Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1395–1411

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Review of propulsion systems on LNG carriers

⁎
crossmark
Ignacio Arias Fernándeza, , Manuel Romero Gómezb, Javier Romero Gómezb,
A. Álvaro Baaliña Insuab
a
Energy Engineering Research Group, University Institute of Maritime Studies, ETSNM University of A Coruña, Paseo de Ronda 51, A Coruña 15011, Spain
b
Energy Engineering Research Group, University Institute of Maritime Studies, Department of Energy and Marine Propulsion, ETSNM University of A
Coruña, Paseo de Ronda 51, A Coruña 15011, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Acronyms: Vessel ozone depleting emission regulations are regulated in Annex VI of the MARPOL Convention, wherein the
2STwo-Stroke maximum levels of NOx, SOx and suspended particles are established. These increasingly strict regulations,
4SFour-Stroke together with the increase in natural gas consumption and its price, have conditioned propulsion systems
AFRAir/Fuel Ratio implemented on board vessels.
BLRBoiler
This article reviews the different propulsion systems used on board vessels for the transport of Liquefied
BOGBoil-Off Gas
COGESCombined Gas turbine Electric &
Natural Gas (LNG). The study describes the main characteristics of the propulsion systems, and the advantages
Steam system and drawbacks that come along with these, from its very beginnings up to the systems installed to date. The
DFDual Fuel described propulsion systems include both gas and steam turbines, combined cycles, 2 and 4 stroke internal
DFDEDual-Fuel (medium speed) Diesel combustion engines, as well as reliquefaction plants, while encompassing mechanical, electric and Dual Fuel
Electric propulsion) (DF) technology systems.
DFDM(HP)Dual-Fuel (low speed) Diesel The propulsion systems implemented have undergone continual alteration in order to adjust to market
Mechanical propulsion (high pressure) needs, which were always governed by both efficiency and the possibility of consuming boil-off gas (BOG),
DFDM (LP)Dual-Fuel (low speed) Diesel
always in compliance with the strict antipollution regulations in force.
Mechanical propulsion (low pressure)
The current direction of LNG vessel propulsion systems is the installation of 2-stroke DF low pressure
DFGEDual-Fuel Gas turbine Electric
propulsion engines due to their high efficiency and their possibility of installing a BOG reliquefaction plant. Another great
DFSMDual-Fuel Steam turbine Mechanical advantage of this propulsion system is its compliance with the IMO TIER III emission regulations, without the
propulsion need to install any supplementary gas treatment system.
DWIDirect Water Injection
GCUGas Combustion Unit
GTGas Turbines
HAMHumid Air Motor
HFOHeavy Fuel Oil
HPHigh Pressure
IPIntermediate Pressure
LDLow Duty
LPLow Pressure
LNGLiquefied Natural Gas
NGNatural Gas
BDCBottom Dead Centre
TDCTop Dead Centre
RHReheater
SCRSelective Catalytic Reduction
SFDM+RSingle-Fuel (low speed) Diesel
Mechanical propulsion with Reliquefaction
STSteam Turbine
USTUltra Steam Turbine
Keywords:
Boil-off gas
Dual fuel
Efficiency

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (I.A. Fernández), [email protected] (M.R. Gómez), [email protected] (J.R. Gómez), [email protected] (Á.B. Insua).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.095
Received 15 October 2015; Received in revised form 21 December 2015; Accepted 22 September 2016
Available online 25 October 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I.A. Fernández et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1395–1411

Liquefied natural gas

Engine
Turbine

1. Introduction Table 2
Thermo-physical properties of medium LNG.
The Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) commerce is under constant
growth owing to its vast demand worldwide [1–4]. Such demand is Parameter Value
provided for mainly by maritime transport, which is the mainstay of Pressure 1.3 bar
bulk material transportation. To meet current demand, the number of Temperature −159.16 °C
LNG vessels has increased considerably in recent years, both on Molecular weight 19.396 g/mol
international markets as well as short-haul sea shipping [1,2,4]. Density 447.56 kg/m3
Higher heat value 49.557 MJ/m3
The design of LNG vessels is determined by the characteristics of the
load, since it is transported in a liquefied state at cryogenic conditions of
−163 °C, and with a pressure slightly above atmospheric [5–7].
The classification of this vessel type is carried out according to its
design, with the integration of the reliquefaction plant being the main In order to transport LNG, the load temperature must be preserved
characteristic, given that the availability of boil-off to be burned in the below its boiling point, at the corresponding pressure inside the tank
systems of power generation and propulsion depends on this [8]. [5]. Table 2 displays the thermo-physical properties of medium LNG
Technological developments implemented on LNG vessel propul- for an average pressure inside the tank of 1.3 bar, calculated using
sion systems is conditioned by factors that are both economic as well as commercial software REFPROP, whose library uses the fundamental
environmental, interlinked by the MARPOL Convention, since the Helmholtz equation to determine the fluid properties with the utmost
restriction of emissions implies the use of higher quality fuels and precision [15].
hence, an increase in costs [7,9].
To date there is no standard propulsion system for LNG vessels 2.1. Boil-off
[10]. After an exhaustive review of works related to LNG vessel
propulsion systems, an extensive variety of systems installed on board Heat transfer to the LNG from the environment through insulated
has been found, ranging from turbines to internal combustion engines spaces and holding tanks results in the boiling of the load, with the
with endless variants. There is, however, no work that carries out a consequent formation of steam, referred to as boil-off gas (BOG) [5,16].
comparison of all systems installed. Therefore, the purpose of this The greatest production of BOG is generated during cargo trans-
review is a study of LNG vessel propulsion systems, taking into account portation. The main reasons for this are:
the latest technological developments in this field.
The paper is organised as follows: Section 2 presents the thermo- – Heat transfer due to the difference in temperature between the
physical properties of LNG as well as its composition, and the boil-off ambient and the cargo being carried [5,17].
gas concept is defined. Section 3 studies the different LNG carrier – The cooling of tanks by spraying the LNG over the cargo itself while
propulsion systems, delineating the advantages and disadvantages of navigating in ballast to maintain the ideal inside temperature [5].
each system, followed by the final section in which the conclusions of – A consequence of the energy dissipated from the slogging between
the study are presented. the walls and the fluid, caused by the load being shaken by the
movement of the vessel. It is on journeys in bad weather conditions
2. Liquefied natural gas that the BOG produced is increased considerably [5].
The BOG produced in the tanks must be removed in order to
LNG vessels are designated to the transportation of natural gas maintain the design pressure within the tanks [15]. This is given by
(NG) from producing countries to consumers, with the principal means different utilities on the vessel:
characteristic being that the load is transported in a liquid state at no – In vessels without a reliquefaction plant it is used as a fuel in the
less than −160 °C and at atmospheric pressure [5–7]. propulsion system and the excess, depending on the system used, is
NG is a mixture of light hydrocarbons, whose main component is burned in the gas combustion unit (GCU) or in the boilers, without
methane (CH4) with a ratio of between 85–96% in volume, with minor exploiting any of the energy to control the pressure level in the tanks
proportions of ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), pen- [18].
tane (C5H12), and nitrogen (N2) as inert component [11]. – On the contrary, on those vessels that do have a reliquefaction plant,
LNG can be classified into three groups, according to its density: heavy, the BOG produced is reliquefied, returning it to the inside of the
medium or light. Their composition is depicted in Table 1 [5,12–14]. cargo spaces in a liquid state. Such option requires a high consump-
tion of energy from the reliquefaction plant [5,8,19].
Table 1
LNG classification based on density and composition [6].
The following sections discuss different methods of BOG treatment,
Molar Composition (%) Light LNG Medium LNG Heavy LNG depending on the purpose for which it is intended as well as on the
vessel´s propulsion system.
Methane (CH4) 98.60 92.30 85.87
Ethane (C2H6) 1.18 5.00 8.40
Propane (C3H8) 0.10 1.50 3.00
3. Propulsion systems
Butane (C4H10) 0.02 0.60 1.20
Pentane (C5H12) – 0.10 0.23 The propulsion system for LNG vessels is closely related with the
Nitrogen (N2) 0.10 0.50 1.30 generation and consumption of the cargo boil-off [5,19]. One way of
Density (kg/m3) (−162 °C/ 427.58 451.58 474.87
classifying LNG vessel propulsion systems is according to the purpose
1.3 bar)
LHV (kJ/kg) 49,935 49,557 48,984 appointed for the BOG produced in the cargo spaces, as illustrated in
Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Classification of propulsion systems depending on the purpose of the Boil-off.

Both the fuels used as well as the emissions regulations are factors These engines, capable of consuming different fuel types, are known
that influence the direction of LNG vessel propulsion systems [7,9]. by the acronym DF (Dual Fuel). The DF engine adopted the lean-burn
Another propulsion system classification is based on the fuel to be concept from the Otto-cycle, and a small amount of diesel as the pilot fuel,
used, as illustrated in Fig. 2 [20], allowing the possibility of selecting approximately 1 to 8%, which is used for ignition in the combustion
the propulsion system based on future lines of development. chamber in its operation with gas as fuel (gas mode) [21,22].
Steam turbine (ST) based propulsion has been the main system DF engines developed around the year 2003 are 4-stroke (4S). At
implemented on LNG vessels since 1960, as this system allows the present, however, owing to technological advances which enable the
simultaneous burning in boilers of heavy fuel-oil together with the BOG use of NG in 2-stroke engines (2S), a new change in propulsion systems
generated during transportation, which in turn feed the propulsion to be implemented on LNG vessels is occurring [21].
turbines and electric turbo generators [20,21]. To follow, a description of the main LNG vessel propulsion systems
Since 2003, LNG vessel propulsion systems have been at a turning is detailed, highlighting their main advantages and disadvantages on
point. STs are being replaced by internal combustion engines due to board.
improvements in the efficiency of the latter and because, as above-
mentioned, these permit the burning of both heavy fuel oil as well as
3.1. Steam turbines (ST)
BOG from the cargo [22].
This shift is reflected in the ordering of 159 methane tankers from
A propulsion plant with turbines usually comprises two boilers with
mentioned date to be constructed with engines as the propulsion
a generating capacity of 80–90 t/h of superheated steam at a pressure
system [21].
of 60–70 bar at 520 °C [23], with the purpose of feeding the high and

Fig. 2. Propulsion systems based on fuel used [20].

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– Process 7-1: Transmission of heat at constant pressure in the

condenser, from the steam to the refrigeration circuit, with the
working fluid reaching subcooled liquid state.
– -Process 1-2: Feedwater compression, up to the high pressure by
means of a turbo pump powered by the very steam generated in the
boilers. At this stage, the process of removing non-condensables
from the system is also performed.

3.1.2. Advantages and drawbacks

The lack of competition in the design of propulsion systems that
allow the consumption of several fuel types such as “heavy fuel oil”
(HFO) and the BOG from the cargo, along with its ease of use, intrinsic
reliability and reduced maintenance costs [10,21], have resulted in STs
being the most popular system on board LNG vessels up to the
beginnings of the new millennium [21]. It is also worth highlighting
the other advantages of this plant type, such as the easy control over
the use of BOG, low vibrations and reduced consumption of lubricating
oil [20].
The main drawback, owing to which new on board propulsion
systems are being sought and implemented, is their poor efficiency,
Fig. 3. Configuration of a basic propulsion system through an ST.
approximately 35% at full cargo, as well as their excessive emissions of
CO2, and a large engine room when compared with other systems [23].
low pressure turbines. The arrangement of the turbines is typically
cross-compound [24], with a net power of between 35MW and 45 MW 3.1.3. Current improvements in ST plants
[23,25]. The steam, once expanded in both turbines, is condensed in ST manufacturers are at a point at which they must improve their
the main condenser and sent back to the boiler by means of pumps, performance if they wish to continue as a propulsion system to be
after passing through a number of heaters which, by taking advantage considered on LNG vessels. The continuous rise in fuel prices [7,9]
of the residual heat, increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Once in together with stricter emissions regulations [1] makes them an
the boiler, the corresponding change of state occurs again through the unattractive propulsion system.
input of heat, returning again to steam phase, thus closing the cycle With the aim of enhancing the efficiency of ST-based propulsion
[10,19,20,26]. plants, a system referred to as Ultra Steam Turbine (UST) has been
The generation of electric energy on board is provided by two turbo developed [21].
generators which are fed by the steam itself generated in both boilers, When compared with existing systems, the key difference resides in
as illustrated in Fig. 3 [20]. Each generator has an average power of the existence of a reheating stage to improve thermodynamic efficiency,
10 MW which, together with a diesel generator of around 3 MW, would as well as the installation of an intermediate pressure turbine (IP).
be sufficient to meet the power demand of the vessel in any given With such developments implemented in the system the efficiency
situation [23]. increases around 15%, but still remains lower than or equal to that
The boilers are designed to simultaneously consume different fuel achieved by internal combustion engines [21,25].
types such as fuel-oil and BOG, giving versatility to the system to be As shown in Table 3, both the temperature as well as the steam
highlighted [19]. The supply of gas from the cargo tanks to the boilers pressure in the BLR of a UST system are greater than that of a
is performed through single stage centrifugal compressors denomi- conventional system, reaching 560 °C at 10 MPa compared with the
nated LD (Low Duty). 515 °C and 6 MPa of a conventional system. The UST system comprises
Such compressors have variable pitch blades, carried by a variable an intermediate pressure turbine (IP) where the steam expands after
speed electric engine, regulating the gas supply to the boilers depend- passing through a reheating stage, in which the temperature of the
ing on the demand at any given moment [21]. steam rises from 365 °C to 560 °C to a pressure of 2 MPa, as is shown
The excess of BOG generated while the vessel is at port or at anchor, in Fig. 5.
a situation in which the propulsion system is out of service, is also The main advantages offered by a UST system when compared with
burned in the boilers, producing steam without any kind of energy a conventional ST system are as follows [25]:
exploitation. This steam is sent directly to the condenser after passing
through a laminating and tempering process known as “dumping”. The – The space taken up in the engine room is not increased despite the
purpose of this process is to provide the capacity to stabilise the increased number of elements of which it is composed.
pressure in the tanks. – Increase in performance of around 15%.
– Highly reliable, comparable to the conventional system.
3.1.1. Thermodynamic cycle – Low emissions, reduced by around 15% of NOx, SOx and CO2.
ST plants are run under a representative thermodynamic cycle
called the Rankine Cycle [27,28]. Fig. 4 depict the different process of a 3.2. Gas turbine
Rankine cycle, based on a conventional propulsion system using a ST
on a merchant ship. The gas turbine (GT) was a technological innovation introduced on
The steam plant shown in Fig. 4(A) and the TS diagram shown in LNG vessels because of their ability to consume diesel and BOG
Fig. 4(B) are integrally interconnected, passing through the different without any limitations [19], their high reliability derived from the
processes described below: aeronautical industry and a very high power/weight ratio, meaning a
reduced size of the system [21,23].
– Process 2-5: Heat transfer to the working fluid at constant pressure The first vessels to install a GT as a main propulsion system were
in economizer and the boiler. those belonging to the navy and also passenger ships. These combined
– Process 5-7: Steam expansion in the HP and LP turbines from the the GT with ST or diesel generators to produce electric power. On the
boiler pressure to the condenser pressure. contrary, LNG vessels with GT propulsion are not combined with any

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Fig. 4. Configuration of the steam plant with turbines in a cross-compound arrangement and T-S diagram for the steam cycle of the plant.

Table 3 the GT enables the recovery of waste heat for the implementation of a
Comparison of an ST conventional system and a UST [25]. combined cycle, thereby increasing plant efficiency to 40%. There is
also the possibility of using the BOG as fuel, which would be an option
Conventional plant UST
to consider installing as a propulsion system on LNG vessels [21,32].
Steam conditions in the boiler 6 MPa at 515 °C HP: 10 MPa at There are different combined cycle-based system configurations,
560 °C which can be subdivided into two groups:
Arrangement of the system BLR-HP-LP BLR-HP-RH-IP-LP
elements
– Power driven combined cycle [20].
– Combined Gas turbine Electric & Steam system (COGES) [10,19–
21,23,33]

3.2.1. Power driven combined cycle

The power driven combined cycle is an unusual layout on LNG
vessels, because all the advantages of the flexibility provided by the
DFGE system are dismissed with the installation of an auxiliary power
generator.
Fig. 7 illustrates a power driven combined cycle arrangement. The
system comprises a GT of around 36 MW [20,33] which is responsible
for supplying the required torque through a reducer, to rotate the ship’s
propeller. The exhaust gases generated in the GT are sent to the
recovery boiler where they provide the heat input required to generate
steam that is sent to a turbine of around 10 MW [20,33], coupled to a
generator that supplies power to the vessel during navigation. The
plant also includes three auxiliary generators with a combined capacity
of between 6 and 12 MW [20] used for power generation at port, when
both turbines are stopped.

Fig. 5. Configuration of an Ultra Steam Turbine plant. 3.2.2. Combined gas turbine electric & steam system (COGES)
The COGES are electric propelled combined cycles. These systems
other generation system, because all the BOG is used as fuel, thus are composed of elements similar to those that form a power driven
coping the energy demand of the vessel [21]. combined cycle system, but with a difference in the layout of its
GTs are combined with electric propulsion, called the DFGE system components and with the main propulsion being electric [21].
(dual-fuel gas turbine electric propulsion) [10], shown in Fig. 6. Two arrangements can be distinguished within the COGES, each
The high specific consumption along with the need to use costly associated with their manufacturers, these being Rolls-Royce and
clean fuels [20] so as to comply with ISO-F DMA regulations [29–31], General Electric [21,23].
make the turbines a less attractive option to be used on ships. However, Fig. 8 depicts the arrangement of a COGES designed by the Rolls-
Royce manufacturer. The plant has two GTs with different powers, one

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Fig. 6. DFGE (dual-fuel gas turbine electric propulsion).

of 36 MW and another of 5 MW, designed in such a way that the not burn different fuels simultaneously [19,34]. This, however, has
exhaust gases of the GT with greatest power are exploited in a heat changed with the development of technology.
recovery steam generator [20,21]. The steam generated is used to In 2003, DF engines that stand out because of their ability to burn
power a 10 MW ST, which, together with the more powerful GT, both liquid fuel as well as gas, become the new tendency in LNG vessel
provide the electric power and propulsion demand during ship sailing. propulsion systems, reaching 159 units built by the end of 2006 [21].
On the other hand, the purpose of the less powerful turbine (5 MW) 4S electric DF engines were the first to open up the market, given
is to generate power at port, hence avoiding high fuel consumption that they had already been in use on shore since the early 1990s for
caused by the main GT [33]. generating electric power [35] and having to wait until mid-2008 when
In Fig. 9 the COGES plant is designed by the manufacturer General DF engines were aimed towards 2S [22].
Electric [21,23]. The plant has two gas turbines, each of 20 MW. The
reliability of this type of system increases because, in the event that 3.3.1. Two stroke slow speed diesel engine with reliquefaction plant
there is a fault in a GT, the system could guarantee 50% of the electric Two strokes slow speed engines were used as the main propulsion
power supply to continue with the voyage. The disadvantage, however, system in merchant shipping because of its low maintenance costs,
is its high consumption while at port as it does not have a low power high efficiency and the option of burning low-quality fuels [23]. This
auxiliary generator as in the case of the Rolls-Royce design. This system is used on LNG carriers of over 200,000 m3 on long distance
system´s ST is more powerful because, as a result of having two 20 MW crossings [21] but with the peculiarity of integrating a reliquefaction
gas turbines, gas generation increases in comparison with the previous plant and a GCU [19], as shown in Fig. 10. The reliquefaction plant has
system, allowing the possibility of installing a 15 MW turbine the task of reliquefying the BOG generated in cargo tanks and returning
[20,21,23,33]. it to into a liquid state inside, avoiding any wastage of the LNG being
transported [8,23]. On the other hand, the GCU is designed to burn the
3.2.3. Advantages and drawbacks BOG generated which, if there were a breakdown in the reliquefaction
GT plants provide high system reliability, of around 99%. The plant, would be impossible to treat, avoiding the pressure increase in
auxiliary systems, however, must be taken into account since the the tanks and could cause great damage [19].
overall reliability is hampered as a result of these and so it is necessary Reliquefaction plants installed onboard are governed by the reverse
to carefully evaluate all those systems that comprise a GT plant [21,23]. Rankine cycle with a three stage cascade configuration [8] in which N2
One of the main advantages provided by the installation of a GT or is considered the most widely used refrigerant [36].
COGES system is the considerable decrease in engine room size, but The BOG extracted from the tanks passes through various stages in
the main drawback is a high consumption of gas and diesel [20]. the reliquefaction plant [37]. First the BOG is extracted from the tanks
and is subjected to a process in which all the drops that it may contain
3.3. Internal combustion engines are separated to avoid damage to the compressors in the compression
stage. Compression is performed in two stages to then conduct the
Internal combustion engines have become the predominant pro- exchange with the cooling fluid, in this case N2. Once through the heat
pulsion system in all sectors of marine transport, encompassing 80% of exchangers, the BOG reaches the tank return temperature, prior
the fleet, with the exclusion of LNG vessels [10,20] since these could passing through a stage of separating N2, which is released into the

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Gas turbine
Gear box

Steam

Electricity

Heat recovery G
Exhaust gas steam generator

Cargo pumps

G
Load

Steam turbine
Bow
thruster
G

Aux. Engine
Gas fuel
compressors
G

Aux. Engine

Aux. Engine

Fig. 7. Power driven combined cycle.

atmosphere. This process is represented in Fig. 11, where the basic on the power demand of the plant, is composed of either 3 or 4 power
diagram of a reliquefaction plant is illustrated, both of the NG part as generators [21].
well as the N2 refrigerant. Take, for the sake of an example, a 149,000 m3 LNG vessel. The
Two-stroke engines are highly efficient, but when considering the reliquefaction plant has a consumption of 3.5–7 MW depending on the
overall performance of the system, the reliquefaction plant must be BOG generated in the cargo tanks. The plant consumption represents
taken into account. The operation of a reliquefaction implies a high 20% of the energy available in the recovered BOG or of approximately
power consumption supplied by auxiliary generators which, depending 20 t of fuel per day [20,23].

Fig. 8. COGES designed by Rolls-Royce.

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Fig. 9. COGES designed by General Electric.

3.3.2. Advantages and drawbacks

The 2S engines used on vessels have a high efficiency, of approxi-
mately 50% which, together with the use of a reliquefaction plant, has
the advantage that there is no wastage in the LNG cargo transported.
On the contrary, the system has a number of disadvantages when
compared with an ST plant, namely its high maintenance costs, the
high consumption of the reliquefaction plant, and elevated emissions of
NOx and SOx [20].
Merchant ship emissions are regulated by the MARPOL
Convention, Annex VI “Regulations for the Prevention of Air
Pollution from Ships”. These regulations establish the maximum
emission limits of both NOx y SOx [38,39]. There are several methods
to reduce NOx emissions, as reflected in Table 4 [40].
By contrast, the removal of SOx can only be achieved through the
use of fuel with low sulphur content or a technology to clean the
exhaust gases with a maximum permissible limit of 6.0 g SOx/kWh
[41].

Fig. 10. Configuration of a propulsion system with 2-stroke diesel engines and 3.4. Four stroke medium speed diesel engine (Diesel electric)
reliquefaction plant.

Since early 2003, the number of newly built LNG vessels with a
propulsion system using dual-fuel diesel-electric engines (DFDE) has
The vessel´s net auxiliary power is increased due to the reliquefac- increased considerably, reaching 159 units [21]. This fact demonstrates
tion plant, between 14 and 16 MW when compared with a system of 4- that the propulsion system tendency on LNG vessels is geared towards
stroke DF engines without a reliquefaction plant [23]. the use of DF engines, which are able to consume both gas and liquid
The propulsion system through 2S engines with a reliquefaction fuels [19–21].
plant has two arrangements, mainly depending on the number of main The typical configuration of a diesel-electric propulsion system
engines that it includes [10,20,21,23]. The first option, as illustrated in through DF engines is shown in Fig. 14. This configuration has four DF
Fig. 12, consists of a single main engine that drives a fixed pitch engines coupled to electrical generators that supply energy to the entire
propeller with power generation being provided by three 4S diesel ship including propulsion, which is done by means of two electric
generators also fed by heavy fuel [21,23]. engines [10,20].
As the LNG trade and vessel classification societies set high The main variations in configuration through DF engines are found
standards with regard to maintenance and equipment redundancy, in the propulsion, as shown in Fig. 15, which displays two similar
the simplest 2S diesel engine plant on board a methane vessel is in configurations with regard to power generation with four DF engines.
greater demand, and includes two 2S engines, each coupled to a single The difference, however, lies in the arrangement of the propulsion
axis line [23], as shown in Fig. 13. system: in Fig. 15(A) it is formed by two electric engines and two DF

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Fig. 11. Basic schematic of reliquefaction plant.

Fig. 12. Propulsion system with 2S main engine and reliquefaction plant.

engines coupled to independent reducers, while Fig. 15(B) is based State C (Combustion): When the cylinder is located before the TDC,
solely on electric propulsion [42]. Other authors propose a different pilot fuel injection is performed, which is of approximately 1% of the
configuration, which is to couple an organic Rankine cycle at propul- consumption, which releases the energy required to start combustion
sion system for recovering waste heat from the engines [43]. and thereby moving the cylinder up to the BDC (bottom dead centre).
DF engines have different operation modes depending on the fuel to State D (Exhaust): After the working stroke, the cylinder begins
be used. When gas is burned as fuel (Gas Mode), they adopt the concept again to move towards the TDC where, with the exhaust valve open, all
of the lean Otto cycle. Fig. 16 illustrates the different work stages in gas flue gases are released.
mode [10,20,21,23]. On the contrary, if diesel or heavy fuels are used, the DF engine
A brief description of the various work stages of a DF engine in gas works under a diesel cycle (diesel mode). Fig. 17 depicts the 4 work
mode is given below: stages of a DF engine in diesel mode. To follow is a description of each:
State A (Intake): the gas is supplied to each cylinder individually State A (Intake): In the intake stroke only air is introduced into the
through a valve at the inlet, where it is mixed with air before entry to the cylinder because the gas valve remains closed.
combustion chamber [34]. The gas intake is performed at low pressure, at State B (Compression): The air is compressed by the cylinder on its
approximately 5 bar [21], considerably reducing the risks that the use of ascent until it reaches the TDC.
methane at high pressure in the engine room would entail. State C (Combustion): When the cylinder is located before the TDC,
State B (Compression): The mixture is compressed by the cylinder both the main and pilot fuel injection is performed, releasing the energy
on its ascent to the TDC (top dead centre). required to start combustion and moving the cylinder up to the BDC.

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Fig. 13. Propulsion system with two 2S main engines and reliquefaction plant.

Table 4 State D (Exhaust): After the working stroke, the cylinder begins
Methods for reducing NOx [40]. again its move towards the TDC where, with the exhaust valve open, all
flue gases are released into the atmosphere.
Technique Reduction of NOx
The combustion control system is one of the main characteristics that
Alternative Fuels 50–60% must be taken into account in DF engines because, depending on the
Emulsified Fuel - Water Addition 50–60% operating mode, the cycle to be performed by the engine varies between
Basic IEM - Slide Fuel Valves 20% Otto and Diesel. When the engine runs in Diesel mode, combustion
Injection timing retardation 30%
Compression Ratio Modification 10–30%
regulating is done by the controlling of exhaust temperatures in order to
Injection System Modification 30% ensure process optimisation [34,42]. By contrast, regulating the combus-
Scavenge/Charge Air Cooling 14% tion in gas mode is much more complex because, depending on the engine
Scavenge/Charge Air Pressure Increase 10–40% load, the control is adapted to different variables [42]. When the engine
Direct Water Injection (DWI) 40–60%
load is below 65%, regulation is performed using the exhaust tempera-
Humid Air Motor (HAM) 70–80%
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 80–98% tures as in the Diesel cycle but, once surpassing this load value,
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) 80–99% combustion is controlled by Knocking sensors [20,34,42].

Fig. 14. Configuration of diesel-electric propulsion using DF engines (4S).

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Fig. 15. Configurations of diesel-electric propulsion using Dual-Fuel engines (4S).

Fig. 16. Dual-fuel engine work stages (4S) in gas mode.

DF engines have a Knocking sensor per cylinder as combustion is hydrocarbons that make up the NG in a system called Oil Mist
controlled and monitored individually. As the engine load is increased, Separator [21,44].
and with it the mean effective pressure, the parameters must be Before using the methane in the engines, it must be pre-treated in a
adjusted more accurately, as illustrated in Fig. 18 [20], to remain plant similar to that shown in Fig. 19, where it can be seen that once
within the area known as the operating window. the methane has been separated in the mist separator from the other
Conditioning processes of the BOG generated in the cargo tanks, or components of which the NG is composed, it is drawn in by the Low-
forced if necessary, are of paramount importance in DF engines, which duty compressors (LD) [21,22,45], raising it to a pressure of 5–6 bar at
is why, before being burned as fuel, it must be treated. DF engines are which the engines will be fed [19,21,35].
designed to use methane as gas fuel. It is therefore essential to separate Once the pressure is stabilised, the temperature of the gas is then
the other NG components to ensure correct combustion, avoiding stabilised through an exchanger fed with sea water [42], after passing
Knocking [21,35]. This requires separating the methane from the other through the engines and the GCU.

Fig. 17. Work stages of a DF engine (4S) in Diesel mode.

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Fig. 18. Graph of a Dual-Fuel engine operation (4S) [21].

The GCU is used to burn the excess BOG generated that cannot be
consumed in the engine or if, for some reason, pressure exceeds the
limits established in the tanks [19]. Vent valves are used as a final
safety measure of the overpressure in the tanks.

3.4.1. Advantages and drawbacks

The propulsion system by means of DF engines presents a number
of advantages such as high efficiency when compared with ST systems,
high redundancy due to the configuration of the propulsion system and Fig. 20. Ratio of Vessel speed and amount of BOG reliquefied [20].

reduced SOx emissions as the BOG consumed has no sulphur

[20,35,39], complying with the IMO TIER III gas emission regulations around 0.15% per day [8,37], and the speed of the ship, which, depending
when operating in gas mode [42]. on the needs of each vessel, could be an attractive option to consider.
The drawback of this propulsion system is the increased amount of
equipment of which it is composed, hence implying high installation 3.5. Two stroke slow speed diesel engine (Diesel electric)
and maintenance costs [20].
Propulsion through DF engines is an LNG vessel-based technology,
3.4.2. Four stroke medium speed diesel engine (Diesel electric) with with the first installed on board 4S in 2003 due to the existence of
reliquefaction plant similar units in industry on land from the 80s [21,35]. On the contrary,
Installing a reliquefaction plant on a vessel with a 4S DF engine the evolution of 2S DF engines was slower, with no 2S engine with gas
propulsion system provides high flexibility to the system. But two injection being developed until 1994 [42], and having to wait until the
important factors must be taken into account, such as the ensuing high beginning of the XXI century for the first ships to be installed with such
costs the plant along with the amount of BOG consumed in the engines technology [35,42].
and that generated in the tanks [20]. Two models can be distinguished in 2S DF engines according to the
As shown in Fig. 20, the feasibility of installing a reliquefaction plant gas injection pressure, those of high pressure (MAN) and those of low
on vessels with a DF system is conditioned by the BOG generated, of pressure (Wärtsilä) [46].

Fig. 19. Gas management system in a DF engine system (4 S).

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Fig. 21. Gas management in 2S DF engines.

Fig. 22. Installation of 2 S DF engines.

Fig. 24. Gas injection system components in a low pressure 2S DF engine cylinder.

3.5.1. High pressure

The manufacturer MAN was the first to develop 2S DF engines to be
installed on LNG vessels, following the tendency of using high
Fig. 23. Gas injection valve. pressures in the gas injection of its industrial engines. The main
difference from 4S DF engines is the injection of gas, since it is

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Fig. 25. Gas supply system of a low pressure 2S DF engines, in which eight parts are highlighted [35].

Fig. 26. Propulsion system configuration of 2S low pressure DF engines.

Table 5 performed directly in the combustion chamber at high pressures, 250–

Fuel sulphur contents: global and ECA limits [7]. 300 bar [10,19,42].
Two gas management systems from within the 2S DF engines
Date Global limit (% Date ECA limit (%
mass) mass) developed by MAN can be highlighted (Fig. 21), in both options the gas
supply pressure being of around 300 bar. To achieve this high pressure
Prior 1/1/2010 4.5% Prior 1/7/ 1.5% displacement compressors must be installed with the capacity to deal
2010
with the total demand of the engines individually, as reflected in
After 1/1/2012 3.5% After 1/7/ 1.0%
2010
Fig. 22, wherein the arrangement of the components of a plant with
After 1/1/2020 0.5% After 1/1/ 0.1% several propulsion engines is highlighted [42].
2025 Fuel injection is performed in the cylinder head through gas valves
(Fig. 23) and pilot fuel [39]. The intake of gas towards the injection
valve takes place through holes in the cylinder head, preventing any gas
Table 6 leakage through the use of double-wall conduits with detection sensors
NOX emission reduction programme [7].
[19,21]. The gas pressure at around 300 bar is exerted permanently
Tier Date NOX limit (g/kWh) over the shaft, using oil at a pressure of between 25 and 50 bar above
that of gas for a correct sealing and to prevent any leakage towards the
n < 130 130 < n < 2000 n > 2000 control system [21,42].
Tier I 2000 17 45×n−0.2 9.8
Tier II 2011 14.4 44×n−0.23 7.7 3.5.2. Low pressure
Tier III 2016 3.4 9×n−0.2 1.96 In the 1980s, Wärtsilä released high pressure DF industrial engines
on the market but, owing to the complex treatment of the gas, the
n: engine speed (rpm)
expensive safety systems to be installed and negligible improvement in

Fig. 27. Propulsion systems technology and anti pollution regulations chronology.

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Table 7
Propulsion systems features.

Propulsion Elements Advantages Disadvantages Fuel used Emissions(g/kWh)

system SOX NOX CO2 Part.
ST – Turbines HP & LP – Allow the consumption of several fuel – Poor efficiency, approximately 35% at HFO or 1.00 11.00 930 2.50
– Boiler types. full cargo. Gas
– Pump – Intrinsic reliability – Excessive emissions of CO2.
– Condenser – Reduced maintenance costs. – A large engine room when compared
– Low vibrations. with other systems.
– Reduced consumption of lubricating
oil.
UST – Turbines HP, IP & – Increase in performance of around – Increased number of elements of which it HFO and/ 0.75 8.25 697 1.87
LP 15%. is composed. or Gas
– Boiler – Highly reliable.
– Reheater – Low emissions, reduced by around
– Pump 15% of NOx, SOx and CO2.
– Condenser
GT – GT – High system reliability, of around 99%. – High consumption of gas and diesel GAS or 0 2.50 590 0.01
– Aux. Engine MGO
– 2 Electric motor
COGES – 2 GT – High system reliability – High consumption of gas and diesel GAS or 0 14.00 590 0.01
– Steam turbine. MGO
– Heat recovery steam
generator
– 3 Aux.engine
2S + Reliq. – 2S Engine – The 2S engines have a high efficiency, – High maintenance costs. HFO 17.00 12.90 550 0.50
– 3 Aux. engine of approximately 50%. – The high consumption of the
– BOG reliquefaction reliquefaction plant.
– GCU – Elevated emissions of NOx and SOx.
DFDE 4S – DFDE – High efficiency. – The increased amount of equipment of HFO, Gas 12.00 13.60 612 0.40
– Electric motor – High redundancy due to the which it is composed, imply high or MDO
– GCU configuration of the propulsion system. installation and maintenance costs.
– Reduced SOx emissions as the BOG
consumed has no sulphur.
DFDE 4S + – 4 DFDE – High flexibility system. – High costs the plant. HFO, Gas 12.00 13.60 612 0.40
Reliq. – Electric motor or MDO
– GCU
– BOG reliquefaction
DFDM 2S(HP) – DFDM (HP) – The high efficiency of 2S engines. – Use of an exhaust gas recirculation HFO and/ 0.85 10.12 469 0.31
– 3 Aux. engine system to reduce emissions or Gas
DFDM 2S (LP) – 1 DFDM (LP) – The high efficiency of 2S engines. – Only when operating in gas mode, pass HFO and/ 0.17 2.68 412 0.01
– 3 Aux. engine – Reduced NOx emissions. IMO TIER III gas emission regulations. or Gas
– Simple, reliable and most economical
low-pressure gas supply system, with
the fewest components.
– Stable operation on gas over the entire
load for port-to-port operation and
manoeuvring.

emissions, these engines were ruled out. In the late 90s gas injection Emissions are a factor to consider for those engines designed at
low pressure 4S DF engines were introduced onto the market. Low present due to the limitations of the pollution regulations [7,9]. For this
pressure 2S DF engines were then developed based on this engine, reason, the reduced NOx emissions of the Wärtsilä 2S DF low pressure
which are those installed from 2013 [35]. engines should be emphasised, as they require no device in order to
Gas injection is performed at a pressure below 16 bar when the comply with the OMI Tier III regulation [7,35]. On the contrary, MAN
cylinder is in mid-stroke, mixing with the dry air blast, as shown in DF high pressure engines, which have higher NOx emissions, require
Fig. 24 [8]. Once the mixture is compressed, combustion is started by the use of an exhaust gas recirculation system to reduce emissions and
injecting the pilot fuel, this being 1% of the amount injected at full load. so comply with current regulations [19,42].
In order to ensure stable ignition in all conditions, the pilot fuel is
injected into pre-combustion chambers (Fig. 23) [35].
Fig. 25 depicts the gas supply system of a low pressure 2S DF 3.6. Development of propulsion systems and environmental
engines, in which eight parts are highlighted [35]. legislation
The configuration of a propulsion system for LNG vessels that
implement low pressure 2S DF engines coupled directly to two The development of propulsion systems has always been condi-
independent axes is shown in Fig. 26. In such a configuration, each tioned by strict anti-pollution regulations. Annex VI of the MARPOL
engine features an individual gas treatment system to achieve greater 73/78 Convention, which deals with the prevention of air pollution by
safety in the provision of gas [35]. To generate electric power, they are vessels, includes, among its amendments, sulphur oxide (SOx) and
equipped with three 4S DF engines coupled to their corresponding nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission limits [7.9]. SOx limits are established
generators. by global limits and ECA limits, as shown in Table 5, while those of NOx
are established by Tier limits, depicted in Table 6 [7].
The close link between the development of propulsion systems and
3.5.3. Advantages and drawbacks anti-pollution regulations can be observed in Fig. 27, in which a
The high efficiency of 2S engines, both high and low pressure, is the chronological analysis of both is carried out from 1960 to 2020. ST
most prominent advantage [21,22]. propulsion is established as the main propulsion system [20,21] from

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