Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy

Innovations in Clinical and Educational Interventions

ISSN: 1533-2691 (Print) 1533-2683 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wcrt20

The Effectiveness of Emotionally Focused Couples

Therapy With Veterans With PTSD: A Pilot Study

Neil Weissman, Sonja V. Batten, Kathryn D. Rheem, Stephanie A. Wiebe,

Rebecca M. Pasillas, Wendy Potts, Melissa Barone, Clayton H. Brown & Lisa
B. Dixon

To cite this article: Neil Weissman, Sonja V. Batten, Kathryn D. Rheem, Stephanie A. Wiebe,
Rebecca M. Pasillas, Wendy Potts, Melissa Barone, Clayton H. Brown & Lisa B. Dixon (2017): The
Effectiveness of Emotionally Focused Couples Therapy With Veterans With PTSD: A Pilot Study,
Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15332691.2017.1285261

Published online: 01 Mar 2017.

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JOURNAL OF COUPLE & RELATIONSHIP THERAPY
, VOL. , NO. , –
http://dx.doi.org/./..

The Effectiveness of Emotionally Focused Couples Therapy

With Veterans With PTSD: A Pilot Study
Neil Weissmana , Sonja V. Battena , Kathryn D. Rheemb , Stephanie A. Wiebec ,
Rebecca M. Pasillasd , Wendy Pottse , Melissa Baronea , Clayton H. Brownf ,
and Lisa B. Dixong
a
VA Maryland Health Care System, Balitmore, Maryland, USA; b Washington Baltimore Center for
Emotionally Focused Therapy, Falls Church, Virginia, USA; c The Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa Couple and
Family Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; d VISN  Capitol Health Care Network, MIRECC, Balitmore,
Maryland, USA; e University of Maryland, Department of Psychiatry, Division of Services Research,
Balitmore, Maryland, USA; f VISN  Capitol Health Care Network MIRECC and University of Maryland,
Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Balitmore, Maryland, USA; g VISN  Capitol Health Care
Network, MIRECC and University of Maryland, Department of Psychiatry, Division of Services Research,
Balitmore, Maryland, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The current study is a pilot project conducted at Baltimore VA Couples; emotionally focused
Medical Center investigating the use of emotionally focused cou- therapy; posttraumatic stress
ples therapy (EFT) for couples in which one partner is a vet- disorder; veterans
eran who has been diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disor-
der (PTSD). Fifteen couples enrolled in the study and seven of
these couples completed treatment (26 to 36 weekly sessions
of EFT). Both partners were assessed on measures of relation-
ship satisfaction, psychological distress, depression, and quality
of life, and veterans were assessed on measures of PTSD symp-
toms at baseline and 2 weeks after the intervention. Paired t-tests
were used to compare scores before and after EFT. In terms of
results, the veterans’ partners reported significant improvements
in relationship and life satisfaction and in decreased depression
and a decrease in psychological distress. Veterans demonstrated
a significant decrease in self-reported symptoms of PTSD. These
results provide preliminary evidence for the usefulness of EFT to
help foster improved relationship satisfaction, and psychological
well-being for veterans with PTSD and their partners who com-
pleted treatment.

Disruptions in interpersonal relationships are a hallmark of combat deployments

in which servicemembers are separated from their families for long periods of time
in dangerous situations. Reintegration after deployment is inherently stressful for
servicemembers and their families, and, when present, combat-related psycholog-
ical concerns such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression, often
play into relationship distress (Allen, Rhoades, Stanley, & Markman, 2010; Mon-
son, Taft, & Fredman, 2009; Riggs, Byrne, Weathers, & Litz, 1998; Taft, Watkins,
Stafford, Street, & Monson, 2011). The current study is an exploratory investigation

CONTACT Neil Weissman [email protected] Baltimore VAMC,  N. Greene St., Baltimore, MD , USA.
©  Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 N. WEISSMAN ET AL.

of a couple-based intervention, emotionally focused couple therapy (EFT), for veter-

ans and their romantic partners to address psychological symptoms and relationship
distress.

PTSD and Couple Relationships

The vast majority of studies and treatment methods have focused on the individual
with PTSD. While it is important that individual trauma survivors receive treatment
and attention, the emphasis on the individual can leave the needs of the partner
of the trauma survivor unattended and the value of their role in supporting their
partner untapped (Sherman et al., 2005a). Research has shown that posttraumatic
stress affects not only the survivor but also the intimate partners and other family
members (Galovski & Lyons, 2004) and can leave partners and other family mem-
bers experiencing significant relational and emotional distress (Manguno-Mire
et al., 2007; Renshaw & Campbell, 2011). Studies have demonstrated that partners
of trauma survivors reported feeling intense negative emotion, isolation, and rela-
tionship dissatisfaction (Reid, Wampler, & Taylor, 1996), and higher levels of PTSD
symptoms are significantly associated with higher levels of relationship distress
(Khaylis, Polusny, Erbes, Gewitz, & Rath, 2011).
Taft and colleagues (2011) conducted a meta-analysis revealing significant corre-
lations between PTSD and relational discord, interpersonal aggression, and physical
aggression, and this association was stronger for military than for civilian couples
(Allen et al., 2010; Teten et al., 2010). Other studies have linked PTSD to problem-
atic parenting and marital relationships (Monson et al., 2009). Indeed, psycholog-
ical distress related to deployment is associated with difficulties in the family rela-
tionships of veterans (Erbes, Meis, Polusny, & Compton, 2011; Gerwitz, Polusny,
Degarmo, Khaylis, & Erbes, 2010; Sayers, Farrow, Ross, & Oslin, 2009). Further,
stressful relationship discord can exacerbate PTSD symptoms and is associated with
poor individual treatment outcomes (Tarrier, Sommerfield, & Pilgrim, 1999). Batten
and colleagues (2009) found that veterans with PTSD desire greater family involve-
ment in their care. Including family members in the treatment of PTSD empowers
family members to support the veteran’s recovery, thus benefitting both partners
(Sherman, Zanotti, & Jones, 2005b). The interconnected nature of PTSD and rela-
tionship distress among veterans, as evidenced by the research, points to the value
of including partners in treatment.

Interventions for Veterans and Their Families

Interventions designed to improve relationship functioning in couples and
families of veterans diagnosed with PTSD have shown encouraging results. The
interventions researched thus far have been largely skills based, including cognitive-
behavioral conjoint therapy (CBCT) and structured approach therapy (SAT). Mon-
son and colleagues (2009) examined CBCT in a small sample of a nondistressed
veteran population. As a result of this pilot study, relationship partners reported
 JOURNAL OF COUPLE & RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 3

improvements in relationship satisfaction, anxiety, and social functioning. In a ran-

domized controlled trial, Monson and colleagues (2011) also found that CBCT for
couples with one partner with PTSD in a community population reduced PTSD
symptoms and improved marital satisfaction. In 2013, Schumm, Fredman, Mon-
son, and Chard reported initial findings from a study of Operation Enduring Free-
dom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF; N = 6 couples) combat veterans and their
partners that used CBCT. Although four of the six veterans rated their relationships
as nondistressed, the three distressed partners were in the nondistressed range at
posttreatment. Erbes, Polusny, MacDermaid, and Compton (2008) used an adapta-
tion of integrative behavioral couple therapy (IBCT), an approach based on CBCT
with an added focus on emotional acceptance, in a case study highlighting the rele-
vance of couple therapy for postdeployment couples.
SAT specifically targets emotional numbing, a symptom of PTSD, through stress
inoculation by using education and skills training for veterans and their partners. In
an uncontrolled study of SAT conducted with six veterans and their partners, Saut-
ter, Glynn, Thompson, Franklin, and Han (2009) found a reduction in the symptoms
addressed by the intervention, namely emotional numbing. Sautter, Glynn, Cretu,
Senturk, and Vaught (2015) conducted a randomized clinical trial of OIF/OEF
veterans with PTSD and their cohabitating partners by using SAT compared with
couple-based family education. Findings revealed that veterans receiving SAT
showed significantly greater reductions in PTSD symptoms than did those who
received family education at a 3-month follow-up. Further, SAT was associated with
significant improvements in relationship adjustment, state anxiety, and reductions
in attachment insecurity (attachment avoidance).

EFT for Veterans and Their Partners

The focus of EFT is to create attachment security in romantic relationships by
increasing emotional safety and responsiveness, which lends itself well to helping
veterans with PTSD and their partners in dealing with the distressing emotions
inherent in war-related experiences during deployment and reintegration with the
family (Blow, Curtis, Wittenborn, & Gorman, 2015; Johnson, 2002).
The symptoms of PTSD that have demonstrated the strongest link to interper-
sonal difficulties are the avoidance symptoms (Pietrzak, Goldstein, Malley, Rivers, &
Southwick, 2010). This is not surprising given that “stone-walling” and “unrequited”
bids for emotional connection are strongly associated with relationship distress and
highly predictive of divorce (Gottman, 1993; Gottman & Levenson, 1999). Further,
treatment of PTSD symptoms involves gradually reducing reliance on avoidance
coping strategies across a variety of individual-based trauma treatment approaches
(Briere & Scott, 2014). EFT helps partners create a safe emotional connection in
which difficult emotional experiences can be shared and responded to. It is not nec-
essary for veterans to share the details of their war-related experiences per se, but
that they are able to share their emotions surrounding these events and how this
affects them in the present is important (Blow et al., 2015).
4 N. WEISSMAN ET AL.

In the attachment literature, attachment security has been shown to play a role
in psychological adjustment after traumatic events (Andersen, Elklit, & Vase, 2011;
Basham, 2008). Further, attachment avoidance, an attachment strategy that relies
on de-activating affect regulation strategies in attachment relationships, is associ-
ated with lesser relationship satisfaction (Mondor, McDuff, Lussier, & Wright, 2011).
EFT helps partners create a secure attachment bond that can foster resiliency to
stress for both partners (Wiebe & Johnson, 2017). In EFT, the attachment-related
emotions are recognized as the focal point around which therapeutic change occurs
(Greenman & Johnson, 2013). Attachment theory suggests that all humans, regard-
less of rank, grade, or status, have the innate need for closeness and responsiveness
from significant others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007; Greenman & Johnson, 2013).
For adults, the romantic partner becomes an attachment figure, and the romantic
relationship, an attachment bond. Any threat to this bond-such as the emotional
numbing of one partner-creates significant distress in the other partner. Mikulincer
and Shaver (2007) note that attachment figures serve as a safe haven and a secure
base that plays a role in regulating negative affective states and facilitating positive
affective states. Johnson (2005) argues that the isolation and lack of secure connec-
tion to others, resulting from PTSD, can undermine one’s recovery, whereas hav-
ing a secure connection fosters resilience and is, therefore, a natural place for heal-
ing to occur. Recent research has shown that across EFT sessions, couples report
linear reductions in attachment avoidance (Burgess Moser et al., 2015), and after
EFT, female partners have shown a greater capacity to be soothed by their part-
ner, as indicated by reduced activation in brain areas associated with processing
stress, when their partner was present in a stressful situation (Johnson et al., 2013).
When a veteran copes by shutting down and numbing, access to emotions neces-
sary to respond to his/her partner in the relationship and seek support to man-
age PTSD symptoms is reduced. Emotional avoidance, a coping strategy that has
only short-term benefits, then can become a factor that contributes to relationship
distress. Focusing as it does on increasing emotional responsiveness and creating a
secure connection between partners, EFT (Johnson, 2004) is well suited to address
both individual symptoms and relationship distress for veterans (Blow et al., 2015;
Johnson, 2002).
EFT fosters emotional safety, responsiveness, and engagement toward the cre-
ation of a secure attachment bond through three stages. In stage 1, deescalation
involves the couple discovering the problematic interactional style and related
attachment emotions fueling their stance in negative patterns such as demand–
withdraw. This awareness, normalization, and framing of the cycle as a common
enemy result in the slowing down of the negative pattern. In stage 2, restructuring
the bond results from facilitating a deeper awareness of emotional needs and long-
ings, the congruent soft expression of those needs to the partner, and acceptance
and responsiveness by the partner, culminating in increased emotional connection
and security. Stage 3 is consolidation, where the couple now become a team and
are able to consider and implement new solutions to old problems (Johnson, 2004,
2009). This results in new positive patterns of interaction that allow partners to seek
 JOURNAL OF COUPLE & RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 5

comfort and support from each other, which in turn promotes resilience and
improved affect regulation (Wiebe & Johnson, 2017).
Empirical support for the efficacy and effectiveness of EFT for couples has
been well established in the literature (Clothier, Manion, Gordon-Walker, & John-
son, 2002; Halchuk, Makinen, & Johnson, 2010; Johnson, Hunsley, Greenberg, &
Schindler, 1999). There is also preliminary evidence of EFT’s effectiveness for cou-
ples with PTSD related to childhood sexual abuse (Macintosh & Johnson, 2008)
and intrafamilial childhood abuse (Dalton, Greenman, Classen, & Johnson, 2013).
Further, there is evidence that EFT may contribute to a reduction in depressive
symptoms (Denton, Wittenborn, & Golden, 2012; Dessaulles, Johnson, & Den-
ton, 2003), a common comorbidity with PTSD (Campbell et al., 2007). For a
complete review of EFT outcome and process research to date, see Wiebe and
Johnson (2016).

The Current Study

The focus of EFT on affect regulation and fostering attachment security in cou-
ple relationships makes EFT well suited to address individual and couple distress
among veterans and their partners. In the current pilot study, we examined changes
in depression, PTSD symptoms, relationship satisfaction, and quality of life by using
paired-samples t-tests in a small sample of veterans with combat-related PTSD and
their partners.
We hypothesized that (a) veterans will demonstrate significant reductions in
symptoms of PTSD on self-report and interview measures from pretherapy to post-
therapy, (b) veterans and their partners will demonstrate significant reductions in
self-reported symptoms of depression from pretherapy to posttherapy, (c) veterans
and their partners will demonstrate significant improvements in self-reported rela-
tionship satisfaction from pretherapy to posttherapy, and (d) veterans and their part-
ners will demonstrate significant improvements in quality of life from pretherapy to
posttherapy.

Method

Procedure

Recruitment and Eligibility

Veterans and their partners were recruited from the Trauma Recovery Program at
an urban Veterans’ Affairs Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland. Veterans who
expressed interest in couple therapy were given an informational flyer with contact
information of study staff by clinicians at the Veterans’ Affairs Medical Center and
other local veterans centers. Eligibility to participate in the pilot study required vet-
erans to be in treatment for PTSD, to have returned from active duty deployment
for more than 1 year, and to have scored 50 or above on the Clinician Adminis-
tered PTSD Scale. Both partners needed to score between 75 and 110 on the Dyadic
6 N. WEISSMAN ET AL.

Adjustment Scale (DAS), indicating mild to moderate relationship distress, and to

have a score between 3 and 5 on item 32 of the DAS indicating a moderate to strong
commitment to the relationship. Participants could not have profound cognitive
limitations, a severe psychotic spectrum disorder, or self-reported current alcohol
or other substance dependence or abuse.
After providing written informed consent, both the veteran and his/her partner
completed an in-person assessment administered by a doctoral-level clinician with
the measures that follow. Couples received a range of 26 to 36 weekly sessions of
EFT; the couple and therapist decided together on the number of sessions. Two
weeks after treatment completion, participants were evaluated with the same bat-
tery and asked about their treatment experiences. Couples were compensated $50
for the completion of pretherapy and $50 for the completion of posttherapy research
sessions.

Participants
A total of 15 couples agreed to participate in the study. During the course of therapy,
five couples were excluded from the study due to the discovery of current substance
abuse problems that were not identified during screening. Of the 10 remaining cou-
ples, three additional couples did not complete therapy for other reasons and were
considered dropouts from the study: deployment (one couple), relationship dissolu-
tion (one couple), and one unknown reason (one couple). Seven couples completed
the intervention. Mean age at baseline was 43 years. The racial distribution of par-
ticipants was 10 white, 1 Native American, and 1 African American (data on race for
one couple were not available). All participants had graduated from high school or
earned a GED, and five had a 4-year college degree. Six of the couples were married,
and one was in a committed relationship, although not living together. The mean
number of years in the relationship was 13. The veterans had served in Vietnam
(three veterans), Vietnam and Persian Gulf (one veteran), OEF/OIF (three veter-
ans). We were not able to obtain posttest results for the eight couples who dropped
out of the study. All veterans reported being exposed to combat-related experiences
that were life threatening or were involved the serious injury or actual death of oth-
ers and were diagnosed with PTSD.

Measures
Demographics Questionnaire
The questionnaire requested basic demographic information about the participants,
including age, race/ethnicity, level of education, marital status, and years in the cur-
rent relationship.

PTSD Checklist (PCL; Weathers, Litz, Herman, Huska, & Keane, )
The PCL is a 17-item self-report scale that measures severity of PTSD symptoms.
Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which each symptom has been an
issue for them during the past month (i.e., “repeated disturbing memories, thoughts,
 JOURNAL OF COUPLE & RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 7

or images of the stressful experience”) on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all to

5 = extremely), yielding a sum score with higher scores indicating higher PTSD
symptoms. The PCL has adequate internal consistency reliability, test-retest relia-
bility, and convergent validity with other measures of PTSD (Weathers et al., 1993;
Weathers, Ruscio, & Keane, 1999).

Lehman Quality of Life Inventory (TL-S; Lehman, )

The TL-30S is a short form of the Lehman Quality of Life Inventory (QOLI; Lehman,
Ward, & Linn, 1982). The TL-30S is a 37-item self-report questionnaire that assesses
both objective and subjective quality of life in several domains (e.g., residential sta-
bility, satisfaction with family relations). The TL-30S includes two types of items
that require the respondent to rate how he or she feels about different aspects of
their lives (i.e., living situation) on a 7-point Likert (1 = terrible to 7 = delighted)
and to choose a statement among an array of statements that best describe his or
her current life circumstances within several specific domains, yielding a sum score
with higher scores indicating higher quality of life. The Lehman QOLI has been
extensively researched and has adequate internal consistency reliability (α = .76) in
psychiatric populations, and validity (Lehman, 1996).

Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD; Hamilton, )

The HRSD is a structured interview and rating scale that consists of 17 items on
scales ranging from 0 to 4 or 0 to 2 (i.e., depressed mood: 0 = absent to 4 = patient
reports virtually only these feeling states in his spontaneous verbal and non-verbal com-
munication; insomnia early: 0 = no difficulty falling asleep to 2 = complains of nightly
difficulty falling asleep). Higher sum scores indicate higher levels of depression. The
HRSD has demonstrated adequate to excellent test–retest reliability (r = 0.46–0.99),
internal consistency reliability (α = .46 to .97), convergent validity, and discriminant
validity across a range of studies (Bagby, Ryder, Schuller, & Marshall, 2004).

CAPS (Blake et al., )

The CAPS is a 30-item clinician-administered structured clinical interview designed
to assess the presence and severity of symptoms associated with PTSD structured
according to DSM-IV criteria. Each item assesses frequency (0 = none of the time
to 4 = most of the time) and intensity (0 = none to 4 = extreme) based on a 4-point
continuum. The presence of posttraumatic symptoms during the previous month
was assessed for this study. A total score was calculated by summing frequency and
intensity ratings. Psychometrically, the CAPS has been validated extensively. Test–
retest reliability ranged from r = 0.90 to 0.98, and internal consistency was reported
at α = .94 as reported by Blake et al. (1990).

Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS; Spanier, )

The DAS is a 32-item self-report instrument that measures relationship satisfaction
in couples. The final item asks the individual to rate his or her commitment to see
the relationship succeed on a 6-point Likert scale. All items are summed for a total
8 N. WEISSMAN ET AL.

score ranging from 0 to 150, with higher scores indicating higher relationship sat-
isfaction. Scores of 70 or below are indicative of severe relationship distress. Scores
from 71 to 100 indicate mild to moderate relationship distress. The DAS has been
found to have good internal consistency reliability (α = .96; Spanier, 1976) and good
test–retest reliability (r = 0.87; Carey, Spector, Lantinga, & Krause, 1993). Spanier
(1976) demonstrated a significant difference between married and divorcing cou-
ples, indicating good validity.

Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI; Derogatis & Melisaratos, )

The BSI is a 53-item self-report measure of symptom distress. It consists of nine
symptom scales and three measures of general distress. For this study, the General
Severity Index (GSI), which reflects the number of symptoms endorsed as well as the
perceived intensity of distress, will be examined. The GSI has demonstrated good
test–retest reliability (r = 0.90).

Postintervention Interview
The authors developed this postintervention semistructured interview to assess cou-
ples’ experiences about the treatment. Questions included the following: “How do
you feel about the duration and frequency of the treatment? What were the most
important ideas/feelings/thoughts that you processed during the therapy? What
changes occurred in your relationship and/or in yourself that are directly related
to the therapy?”

Intervention-EFT for Couples

Veterans and their partners completed 26 to 36 weekly 60-minute sessions of EFT

(Johnson, 2004). The first author, who had completed an externship in EFT and
was supervised by the developer of the EFT model, Susan Johnson, provided treat-
ment in this pilot study. Susan Johnson monitored fidelity to the EFT model through
supervision.

Plan of Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the veterans and their partners at
baseline on each of the dependent variables. Paired t-tests were used to examine pre–
post treatment mean change on the scale score outcomes. We calculated Cohen’s d
effect sizes for each dependent variable. We interpreted effect sizes as small, medium,
and large as 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8, respectively.

Results
At posttreatment, veterans showed significant improvement in PTSD symptoms as
measured by the PCL Checklist from pretest (M = 69.3, SD = 11.4) to posttest
[M = 59.4, SD = 12.3), t(6) = 2.94, p = .026], with a large effect size (d = 1.11;
 JOURNAL OF COUPLE & RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 9

Table . Posttreatment versus pretreatment comparisons for the veterans and their partners.
Paired t-test

Baseline, mean Posttreatment,

(SD) mean (SD) Cohen’s d df t p

Veteran
Global psychological . (.) . (.) .  . .
distress
Relationship . (.) . (.) .  . .
satisfaction
PTSD symptoms . (.) . (.) .  . .
†
(CAPS∗ )
General life satisfaction . (.) . (.) .  . .
‡
PTSD symptoms (PCL) . (.) . (.) .  . .
Depression . (.) . (.) .  . .
Partner
BSI: global severity . (.) . (.) .  . .
index
Total DAS score . (.) . (.) .  . .
General life satisfaction . (.) . (.) .  . .
HAM-D total score . (.) . (.) .  . .

Notes. ∗ Clinician Administered PTSD Scale.

† Missing assessment for one participant.
‡ PTSD Checklist.

see Table 1). There was also improvement in general life satisfaction from pretest
(M = 3.8, SD = 1.1) to posttest [M = 4.5, SD = 0.8), t(6) = 2.20, p = .070], with
a large effect size (d = .83) and depression from pretest (M = 21.4, SD = 7.3) to
posttest [M = 17.0, SD = 5.5), t(6) = 2.01, p = .091] at a trend level with a large
effect size (d = .76). Veterans’ relationship satisfaction also demonstrated a trend
toward improvement from pretest (M = 89.9, SD = 13.8), to posttest [M = 96.3,
SD = 22.5), t(6) = 1.33, p = 0.23], with a medium effect size (d = .50). Veterans also
did not report significant improvements in general symptom distress, or in PTSD
symptoms as measured through the CAPS interview and the effects were small.
Partners showed significant improvement in general life satisfaction from pretest
(M = 5.1, SD = 0.6) to posttest [M = 5.9, SD = 0.9), t(6) = p = .016] with a
large effect size (d = 1.03), significant improvement in relationship satisfaction from
pretest (M = 94.1, SD = 9.2) to posttest [M = 104.7, SD = 17.5), t(6) = 2.55, p =
.043] with a large effect size (d = .96), and reduced symptoms of depression from
pretest (M = 8.3, SD = 3.9) to posttest [M = 4.6, SD = 3.4), t(6) = 2.64, p = .039],
with a large effect size (d = 1.0). Partners’ symptom distress also demonstrated non-
significant reductions from pretest (M = 0.4, SD = 0.2) to posttest [M = 0.3, SD =
.4), t(6) = 1.40, p = .21], with a medium effect size (d = .53).
A total of six veterans and three partners were interviewed about their experi-
ences of therapy after treatment completion with the postintervention interview.
Veterans reported gains in therapy with respect to effective communication (with
representative quotes: “coming for sessions helped us talk about the tough stuff …
stuff that we had stopped trying to talk about on our own”), established trust with
their partner (“sharing my heart-which I never thought was possible-helped me trust
my partner more … it’s like we felt we knew each other better after therapy and that
10 N. WEISSMAN ET AL.

increased our trust”), decreased conflict (“I was never one to think talking would help
but it did. It did help. We argue less and when we do argue, it doesn’t last as long. It
doesn’t get mean and nasty like it did before”), and provided an understanding of how
PTSD symptoms impact their relationship (“we just didn’t know much about PTSD
before this. Maybe we should have but we just never realized how it impacted us-not
just him-but us. We just kept thinking our love was lost and we were struggling to re-
find it. Now, we know so much more about PTSD and how it grabs both of us, not just
him”).

Discussion
This pilot study suggests that EFT is a promising intervention for distressed cou-
ples who also contend with combat trauma and resulting PTSD. Veterans who com-
pleted EFT with their partners demonstrated significant changes in self-reported
PTSD symptoms improved after treatment. In addition, the trend-level improve-
ments in veterans’ posttreatment measures of depression and life satisfaction with
large effect sizes suggest positive change for those who completed treatment.
Veterans also demonstrated trend-level improvements in relationship satisfaction
with a medium effect size. There was a nonsignificant reduction in PTSD symptoms
as measured by the structured clinical interview, with a small effect.
The partners of veterans demonstrated significant improvement in depression,
life satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction. Findings that partners’ relationship
satisfaction improved while veterans’ scores did not are similar to findings in other
studies of conjoint treatment for PTSD (Monson et al., 2012). This may be due
to the impact of PTSD symptoms on relationship partners such that when PTSD
symptoms are less overwhelming, partners feel more satisfied in the relationship. It
is noteworthy that veterans reported in individual postintervention interviews that
EFT improved relationship communication and they felt more “open with,” “close
to,” and “trusting of ” their partners. Further, although not statistically significant,
improvements in veterans’ relationship satisfaction were demonstrated with a large
effect size.

EFT, Relationship Satisfaction, and PTSD Symptoms

This is the first study exploring PTSD symptoms among veterans receiving EFT
with their partners. Past EFT research has examined PTSD symptoms among sur-
vivors of early childhood trauma. MacIntosh and Johnson (2008) found that 50%
of the couples in their study (N = 10) in which one partner was diagnosed with
PTSD in relation to childhood sexual abuse demonstrated a clinically significant
reduction in PTSD symptoms and increased relationship satisfaction. In a random-
ized controlled trial, Dalton et al. (2013) found that couples assigned to receive
EFT (N = 16) reported significantly higher relationship satisfaction scores after
EFT compared with couples in a waitlist control group (N = 16), however these
couples did not demonstrate significant improvements in PTSD symptoms. The
 JOURNAL OF COUPLE & RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 11

authors hypothesized that EFT may have helped partners improve their ability to
cope with trauma symptoms in the relationship as opposed to directly reducing
trauma symptoms per se. In the current study, it is interesting that the greatest
improvements in terms of trauma symptoms for veterans were found on the self-
report measure (PCL), which is more sensitive to the impact of PTSD symptoms
on the veterans’ lives in that it asks about the degree veterans are “bothered” by
each PTSD symptom. In contrast, the interview measure (CAPS) focused specifi-
cally on PTSD symptom frequency and intensity. Therefore, it may be that through
EFT, veterans improved their ability to cope with their symptoms in the context
of their couple relationship rather than a reduction in frequency and intensity of
symptoms per se.
It is not surprising given the past research on EFT demonstrating improvements
in relationship satisfaction for couples (Johnson et al., 1999; Wiebe & Johnson, 2017)
that veterans’ partners demonstrated significant improvements in relationship sat-
isfaction and that veterans demonstrated a trend toward increased relationship sat-
isfaction as well. It is interesting that veterans’ partners demonstrated the greatest
improvement in relationship satisfaction after the completion of EFT. The goal of
EFT is to foster greater emotional responsiveness and connection between partners,
resulting in a more secure attachment bond. Avoidance and emotional numbing are
characteristic of both PTSD symptomatology (Pietrzak et al., 2010) and relation-
ship distress (Gottman, 1993). Previous studies have shown that “stone-walling” and
“unrequired” bids for emotional connection are especially characteristic of relation-
ship distress and predictive of divorce (Gottman & Levenson, 1999). Research has
shown that attachment avoidance, in which deactivating affect regulation strategies
are prominent, is associated with reduced relationship satisfaction in the other part-
ner (Mondor et al., 2011).

Symptoms of Depression in EFT

It is not surprising that partners demonstrated a reduction in self-reported

depressive symptoms, as relationship distress and symptoms of depression have
been found to be highly associated in the literature (Whisman, 2001). Previ-
ous research has also demonstrated reductions in relationship distress and symp-
toms of depression among female partners in a randomized controlled trial
(Denton et al., 2012).

Life Satisfaction in EFT

It is also not surprising that partners demonstrated significant improvements in life
satisfaction, given the strong association between relationship satisfaction and gen-
eral satisfaction with life as noted in the literature (Gosnell & Gable, 2013; Proulx,
2007). It is notable that veterans demonstrated the trend toward improvement in life
satisfaction as well.
12 N. WEISSMAN ET AL.

Implications
The current study holds significant implications for therapists and researchers. Our
results suggest that EFT holds promise as a treatment for relationship distress for
veterans with PTSD and their partners. There is also potential for EFT to contribute
to the reduction in PTSD symptoms for veterans. Therapists may consider adding
EFT as part of the treatment plan for veterans with PTSD who also report relation-
ship distress. The current study also highlights avenues for future research. A ran-
domized controlled trial with a larger sample size examining PTSD symptoms and
relationship satisfaction at pretherapy and posttherapy would allow for causal infer-
ences to be drawn about the impact of EFT on PTSD symptoms and relationship
distress. Further, given the focus of EFT on attachment, and the relevance of attach-
ment for PTSD, future research of EFT for veterans could incorporate measures of
attachment. It would be important, also, to examine in-session therapeutic process
as it relates to outcomes in this population. For instance, future research could exam-
ine whether depth of emotional experiencing in sessions is associated with each of
the clusters of PTSD symptoms at posttreatment.

Strengths and Limitations

This was the first pilot study of EFT with combat-related PTSD. Strengths include
the relevance of examining EFT for veterans with PTSD and their partners in a real-
world setting, and the use of multiple measures of psychological symptoms. This
study also has significant limitations. Two of the obvious limitations are the uncon-
trolled design of the study, which does not allow us to make any casual inferences
about the effect of EFT on veterans and their partners, and the small sample size,
which limits the power of the study. A second concern is that just under half of the
couples who were initially part of the study completed treatment. Five of the eight
couples who did not complete the study were required to withdraw due to alco-
hol and drug abuse, which was an exclusion criterion for the study. This reflects the
difficulties faced by veterans and their partners in the process reintegration, particu-
larly with respect to substance use problems (Pietrzak et al., 2010). Previous studies
of interventions for veterans with PTSD and their partners have assessed for sub-
stance abuse as an exclusion criterion more consistently and set specific limits (i.e.,
does not meet DSM-IV criteria for substance abuse for the past 3 months; Monson
et al., 2009, 2011). We recommend that future EFT research assess substance abuse
more rigorously in pretreatment screening and examine changes in substance use
in a randomized controlled trial format to examine substance use over the course
of EFT versus a control condition and to perhaps include the integration of EFT
into addiction interventions. The results of the current study can only be general-
ized to couples who complete EFT, as we do not have results for the couples who
withdrew from the study. Randomized controlled studies of EFT for veterans and
their partners would allow us to make causal inferences about the effect of EFT on
PTSD symptoms, depression, and relationship distress.
 JOURNAL OF COUPLE & RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 13

Further, we acknowledge that PTSD scores on both measures remain relatively

high at posttreatment for veterans. While EFT may help improve PTSD symptoms, it
is not seen as a stand-alone treatment for PTSD but rather as a component of a com-
prehensive treatment plan in conjunction with evidence-based individual trauma
therapy and other treatments as necessary such as treatment for substance abuse.
Another concern is that there was only one therapist for this study, a doctoral-
level clinician and a novice in the use of EFT, having taken standardized training
but having had limited experience in its clinical application. That said, the clinician
was provided with supervision by the developer of the EFT model. Future research
should use more rigorous fidelity checks to ensure implementation of the EFT model
and involve a number of more-experienced EFT clinicians.

Conclusion
The current study demonstrated that veterans who completed EFT with their part-
ners reported reductions in self-reported PTSD symptoms and that their partners
reported improvements in relationship satisfaction and reductions in symptoms of
depression. The goal of EFT is to promote safe emotional connection allowing for
partners to feel more understood and supported in their relationships and to use
their relationships as a safe haven to soothe distress, such as PTSD symptoms (John-
son, 2002). This increased support is thought to provide both individuals with a
secure base to cope with the tasks of restoring the bond between them after deploy-
ment and the reintegration of the veteran into civilian life. This pilot study is the first
to examine the use of EFT with veterans suffering from PTSD and their partners.
This study provides preliminary data supporting the use and further investigation of
EFT with this population and suggests that, as has been shown with couples facing
other kinds of traumas, this model has the potential to improve individual adjust-
ment and to increase relationship satisfaction in these at-risk relationships. It is our
hope that this pilot study will encourage more extensive research in this area.

Acknowledgments
Sonja V. Batten is now with Booz Allen Hamilton in Washington, DC. Rebecca M. Pasillas is
now at the Department of Psychiatry, Paul L. Foster School of Medicine, Texas Tech University
Health Sciences Center at El Paso. Lisa B. Dixon is now at VISN 3 MIRECC and New York State
Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University Medical Center.

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