blowing agents
 a component in electrical equipment
 industrial solvents
 solvents for cleaning (including dry cleaning)
 aerosol spray propellants
 Fumigants.
F. ATLANTIC MERIDIONAL OVERTURNING
CIRCULATION (AMOC)
AMOC is characterized by a northward flow of warm,
salty water in the upper layers of the Atlantic, and a
southward flow of colder, deep waters that are part of
the Thermohaline circulation. How Atlantic Meridional
Overturning Circulation (AMOC) works?

478
 As warm water flows northwards in the Atlantic, it
cools, while evaporation increases its salt content.
 Low temperature and a high salt content raise the
density of the water, causing it to sink deep into
the ocean.
 The cold, dense water deep below slowly spreads
southward.
 Eventually, it gets pulled back to the surface and
warms again, and the circulation is complete.

479
Image Credits: Wikipedia
Importance of Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation (AMOC)
 AMOC aids in distributing heat and energy around
the earth (heat budget).
 Western Europe’s climate is less harsh even in
winters because of AMOC (Gulf Stream, North
Atlantic Drift).
 It acts as a carbon sink by absorbing and storing
atmospheric carbon.
 AMOC’s carbon sequestration has significant
implications for evolution of anthropogenic global
warming.
Cause of concern
 AMOC has undergone exceptional weakening in the
last 150 years compared to the previous 1500
years.
 Climate models suggest that the AMOC will
weaken over the 21st Century as greenhouse
gases increase.
 This is because as the atmosphere warms, the
surface ocean beneath it retains more of its heat.

480
  Meanwhile increases in rainfall and ice melt mean
it gets fresher too.
 All these changes make the ocean water lighter
and reduce the sinking in the conveyor belt (weaker
AMOC).
 A weaker AMOC will bring less warm water
northwards, and this will partly offset the warming
effect of the greenhouse gases over Western
Europe.
Effects of AMOC Slowdown
 IPCC report indicates that AMOC has already
weakened.
 Any substantial weakening of the AMOC would
cause
 further decrease in marine productivity in the
North Atlantic (less sinking will lead to less
mixing of water),
 more storms in Northern Europe,
 less Sahelian summer rainfall and South Asian
summer rainfall,
 a reduced number of tropical cyclones in the
Atlantic and

481
  An increase in regional sea level along the
northeast coast of North America.
Rising temperatures in Indian Ocean can boost Atlantic’s
ocean currents temporarily
 For thousands of years, AMOC has remained
stable, but since the past 15 years, it has been
weakening.
 However, rising temperatures in the Indian Ocean
can help boost the AMOC and delay the slow down.
Indian Ocean’s role
 The Indian Ocean is one of the fingerprints of
global warming.
 As the Indian Ocean warms faster and faster, it
generates additional precipitation.
 This draws more air from other parts of the world
to the Indian Ocean, including the Atlantic.
 With so much precipitation in the Indian Ocean,
there will be less precipitation in the Atlantic
Ocean.
 Less precipitation will lead to higher salinity in the
waters of the tropical portion of the Atlantic.

482
  This saltier water, as it comes north via AMOC, will
get cold much quicker than usual and sink faster.
 This would act as a jump start for AMOC,
intensifying the circulation.
 However, scientists don’t know for how long this
enhanced warming in Indian Ocean will continue.
 If other tropical oceans’ warming, especially the
Pacific’s, catches up with the Indian Ocean, the
advantage for AMOC will stop
THERMOHALINE
Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of
the ocean’s surface. However, ocean currents also flow
thousands of meters below the surface. These deep-
ocean currents are driven by differences in the water’s
density, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and
salinity (haline). This process is known as thermohaline
circulation.
G. HEAT WAVE
 A heat wave is a period of excessively hot weather.
 IMD has prescribed the following criteria for heat
waves:

483
  Maximum temperature of a station reaches 40
°C for the plains, 37 °C for coastal stations and
30 °C for hilly areas.
 In case normal maximum temperature of a
station is lower or equal to 40 °C, heat wave
departure from normal is 5 to 6 °C and severe
heat wave departure from normal is 7 °C or
more.
 In case normal maximum temperature of station
is more than 40 °C, heat wave departure from
normal is 4 to 5 °C and severe heat wave
departure from normal is 6 °C or more.
 When actual maximum temperature remains 45
°C or more regardless of normal maximum
temperature, heat waves should be declared
Causes for Heat Wave
Anthropogenic causes
 Similar to Urban Heat Islands and Global Warming.
Natural Climatic Phenomenon: Shifting jet streams
 In 2010, South-Western strip of Russia was
devastated by a very severe heat wave.

484
  A strong upper-atmospheric high located over
European Russia diverted the meandering Sub-
Tropical Jet Stream farther north than usual.
 Desert heat from central Asia, the Arabian
Peninsula and North Africa began to flow
northward into Russia.

El Nino, La Nina
 They alter cloud cover, rainfall, wind patterns, jet
stream location, etc.
Hot local winds like Loo
 Loo is a hot wind that originates in the desert
regions of Iran, Pakistan and Thar Desert and

485
 blows eastwards into the Indian plain region in the
months of May and June, usually in the afternoons.
 Its temperature invariably ranges between 45°C
and 50°C and causes severe heat waves in the
plain region.
Urban Heat Island
 An urban heat island is an urban or an industrial
area that has temperatures considerably higher
than its surrounding rural areas (both share the
same climate) primarily due to anthropogenic
reasons.
Causes for Urban Heat Islands
 Heat-trapping concrete and asphalt (have very low
albedo or low reflectivity) replace natural
vegetation and water (reduced evaporation and
evapotranspiration).
 High rise buildings that offer more surface area for
heat absorption.
 High vehicle density and a lot of heat released from
their engines.

486
  High pollution levels and high concentration
of GHGs like CO2 (thermal power plants and
vehicles).
 GHGs, aerosols, particulate matter are good at
absorbing outgoing infrared radiation (long wave
radiation).
 Cooling appliances like air conditioners that
release the heat into the surroundings.
 Bad monsoons: less evaporation of water from
vegetation and soil.
Urban heat islands at night
 Cities in northern plains used to cool down during
night, but nowadays they are trapping this heat
overnight.
 ACs, pollution, close and dense network of
buildings are the primary reason for the Urban heat
islands at night.
What is Albedo?
 Albedo is the portion of solar energy reflected from
the surface of the Earth back into space. It is a
reflection coefficient and has a value of less than
one.

487
  When the solar radiation passes through the
atmosphere, a certain amount of it is scattered,
reflected and absorbed. The reflected sum of
radiation is called the albedo of the earth.
 Albedo is an important concept in climatology,
astronomy, and environmental management.
 It plays a major role in the energy balance of the
earth’s surface, as it defines the rate of the
absorbed portion of the incident solar radiation
 Fresh snow has the highest albedo (reflects back
80-90% of the incident sunlight).
 Dark asphalt used to road construction and in
roofing of buildings has very low albedo (~5%).
I. DOLDRUMS:
Doldrums are formed in the equatorial belt of low
atmospheric pressure where the North-East and South-
East trade winds converge on and meet each other,
forming calms and light surface winds and a strong
upward air movement. Thus, in spite of the calms and
light winds, the Doldrums are characterized by stormy
and turbulent weather, having thunderstorms·, heavy
rains, and squalls. Because of their lack of wind, they use
to be avoid by sailing ship.

488
II. ITCZ:
It is a zone between the northern and southern
hemisphere where winds blowing equator-ward from the
mid-latitudes and winds flowing pole ward from the
tropics meet. It shifts from north and south seasonally
according to the movement of the Sun. For Example-
when the ITCZ is shifted to north of the Equator, the
southeast trade wind changes to a southwest wind as it
crosses the Equator. The ITCZ shifts only between 40° to
45° of latitude north or south of the equator based on the
pattern of land and ocean.
III. BERMUDA TRIANGLE:
It is an area in which so many ships and planes have
disappeared without a trace, that some people call it the
Devil's Sea. The area stretches from Cape Hatteras
(North Carolina) to the island of Bermuda, and reaches
south to Florida and the outer islands of the Caribbean. It
has been variously labeled the Devil's Triangle, the
Triangle of Death, the Hoodoo Sea and the Graveyard of
the Atlantic. Most scientists agree that it is because that
particular section of the ocean has an enormous amount
of traffic all year, so it is natural that it would have more
accidents.

489
H. LIST OF STUDY OF DIFFERENT THINGS:
aerology study of the atmosphere
aeronautics study of navigation through air or
space
agrobiology study of plant nutrition; soil
yields
agrology study of agricultural soils
agronomics study of productivity of land
agrostology science or study of grasses
anemology study of winds
astrogeology study of extraterrestrial geology
astrology study of influence of stars on
people

490
astrometeorology study of effect of stars on
climate
astronomy study of celestial bodies
bioecology study of interaction of life in the
environment
biology study of life
biometrics study of biological measurement
bionomics study of organisms interacting in
their environments
botany study of plants
brontology scientific study of thunder
cartography the science of making maps and
globes
climatology study of climate
cometology study of comets
conchology study of shells
cosmology study of the universe
edaphology study of soils
eremology study of deserts
geogeny study of formation of the earth
geography study of surface of the earth and
its inhabitants
geology study of earth's crust
geomorphogeny study of the origins of land forms
geoponics study of agriculture

491
glaciology study of ice ages and glaciation
lithology study of rocks
microclimatology study of local climates
oceanography study of oceans
onomasiology study of nomenclature
palaeoanthropology study of early humans
palaeobiology study of fossil plants and
animals
palaeoclimatology study of ancient climates
palaeontology study of fossils
palaeopedology study of early soils
sedimentology study of sediment
seismology study of earthquakes
selenology study of the moon
vulcanology study of volcanoes

492
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 01

1. Which of the following geographical term related

with the ''piece of sub-continental land that is
surrounded by water''?
A. Peninsula B. Gulf
C. Strait D. Island
2. Which of the following geographical term related
with a body of land surrounded by water on three
sides?
A. Peninsula B. Gulf
C. Strait D. Island
3. Which of the following geographical term related
with a naturally formed, narrow, typically navigable
waterway that connects two larger bodies of
water?
A. Peninsula B. Gulf
C. Strait D. Island
4. Which of the following is suitable definition of
‘Archipelago’?
A. A circular coral reef that encloses a shallow
lagoon.

493
 B. A chain or set of islands grouped together.
C. The plant and animal life on the earth.
D. None of the above
5. Which of the following is the largest Archipelago in
the world?
A. Andaman & Nicobar Island B. Malaysia
C. Indonesia D. Maldives
6. Which of the following is the world’s largest
peninsula?
A. India B. South Africa
C. Arabia D. Both A & B
7. Which of the following passes cuts through the Pir
Panjal range and links Manali and Leh by road?
A. Rohtas Pass B. Mana Pass
C. Niti Pass D. Nathula Pass
8. Which of the following pass has been created by
the Indus River?
A. Rohtas Pass B. Nathula Pass
C. Baralachala Pass D. Banihal Pass

494
9. Which passes make way to the land route between
Kailash and the Manasarovar?
A. Mana Pass B. Rohtas Pass
C. Nathula Pass D. Baralachala Pass
10. Which of the following pass link the Srinagar to
Leh?
A. Mana Pass B. Rohtas Pass
C. Nathula Pass D. Zoji La Pass
11. Which of the following imaginary line almost
divides India into two equal parts?
A. Equator B. Tropic of Cancer
C. Tropic of Capricorn C. Arctic Circle
12. Which of the following water bodies is the home of
Lakshadweep?
A. Arabian Sea B. Bay of Bengal
C. Indian Ocean D. Atlantic Ocean
13. Which of the following region supports the Karewa
formation?
A. North-eastern Himalayas
B. Himachal-Uttaranchal Himalayas
C. Eastern Himalayas
D. Kashmir Himalayas

495
14. Where is the Loktak Lake situated?
A. Kerala B. Uttaranchal
C. Manipur D. Rajasthan
15. Which of the following water bodies separates the
Andaman from the Nicobar?
A. 11° Channel B. Gulf of Mannar
C. 10° Channel D. Andaman Sea
16. Which of the following hill ranges dominated by the
‘Doddabetta’ peak?
A. Nilgiri hills B. Anaimalai hills
C. Cardamom hills D. Nallamala hills
17. Which of the following river has the largest river
basin in India?
A. The Indus B. The Ganga
C. The Brahmaputra D. The Krishna
18. Which of the following rivers is not part of
‘Panchnad’?
A. The Ravi B. The Indus
C. The Chenab D. The Jhelum

496
19. Which of the following rivers flows in a rift valley?
A. The Son B. The Yamuna
C. The Narmada D. The Luni
20. 1. Consider the following statement(s) is/are
related to the Vishnu Prayag
I. It is one of the Panch Prayag (five confluences)
of Alaknanda River, and lies at the confluence of
Alaknanda River and Dhauliganga River, in Chamoli
district in the Indian state of Uttarakhand
II. Place of confluence of the Alkananda and the
Bhagirathi
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
21. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Alaknanda River
I. It originates in the eastern slopes of glacier fields
of Chaukhamba, is joined by the Saraswathi River
near Mana, and then flows in front of the Badrinath
temple.

497
 II. It then meets the Dhauli Ganga River, which
originates from the Niti Pass, to form the
Vishnuprayag. This stretch of the Alaknanda River
is called the Vishnu Ganga.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
22. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Storms during the Hot Weather Season
I. Mango Showers (since the rain showers are good
for the mango trees) occurs along the coast of
Kerala.
II. Loo is the name given to the hot, dry winds that
blow in the Northern Plains. It is very common in
Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh (called
"aandhi") and Bihar.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II

498
23. Consider the following statement(s) is/are about
South- West Monsoon
I. The bulk of rainfall is received during this season
in almost every part of India except Tamil Nadu.
II. Blossom Shower with this shower, coffee
flowers blossom in Karnataka and its nearby areas.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
24. Which of the following longitudes is the standard
meridian of India?
A. 69°30'E B. 75°30'E C. 82°30'E D. 90°30'E
25. Which of the following places receives the highest
rainfall in the world?
A. Silchar B. Cherrapunji
C. Mawsynram D. Guwahati

499
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 02

1. What is the local name of the wind blowing in the

northern plains during summers ?
A. Kaal Baisakhi B. Trade Winds
C. Loo D. None of the above
2. Which of the following reason of rainfall during
winters in north-western part of India?
A. Cyclonic depression
B. Western disturbances
C. Retreating monsoon
D. Southwest monsoon
3. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to Himalayan Range
I. It form the highest mountain range in the world,
extending 2,500 km over northern India.
II. Bounded by the Indus river in the west and the
Brahmaputra in the east, the three parallel ranges,
the Himadri, Himachal and Shivaliks have deep
canyons gorged by the rivers flowing into the
Gangetic plain.

500
 Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
4. Which of the following factor is characterises by
the cold weather season in India?
A. Warm days and warm nights
B. Warm days and cold nights
C. Cool days and cold nights
D. Cold days and warm nights
5. Which one of the following describes the drainage
patterns resembling the branches of a tree?
A. Radial B. Centrifugal
C. Dendritic D. Trellis
6. In which of the following states is the Wular Lake
located?
A. Rajasthan B. Punjab
C. Uttar Pradesh D. Jammu and Kashmir

501
7. The river Narmada is originate from.....
A. Satpura
B. Amarkantak
C. Brahmagiri
D. Slopes of the Western Ghats
8. Which one of the following lakes is a salt water
lake?
A. Sambhar B. Wular
C. Dal D. Gobind Sagar
9. Which one of the following is the longest river of
the Peninsular India?
A. Narmada B. Godavari C. Krishma D. Mahanadi
10. Which one amongst the following rivers flows
through a rift valley?
A. Damodar B. Tapi
C. Tungabhadra D. Both 1 & 2
11. A landmass bounded by sea on three sides is
referred to as
A. Coast B. Peninsula
C. Island D. None of the above

502
12. Mountain ranges in the eastern part of India
forming its boundary with Myanmar are collectively
called as
A. Himachal B. Purvanchal
C. Uttaranchal D. None of the above
13. The Western Coastal strip, south of Goa is referred
to as
A. Coromandal B. Kannad
C. Konkan D. Northern Circar
14. The highest peak in the Eastern Ghats is
A. Anai Mudi B. Mahendragiri
C. Kanchenjunga D. Khasi
15. Which of the following state is not crossed by the
Tropic of Cancer?
A. Rajasthan B. Chhattisgarh
C. Odisha D. Tripura
16. Which is the easternmost longitude of India?
A. 97° 25' E B. 77° 6' E
C. 68° 7' E D. 82° 32' E

503
17. Which of the following country have common
frontier with the Indian State like Uttarakhand,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim?
A. China B. Nepal C. Bhutan D. Myanmar
18. Which of the following Union Territories of India
will best suited for summer vacation, if you choose
Kavarati to visit?
A. Pondicherry B. Diu and Daman
C. Lakshadweep D. Andaman and Nicobar
19. Which of the following the country does not share
land boundary with India?
A. Bhutan B. Bangladesh
C. Tajikistan D. Nepal
20. Which of the following is called the Southernmost
Himalayas?
A. Siwaliks B. Himadri
C. Himachal D. None of the above
21. What is the another name of Sahyadris?
A. Aravali B. Western Ghats
C. Himadri D. None of the above

504
22. Where does the Palk Strait lies?
A. Sri Lanka and Maldives
B. India and Sri Lanka
C. India and Maldives
D. Both A & B
23. Which of the following is popular name of the
Indian islands in the Arabian Sea?
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
B. Lakshadweep Islands
C. Maldives
D. Both A & B
24. Consider the following statement(s) related to
Geological Structure of India.
I. Sedimentary rocks are found in the land formed
by deposition of sediments from which fertile soil
is made e.g., the Gangetic plain.
II. In the Jurassic period, Gondwanaland was
broken up into the peninsular India, Madagascar,
and Australia, Antarctica etc.

505
 Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
25. Which of the following is not one of the Era's of the
Earth geological structure?
A. Paleozoic B. Mesozoic
C. Cambrian D. Azoic (Non-living era)

506
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 03

1. Which one of the following statements is not

correct?
A. Tropic levels are the energy levels within food
B. In deep oceans primary production is almost
high
C. The primary consumers are called autotrophs
are primary consumer
D. The decomposers are called saprotrophs are
decomposer
2. Which of the following related to the state of
inactivity adopted by desert animals during the
hottest and driest season?
A. Basal metabolism B. Dormancy
C. Aestivation D. Hibernation
3. Which one of the following statements is correct
about biotic resources and abiotic resources?
A. They are non-renewable and all the biotic
resources are renewable
B. All the abiotic resources are non-renewable but
some of the biotic resources are non-renewable

507
 C. Some of the abiotic resources are renewable but
the biotic resources are renewable
D. Some of the abiotic resources are renewable
and some of the biotic resources are non-
renewable
4. Which of the following region is famous for the
endangered Ridley turtles?
A. Gahirmatha
B. Sagarmatha
C. Lakshadweep islands
D. Andaman and Nicobar group of islands
5. Which of the following is the highlights of the
‘Rally for Valley’ programme in India?
A. Environmental degradation
B. Biodiversity
C. Resettlement of displaced people
D. Loss of agricultural

508
6. Which of the following is the first research project
programme that focused on the El Nino-Southern
Oscillation and its predictability?
A. Climate Variability and Predictability
B. Global Energy and Water Cycle- Experiment
(GEWEX)
C. Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystem
(GCTE)
D. Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA)
7. Which of the following ministry monitered the
functions of the National River Conservation
Directorate?
A. Agriculture Ministry
B. Environment and Forests Ministry
C. Science and Technology Ministry
D. Water Resources Ministry
8. Consider the following statement (s) is/are related
to the factors influence ocean currents
I. Rotation of the Earth,
II. Air pressure and wind.

509
 III. Ocean water density.
IV. Revolution of the Earth.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Both I & II B. I, II and III
C. Both I & IV D. II, III and IV
9. Which of the following place has never got the
vertical rays of the Sun?
A. Srinagar
B. Mumbai
C. Chennai
D. Thiruvananthapuram
10. Where is the India's permanent research station
Dakshin Gangotri?
A. Great Himalayas B. Indian Ocean
C. Antarctica D. Arabian Sea
11. Which of the following Indian state touches the
boundaries of the maximum number of other
States?
A. Andhra Pradesh B. Bihar
C. Madhya Pradesh D. Uttar Pradesh

510
12. Consider the following statement (s) related to the
Eastern Himalayas
I. Lie to the east of 88 degree east longitude
between the Tista and the Brahmaputra River
II. Large tracks are covered with dense evergreen
forests
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
13. Consider the following statements regarding
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
I. It enjoys equatorial climate.
II. This is the only place in India where a volcano is
located.
III. This is the only place in India where coral bed is
found.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II C. Both I and II D. I, II and III

511
14. Which of the following factor is responsible for low
rainfall in the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats?
A. The straight west coast
B. The lack of winter depressions
C. Their leeward location
D. The heights of the Ghats
15. Which of the following region is famous for the
lion-tailed macaque?
A. Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh
B. Western Ghats of Kerala
C. Shivalik Hills of Northern India
D. Hills of North-East India
16. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly
matched?
A. Miri Hills : Arunachal Pradesh
B. Mikir Hills : Assam
C. Lushai Hills : Mizoram
D. Abor Hills : Meghalya

512
17. Amaravati, Arkavathy, Bhavani, Chinnar, Hemavati,
Honnuhole, Kabini etc. are tributaries of which
among the following rivers?
A. Kaveri B. Krishna C. Godavari D. Narmada
18. Which of the following bodies organizes the ‘Bharat
Rang Mahotsav’?
A. Indian Council for Cultural Relations
B. Ministry of Culture
C. National School of Drama
D. Sahitya Academy
19. Which among the following states of India has the
highest deposit of Monazite sands, source of
Thorium?
A. Tamil Nadu B. Kerala
C. Maharastra D. Andhra Pradesh
20. What is the approximate ratio of parts of Indian
Coast belonging to Peninsular India to that
belonging to Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep
Islands?
A. 2:1 B. 2.5:1 C. 3:1 D. 3.5:1

513
21. Which among the following has been identified for
maximum potential of Tidal Power in India?
A. Gulf of Cambay B. Gulf of Kutch
C. Sundarbans D. Palk Strait
22. The same type of pattern of agriculture can be
seen generally in which parts of India, which
resembles the “Ladang” pattern of Indonesia?
A. North East India B. Western India
C. South India D. Central India
23. Which of the following city of Tamil Nadu is known
as world’s largest producer and most important
trading center of turmeric in Asia?
A. Athoor B. Karaikudi C. Thanjavur D. Erode
24. Saddam Beach is located in which state?
A. Tamil Nadu B. Kerala
C. Maharastra D. Karnataka
25. Indira Gandhi super thermal power project, is
located in which of the following state?
A. Uttarakhand B. Haryana
C. Punjab D. Uttar Pradesh

514
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 04

1. Consider the following:

. Nainital – Tectonic Wetland
2. Lok Tak Lake – Oxbow Wetland
3. Lonar Lake – Crater Wetland
4. Chilka Lake – Lagoon Wetland
Which among the above is/ are correct matches?
A. Only 1 & 3 B. Only 2 & 4
C. Only 1, 2 & 4 D. All are correct
2. Raniganj coal bed methane (CBM) acreage is
located in which of the following state ?
A. Jharkhand B. West Bengal
C. Bihar D. Orissa
3. The Vallarpadam Terminal, which is a container
trans-shipment facility, launched in February 2011,
is the only trans-shipment port in India. It is a part
of which among the following ports?
A. Chennai Port B. Vizag Port
C. Port Cochin D. None of them

515
4. Apart from Karnataka, which among the following
state has reported production of Gold in India?
A. Orissa B. Jharkhand
C. Rajasthan D. Andhra Pradesh
5. Which of the following place in the Jammu &
Kashmir famous for 'saffron cultivation'?
A. Pampore B. Kashmir
C. Jammu D. Kathua
6. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to Vindhya range.
I. Geographically, separates Northern India from
Southern India.
II. The western end of the range lies in eastern
Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and
runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at
Mirzapur
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II

516
7. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Deccan Plateau
I. It is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the
Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern
and Western Ghats.
II. It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise
to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari,
the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Mahanadi which
drain into the Bay of Bengal.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
8. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Chota Nagpur Plateau
I. It is situated in eastern India, covering much of
Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Odisha, Bihar and
Chhattisgarh.
II. The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula
is xeric scrub, part of the Northwestern thorn scrub
forests ecoregion.

517
 Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
9. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Satpura Range
I. It begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea
coast and runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
II. It is triangular in shape, with its apex at
Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the
Tapti and Narmada rivers.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
10. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Thar Desert
I. The desert continues into Pakistan as the
Cholistan Desert.

518
 II. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan,
covering 61% of its geographic area.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
11. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Eastern Coastal Plain
I. It is a wide stretch of land lying between the
Eastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India. It
stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West
Bengal in the east.
II. The region receives both the northeast monsoon
and southwest monsoon rains.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II

519
12. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Jet Stream
I. Air currents in the upper layers of the atmosphere
known as jet steams could determine the arrival of
the monsoons and departure of the monsoons.
II. The major jet streams on Earth are easterly
winds (flowing west to east).
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
13. Select the correct order of the hill stations on the
basis of heights.
A. Darjeeling, Srinagar, Leh, Simla
B. Srinagar, Darjeeling, Simla, Leh
C. Srinagar, Leh, Simla, Darjeeling
D. Simla, Srinagar, Leh, Darjeeling

520
14. Which of the following himalyan mountain range
where the Kashmir Valley lie?
A. Siwalik and Pir Panjal
B. Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar
C. Zaskar and Pir Panjal
D. Dhauladhar and Zaskar
15. Which of the following rivers do not discharge its
water into the Bay of Bengal?
A. Mahanadi B. Cauvery
C. Tapti D. Godavari
16. Which among the following statements related to
the El Nino?
I. Occurs at irregular intervals.
II. Carriers of warmer water.
III. Carriers of less saline water.
IV. Its atmospheric equivalent is Southern oscillation.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. I and II only B. II and III only
C. III and IV Only D. I, II, III and IV

521
17. Which of the following soil is charaterised by the
cracks and shrinks when it dries?
A. Black clay soil B. Red porous soil
C. Sandy soil D. Loamy soil
18. Which of the following state is famous for the
tropical forest of Silent Valley?
A. Goa B. Karnataka
C. Kerala D. Tamil Nadu
19. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Ladakh range
I. It is Situated to the north of the Indus Tsangpo
Suture Zone (ITSZ) and south of Karakoram,
between River Indus and Shyok.
II. The highest peak is Mt. Rakaposhi (steepest
peak in the world).
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II

522
20. Consider the following statement(s) is/are related
to the Great Plains of Northern India
I. The bulk of the Indus basin falls within Pakistan
but a part of it is shared by Punjab and Haryana.
II. The Ganga Brahmaputra basin is larger of the
two and covers a large number of states in
northern India.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
21. Consider the following statement(s) related to
alluvial soils.
I. The soil covers 40 percent part of total
geographical area of India.
II. They are formed due to depositional work done
by rivers in plains .valleys, flood plain and deltas
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II

523
22. Consider the following statement(s) related to
Regur soils or Black cotton soils.
I. It is formed by solidification of lava spread over
large area of Deccan plateau.
II. They are very rich in minerals contents because
these soils were formed due to volcanic activities.
III. They are found in Karnataka, Maharashtra, MP,
Gujarat, AP and Tamil Nadu.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. I, II, III
23. Consider the following statement(s) related to Red
and yellow Soils.
I. They are formed by decomposition of Granite
(igneous) and Gneiss (metamorphic rocks).
II. They are Reddish in colour because presence of
iron oxide in it.
III. These soils lack in Nitrogen, Phosphorous Acid
and organic matter and are less fertile.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I B. Only II

524
 C. Both I and II D. I, II, III
24. Which of the following state in India known for the
famous lake 'Fulhar'?
A. Madhya Pradesh B. Uttarakhand
C. Uttar Pradesh D. Jammu & Kashmir
25. Which of the following region is famous for the
world’s largest reserve of Barytes?
A. Chauka hills B. Jaisalmer
C. Ratnagiri D. Cuddapah

525
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 05

1. Which of the following straits is located on the

extreme southern tip of South America partly in
Chile and partly in Argentina?
A. Dover Strait B. Beagle Strait
C. Hudson Strait D. Kara Strait
2. Which of the following is responsible for the fact
that Tennis ball bounces higher at high altitudes
than in plains?
A. Low Gravity
B. High Gravity
C. Less dense air
D. Low atmospheric temperature
3. Theory of special relativity was developed by:
A. Einstein B. Newton C. Galileo D. Laplace
4. In which of the following Oceans/ seas, lies the
Sunda Trench?
A. Indian Ocean B. Pacific Ocean
C. Atlantic Ocean D. Arabian Sea

526
5. “Medicine line” is another name of which among
the following circles of latitude?
A. 17th Parallel North B. 39th Parallel North
C. 49th Parallel North D. 59th Parallel North
6. Which among the following country has the largest
share in global mangrove areas?
A. Indonesia B. Brazil
C. Mexico D. Australia
7. Which among the following is the highest peak in
Africa?
A. Mount Kilimanjaro B. Mount Kenya
C. Mount Algan D. Mount Hanang
8. Which among the following bridges of China, is the
longest trans-oceanic bridge in the world?
A. Nanpu Bridge B. Lupu Bridge
C. Xihoumen Bridge D. Hangzhou Bay Bridge
9. Which among the following citiy is located on the
banks of Tiber River?
A. Belgrade B. Rome
C. Tunis D. Algiers

527
10. Consider the following statements about
Cumulonimbus Clouds:
1. For cumulonimbus clouds to be formed,
tropospheric winds need to increase considerably
with height
2. Cumulonimbus clouds are known for producing
most severe thunderstorms
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. 1 Only B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
11. Sholas are patches of stunted evergreen tropical
and sub-tropical moist broad leaf forest
predominantly found at higher elevations of:
A. Western Himalayas
B. Eastern Himalayas
C. Western Ghats
D. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
12. Kalyan Sona, Girija and Sonalika are varieties of __?
A. Rice B. Wheat
C. Sugarcane D. Mustard

528
13. Earth’s Deepest point ‘Mariana trench’ is located in
which of the following oceans?
A. Arctic Ocean B. Atlantic Ocean
C. Indian Ocean D. Pacific Ocean
14. Which among the following processes can convert
an Igneous rock into a sedimentary rock?
1. Weathering and Erosion
2. Melting
3. Heating and Pressure
Choose the correct option from the codes given
below:
A. Only 1 B. 1 & 2 C. 1, 2 & 3 D. 1 & 3
15. If the distance between the earth and the sun
becomes one-fourth of what it is now, the
gravitational force exerted on the earth by the sun
would be:
A. One-fourth of what it is now
B. One-sixteenth of what it is now
C. Sixteen times of what it is now
D. Four times of what it is now

529
16. Consider the following matches:
1. Krumen People – Liberia
2. Tenharim people – Brazil
3. Nuer people – Egypt
Which among the above is / are correct matches?
A. 1 & 2 B. 2 & 3 C. 1 & 3 D. 1, 2 & 3
17. Consider the following statements:
1. While Basalt is an intrusive igneous rock, Granite
is an extrusive igneous rock
2. Basalt is called mafic, while Granite is called
felsic
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. 1 Only B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
18. Which of the above is / are results of the so called
“temperature inversion”?
1. high pollutant levels
2. change in dynamics of air movement
3. creation of frost

530
 Select the correct option from codes given below:
A. 1 Only B. 2 & 3 Only
C. 1 & 2 Only D. 1, 2 & 3
19. Consider the following ocean currents:
1. Irminger Current
2. Canaries Current
3. Benguela Current
Which of the above are cold water currents?
A. 1 & 2 Only B. 1 & 3 Only
C. 2 & 3 Only D. 1, 2 & 3
20. Who suggested that the Emerging moon was the
cause for the continental drift?
A. Arthur Holmes B. Laplace
C. Immanuel Kant D. Otto Ampherer
21. Which among the following statements is not
correct about Basic Igneous rocks?
A. They have low silica content
B. They cool slowly
C. They flow and spread far away
D. They are lighter in color

531
22. Which among the following is an extinct volcano?
A. Barren Island B. Anak Krakatoa
C. Mount Kenya D. Mount Kilimanjaro
23. What are debris flows composed largely of
volcanic material from the flanks called?
A. Loo B. Lahars
C. Maestro D. Chinook
24. What is the reduction in the size of the windblown
particles due to their mutual friction called?
A. Abrasion 2. Attrition
C. Deflation D. Deposition
25. What are the processes involved in the formation
of Badlands?
A. Erosion B. Deposition
C. Both A & B D. Neither A & B

532
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 06

1. Which among the following processes are involved

in the formation of gullies?
A. Wind Erosion B. Glacial Erosion
C. Limestone erosion D. Fluvial erosion
2. Which among the following statements is/are
correct?
1. A point bar is an area of deposition
2. A cut bank is an area of erosion.
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 D. Only 2
B. Both 1 & 2 C. Neither 1 & 2
3. What is the highest reach of the daily tide where
organic and inorganic debris is deposited by wave
action called?
A. Berm B. Swash zone
C. Beach face D. Wrack line

533
4. Which among the following statements is correct
about the volcanic landform Mamelon?
A. It is a low-relief volcanic crater
B. It is an area of land surrounded by one or more
younger lava flows
C. It is a rock formation created by eruption of
relatively thick or stiff lava through a narrow vent
D. It is an isolated flat-topped underwater volcano
mountain
5. Which among the following statements is/are
correct about the Thermosphere?
1. It lies upto an altitude of 80 km from the earth’s
surface.
2. It contains electrically charged particles known
as ions.
3. The temperature here starts increasing with
heights.
4. The International Space Station and other
satellites orbit in this layer.

534
 Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1, 3 & 4 B. Only 2, 3 & 4
C. Only 3 & 4 D. 1, 2, 3 & 4
6. Which among the following deserts is/are correctly
matched?
1. Taklamakan Desert – Russia
2. Thar Desert – India
3. Dasht-e Margo Desert – Afghanistan
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 & 2 B. Only 2 & 3
C. Only 2 D. 1, 2 & 3
7. Consider the following factors:
1. Rotation of the Earth
2. Air pressure and wind
3. Density of ocean water
4. Revolution of the Earth

535
 Which of the above factors influence the ocean
currents?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 1, 2 and 3
C. 1 and 4 D. 2, 3 and 4
8. When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the
following :.
1. Deep gorges
2. U-turn river courses
3. Parallel mountain ranges
4. Steep gradients causing land-sliding
Which of the above can be said to be the evidences
for Himalayas being young fold mountains?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 1, 2 and 4 only
C. 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
9. The annual range of temperature in the interior of
the continents is high as compared to coastal
areas. What is / are the reason / reasons?
1. Thermal difference between land and water
2. Variation in altitude between continents and
oceans

536
 3. Presence of strong winds in the interior
4. Heavy rains in the interior as compared to
coasts
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
10. The Brahmaputra, Irrawady and Mekong rivers
originate in Tibet and flow through narrow and
parallel mountain ranges in their upper reaches. Of
these rivers, Brahmaputra makes a “U” turn in its
course to flow into India. This “U” turn is due to .
A. Uplift of folded Himalayan series
B. Syntaxial bending of geologically young
Himalayas
C. Geo-tectonic disturbance in the tertiary folded
mountain chains
D. Both (a) and (b) above

537
11. The Narmada river flows to the west, while most
other large peninsular rivers flow to the east. Why?
1. It occupies a linear rift valley.
2. It flows between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
3. The land slopes to the west from Central India.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 3 D. None
12. On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists
as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining
freshwater, the largest proportion.
A. is found in atmosphere as moisture and clouds
B. is found in freshwater lakes and rivers
C. exists as groundwater
D. exists as soil moisture
13. Consider the following rivers: .
1. Barak
2. Lohit
3. Subansiri

538
 Which of the above flows / flow through Arunachal
Pradesh?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
14. Which of the following is / are the characteristic/
characteristics of Indian coal?
1. High ash content
2. Low sulphur content
3. Low ash fusion temperature
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
15. Consider the following statements:
1. Natural gas occurs in the Gondwana beds.
2. Mica occurs in abundance in Kodarma.
3. Dharwars are famous for petroleum.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
A. 1 and 2 B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 D. None

539
16. Consider these pairs.
1. Cardamom Hills Coromandel Coast
2. Kaimur Hills Konkan Coast
3. Mahadeo Hills Central India
4. Mikir Hills North-East India
Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 B. 2 and 3 C. 3 and 4 D. 2 and 4
17. Consider the following pairs :
National Highway Cities connected
1. NH 4 Chennai and Hyderabad
2. NH 6 Mumbai and Kolkata
3. NH 15 Ahmedabad and Jodhpur
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. None

540
18. La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods
in Australia. How is La Nina different from El Nino?
1. La Nina is characterised by unusually cold ocean
temperature in equatorial Indian Ocean whereas El
Nino is characterised by unusually warm ocean
temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has adverse effect on south-west
monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on
monsoon climate.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
19. Westerlies in southern hemisphere are stronger
and persistent than in northern hemisphere. Why?
1. Southern hemisphere has less landmass as
compared to northern hemisphere.
2. Coriolis force is higher in southern hemisphere
as compared to northern hemisphere

541
 Which of-the statements given above is/are
correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
20. A layer in the Earth’s atmosphere called Ionosphere
facilitates radio communication. Why?
1. The presence of ozone causes the reflection of
radio waves to Earth.
2. Radio waves have a very long wavelength.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
21. The jet aircrafts fly very easily and smoothly in the
lower stratosphere. What could be the appropriate
explanation?
1. There are no clouds or water vapour in the lower
stratosphere.
2. There are no vertical winds in the lower
stratosphere.

542
 Which of the statements given above is/are correct
in this context?
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
22. Normally, the temperature decreases with the
increase in height from the Earth’s surface,
because.
1. the atmosphere can be heated upwards only
from the Earth’s surface
2. there is more moisture in the upper atmosphere
3. the air is less dense in the upper atmosphere
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below :
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
23. During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is
produced by the:
1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky
2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds

543
 3. violent upward movement of air and water
particles
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 3
D. None of the above produces the thunder
24. The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical
characteristic of.
A. Equatorial climate
B. Mediterranean climate
C. Monsoon climate
D. All of the above climates
25. Among the following States, which one has the
most suitable climatic conditions for the
cultivation of a large variety of orchids with
minimum cost of production, and can develop an
export oriented industry in this field?
A. Andhra Pradesh B. Arunachal Pradesh
C. Madhya Pradesh D. Uttar Pradesh

544
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 07

1. With reference to micro-irrigation, which of the

following statements is/are correct?
1. Fertilizer/nutrient loss can be reduced.
2. It is the only means of irrigation in dry land
farming.
3. In some areas of farming, receding of ground
water table can be checked.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. If a tropical rain forest is removed, it does not
regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical
deciduous forest. This is because.
A. the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
B. propagules of the trees in a rain forest have poor
viability
C. the rain forest species are slow-growing
D. exotic species invade the fertile soil of rain forest

545
3. The lower Gangetic plain is characterized by humid
climate with high temperature throughout the year.
Which one among the following pairs of crops is
most suitable for this region?
A. Paddy and cotton B. Wheat and Jute
C. Paddy and Jute D. Wheat and cotton
4. A state in India has the following characteristics:
1. Its northern part is arid and semi-arid.
2. Its central part produces cotton.
3. Cultivation of cash crops is predominant over
food crops.
Which one of the following states has all of the
above characteristics?
A. Andhra Pradesh B. Gujarat
C. Karnataka D. Tamil Nadu
5. Consider the following agricultural practices :
1. Contour bunding
2. Relay cropping
3. Zero tillage

546
 In the context of global climate change, which of
the above helps/help in carbon
sequestration/storage in the soil?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. None of them
6. Which of the following is the chief characteristic of
‘mixed farming’?
A. Cultivation of both cash crops and food crops
B. Cultivation of two or more crops in the same
field
C. Rearing of animals and cultivation of crops
together
D. None of the above
7. Consider the following crops of India :
1. Cowpea 2. Green gram
3. Pigeon pea
Which of the above is/are used as pulse, fodder
and green manure?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3

547
8. Consider the following crops of India:
1. Groundnut 2. Sesamum
3. Pearl millet
Which of the above is/are predominantly rainfed
crop/crops?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
9. Consider the following crops.
1. Cotton 2. Groundnut
3. Rice 4. Wheat
Which of these are Kharif crops?
A. 1 and 4 B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. 2, 3 and 4
10. Which of the following statements is / are correct
regarding vegetative propagation of plants?
1. Vegetative propagation produces clonal
population.
2. Vegetative propagation helps in eliminating the
virus.

548
 3. Vegetative propagation can be practiced most of
the year.
Select the correct answer using the code given
below.
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
11. Region vs Produce
Region Well-known for the
production of
1. Kinnaur (Himachal) Areca nut
2. Mewat (Haryana) Mango
3. Coromandel (TN- Soya bean
Andhra)
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. None
12. Consider the following statements :
1. Maize can be used for the production of starch.
2. Oil extracted from maize can be a feedstock for
biodiesel.
3. Alcoholic beverages can be produced by using
maize.

549
 Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
A. 1 only. B. 1 and 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
13. With reference to Neem tree, consider the following
statements:
1. Neem oil can be used as a pesticide to control
the proliferation of some species of insects and
mites.
2. Neem seeds are used in the manufacture of
biofuels and hospital detergents.
3. Neem oil has applications in pharmaceutical
industry.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3

550
14. What are the benefits of implementing the
‘Integrated Watershed Development Programme’?
1. Prevention of soil runoff
2. Linking the country’s perennial rivers with
seasonal rivers
3. Rainwater harvesting and recharge of
groundwater table
4. Regeneration of natural vegetation
Select the correct answer using the code given
below.
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only
C. 1, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
15. Program vs ministry
Consider following pairs:
Programme/ Project Ministry
1. Drought-Prone Area of Agriculture
Programme
2. Desert Development of Environment and
Programme Forests
3. National Watershed of Rural
Development Project for Development
Rainfed Areas

551
 Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. None
16. Salinization occurs when the irrigation water
accumulated in the soil evaporates, leaving behind
salts and minerals. What are the effects of
salinization on the irrigated land?
A. It greatly increases the crop production
B. It makes some soils impermeable
C. It raises the water table
D. It fills the air spaces in the soil with water
17. Contour bunding is a method of soil conservation
used in:
A. desert margins, liable to strong wind action
B. low flat plains, close to stream courses, liable to
flooding
C. scrublands, liable to spread of weed growth
D. None of the above

552
18. Which of the following statements regarding
laterite soils of India are correct?
1. They are generally red in colour.
2. They are rich in nitrogen and potash.
3. They are well-developed in Rajasthan and UP.
4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well on these
soils.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 2, 3 and 4
C. 1 and 4 D. 2 and 3 only
19. Two important rivers — one with its source in
Jharkhand (and known by a different name in
Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha —
merge at a place only a short distance from the
coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea.
This is an important site of wildlife and biodiversity
and a protected area. Which one of the following
could be this?
A. Bhitarkanika B. Chandipur-on-sea
C. Gopalpur-on-sea D. Simlipal

553
20. A sandy and saline area is the natural habitat of an
Indian animal species. The animal has no
predators in that area but its existence is
threatened due to the destruction of its habitat.
Which one of the following could be that animal?
A. Indian wild buffalo B. Indian wild ass
C. Indian wild boar D. Indian gazelle
21. The Himalayan Range is Very rich in species
diversity. Which one among the following is the
most appropriate reason for this phenomenon?
A. It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant
vegetative growth
B. It is a confluence of different bio-geographical
zones
C. Exotic and invasive species have not been
introduced in this region
D. It has less human interference
22. Which of the following can be threats to the
biodiversity of a geographical area?
1. Global warming
2. Fragmentation of habitat

554
 3. 3.Invasion of alien species
4. Promotion of vegetarianism
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
23. Consider the following :
1. Black-necked crane
2. Cheetah
3. 3.Flying squirrel
4. Snow leopard
Which of the above are naturally found in India?
A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 1, 3 and 4 only
C. 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
24. Consider the following pairs:
1. Nokrek Bio-sphere Reserve : Garo Hills
2. Logtak (Loktak)Lake : Barail Range
3. Namdapha National Park: Dafla Hills
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

555
 A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. None
25. Consider the following pairs.
National Park River flowing through
the Park
1. Corbett National Park : Ganga
2. Kaziranga National Park : Manas
3. Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 B. 3 only
C. 1 and 3 D. None

556
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 08

1. The 2004 Tsunami made people realize that

mangroves can serve as a reliable safety hedge
against coastal calamities. How do mangroves
function as a safety hedge?
A. The mangrove swamps separate the human
settlements from the sea by a wide zone in which
people neither live nor venture out
B. The mangroves provide both food and
medicines which people are in need of after any
natural disaster
C. The mangrove trees are tall with dense canopies
and serve as art excellent shelter during a cyclone
or tsunami
D. The mangrove trees do not get uprooted by
storms and tides because of their extensive roots
2. Consider the following pairs :
Tribe State
1. Limboo (Limbu) : Sikkim
2. Karbi : Himachal Pradesh
3. Dongaria : Odisha
4. Bonda : Tamil Nadu

557
 Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 and 4 only
C. 1, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
3. With reference to ‘Changpa’ community of India,
consider the following statement:
1. They live mainly in the State of Uttarakhand.
2. They rear the Pashmina goats that yield a fine
wool.
3. They are kept in the category of Scheduled
Tribes.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
4. Consider the following statement (s) regarding
Economic geography.
I. It is the study of the location, distribution and
spatial organization of economic activities across
the world.
II. It represents a traditional subfield of the
discipline of geography.

558
 Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
Code:
A. Only I B. Only II
C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
5. Which one of the following minerals has another
name called ‘brown diamond’?
A. Iron B. Manganese
C. Lignite D. Mica
6. Which among the following statements is/are
correct about the Temperate Deciduous Biome?
1. Precipitation in this biome happens year round.
2. Bamboo, Sal, Shisham, Sandalwood, Khair,
Kusum, Mulberry are commercially important
species.
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2

559
7. What is a statistical study of human population
called?
A. Human Geography B. Biogeography
C. Demography D. Pedology
8. Which among the following statements is/are
correct about Urban Settlements?
1. More than 60 per cent of urban population in
India lives in Class I towns.
2. More than one-fifth (21.0%) of urban population
lives in mega cities.
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2
9. What is a specialized branch of aquaculture which
involves the cultivation of marine organism for
food and other products in the open ocean, an
enclosed section of the ocean called?
A. Mariculture B. Shrimp Farming
C. Algaculture D. Whaling

560
10. What is the period between high tide and low tide
called?
A. Ebb Tide B. Flow Tide
C. Rising Tide D. Incoming Tide
11. Which among the following statements is/are
correct about Ocean Currents?
1. Warm currents flow from equatorial regions
towards the polar regions and hence have a higher
surface temperature.
2. They flow in the anti-clockwise direction in the
northern hemisphere and in the clockwise direction
in the southern hemisphere.
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2
12. Which among the following is not a cold current in
the Atlantic Ocean?
A. Falkland current B. Labrador current
C. Brazilian current D. Benguela current

561
13. What is the ease with which liquids/gases can
pass through rocks or a layer of soil called?
1. Permeability
2. Porosity
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2
14. Which among the following pairs of Tribes and
their Habitat is not correctly matched?
A. Red Indians – Aborigines of North America
B. Masai – Cattle herders of South America
C. Hottentots – Tropical Africa
D. Inuits – Inhabitants of Tundra
15. Which among the following statements is/are
correct about cyclonic direction?
1. The direction of circulation of air in a cyclone is
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
2. The direction of circulation of air in a cyclone is
anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

562
 Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
B. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2
16. Which among the following statements is/are
correct about Cyclones?
1. It is any high-pressure area with winds spiralling
inwards.
2. It rotates anti-clockwise in Northern Hemisphere
and clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2
17. Which among the following pairs of cyclones and
their associated names is/are correctly matched?
1. Indian Ocean – Tropical Cyclones
2. Western Pacific – Typhoons
3. Atlantic – Hurricanes

563
 Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 1 & 3
C. Only 1 & 2 D. 1, 2 & 3
18. On what basis did Koeppen classified the climates
of different regions of the world?
1. Latitude
2. Altitude
3. Vegetation
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 1 & 2
C. Only 3 D. 1, 2 & 3
19. Which among the following continents bound the
Indian Ocean?
1. Asia
2. Africa
3. Australia
4. Antarctica

564
 Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 & 3 B. Only 1, 2 & 3
C. Only 1, 3 & 4 D. 1, 2, 3 & 4
20. Which among the following statements is/are
correct about Ocean Temperature?
1. The density of waters varies from latitude to
latitude.
2. In the areas of high salinity, the ocean waters are
of a relatively lower temperature and vice versa.
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2
21. Which raises the temperature near the eastern
coast of North America and the West Coast of
Europe?
A. Labrador B. Canary
C. Gulf Stream D. Benguela

565
22. Which among the following pairs of river islands
and the countries is/are correctly matched?
1. Salsette Island – Sri Lanka
2. Manhattan Island – Canada
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2
23. The Mississippi river delta is located at the
confluence of the Mississippi river and which
among the following Gulfs?
A. Gulf of Aden B. Gulf of Hormuz
C. Gulf of Oman D. Gulf of Mexico
24. The Manhattan Island is located in which among
the following countries?
A. Germany B. Switzerland
C. United States D. China

566
25. Which among the following pairs of islands and the
rivers is/are correctly matched?
1. Hisingen Island – River Danube
2. Chongming Island – River Yangtze
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2

567
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 09

1. Which among the following statements is/are

correct about Lake Turcana?
1. It is the largest permanent desert lake
2. It is bordered by Rwanda and Ethiopia
3. It is the world’s largest alkaline lake
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 & 2 B. Only 2 & 3
C. 1, 2 & 3 D. Only 1 & 3
2. Which among the following statements is/are
correct about the Arakan Yoma Mountain range?
1. It is a mountain range in Myanmar, extending
from east to west direction.
2. Mt. Kennedy is the highest peak
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 & 2 D. Neither 1 & 2

568
3. Which among the following plateaus of the world
and their location is/are correctly matched?
1. Loess Plateau – China
2. Kimberley Plateau – Australia
3. Bavarian Plateau – Germany
Select the correct code from the options given
below:
A. Only 1 B. Only 2 & 3
C. Only 1 & 2 D. 1, 2 & 3
4. Consider the following Nuclear power plants:
Nuclear power plant--- Location
1. Tarapur ---Andhra Pradesh
2. Rawatbhata ---Rajasthan
3. Kaiga --- Karnataka
4. Narora ----Gujarat
Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
A. 1, 2, 4 B. 1, 4 C. 2, 3 D. 2, 3, 4

569
5. Caspian Sea is bordered by
A. Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Iran
B. Russia, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan and Iran
C. Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Iran
D. Russia, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan and Azerbaijan
6. India's National Waterway-1 passes through which
of the following states
1. Uttar Pradesh 2. Bihar
3. Jharkhand 4. Chhattisgarh
5. West Bengal
Select the correct answer code
A. 1, 2, 3 only B. 1, 2, 3, 4
C. 1, 2, 3, 5 D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
7. Consider the following, which of these are correct?
i. Siachen, Baltoro, Biafo and Hisper are glaciers in
the Karakoram Range
ii. The highest peak of Ladhak range is Mt
Rakaposhi which is the steepest peak in the world
A. i and ii B. ii and iii
C. i and iii D. all of the above

570
8. Match the following
Name Location
i) Punjab Himalaya a) Between Kali and Tista
ii) Kumaon Himalaya b) Between Satluj and Kali
iii) Nepal Himalaya c) Between Tista and Dihang
iv) Assam Himalaya d) Between Indus and Satluj
A. i- d, ii- b, iii-a, iv-c B. i-a, ii-b, iii-c, iv-d
C. i-b, ii-c, iii-d, iv-a D. i-c, ii- d, iii-a, iv- b
9. Consider the following, which of these is incorrect?
i) Mishmi Hills is the highest range of Purvanchal
Hills
ii) Mizo Hills were previously known as Lushai Hills
iii) Lohtak Lake is situated in the Manipur hills
A. i and ii B. ii and iii
C. none of the above D. i and iii
10. Consider the following statements
1. The peninsular plateau is composed mainly of
igneous and metamorphic rocks
2. The Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills form a part of
peninsular block.

571
 3. The peninsular plateau is the oldest and most
stable landmass in India, devoid of earthquakes or
volcanic activity.
Choose the correct answer using the codes below.
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only D. All of the above
11. The Himalayan Mountains are tectonic in origin,
dissected by fast-flowing rivers which are in their
youthful stage. Which of the following features
made by rivers can be seen there?
1. Gorges
2. V-shaped valleys
3. Rapids
4. Waterfalls
Choose the correct answer using the codes below.
A. 1, 2 and 4 only B. 1, 2 and 3 only
C. 3 and 4 only D. All of the above
12. The Kashmir Himalayas are famous for Karewa
formations, which are useful for the cultivation of
A. Zafran, a local variety of saffron

572
 B. buckwheat, a local nutritional coarse grain
C. turnips, a local health supplement
D. All of the above
13. The British introduced tea plantations in the
Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas looking at some of
the favourable conditions which were
1. Steep slopes
2. thick soil cover with low organic content
3. well distributed rainfall
4. mild winters
Choose the correct answer using the codes below.
A. 1, 2 and 4 only B. 1, 2 and 3 only
C. 3 and 4 only D. All of the above
14. The Tarai region of the Northern plains supports
luxurious growth of natural vegetation and varied
wild life population. This is because
A. Re-emerging rivers from Bhabhar flow in
undemarcated channels here creating marshy and
swampy conditions

573
 B. all fertile coarse load is deposited at Tarai region
after rivers re-emerge from Bhabar region
C. the Tarai region is crossed by large Himalayan
rivers which regularly deposit silt and clay here
D. Both A and C
15. Consider the following rivers
1. Krishna 2. Kaveri
3. Godavari 4. Penganga
The correct sequence of these rivers when
arranged from south to north is
A. 2, 1, 3 and 4 B. 1, 2, 3 and 4
C. 1, 3, 4 and 2 D. 3, 2, 1 and 4
16. Amongst the following the river that passes
through most number of countries?
A. Zambezi B. River Severn
C. Danube D. Missisippi
17. Consider the following Dams
1. Barna Dam Chambal River
2. Pawna Dam Maval River
3. Maithoon Dam Barakar River

574
 4. Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal River
Select the correct options
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 3 and 4
C. 1, 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 3 and 4
18. Heat waves was in news which killed more than
2,500 people till June. Consider the following
statements regarding heat waves
1) Heat wave’s adverse impact occurred mainly in
Northern and Eastern region of India.
2) Severe heat waves come under National
Calamity just like cold waves.
3) IMD recommended to declare a region as severe
heat waves affected region if temperature reached
beyond 45 degree Celsius.
4) It is a natural calamity found in tropical regions
and not in temperate regions.
Choose the correct statement/s from the code
A. 1, 3 only
B. 2, 3, 4 only
C. 1, 2, 3 only

575
 D. All the above
19. During monsoon season the ITCZ (inter tropical
convergence zone) shifts almost upto 25 degree
North latitude over the Indian subcontinent while it
rarely crosses 15 degree North latitude in other
regions. This is because
1. Vast landmass of Eurasia located to the North of
the Equator.
2. Intense low pressure over the Northwestern
region of Indian subcontinent and over the vast,
high altitude Tibetan plateau pulls ITCZ
Northwards.
3. Shifting of Westerly jet streams to the North of
Tibetan plateauat the end of the month of May.
Choose the correct code from the following
A. 1, 2 only. B. 2, 3 only.
C. 1, 3 only. D. All of the above.
20. The frequency of the cyclones is lower in Arabian
sea when compared to Bay of Bengal. This is
because
1. Arabian sea surface temperature is higher
compared to that of Bay of Bengal.

576
 2. Bay of Bengal receives the remnants of the
typhoons originated in Northwestern Pacific ocean.
3. Arabian sea receives the remnants of cyclones
from Bay of Bengal.
Choose the correct code from the following
A. 1, 2 only B. 1, 3 only
C. 2, 3 only D. All the above
21. Consider the following statements regarding
tropical cyclone which is one of the important
determining factors for the success of Indian
monsoons.
1. These are termed as the heat engines, which
derive their energy from the condensation of water
vapor into water droplets/drops.
2. More than 50% of the energy derived is utilized
to sustain the wind movement around the central
eye.
3. A mature cyclone releases energy equivalent to
that of 100 hydrogen bombs.
Which of the following statements are NOT true
A. 1, 2only B. 1, 3 only
C. 2 only D. None of the above

577
22. Consider the following statements regarding the
production and reserves of copper in India.
1. Rajasthan has the largest reserves of copper
and is also the highest producer of copper in India.
2. India is self-sufficient in copper production and
also at times it has also exported copper to
countries like Japan, South Korea etc.
3. Production of copper is a tedious job especially
in India as the copper ore found in India as it is of
the lower grade compared to International grade of
the ore.
Which are the correct statements?
A. 1 only B. 1, 3 only C. 2, 3 only D. 3 only
23. Why black soils are treated with cement or
hydrated lime during Roadways and railways
construction? Consider the reasons
1. To overcome problems of volume changes due
to alternate expansion and shrinkage of soils.
2. To prevent soil erosion during wet season
3. To improve bearing capacity of the soil

578
 Choose the correct reason from the codes below.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2, 3 only
C. 1, 3 only D. All the above
24. Left hand side is the region and right hand side is
the major reason in that region for soil
degradation.
1. Odisha, Jharkhand --- deforestation and mining.
2. Rajasthan, Maharashtra --- over irrigation.
3. Punjab, Haryana --- overgrazing.
Which are correctly matched?
A. 1 only B. 1, 2 only
C. All the above D. None of the above
25. Consider the following statements regarding a
particular soil
1. Found in the summits of Western Ghats, Eastern
Ghats, Vindhyas, Sathpuras and Malwa plateau.
2. Subjected to intense leaching and thus not fit for
agriculture unless manures and fertilizers are used.
3. It is the end product of weathering process and
thus it is indefinitely durable.

579
Which is the soil that is spoken about in the above
statements?
A. Forest soil B. Mountain Soil
C. Laterite soil D. Red soil

580
 GEOGRAPHY TEST 10

1. Ragi, a millet is currently encouraged to include in

the diet to supplement nutrients to counter the
malnutrition that is haunting the country.
Consider the following statements Ragi.
1) Ragi is rich in iron, calcium, roughphage and is
mainly grown in dry regions.
2) Among minor producers Sikkim, Arunachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand are included.
3) It is grown as a major crop in Bengaluru-Mysuru
table land from where the country’s majority of
Ragi production comes from.
Choose the correct statements from the code
below.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2, 3 only
C. 1, 3 only D. All the above
2. Indian agriculture is termed to be an Intensive
Subsistence Farming type. What are the
characteristic that has made Indian agriculture to
be categorized into that type?

581
 1. Very high population density.
2. Labour intensive farming.
3. Lower yield of production in terms of per capita
labour force.
4. Very small and fragmented land holdings.
5. Usage of farm machinery.
Choose the correct code from the following.
A. 1, 2, 3 only B. 1, 2, 3, 4 only
C. 2, 3, 4 only D. All the above
3. Consider the statements regarding a particular
valley
1. It is a part of Gangotri National Park.
2. It is a cold desert and looks like a replica of
Tibetan plateau.
3. It is home for Snow Leopard.
Which is that valley?
A. Nellong valley B. Kashmir valley
C. Alaknanda valley D. Bhagirathi valley

582
4. Central Zoo Authority, a body set up in 1992 for the
oversight of zoos.
Consider the following statements regarding CZA.
1. It is set up under the Wild Life Protection Act,
1972.
2. It is an affiliated member of World Association of
Zoos and Aquarium.
3. It doesn’t have the power to regulate the trade of
endangered species.
Choose the correct statements from the following
code.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2, 3 only
C. 1, 3 only D. All the above
5. The trees found in Western side of Western Ghats
and in the Northeast region generally don’t shed
their leaves i.e they are evergreen.
What are the possible reasons?
1. These regions do not have prolonged dry
season.
2. These regions don’t have severe winters.

583
 3. These regions have the humidity level beyond
75% almost throughout the year.
Choose the correct reason/s from the codes below.
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. 1, 2 only D. All the above
6. In Tamil Nadu region, evergreen forests are found
despite hot and dry summers with temperature of
about 28 degree Celsius.
What is/are the reason/s?
A. Annual rainfall of about 100cms mostly from the
North East monsoon winds during October to
December.
B. A humidity of more than 75% throughout the
year.
C. Red and yellow soil found in Tamil Nadu region
can retain moisture well.
D. Both 1 and 2

584
7. Himalayan yew is a plant found in Himachal
Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh was in news
recently.
Consider the following statements regarding the
plant.
1. It is a medicinal plant.
2. A chemical compound called ‘Taxol ‘obtained
from the plant is used as an effective anti-TB drug.
Choose the incorrect statements from code below.
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both are true D. None of the above
8. Enrich plantation is something in which a single
commercially valuable species is extensively
planted in a region and other local species are
eliminated.
Consider the statements regarding Enrich
plantation.
1. Teak monoculture has damaged the natural
forest majorly in Northeast India which was earlier
introduced by British.

585
 2. Chir, Pine plantations in the Himalayas have
replaced the Himalayan Oak and Rhododendron
forests.
Choose the correct statements from the code
below.
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both D. None of the above
9. Few forests in India are protected under the name
of Sacred Grooves.
Consider the following statements regarding
Sacred Grooves.
1. It is a nature worship which is an age old belief
based on the premise that all the creations of the
mother Nature have to be protected.
2. It is recognized under Wildlife Protection Act,
1972.
Choose the correct statement/s from the following
code.
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both D. None of the above

586
10. Migration is an unavoidable worldwide
phenomenon.
Which among the following is/are the not the push
factors for rural to urban migration especially in
India.
A. Unemployment.
B. Health and education facilities.
C. Monsoon vagaries.
D. Caste disabilities.
11. Developing countries like India has an adverse sex
ratio of less than 1000 while in developed countries
it is more than 1000. [Sex ratio: It is the number of
females in a country for every 1000 males]
What is/are the possible reason/s with reference to
India?
1. Social disadvantages that female face like
female foeticide, female infanticide, domestic
violence etc.
2. Stopping at one child ie couples restrain
themselves from going for second child provided
the first child born is male.

587
 Choose the correct code from the following.
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both D. None of the above
12. Which is/are the country/s in the world to use
Gross National Happiness to measure the progress
of the country?
Consider the countries
1. India 2. Bangladesh
3. Sweden 4. Bhutan
Choose the country/s from the code below.
A. 1, 4 only B. 2, 4 only C. 3 only D. 4 only
13. Earth although has an average density of 5.5
g/cm^3, its core has a density of more than 11
g/cm^3.
What are the possible reasons?
1. Core is formed of materials like iron, nickel etc
which has higher density.
2. Incumbent pressure from the overlaying rocks.
3. High temperature prevalent in the core region
[more than 5000 degree Celsius].

588
 Choose the correct code from the following.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2, 3 only
C. 1, 3 only D. All the above
14. There are different discontinuities within the
Earth’s internal structure. Which are the
discontinuities that have been incorrectly matched
with its/their respective locations?
1. Mohorvic discontinuity -- boundary between Core
and Mantle.
2. Wiechert-Gutenberg discontinuity -- boundary
between Crust and Mantle.
3. Conrad discontinuity – located at a depth of 15-
20kms from the Earth’s surface.
Choose the correct code from the following.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2, 3 only
C. 3 only D. 2 only
15. Consider the statements regarding Earth’s interior
and seismic waves.
1. Primary waves totally disappear in the core
region revealing that outer core is made up of
liquid.

589
 2. Secondary waves show changes in its speed as
it travels from magma chamber to lithosphere
region indicating difference in density.
3. The speed of secondary waves is highest inside
the Earth’s Core region indicating highest density
in the Core region.
Choose the correct statement/s from the code
below.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2 only
C. 1, 3 only D. 2, 3 only
16. Earth experiences seasons in a rhythmic fashion.
What are the causative factors?
1. Rotation of the Earth on its own axis.
2. Revolution of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun.
3. Spherical shape of the Earth.
4. Earth’s tilted axis.
5. Axial parallelism.
Choose the correct code from the following.
A. 1, 2 only B. 1, 2, 3 only
C. 1, 2, 4, 5 only D. All the above

590
17. Winter solstice for Northern Hemisphere generally
is on 22nd or 21st December every year.
Consider the statements regarding winter solstice
in Northern Hemisphere.
1. The circle of illumination excludes the North
Pole region from Sunlight.
2. From 66.5 degree South to 90 degree South, the
Sun remains below the horizon the entire day.
3. Arctic Circle is the Southernmost parallel in the
Northern Hemisphere that experiences a 24 hour
period of darkness on this day.
Choose the correct statements from the codes
below.
A. 1 only B. 1, 3 only
C. 2 only D. None of the above
18. Paleomagnetism is the past magnetism of Earth
stored in a rock
Which among the following type of rocks provides
most reliable readings of magnetism at a particular
time?
A. Igneous rocks

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 B. Sedimentary rocks
C. Metamorphic rocks
D. All the above rock types are equally reliable
19. Earth’s magnetosphere is the area around the
Earth where the geomagnetic field stretches out
into space. Consider the following statements
regarding magnetosphere.
1. It is uneven in shape as it stretches largely
towards the Sun because of Sun’s magnetic field.
2. Solar winds can have influence on the Earth’s
magnetosphere.
3. This sphere deflects the charged particles that
approach the Earth’s surface.
Choose the correct statement/s from the following
codes.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2, 3 only
C. 1, 3 only D. All the above

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20. Consider the statements regarding different types
of plates in ‘Plate Tectonic Theory’.
1. Destructive plate boundary is one in which
continuous upwelling of molten material ie lava
takes place.
2. Divergent plate boundary is one which two
plates slide past one another thus neither creating
nor destroying continental landmass.
3. Convergent plate boundary is one in which one
plate overrides the other plate.
Choose the correct statement/s from the following
code.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2 only
C. 3 only D. All the above
21. Consider the statements regarding geysers which
are special type of hot springs.
1. Hot water and vapour spouts from geyser tube
intermittently.
2. It represents the minor form of broader
processes of vulcanicity.
3. It is found only in tropical regions.

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 Choose the incorrect statement/s from the
following code.
A. 2, 3 only B. 1, 2 only C. 2 only D. 3 only
22. Every relief can be classified into different types of
reliefs.
Match the following.
1. 1st Order relief --- continental plates.
2. 2nd Order relief --- plains and deltas.
3. 3rd Order relief --- fold mountains.
Choose the correctly matched pair from the
following codes.
A. 1 only B. 1, 2 only
C. 1, 3 only D. None of the above
23. Mass wasting or mass movement is a common
phenomenon at the foothills of big, steep
mountains like Himalayas, Atlas etc.
Consider the following statements regarding mass
wasting.
1. Rock debris that moves down the hill is mainly
derived from weathering.

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 2. The rock debris moves down mainly because of
earthquake, volcano, moving water etc.
Choose the correct statement/s from the following
codes.
A. 1 only B. 2 only
C. Both D. None of the above
24. Natural levees are depositional landforms on either
side of the banks of a river. What are the
disadvantages of natural levees.
1. Levees if breached can cause catastrophic
floods.
2. Levee forming regions cannot be used for
agricultural purposes.
3. Levee formation leads to sedimentation of river
basins.
Choose the correct disadvantage/s from the
following codes.
A. 1, 2 only B. 2, 3 only
C. 1, 3 only D. All the above

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25. Consider the following
1. These clouds are one of the highest clouds in
the atmosphere
2. They are also called thunderheads and produce
rains, thunder and lightning
Select the correct answer based on above
statements
A. Stratocumulus B. Cumulonimbus
C. Nimbostratus D. Cirrocumulus

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 Answer Key
Test 01 Test 02 Test 03 Test 04 Test 05
1. D 1. C 1. C 1. D 1. B
2. A 2. B 2. C 2. B 2. C
3. C 3. C 3. B 3. C 3. A
4. B 4. C 4. A 4. B 4. A
5. C 5. D 5. A 5. A 5. C
6. C 6. D 6. A 6. C 6. A
7. A 7. B 7. B 7. C 7. A
8. D 8. A 8. B 8. C 8. D
9. A 9. B 9. A 9. C 9. B
10. D 10. D 10. C 10. C 10. C
11. B 11. B 11. D 11. C 11. C
12. A 12. B 12. C 12. A 12. B
13. D 13. B 13. C 13. B 13. D
14. C 14. B 14. C 14. C 14. A
15. C 15. C 15. B 15. C 15. C
16. A 16. C 16. D 16. D 16. A
17. B 17. B 17. A 17. A 17. B
18. B 18. C 18. C 18. C 18. C
19. C 19. C 19. D 19. C 19. D
20. A 20. A 20. B 20. C 20. D
21. C 21. B 21. A 21. C 21. D
22. C 22. B 22. A 22. D 22. C
23. A 23. B 23. D 23. D 23. B
24. C 24. C 24. B 24. C 24. B
25. C 25. C 25. B 25. D 25. C

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 Test 06 Test 07 Test 08 Test 09 Test 10
1. D 1. C 1. D 1. D 1. D
2. C 2. A 2. A 2. B 2. B
3. D 3. C 3. B 3. D 3. A
4. C 4. B 4. C 4. C 4. A
5. B 5. C 5. C 5. C 5. D
6. C 6. C 6. A 6. C 6. D
7. B 7. D 7. C 7. D 7. B
8. D 8. D 8. C 8. B 8. B
9. A 9. C 9. A 9. C 9. C
10. B 10. C 10. A 10. A 10. B
11. A 11. D 11. A 11. D 11. C
12. C 12. D 12. C 12. A 12. D
13. B 13. D 13. A 13. C 13. A
14. A 14. C 14. B 14. D 14. A
15. B 15. D 15. D 15. A 15. B
16. C 16. B 16. B 16. C 16. D
17. D 17. B 17. D 17. B 17. B
18. D 18. C 18. C 18. A 18. A
19. A 19. A 19. D 19. D 19. B
20. D 20. B 20. A 20. C 20. C
21. C 21. B 21. C 21. C 21. D
22. A 22. A 22. D 22. D 22. A
23. D 23. B 23. D 23. D 23. A
24. C 24. A 24. C 24. A 24. C
25. B 25. D 25. B 25. C 25. B

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