THE AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
VolumeLXII MAY 1957 Number6

FASHION'
GEORG SIMMEL

ABSTRACT
Fashion is a form of imitation and so of social equalization, but, paradoxically, in changing incessantly,
it differentiates one time from another and one social stratum from another. It unites those of a social
class and segregates them from others. The elite initiates a fashion and, when the mass imitates it in an
effort to obliterate the external distinctions of class, abandons it for a newer mode-a process that quickens
with the increase of wealth. Fashion does not exist in tribal and classless societies. It concerns externals
and superficialities where irrationality does no harm. It signalizes the lack of personal freedom; hence it
characterizes the female and the middle class, whose increased social freedom is matched by intense in-
dividual subjugation. Some forms are intrinsically more suited to the modifications of fashion than others:
the internal unity of the forms called "classic" makes them immune to change.

The general formula in accordance with Man has ever had a dualistic nature. This
which we usually interpret the differing as- fact, however, has had but little effect on the
pects of the individual as well as of the pub- uniformity of his conduct, and this uniform-
lic mind may be stated broadly as follows: ity is usually the result of a number of ele-
We recognize two antagonistic forces, tend- ments. An action that results from less than
encies, or characteristics,either of which, if a majority of fundamental forces would ap-
left unaffected,would approachinfinity; and pear barrenand empty. Over an old Flemish
it is by the mutual limitation of the two house there stands the mystical inscription,
forces that the characteristicsof the individ- "There is more within me"; and this is the
ual and public mind result. We are con- formula accordingto which the first impres-
stantly seekingultimate forces, fundamental sion of an action is supplemented by a far-
aspirations, some one of which controls our reaching diversity of causes. Human life
entire conduct. But in no case do we find cannot hope to develop a wealth of inex-
any single force attaining a perfectly inde- haustible possibilities until we come to rec-
pendent expression,and we are thus obliged ognize in every moment and content of ex-
to separate a majority of the factors and de- istence a pair of forces, each one of which, in
termine the relative extent to which each striving to go beyond the initial point, has
shall have representation. To do this we resolved the infinity of the other by mutual
must establish the degree of limitation exer- impingement into mere tension and desire.
cised by the counteraction of some other While the explanationof some aspects of the
force, as well as the influence exerted by the soul as the result of the action of two funda-
latter upon the primlitiveforce. mental forces satisfies the theoretical in-
I InternationalQuarterly(New York), X (Octo- stinct, it furthermore
adds a new charm to
ber, 1904), 130-55. Reprintedby kind permission the image of things, not only by tracing
of Dodd,Mead& Co. distinctly the outlines of the fact, but also by
541

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542 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
interpreting the vague, often enigmatic, representing socialism on the one hand or
realization that in the creation of the life of individualism on the other, we have always
the soul deeper forces, more unsolved ten- to deal with the same fundamental form of
sions, more comprehensiveconflictsand con- duality which is manifested biologically in
ciliations have been at work than their im- the contrast between heredity and varia-
mediate reality would lead one to suppose. tion. Of these the formerrepresentsthe idea
There seem to be two tendencies in the of generalization, of uniformity, of inactive
individual soul as well as in society. All des- similarity of the forms and contents of life;
ignations for this most generalformnof dual- the latter stands for motion, for differentia-
ism within us undoubtedly emanate from a tion of separate elements, producing the
more or less individual example.This funda- restless changing of an individual life. The
mental [131] form of life cannot be reached essential forms of life in the history of our
by exact definition; we must rest content race invariably show the effectiveness of the
with the separation of this primitive form two antagonistic principles. Each in its
from a multitude of examples, which more sphere attempts to combine the interest in
or less clearly reveal the really inexpressible duration, unity, and similarity with that in
element of this duality of our soul. The change, specialization, and peculiarity. It
physiological basis of our being gives the becomes self-evident that there is no institu-
first hint, for we discover that human nature tion, no law, no estate of life, which can uni-
requires motion and repose, receptiveness formly satisfy the full demands of the two
and productivity-a masculine and a femi- opposing principles. The only realization of
nine principle are united in every human this condition possible for humanity finds
being. This type of duality applied to our expression in constantly changing approxi-
spiritual nature causes the latter to be mations, in ever retracted attempts and ever
guided by the striving towards generaliza- revived hopes. It is this that constitutes the
tion on the one hand, and on the other by whole wealth of our development, the whole
the desire to describe the single, special ele- incentive to advancement, the possibility of
ment. Thus generalizationgives rest to the grasping a vast proportion of [132] all the
soul, whereas specialization permits it to infinite combinationsof the elements of hu-
move from example to example; and the man character, a proportion that is ap-
same is true in the world of feeling. On the proaching the unlimited itself.
one hand we seek peaceful surrenderto men Within the social embodiments of these
and things, on the other an energetic activ- contrasts, one side is generally maintained
ity with respect to both. by the psychological tendency towards imi-
The whole history of society is reflectedin tation. The charm of imitation in the first
the striking conflicts, the compromises, place is to be found in the fact that it makes
slowly won and quickly lost, between so- possible an expedient test of power, which,
cialistic adaptation to society and individual however, requiresno great personaland cre-
departure from its demands. We have here ative application,but is displayed easily and
the provincial forms, as it were, of those smoothly, because its content is a given
great antagonisticforceswhich representthe quantity. We might define it as the child of
foundationsof our individual destiny, and in thought and thoughtlessness. It affords the
which our outer as well as our inner life, our pregnant possibility of continually extend-
intellectual as well as our spiritual being, ing the greatest creationsof the human spir-
find the poles of their oscillations. Whether it, without the aid of the forces which were
these forces be expressed philosophically in originally the very condition of their birth.
the contrast between cosmotheism and the Imitation, furthermore,gives to the individ-
doctrine of inherent differentiationand sep- ual the satisfaction of not standing alone in
arate existence of every cosmic element, or his actions. Wheneverwe imitate, we trans-
whether they be ground in practical conflict fer not only the demand for creative activ-

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 FASHION 543

ity, but also the responsibility for the action in change. Conversely,whereverprominence
from ourselves to another. Thus the individ- is given to change, wherever individual dif-
ual is freed from the worry of choosing and ferentiation, independence, and relief from
appearssimply as a creatureof the group, as generality are sought, there imitation is the
a vessel of the social contents. negative and obstructive principle. The
The tendency towards imitation charac- principle of adherence to given formulas, of
terizes a stage of development in which the being and of acting like others, is irrecon-
desirefor expedient personalactivity is pres- cilably opposed to the striving to advance to
ent, but from which the capacity for possess- ever new and individual forms of life; for
ing the individual acquirementsis absent. It this very reason social life represents a
is interesting to note the exactness with battle-ground, of which every inch is stub-
which children insist upon the repetition of bornly contested, and social institutions
facts, how they constantly clamor for a may be looked upon as the peace-treaties, in
repetition of the same games and pastimes, which the constant antagonismof both prin-
how they will object to the slightest varia- ciples has been reduced externally to a form
tion in the telling of a story they have heard of cobperation.
twenty times. In this imitation and in exact The vital conditions of fashion as a uni-
adaptation to the past the child first rises versal phenomenonin the history of our race
above its momnentary existence; the immedi- are circumscribed by these conceptions.
ate content of life reaches into the past, it Fashion is the imitation of a given example
expands the present for the child, likewise and satisfies the demand for social adapta-
for primitive man; and the pedantic exact- tion; it leads the individual upon the road
ness of this adaptation to the given formula which all travel, it furnishesa generalcondi-
need not be regarded offhand as a token of tion, which resolves the conduct of every
poverty or narrowness.At this stage every individual into a mere example.At the same
deviation from imitation of the given facts time it satisfies in no less degree the need of
breaks the connection which alone can now differentiation, the tendency towards dis-
unite the present with something that is similarity, the desire for change and con-
more than the present, something that tends trast, on the one hand by a constant change
to expand existence as a mere creatureof the of contents, which gives to the fashion of to-
moment. The advance beyond this stage is day an individual stamp as opposed to that
reflected in the circumstance that our of yesterday and of to-morrow,on the other
thoughts, actions, and feelings are deter- hand because fashions differ for different
mined by the future as well as by fixed, past, classes-the fashions of the upper stratum
and traditionalfactors: the teleologicalindi- of society are never identical with those of
vidual representsthe counterpoleof the imi- the lower;in fact, they are abandonedby the
tative mnortal.The imitator is the passive former as soon as the latter prepares to ap-
individual, who believes in social similarity propriate them. Thus fashion represents
and adapts himself to existing elements; the nothing more than one of the many forms of
teleological individual, on the other hand, is life by the aid of which we seek to combine
ever experimenting,always restlessly striv- in uniform spheres of activity the tendency
ing, and he relies on his own personalconvic- towards social equalization with the desire
tion. for individual differentiation and change.
Thus we see that imitation in all the in- Every phase of the conflicting pair strives
stances whereit is a productive factor repre- visibly beyond the degree of satisfaction
sents one of the fundamental tendencies of that any fashion offers to an absolute con-
our character,[133]namely, that which con- trol of the sphere of life in question. If we
tents itself with similarity, with uniformity, should study the history of fashions (which
with the adaptation of the special to the gen- hitherto have been examined only from the
eral, and accentuates the constant element view-point of the development of their con-

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 544 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

tents) in connection with their importance fashion dictates, for example, whether wide
for the form of the social process, we should or narrow trousers, colored or black scarfs
find that it reflects the history of the at- shall be worn. As a rule the mnaterialjustifi-
tempts to adjust the satisfaction of the two cation for an action coincides with its gen-
counter-tendenciesmore and more perfectly eral adoption, but in the case of fashion
to the condition of the existing individual there is a complete separationof the two ele-
and social culture. The various psychologi- ments, and there renmainsfor the individual
cal elements in fashion all conform to this only this general acceptance as the deciding
fundamental principle. motive to appropriate it. Judging from the
Fashion, as noted above, is a product of ugly and repugnant things that are some-
class distinction and operates like a number times in vogue, it would seem as though
of other forms, honor especially, the double fashion were desirousof exhibitingits power
function of which consists in revolving with- by getting us to adopt the most atrocious
in a given circle and at the same time em- things for its sake alone. The absolute indif-
phasizing it as separate from others. Just as ference of fashion to the material standards
the frame of a picture characterizes[134]the of life is well illustrated by the way in which
work of art inwardly as a coherent, homo- it recommendssomething appropriatein one
geneous,independententity and at the same instance, somethingabstrusein another,and
time outwardly severs all direct relations somethingmateriallyand aesthetically quite
with the surroundingspace, just as the uni- indifferent in a third. The only motivations
form energy of such forms cannot be ex- with which fashion is concerned are formal
pressed unless we determine the double ef- social ones. The reason why even aestheti-
fect, both inward and outward, so honor cally impossible styles seem disting'ue,ele-
owes its character, and above all its moral gant, and artistically tolerablewhen affected
rights, to the fact that the individual in his by persons who carry them to the extreme,
personal honor at the same time represents is that the persons who do this are generally
and maintains that of his social circle and the most elegant and pay the greatest atten-
his class. These moral rights, however, are tion to their personal appearance, so that
frequently consideredunjust by those with- under any circumstanceswe would get the
out the pale. Thus fashion on the one hand impression of something distingue and aes-
signifies union with those in the same class, thetically cultivated. This impression we
the uniformity of a circle characterizedby credit to the questionable element of fash-
it, and, ino actt, the exclusion of all other ion, the latter appealing to our conscious-
groups. ness as the new and consequently most con-
Union and segregationare the two funda- spicuous feature of the tout ensemble.
mental functions which are here inseparably [135] Fashion occasionallywill accept ob-
united, and one of which, although or be- jectively determined subjects such as re-
cause it forms a logical contrast to the other, ligious faith, scientific interests, even social-
becomes the condition of its realization. ism and individualism; but it does not be-
Fashion is merely a product of social de- come operative as fashion until these sub-
mands, even though the individual object jects can be considered independent of the
which it createsor recreatesmay representa deeper human motives from which they
more or less individual need. This is clearly have risen. For this reason the rule of fash-
proved by the fact that very frequently not ion becomes in such fields unendurable.We
the slightest reason can be found for the cre- therefore see that there is good reason why
ations of fashion from the standpoint of an externals-clothing, social conduct, amuse-
objective, aesthetic, or other expediency. ments-constitute the specific field of fash-
While in general our wearing apparel is ion, for here no dependence is placed on
really adapted to our needs, there is not a really vital motives of human action. It is
trace of expediency in the method by which the field which we can most easily relinquish

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 FASHION 545
to the bent towards imitation, which it cause the objects of fashion, embracing as
would be a sin to follow in important ques- they do the externals of life, are most ac-
tions. We encounterhere a close connection cessible to the mere call of money, and con-
between the consciousness of personality formity to the higher set [136]is more easily
and that of the material forms of life, a con- acquired here than in fields which denand
nection that runs all through history. The an individual test that gold and silver can-
more objective our view of life has become not affect.
in the last centuries,the more it has stripped We see, therefore,that in addition to the
the picture of nature of all subjective and element of imitation the element of demnar-
anthropomorphic elements, and the more cation constitutes an important factor of
sharply has the conception of individual fashion. This is especially noticeable wher-
personalitybecome defined.The social regu- ever the social structure does not include
lation of our inner and outer life is a sort of any super-imposed groups, in which case
embryo condition, in which the contrasts of fashion asserts itself in neighboringgroups.
the purely personaland the purely objective Among primitive peoples we often find that
are differentiated, the action being syn- closely connected groups living under ex-
chronous and reciprocal. Therefore wher- actly similarconditions develop sharply dif-
ever man appears essentially as a social ferentiatedfashions,by means of which each
being we observe neither strict objectivity in group establishes uniformity within, as well
the view of life nor absorptionand independ- as differencewithout the prescribedset. On
ence in the consciousnessof personality. the other hand, there exists a wide-spread
Socialforms, apparel, aesthetic judgment, predilection for importing fashions from
the whole style of human expression, are without, and such foreignfashions assume a
constantly transformedby fashion, in such a greater value within the circle, simply be-
way, however, that fashion-i.e., the latest cause they did not originate there. The
fashion-in all these things affects only the prophet Zephaniah expressed his indigna-
upper classes. Just as soon as the lower tion at the aristocrats who affected im-
classes begin to copy their style, thereby ported apparel. As a matter of fact the
crossing the line of demarcation the upper exotic origin of fashions seems strongly to
classes have drawn and destroying the uni- favor the exclusiveness of the groups which
formity of their coherence,the upper classes adopt them. Because of their externalorigin,
turn away from this style and adopt a new these importedfashions create a special and
one, which in its turn differentiates thenm significant form of socialization, which
from the masses; and thus the game goes arises through mutual relation to a point
merrily on. Naturally the lower classes look without the circle. It sometimes appears as
and strive towards the upper, and they en- though social elements, just like the axes of
counter the least resistance in those fields vision, converge best at a point that is not
which are subject to the whims of fashion; too near. The currency, or more precisely
for it is here that mere external imitation is the medium of exchange among primitive
most readily applied. The same process is at races, often consists of objects that are
workas between the differentsets within the brought in from without. On the Solomon
upper classes, although it is not always as Islands, and at Ibo on the Niger, for ex-
visible here as it is, for example, between ample, there exists a regularindustry for the
mistress and maid. Indeed, we may often manufacture of money from shells, etc.,
observe that the more nearly one set has ap- which are not employed as a medium of ex-
proachedanother, the more frantic becomes change in the place itself, but in neighboring
the desire for imitation from below and the districts, to which they are exported. Paris
seeking for the new from above. The in- modes are frequently created with the sole
creaseof wealth is bound to hasten the proc- intention of setting a fashion elsewhere.
ess considerably and render it visible, be- This motive of foreignness, which fash-

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546 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

ion employs in its socializing endeavors, is isolation on the other. Should one of these be
restricted to higher civilization, because absent, fashion will not be formed-its sway
novelty, which foreign origin guarantees in will abruptly end. Consequently the lower
extremeform, is often regardedby primitive classes possess very few modes and those
races as an evil. This is certainly one of the they have are seldom specific;for this reason
reasons why primitive conditions of life the modes of primitive races are much more
favor a correspondinglyinfrequent change stable than ours. Among primitive races the
of fashions. The savage is afraid of strange socializing impulse is much more powerfully
appearances; the difficulties and dangers developed than the differentiatingimpulse.
that beset his careercause him to scent dan- For, no matter how decisively the groups
ger in anything new which he does not un- may be separated from one another, separa-
derstand and which he cannot assign to a tion is for the most part hostile in such a
familiar category. Civilization, however, way, that the very relation the rejection of
transformsthis affectation into its very op- which within the classes of civilized races
posite. Whatever is exceptional, bizarre, or makes fashionreasonable,is absolutely lack-
conspicuous, or whatever departs from the ing. Segregation by means of differencesin
customary norm, exercises a peculiar charm clothing, manners, taste, etc., is expedient
upon the man of culture, entirely independ- only where the danger of absorption and
ent of its material justification.The removal obliteration exists, as is the case among
of the feeling of insecurity with referenceto highly civilized nations. Where these differ-
all things new was accomplished by the ences do not exist, where we have an abso-
progressof civilization. At the same time it lute antagonism,as for example between not
may be the old inherited prejudice, [137]al- directly friendly groups of primitive races,
though it has become purely formal and the development of fashion has no sense at
unconscious, which, in connection with the all.
present feeling of security, produces this It is interesting to observe how the preva-
piquant interest in exceptional and odd lence of the socializing impulse in primitive
things. For this reason the fashions of the peoples affects various institutions, such as
upper classes develop their power of exclu- the dance. It has been noted quite generally
sion against the lower in proportionas gen- that the dances of primitive races exhibit a
eral culture advances, at least until the remarkableuniformity in arrangementand
minglingof the classesand the leveling effect rhythm. The dancing group feels and acts
of democracyexert a counter-influence. like a uniform organism; the dance forces
Fashion plays a more conspicuousrOlein and accustoms a numberof individuals, who
moderntimes, because the differencesin our are usually driven to and fro without rime or
standardsof life have become so much more reason by vacillating conditions and needs
strongly accentuated, for the more numer- of life, to be guided by a common impulse
ous and the more sharplydrawnthese differ- and a single common motive. Even making
ences are, the greater the opportunities for allowances for the tremendous differencein
emphasizing them at every turn. In innu- the outward appearanceof the dance, we are
merable instances this cannot be accom- [138] dealing here with the same element
plished by passive inactivity, but only by that appears in the socializingforce of fash-
the development of forms established by ion. Movement, time, rhythm of the ges-
fashion; and this has become all the more tures, are all undoubtedlyinfluencedlargely
pronouncedsince legal restrictionsprescrib- by what is worn: similarly dressed persons
ing various forms of apparel and modes of exhibit relative similarity in their actions.
life for different classes have been removed. This is of especial value in modern life with
Two social tendencies are essential to the its individualistic diffusion,while in the case
establishment of fashion, namely, the need of primitive races the effect produced is di-
of union on the one hand and the need of rected within and is thereforenot dependent

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 FASHION 547
upon changes of fashion. Among primitive ing it. As soon as an example has been uni-
races fashions will be less numerous and versally adopted, that is, as soon as any-
more stable because the need of new impres- thing that was originally done only by a few
sions and formsof life, quite apart from their has really come to be practiced by all-as is
social effect, is far less pressing. Changes in the case in certain portions of our apparel
fashion reflect the dulness of nervous im- and in various forms of social conduct-we
pulses: the more nervous the age, the more no longer speak of fashion. As fashion
rapidly its fashions change, simply because spreads, it gradually goes to its [139] doom.
the desirefor differentiation,one of the most The distinctiveness which in the early stages
important elements of all fashion, goes hand of a set fashion assures for it a certain dis-
in hand with the weakening of nervous en- tribution is destroyed as the fashion spreads,
ergy. This fact in itself is one of the reasons and as this element wanes, the fashion also
why the real seat of fashion is found among is bound to die. By reason of this peculiar
the upper classes. play between the tendency towards univer-
Viewed from a purely social standpoint, sal acceptation and the destruction of its
two neighboringprimitive races furnish elo- very purpose to which this general adoption
quent examples of the requirement of the leads, fashion includes a peculiar attraction
two elements of union and isolation in the of limitation, the attraction of a simultane-
setting of fashion. Among the Kaflirs the ous beginningand end, the charmof novelty
class-systemis very strongly developed, and coupled to that of transitoriness.The attrac-
as a result we find there a fairly rapid change tions of both poles of the phenomenameet in
of fashions, in spite of the fact that wearing- fashion, and show also here that they belong
apparel and adornments are subject to cer- togetherunconditionally,although, or rather
tain legal restrictions. The Bushmen, on the because, they are contradictoryin their very
other hand, who have developed no class- nature. Fashion always occupies the divid-
system, have no fashions whatsoever,-no ing-linebetween the past and the future, and
one has been able to discover among them consequently conveys a stronger feeling of
any interest in changes in apparel and in the present, at least while it is at its height,
finery. Occasionallythese negative elements than most other phenomena. What we call
have consciously prevented the setting of a the present is usually nothing more than a
fashion even at the very heights of civiliza- combinationof a fragmentof the past with a
tion. It is said that there was no ruling fash- fragmentof the future. Attention is called to
ion in male attire in Florence about the year the present less often than colloquial usage,
1390, because every one adopted a style of which is rather liberal in its employment of
his own. Here the first element, the need of the word, would lead us to believe.
union, was absent; and without it, as we Few phenomenaof social life possess such
have seen, no fashion can arise. Conversely, a pointed curve of consciousness as does
the Venetian nobles are said to have set no fashion. As soon as the social consciousness
fashion, for according to law they had to attains to the highest point designated by
dress in black in order not to call the atten- fashion, it marks the beginning of the end
tion of the lower classes to the smallness of for the latter. This transitory character of
their number. Here there were no fashions fashion, however, does not on the whole de-
because the other element essential for their grade it, but adds a new element of attrac-
creationwas lacking, a visible differentiation tion. At all events an object does not suffer
from the lower classes being purposely degradationby being called fashionable,un-
avoided. less we reject it with disgust or wish to de-
The very character of fashion demands base it for other, material reasons, in which
that it should be exercised at one time only case, of course, fashion becomes an idea of
by a portion of the given group, the great value. In the practice of life anything else
majority being merely on the road to adopt- similarly new and suddenly disseminated is

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 548 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

not called fashion, when we are convinced of ment we envy an object or a person, we are
its continuance and its material justifica- no longer absolutely excluded from it; some
tion. If, on the other hand, we feel certain relation or other has been established-be-
that the fact will vanish as rapidly as it tween both the same psychic content now
came, then we call it fashion. We can dis- exists-although in entirely different cate-
cover one of the reasons why in these latter gories and forms of sensations. This quiet
days fashion exercisessuch a powerful influ- personal usurpation of the envied property
ence on our consciousness in the circum- contains a kind of antidote, which occasion-
stance that the great, permanent, unques- ally counter-acts the evil effects of this feel-
tionable convictions are continually losing ing of envy. The contents of fashion afford
strength, as a consequence of which the an especially good chance for the develop-
transitory and vacillating elements of life ment of this conciliatory shade of envy,
acquire more room for the display of their which also gives to the envied person a
activity. The break with the past, which, for better consciencebecause of his satisfaction
more than a century, civilized mankind has over his good fortune. This is due to the fact
been laboring unceasingly to bring about, that these contents are not, as many other
makes the consciousnessturn moreand more psychic contents are, denied absolutely to
to the present. This accentuationof the pres- any one, for a change of fortune, which is
ent evidently at the same time emphasizes never entirely out of the question, may play
the element of change, and a class will turn them into the hands of an individual who
to fashion in all fields, by no means only in had previously been confinedto the state of
that of apparel, in proportion to the degree envy.
in which it supports the given civilizing From all this we see that fashionfurnishes
tendency. It may almost be considered a an ideal field for individuals with dependent
sign of the increasedpower of fashion, that natures, whose self-consciousness,however,
it has overstepped the bounds of its original requiresa certain amount of prominence,at-
domain, which [140] comprisedonly person- tention, and singularity. Fashion raises even
al externals, and has acquiredan increasing the unimportant individual by making him
influenceover taste, over theoreticalconvic- the representative of a class, the embodi-
tions, and even over the moral foundations ment of a joint spirit. And here again we
of life. observe the curious intermixtureof antago-
From the fact that fashion as such can nistic values. Speaking broadly, it is char-
never be generally in vogue, the individual acteristic of a standard set by a general
derives the satisfaction of knowing that as body, that its acceptance by any one indi-
adopted by him it still representssomething vidual does not call attention to him; in
special and striking, while at the same time other words, a positive adoption of a given
he feels inwardly supported by a set of per- norm signifies nothing. Whoever keeps the
sons who are striving for the same thing, not laws the breaking of which is punished by
as in the case of other social satisfactions,by the penal code, whoeverlives up to the social
a set actually doing the same thing. The forms prescribedby his class, gains no con-
fashionableperson is regardedwith mingled spicuousness or notoriety. The slightest in-
feelings of approval and envy; we envy him fraction or opposition, however, is immedi-
as an individual, but approve of him as a ately noticed and places the individual in an
memberof a set or group.Yet even this envy exceptional position by calling the attention
has a peculiar coloring. There is a shade of of the public to [141] his action. All such
envy which includes a species of ideal par- norms do not assume positive importance
ticipation in the envied object itself. An in- for the individual until he begins to depart
structive example of this is furnishedby the from them. It is peculiarly characteristicof
conduct of the poor man who gets a glimpse fashion that it renders possible a social
of the feast of his rich neighbor. The mo- obedience, which at the same time is a form

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 FASHION 549

of individual differentiation. Fashion does gained in a purely quantitative way, but

this because in its very nature it represents expressed in a difference of quality, repre-
a standardthat can never be accepted by all. sents a state of equilibriumbetween the so-
While fashion postulates a certain amount cial and the individualizing impulses which
of general acceptance, it nevertheless is not is really original. This explains the extreme
without significancein the characterization to which otherwise thoroughly intelligent
of the individual, for it emphasizes his per- and prominent persons frequently resort in
sonality not only through omission but also matters of fashion, an extreme that out-
through observance. In the dude the social wardly appears so abstruse. It furnishes a
demands of fashion appear exaggerated to combination of relations to things and men,
such a degree that they completely assume which under ordinary circumstancesappear
an individualistic and peculiar character.It more divided. It is not only the mixture of
is characteristicof the dude that he carries individual [142] peculiarity with social
the elements of a particular fashion to an equality, but, in a more practical vein, as it
extreme; when pointed shoes are in style, he were, it is the mingling of the sensation of
wears shoes that resemble the prow of a rulership with submission, the influence of
ship; when high collars are all the rage, he which is here at work. In other words, we
wears collars that come up to his ears; when have here the mixing of a masculine and a
scientific lectures are fashionable, you can- feminine principle. The very fact that this
not find him anywhere else, etc., etc. Thus process goes on in the field of fashion only in
he represents something distinctly individ- an ideal attenuation, as it were, the fact that
ual, which consists in the quantitative in- only the form of both elements is embodied
tensificationof such elements as are qualita- in a content indifferentin itself, may lend to
tively common property of the given set of fashion a special attraction, especially for
class. He leads the way, but all travel the sensitive natures that do not care to concern
same road. Representingas he does the most themselves with robust reality. From an
recently conquered heights of public taste, objective standpoint, life according to fash-
he seems to be marching at the head of the ion consists of a balancingof destructionand
generalprocession.In reality, however, what upbuilding; its content acquires character-
is so frequently true of the relation between istics by destruction of an earlier form; it
individuals and groups applies also to him: possesses a peculiaruniformity, in which the
as a matter of fact, the leader allows himself satisfying of the love of destruction and of
to be led. the demand for positive elements can no
Democratic times unquestionably favor longer be separated from each other.
such a condition to a remarkabledegree, so Inasmuch as we are dealing here not with
much so that even Bismarck and other very the importance of a single fact or a single
prominent party leaders in constitutional satisfaction, but rather with the play be-
governments have emphasizedthe fact that tween two contents and their mutual dis-
inasmuch as they are leaders of a group, tinction, it becomes evident that the same
they are bound to follow it. The spirit of combination which extreme obedience to
democracy causes persons to seek the dig- fashion acquires can be won also by opposi-
nity and sensation of command in this man- tion to it. Whoever consciously avoids fol-
ner; it tends to a confusionand ambiguity of lowing the fashion, does not attain the con-
sensations, which fail to distinguishbetween sequent sensation of individualization
ruling the mass and being ruled by it. The through any real individual qualification,
conceit of the dude is thus the caricatureof but rather through mere negation of the so-
a confused understanding, fostered by de- cial example. If obedience to fashion con-
mocracy, of the relation between the indi- sists in imitation of such an example, con-
vidual and the public. Undeniably, however, scious neglect of fashion represents similar
the dude, through the conspicuousness imitation, but under an inverse sign. The

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550 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

latter, however, furnishes just as fair testi- toms of the general public. Such opposition
mony of the power of the social tendency, is by no means always a sign of personal
which demandsour dependencein some pos- strength.
itive or negative manner.The man who con- The fact that fashion expressesand at the
sciously pays no heed to fashion accepts its same time emphasizesthe tendency towards
forms just as much as the dude does, only he equalization and individualization, and the
embodies it in another category, the former desire for imitation and conspicuousness,
in that of exaggeration, the latter in that of perhaps explains why it is that women,
negation. Indeed, it occasionally happens broadly speaking, are its staunchest ad-
that it becomes fashionable in whole bodies herents. Scientific discretion should caution
of a large class to depart altogether from the us against formingjudgments about woman
standards set by fashion. This constitutes a "in the plural." At the same time it may be
most curious social-psychologicalcomplica- said of woman in a generalway, whether the
tion, in which the tendency towards individ- statement be justified in every case or not,
ual conspicuousnessprimarily rests content that her psychological characteristic in so
with a mere inversion of the social imitation far as it differsfrom that of man, consists in
and secondly draws in strength from ap- a lack of differentiation, in a greater simi-
proximation to a similarly characterized larity among the different members of her
narrowercircle. If the club-hatersorganized sex, in a stricter adherenceto the social aver-
themselves into a club, it would not be logi- age. Whether on the final heights of modern
cally more impossible and psychologically culture, the facts of which have not yet fur-
morepossible than the above case. Similarly nished a contribution to the formation of
atheism has been made into a religion, em- this general conviction, there will be a
bodying the same fanaticism, the same in- change in the relation between men and
tolerance,the same satisfying of the needs of women, a change that may result in a com-
the soul that are embraced in religion plete reversal of the above distinction, I do
proper. Freedom, likewise, after having put not care to discuss, inasmuchas we are con-
a stop to tyranny, frequently becomes no cerned here with more comprehensive his-
less tyrannical and arbitrary. So the phe- torical averages. The relation and the weak-
nomenon of conscious departure from fash- ness of her social position, to which woman
ion illustrates [1431 how ready the funda- has been doomed during the far greaterpor-
mental forms of human characterare to ac- tion of history, however, explains her strict
cept the total antithesis of contents and to regardfor custom, for the generallyaccepted
show their strength and their attraction in and approved forms of life, for all that is
the negation of the very thing to whose ac- proper. A weak person steers clear of indi-
ceptance they seemed a moment before ir- vidualization; he avoids dependence upon
revocably committed. It is often absolutely self with its responsibilities and the neces-
impossible to tell whether the elements of sity of defending himself unaided. He finds
personal strength or of personal weakness protection only in the typical form of life,
preponderate in the group of causes that which prevents the strong from exercising
lead to such a departure from fashion. It his exceptional powers. But resting on the
may result from a desire not to make com- firm foundation of custom, of what is gen-
mon cause with the mass, a desire that has erally accepted, woman strives anxiously for
at its basis not independenceof the mass, to all the relative individualization and per-
be sure, but yet an inherently sovereign po- sonal conspicuousnessthat remains.
sition with respect to the latter. However, it Fashion furnishes this very combination
may be due to a delicate sensibility, which in the happiest manner,for we have here on
causes the individual to fear that he will be the one hand a field of generalimitation, the
unable to maintain his individuality in case individual floating [1441in the broadest so-
he adopts the forms, the tastes, and the cus- cial current,relieved of responsibilityfor his

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 FASHION 551
tastes and his actions, yet on the other hand change, in order to add an attraction to her-
we have a certain conspicuousness,an em- self and her life for her own feeling as well as
phasis, an individual accentuation of the for others. Just as in the case of individual-
personality. It seems that there exists for ism and collectivism, there exists between
each class of human beings, probably for the uniformity and the change of the con-
each individual, a definite quantitative rela- tents of life a definite proportion of needs,
tion between the tendency towards indi- which is tossed to and fro in the different
vidualization and the desire to be merged in fields and seeks to balance refusal in one by
the group, so that when the satisfying of one consent, however acquired, in another. On
tendency is denied in a certain field of life, the whole, we may say that woman is a more
he seeks another, in which he then fulfills the faithful creaturethan man. Now fidelity, ex-
measure which he requires.Thus it seems as pressing as it does the uniformity and regu-
though fashion were the valve through larity of one's nature only in the direction of
which woman's craving for some measure of the feelings, demands a more lively change
conspicuousnessand individual prominence in the outward surroundingspheres in order
finds vent, when its satisfaction is denied her to establish the balance in the tendencies of
in other fields. life referred to above. Man, [145] on the
During the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- other hand, a rather unfaithful being, who
turies Germanyexhibits an unusually strong does not ordinarilyrestrict dependence to a
development of individuality. Great inroads relation of the feelings with the same im-
were made upon the collectivistic regula- plicitness and concentration of all interests
tions of the Middle Ages by the freedom of of life to a single one, is consequently less in
the individual. Woman, however, took no need of an outward form of change. Non-
part in this individualistic development: the acceptance of changes in external fields, and
freedomof personalaction and self-improve- indifferencetowardsfashions in outward ap-
ment were still denied her. She sought re- pearance are specificallya male quality, not
dress by adopting the most extravagant and because man is the more uniform but be-
hypertrophic styles in dress. On the other cause he is the more many-sided creature
hand, in Italy duringthe same epoch woman and for that reason can get along better
was given full play for the exercise of indi- without such outward changes. Therefore,
viduality. The woman of the Renaissance the emancipatedwoman of the present, who
possessed opportunities of culture, of ex- seeks to imitate in the good as well as per-
ternal activity, of personal differentiation haps also in the bad sense the whole differen-
such as were not offered her for many cen- tiation, personality and activity of the male
turies thereafter. In the upper classes of so- sex, lays particularstress on her indifference
ciety, especially, education and freedom of to fashion.
action were almost identical for both sexes. In a certain sense fashion gives woman a
It is not astonishing, therefore, that no par- compensation for her lack of position in a
ticularly extravagant Italian female fashions class based on a calling or profession. The
should have come down to us from that pe- man who has become absorbed in a calling
riod. The need of exercisingindividuality in has entered a relatively uniformclass, within
this field was absent, because the tendency which he resemblesmany others, and is thus
embodied therein found sufficient vent in often only an illustration of the conception
other spheres. In general the history of of this class or calling. On the other hand, as
woman in the outer as well as the inner life, though to compensate him for this absorp-
individually as well as collectively, exhibits tion, he is invested with the full importance
such a comparatively great uniformity, lev- and the objective as well as social power of
eling and similarity, that she requiresa more this class. To his individual importance is
lively activity at least in the sphere of fash- added that of his class, which often covers
ion, which is nothing more nor less than the defects and deficienciesof his purely per-

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 552 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
sonal character. The individuality of the spheres outside of mere styles of apparel,for
class often supplements or replaces that of the form of mutability in which it is pre-
the member.This identical thing fashion ac- sented to the individual is under all circum-
complishes with other means. Fashion also stances a contrast to the stability of the ego-
supplements a person's lack of importance, feeling. Indeed, the latter, through this con-
his inability to individualize his existence trast, must become conscious of its relative
purely by his own unaided efforts, by en- duration. The changeablenessof those con-
abling him to join a set characterizedand tents can expressitself as mutability and de-
singled out in the public consciousness by velop its attraction only through this endur-
fashion alone. Here also, to be sure, the per- ing element. But for this very reasonfashion
sonality as such is reduced to a general for- always stands, as I have pointed out, at the
mula, yet this formula itself, from a social periphery of personality, which regards it-
standpoint, possesses an individual tinge, self as a piece de resistancefor fashion, or at
and thus makes up through the social way least can do so when called upon.
what is denied to the personality in a purely It is this phase of fashion that is received
individual way. The fact that the demi- by sensitive and peculiarpersons, who use it
monde is so frequently a pioneer in nlatters as a sort of mask. They considerblind obedi-
of fashion, is due to its peculiarly uprooted ence to the standards of the general public
form of life. The pariah existence to which in all externals as the conscious and desired
society condemns the demi-monde, pro- means of reserving their personalfeeling and
duces an open or latent hatred against ev- their taste, which they are eager to reserve
erything that has the sanction of law, of for themselves alone, in such a way that
every permanent institution, a hatred that they do not care to enter in an appearance
finds its relatively most innocent and aes- that is visible to all. It is thereforea feeling
thetic expressionin the striving for ever new of modesty and reserve which causes many a
forms of appearance.In this continual striv- delicate nature to seek refuge in the leveling
ing for new, previously unheard-offashions, cloak of fashion; such individuals do not
in the regardlessnesswith which the one that care to resort to a peculiarity in externalsfor
is most diametricallyopposedto the existing fear of perhaps betraying a peculiarity of
one is passionately adopted, there lurks an their innermost soul. We have here a tri-
aesthetic expressionof the desirefor destruc- umph of the soul over the actual circum-
tion, which seems to be an element peculiar stances of existence, which must be consid-
to all that lead this pariah-likeexistence, so ered one of the highest and finest victories,
long as they are not completely enslaved at least as far as form is concerned, for the
within. [1461 reasons that the enemy himself is trans-
When we examine the final and most formed into a servant, and that the very
subtle impulses of the soul, which it is dif- thing which the personality seemed to sup-
ficult to express in words, we find that they press is voluntarily seized, because the level-
also exhibit this antagonisticplay of the fun- ing suppressionis here transferredto the ex-
damental human tendencies. These latter ternal spheres of life in such a way that it
seek to regain their continually lost balance furnishes a veil and a protection for every-
by means of ever new proportions,and they thing spiritual and now all the more free.
succeed here through the reflection which This correspondsexactly to the triviality of
fashion occasionally throws into the most expression and conversation through which
delicate and tender spiritual processes. very sensitive and retiringpeople, especially
Fashion insists, to be sure, on treating all women, often deceive one about the individ-
individualities alike, yet it is always done in ual depth of the soul. It is one of the pleas-
such a way that one's whole nature is never ures of the judge of human nature, although
affected. Fashion always continues to be re- somewhat cruel withal, to feel the anxious-
garded as something external, even in ness with which woman clings to the com-

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 FASHION 553

monplacecontents and forms of social inter- which would have aroused unconquerable
course. The impossibility of enticing her repugnance in his soul had they been sug-
beyond the most banal and trite forms of gested to him alone. It is one of the strangest
expression, [147] which often drives one to social-psychological phenomena, in which
despair, in innumerable instances signifies this characteristicof concertedaction is well
nothing more than a barricade of the soul, exemplified, that many fashions tolerate
an iron mask that conceals the real features breaches of modesty which, if suggested to
and can furnishthis service only by means of the individual alone, would be angrily re-
a wholly uncompromisingseparation of the pudiated. But as dictates of fashion they
feelings and the externals of life. find ready acceptance. The feeling of shame
All feeling of shamerests upon isolation of is eradicated in matters of fashion, because
the individual; it arises whenever stress is it represents a united action, in the same
laid upon the ego, whenever the attention of way that the feeling of responsibility is ex-
a circle is drawn to such an individual-in tinguished in the participants of a crime
reality or only in his imagination-which at committed by a mob, each member of
the same time is felt to be in some way in- which, if left to himself, would shrink from
congruous. For that reason retiring and violence.
weak natures particularlyincline to feelings Fashion also is only one of the forms by
of shame. The moment they step into the the aid of which men seek to save their inner
centre of generalattention, the moment they freedom all the more completely by sacrific-
make themselves conspicuousin any way, a ing externals to enslavement by the general
painful oscillation between emphasis and public. Freedomand dependencealso belong
withdrawalof the ego becomes manifest. In- to [148] those antagonistic pairs, whose ever
asmuch as the individual departure from a renewed strife and endless mobility give to
generality as the source of the feeling of life much more piquancy and permit of a
shame is quite independentof the particular much greater breadth and development,
content upon the basis of which it occurs, than a permanent, unchangeablebalance of
one is frequently ashamedof good and noble the two could give. Schopenhauerheld that
things. The fact that the commonplace is each person's cup of life is filled with a cer-
good form in society in the narrowersense of tain quantity of joy and woe, and that this
the term, is due not only to a mutual regard, measure can neither remain empty nor be
which causes it to be consideredbad taste to filled to overflowing, but only changes its
make one's self conspicuous through some form in all the differentiations and vacilla-
individual, singular expression that not ev- tions of internal and external relations. In
ery one can repeat, but also to the fear of the same way and much less mystically we
that feeling of shame which as it were forms may observe in each period, in each class,
a self-inflictedpunishmentfor the departure and in each individual, either a really per-
from the form and activity similarfor all and manent proportion of dependenceand free-
equally accessible to all. By reason of its pe- dom, or at least the longing for it, whereas
culiar inner structure, fashion furnishes a we can only change the fields over which
departureof the individual, which is always they are distributed. It is the task of the
looked upon as proper. No matter how ex- higher life, to be sure, to arrange this dis-
travagant the form of appearanceor mnanner tribution in such a way that the other values
of expression,as long as it is fashionable,it is of existence require thereby the possibility
protected against those painful reflections of the most favorable development. The
which the individual otherwise experiences same quantity of dependence and freedom
when he becomes the object of attention. All may at one time help to increase the moral,
concerted actions are characterizedby the intellectual, and aesthetic values to the
loss of this feeling of shame. As a memberof highest point and at another time, without
a mass the individual will do many things any change in quantity but merely in dis-

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554 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

tribution, it may bring about the exact op- appear in the same irrational manner. We
posite of this success. Speaking broadly, we might call this a personal fashion, which
may say that the most favorable result for forms an analogy to social fashion. The for-
the aggregate value of life will be obtained mer is supported on the one hand by the
when all unavoidable dependence is trans- individual demand for differentiation and
ferred more and more to the periphery, to thereby attests to the same impulse that is
the externals of life. Perhaps Goethe, in his active in the formation of social fashion.
later period, is the most eloquent example of The need of imitation, of similarity, of the
a wholly great life, for by means of his blending of the individual in the mass, are
adaptability in all externals,his strict regard here satisfied purely within the individual
for form, his willing obedience to the con- himself, namely through the concentration
ventions of society, he attained a maximum of the personal consciousness upon this one
of inner freedom, a complete saving of the form or content, as well as through the imi-
centres of life from the touch of the unavoid- tation of his own self, as it were, which here
able quantity of dependence.In this respect takes the place of imitation of others. In-
fashion is also a social form of marvelous deed, we might say that we attain in this
expediency, because, like the law, it affects case an even more pronounced concentra-
only the externals of life, only those sides of tion, an even more intimate support of the
life which are turned to society. It provides individual contents of life by a central uni-
us with a formulaby means of which we can formity than we do where the fashion is
unequivocally attest our dependence upon common property.
what is generally adopted, our obedience to A certain intermediatestage is often real-
the standards established by our time, our ized within narrow circles between individ-
class, and our narrowercircle, and enablesus ual mode and personal fashion. Ordinary
to withdraw the freedom given us in life persons frequently adopt some expression,
from externals and concentrate it more and which they apply at every opportunity -in
more in our innermost natures. common with as many as possible in the
Within the individual soul the relations of same set-to all manner of suitable or uni-
equalizing unification and individual de- suitable objects. In one respect this is a
marcation are to a certain extent repeated. group fashion, yet in another respect it is
The antagonism of the tendencies which really individual, for its express purpose
produces fashion is transferred as far as consists in having the individual make the
form is concerned in an entirely similar totality of his circle of ideas subject to this
manneralso to those inner relations of many formula. Brutal violence is hereby com-
individuals, who have nothing whatever to mitted against the individuality of things;
do with social obligations. The instances to all variation is destroyed by the curious su-
which I have just referred exhibit the oft- premacy of this one category of expressions,
mentioned parallelism with which the rela- for example, when we designate all things
tions between individuals are repeatedin the that happen to please us for any reason
correlationbetween the psychic elements of whatsoever as "chic," or "smart," even
the individual himself. With more [149] or though the objects in question may bear no
less intention the individual often estab- relation whatsoever to the fields to which
lishes a mode of conduct or a style for him- these expressionsbelong. In this mannerthe
self, which by reason of the rhythm of its inner worldof the individual is made subject
rise, sway, and decline becomes character- to fashion, and thus reflects the aspects of
ized in fashion. Young people especially the external group governed by fashion,
often exhibit a sudden strangeness in be- chiefly by reason of the objective absurdity
havior; an unexpected, objectively un- of such individual manners, which illustrate
founded interest arises and governs their the power of the formal, unifying element
whole sphere of consciousness, only to dis- over the objective rational element. In the

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 FASHION 555
same way many personsand circles only ask only if the latter undergoesvariations corre-
that they be uniformly governed, without sponding to the changes of the former.
thinking to inquire into the nature or value We have seen that in fashion the different
of the authority. It cannot be denied that dimensions of life, so to speak, acquire a pe-
inasmuch as violence is done to objects culiar convergence,that fashion is a complex
treated in this way, and inasmuch as they structure in which all the leading antitheti-
are all transformeduniformly to a category cal tendencies of the soul are representedin
of our own making, the individual really one way or another. This will make clear
rendersan arbitrarydecision with respect to that the total rhythm in which the individ-
these objects, he acquiresan individual feel- uals and the groups move will exert an im-
ing of power, and thus the ego is strongly portant influencealso upon their relation to
emphasized. [150] fashion, that the various strata of a group,
The fact that appearshere in the light of altogether aside from their different con-
a caricature is everywhere noticeable to a tents of life and external possibilities, will
less pronounced degree in the relation of bear differentrelations to fashion simply be-
persons to things. Only the noblest persons cause their contents of life are evolved either
seek the greatest depth and power of their in conservative or in rapidly varying form.
ego by respecting the individuality inherent On the one hand the lower classes are diffi-
in things. The hostility which the soul bears cult to put in motion and they develop
to the supremacy, independence,and indif- slowly. A very clear and instructive example
ferenceof the universe gives rise-beside the of this may be found in the attitude of the
loftiest and most valuable strivings of hu- lower classes in England towardsthe Danish
manity-to attempts to oppress things ex- and the Norman conquests. On the whole
ternally; the ego offers violence to them not the changes brought about affected the up-
by absorbingand molding their powers, not per classes only; in the lower classes we find
by recognizing their individuality only to such a degreeof fidelity to arrangementsand
make it serviceable,but by forcing it to bow forms of life that the whole continuity of
outwardly to some subjective formula. To English life which was retained through all
be sure the ego has not in reality gained con- those national vicissitudes rests entirely
trol of the things, but only of its own false upon the persistence and immovable con-
and fanciful conception of them. The feeling servatism of the lower classes. The [151]
of power, however, which originates thus, upper classes, however, were most intensely
betrays its lack of foundation and its fanci- affected and transformedby new influences,
ful origin by the rapidity with which such just as the upper branchesof a tree are most
expressionspass by. It is just as illusionary responsive to the movements of the air. The
as the feeling of the uniformity of being, highest classes, as everyone knows, are the
which springsfor the moment from this for- most conservative, and frequently enough
mulating of all expressions. As a matter of they are even archaic.They dreadevery mo-
fact the man who carries out a schematic tion and change, not because they have an
similarity of conduct under all circum- antipathy for the contents or because the
stances is by no means the most consistent, latter are injurious to them, but simply be-
the one asserting the ego most regularly cause it is change and because they regard
against the universe. On account of the dif- every modification of the whole, as suspi-
ference in the given factors of life, a differ- cious and dangerous. No change can bring
ence of conduct will be essential whenever them additional power, and every change
the same germ of the ego is to prevail uni- can give them something to fear, but noth-
formly over all, just as identical answersin a ing to hope for. The real variability of his-
calculation into which two factors enter, of torical life is therefore vested in the middle
which one continually varies, cannot be se- classes, and for this reason the history of so-
cured if the other remains unchanged, but cial and cultural movements has fallen into

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 556 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

an entirely differentpace since the tiers etat also because even the higher circles of so-
assumed control. For this reason fashion, ciety could not afford to adopt the rapid
which represents the variable and contrast- changes in fashion forced upon them by the
ing formsof life, has since then becomemuch imitation of the lower circles, if the objects
broader and more animated, and also be- were not relatively cheap. The rapidity of
cause of the transformationin the immedi- the development is of such importance in
ate political life, for man requiresan ephem- actual articles of fashion that it even with-
eral tyrant the moment he has rid himself of draws them from certain advances of econ-
the absolute and permanent one. The fre- omy gradually won in other fields. It has
quent change of fashion represents a tre- been noticed, especially in the olderbranches
mendous subjugation of the individual and of modern productive industry, that the
in that respect forms one of the essential speculative element graduallyceases to play
complementsof the increasedsocial and po- an influential rolc. The movements of the
litical freedom. A form of life, for the con- mnarketcan be better overlooked, require-
tents of which the moment of acquired ments can be better foreseen and production
height marks the beginning of decline, be- can be more accurately regulated than be-
longs to a class which is inherently much fore, so that the rationalization of produc-
more variable, much more restless in its tion makes greater and greater inroads on
rhythms than the lowest classes with their chance conjunctures,on the aimless vacilla-
dull, unconscious conservatism, and the tion of supply and demand. Only pure ar-
highest classes with their consciouslydesired ticles of fashion seem to prove an exception.
conservatism. Classes and individuals who The polar oscillations, which modern eco-
demand constant change, because the rapid- nomics in many instances knows how to
ity of their development gives them the ad- avoid and from which it is visibly striving
vantage over others, find in fashion some- towards entirely new economic orders and
thing that keeps pace with their own soul- forms, still hold sway in the field immedi-
movements. Social advance above all is fa- ately subject to fashion. The element of
vorable to the rapid change of fashion, for it feverish changeis so essential here that fash-
capacitates lower classes so much for imita- ion stands, as it were, in a logical contrast to
tion of upper ones, and thus the process the tendencies for development in modern
characterizedabove, according to which ev- economics.
ery higher set throws aside a fashion the In contrast to this characteristic, how-
moment a lower set adopts it, has acquired a ever, fashion possesses this peculiar quality,
breadth and activity never dreamed of that every individual type to a certain ex-
before. tent makes its appearance as though it in-
This fact has important bearing on the tended to live forever. When we furnish a
content of fashion. Above all else it brings in house these days, intending the articles to
its train a reduction in the cost and ex- last a quarterof a century, we invariably in-
travaganceof fashions. In earliertimes there vest in furniture designed according to the
was a compensationfor the costliness of the very latest patterns and do not even con-
first acquisition or the difficulties in trans- sider articles in vogue two years before. Yet
forming conduct and taste in the longer du- it is evident that the attraction of fashion
ration of their sway. The more an article will desert the present article just as it left
becomes subject to rapid changes of fashion, the earlier one, and satisfaction or dissatis-
the greaterthe demandfor cheapproducts of faction with both forms is determined by
its kind, not only because the larger and other material criterions.A peculiarpsycho-
therefore poorer classes nevertheless have logical process seems to be at work here in
enough purchasingpower to regulate indus- addition to the mere bias of the moment.
try and demand objects, which [152]at least Some fashion always exists and fashion per
bear the outward semblance of style, but se is indeed immortal, which fact seems to

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 FASHION 557
affect in some manner or other each of its them for that very purpose, while others, as
manifestations, although the very nature of though wilful and supported by nature,
each individual fashion stamps it as being avoid all transformation into the given
transitory. The fact that change itself does forms of art. The sovereignty of art over real-
not change, in this instance endows each of ity by no means implies, as naturalism and
the objects which it affects with a psycho- many theories of idealism so steadfastly
logical appearanceof duration. maintain, the ability to drawall the contents
This apparent duration becomes real for of existence uniformly into its sphere. None
the different fashion-contents within the of the forms by which the human mind mas-
changeitself in the followingspecial manner. ters the material of existence and adapts it
Fashion, to be sure, is concernedonly with to its purpose is so general and neutral that
change, yet like all phenomena it tends to all objects, indifferent as they are to their
conserve energy; it endeavors to attain its own structure, should uniformly conform to
objects as completely as possible, but never- it.
theless with the relatively most economical Thus fashion can to all appearancesand
means. For this very reason, fashion repeat- in abstractoabsorb any chosen content: any
edly returns to old forms, as is illustrated given form of clothing, of art, of conduct, of
particularly in wearing-apparel; and the opinion may become fashionable. And yet
course of fashion has been likened to a many forms in their deeper nature show a
circle. [153]As soon as an earlierfashion has special disposition to live themselves out in
partially been forgotten there is no reason fashion, just as others offer inward resist-
why it should not be allowed to return to ance. Thus, for example, everything that
favor and why the charm of difference, may be termed "classic" is comparatively
which constitutes its very essence, should far removed from fashion and alien to it,
not be permitted to exercise an influence although occasionally, of course, the classic
similar to that which it exerted conversely also falls under the sway of fashion. The na-
some time before. ture of the classic is determinedby a concen-
The power of the moving form upon tration of the parts around a fixed centre;
which fashion lives is not strong enough to classic objects possess an air of composure,
subject every fact uniformly. Even in the which does not offer so many points of at-
fields governed by fashion, all forms are not tack, as it were, from which modification,
equally suited to become fashion, for the pe- disturbance, destruction of the equilibrium
culiar characterof many of them furnishesa might emanate. Concentrationof the limbs
certain resistance. This may be compared is characteristic of classic plastics: the tout
with the unequalrelation that the objects of ensembleis absolutely governedfrom within,
externalperceptionbear to the possibility of the spirit and the feeling of life governing
their being transformedinto works of art. It the whole [154] embrace uniformly every
is a very enticing opinion, but one that can- single part, because of the perceptible unity
not hold water, that every real object is of the object. That is the reason we speak of
equally suited to become the object of a the classic repose of Greek art. It is due ex-
work of art. The forms of art, as they have clusively to the concentrationof the object,
developed historically-constantly deter- which concentrationpermits no part to bear
mined by chance, frequently one-sided and any relation to any extraneous powers and
affected by technical perfections and imper- fortunes and thereby incites the feeling that
fections-by no means occupy a neutral this formation is exempt from the changing
height above all world objects. On the con- influences of general life. In contrast to this
trary, the forms of art bear a closer relation everything odd, extremeand unusual will be
to some facts than they do to others. Many drawn to fashion from within: fashion does
objects assume artistic form without appar- not take hold of such characteristicthings as
ent effort, as though nature had created an external fate, but rather as the historical

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558 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

expression of their material peculiarities. existence. Thus Elizabeth Charlotte of the

The widely projecting limbs in baroque- Palatinate, a sister-in-lawof Louis XIV, ex-
statues seem to be in perpetual danger of ceedingly masculine in her ways, inspired
being broken off, the inner life of the figure the fashion at the French Court of women
does not exercise complete control over acting like men and being addressedas such,
them, but turns them over a prey to the whereas the men conducted themselves like
chance influences of external life. Baroque women. It is self-evident that such behavior
forms in themselves lack repose, they seem can be countenanced by fashion only be-
ruled by chance and subjected to the mo- cause it is far removed from that never-
mentary impulse, which fashion expressesas absent substance of human relations to
a form of social life. But still another factor which the form of life must eventually re-
confronts us here, namely, that we soon turn in some way, shape, or manner. We
grow tired of eccentric, bizarre or fanciful cannot claim that all fashion is unnatural,
formsand from a purely physiologicalstand- because the existence of fashion itself seems
point long for the change that fashion out- perfectly [155]natural to us as social beings,
lines for us. yet we can say, conversely, that absolutely
I have had occasion to point out above unnaturalformsmay at least for a time bear
that the tempoof fashion depends upon the the stamp of fashion.
loss of sensibility to nervous incitements To sum up, the peculiarly piquant and
which are formed by the individual disposi- suggestive attraction of fashion lies in the
tion. The latter changes with the ages, and contrast between its extensive, all-embrac-
combines with the form of the objects in an ing distribution and its rapid and complete
inextricable mutual influence. We find here disintegration; and with the latter of these
also one of the deep relations which we characteristics the apparent claim to per-
thought to have discovered between the manent acceptanceagain stands in contrast.
classical and the "natural" composition of Furthermore,fashion depends no less upon
things. The conception of what is included the narrowdistinctions it draws for a given
in the term natural is rather vague and mis- circle, the intimate connection of which it
leading, for as a rule it is merely an expres- expresses in the terms of both cause and ef-
sion of value, which is employed to grace fect, than it does upon the decisiveness with
values prized for different reasons, and which it separates the given circle from
which has therefore been uniformly sup- others. And, finally, fashion is based on
ported by the most antagonistic elements. adoption by a social set, which demandsmu-
At the same time, we may limit the term tual imitation from its membersand thereby
"natural" from a negative standpoint by a releasesthe individual of all responsibility-
process of exclusion, inasmuch as certain ethical and aesthetic-as well as of the pos-
forms, impulses and conceptions can cer- sibility of producingwithin these limits indi-
tainly lay no claim to the term; and these vidual accentuation and original shading of
are the forms that succumbmost rapidly to the elements of fashion. Thus fashion is
the changes of fashion, because they lack shown to be an objective characteristic
that relation to the fixed centreof things and grouping upon equal terms by social expe-
of life which justifies the claim to permanent diency of the antagonistic tendencies of life.

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