Idse Unit 2

Introduction
Contents
Element 1: Assess and apply basic principles of Chemistry
at the workplace for occupational health and safety
1.1 Forms of Chemical Agents 17

1.2 What is Epidemiology? 18
1.3 Classification of Chemicals based on their 19
health, Safety & Environmental Risk
1.4 Routes of entry into human body 20
1.5 Human Immunity against chemical agents 20
1.6 Control of Chemicals as a regulatory compliance 22
1.7 Type of health effects based on quantity of dose 25
1.8 Chemical Processes and Implications on OH&S 26
1.9 Monitoring & Measuring of Hazardous Substances 29
at workplace
1.10 Risk Control Measures against Hazardous Sub stances 32
1.11 The Future of Personal Protective Equipments 36
1.12 Emergency procedures 37
1.13 Benefits of' Good Work' 37
1.14 Clean Energy and OH&S implications 39
1.15 Chemical Agents 40
1.16 Requirement for the Work Environment 44
Contents
Element 2: Assess and apply basic principles of Physics at the
workplace for occupational health and safety
2.1 Mechanical properties of materials 51

2.2 Hazards and control measures due to mechanical 56
properties of materials
2.3 Forms of energy 56
2.4 Explanation of various mechanical properties 59
2.5 Mechanical structures and their Inspection and evaluation 81
2.6 ERGONOMICS 82
Contents
Element 3: Assess various inspection techniques and their
applications for mechanical equipments
3.1 Non destructive testing(NDT) methods 90

3.2 Destructive testing methods 93
3.3 Reasons and contributory factors for material failures 94
3.4 Measurement uncertainty 95
Contents
Element 4: Assess the designs of tools, equipments or
structures for their reliability for use in a given environment
from an occupational health and safety perspective
4.1 Common end user requirements for tools, equipment 102

and machinery to be incorporated in design
4.2 The impact of a well designed tool, equipment 103

or structure in occupational safety and health
4.3 The design with respect to stated and implie d use of tools, 103
equipments and structures
4.4 ASME & occupational safety and health 104
4.5 The requirements of prevailing design testing soft ware and 106
their implications on OH & S provisions
4.6 Material Failures Investigations 107
Contents
Element 5: Assess the occupational health and safety risks from
electricity at the workplaces
5.1 The Principle of Electricity 113

5.2 Effects of electric shock on human 117
5.3 Risk Factors for the acc idents related to electricity and 118
electric equipment
5.4 Type of hazardous environment which might affect 119
the physical condition of equipment
5.5 Types of protective system 120
5.6 Type of Inspection for electrical system & equipment 121
5.7 Emergency preparedness and response procedure 123
Contents
fire at the workplaces
6.1 Principle of Fire & Fire Terminologies 131

6.2 Principle of fire spread 132
6.3 Causes of Fire initiation at workplaces 132
6.4 Requirement of fire risk assessment 133
6.5 Precautions against Fire (Risk control measures) 135
6.6 Current technologies for escape and rescue during 140
fire emergency
6.7 Latest developments for fire extinguishing 141
Contents
nuclear and other radiations hazards
7.1 Fission Reaction 147

7.2 Health and Safety Implications with Atomic Power 148
Plants 7.3 Radiation 149
7.4 Engineering Controls for Ionizing Radiations 158
7.5 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 159
Contents
Element 8: Assess the Biological health hazards at the
workplace and the application of suitable controls
8.1 What are Biological Agents? 165

8.2 What work activities might involve exposure to 166
biological agents?
8.3 What measures should be put in place if it is not technically 166
possible to prevent exposure to biological agents?
8.4 Hazards generated by biological agents 166
8.5 How to do a Risk Assessment 167
8.6 What is Industrial Hygiene? 170
8.7 Detection of Biological Agents 170
8.8 Relationship between occupational, environmental and 172
public health
8.9 Workplace Health Promotion 173
8.10 Rehabilitation and workplace adjustments 176
Contents
Element 9: Assess the significance of engineering controls
against a range of hazards at the workplaces
9.1 Significance of engineering control 182

9.2 Effectiveness of engineering controls 183
9.3 Cost Benefit analysis for Engineering Controls 184
9.4 Engineering controls for potential e xplosion hazards 185
9.5 Engineering control options for a range of hazards 186
9.6 Are Engineering Control Fail -Safe? 187
Contents
Element 10: Assess the requirement of information Technology
for Occupational Health and safety within the workplaces
10.1 Latest developments and innovations in Informat ion 193

Technology for occupational health and safety
10.2 Use of Information Technology for training and 193
awareness, communications, incident investigations
10.3 OH&S related Communications through IT 194
10.4 Incident investigations and role of IT 195
10.5 Utilization of Information Technology against a range of 195
OH&S hazards
10.6 IT based OH&S Management system 196
10.7 Security and legal issues with use of IT 197
Contents
Element 11: Assess various mechanical devices used in industries
for Occupational Health and safety at the workplaces for their
suitability of use in specific environments
11.1 Valves 202

11.2 Pumps 204
11.3 Pascal law and its applications 205
11.4 Use of locking & braking devices 205
Contents
Element 1: Assess and apply basic principles of Chemistry
at the workplace for occupational health and safety
1.1 Forms of Chemical Agents 1-1

1.2 What is Epidemiology? 1-2
1.3 Classification of Chemicals based on their 1-3
health, Safety & Environmental Risk
1.4 Routes of entry into human body 1-4
1.5 Human Immunity against chemical agents 1-4
1.6 Control of Chemicals as a regulatory compliance 1-6
1.7 Type of health effects based on quantity of dose 1-9
1.8 Chemical Processes and Implications on OH&S 1-10
1.9 Monitoring & Measuring of Hazardous Substances 1-13
at workplace
1.10 Risk Control Measures against Hazardous Sub stances 1-16
1.11 The Future of Personal Protective Equipments 1-20
1.12 Emergency procedures 1-21
1.13 Benefits of' Good Work' 1-21
1.14 Clean Energy and OH&S implications 1-23
1.15 Chemical Agents 1-24
1.16 Requirement for the Work Environment 1-28
11111 Level 6 Diploma in OH&S
1.1 Forms of Chemical Agents

The humans are often exposed to the chemicals for the execution of the tasks. It is important to understand the
physical nature of the chemical so that we may know the possibility of exposure through a specific entry route in the
human body. Following known forms of chemical agents are present:-
Solids
The chemical may be present in the solid form e.g. sodium (NA)
Liquids
The chemical in the form of liquids are also present e.g. Gasoline or diesel
Gas
Gases are materials that exist as individual molecules in the air at room temperature; gases are measured as a percent
volume of air, or parts per million (ppm). Examples include Welding gases (e.g., acetylene, nitrogen),CO, H2S, CH4 etc
Dust
The airborne solid particles of very small sizes are present in the natural atmosphere. The dust is abundantly present on
construction sites due to various operations like girding, polishing, cutting etc.
Vapors
Vapors are the gaseous form produced from the solid or liquid chemicals. They are invisible to a naked human eye e.g.
vapors of Gasoline etc.
Fumes
Solid particles present in gaseous form e.g. smoke or metallic powder in plasma spray units, Lead or cadmium particles.
Mist
The suspended liquid particles present in air and normally can be seen with a naked eye. For example water mist or
paint spray etc. Mists are measured in milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter of air (mg/m 3) or (µg/m 3).
1.1 a Toxicology
The study of the negative effects of chemicals on living things
$ chemical is considered toxic depending on
0 How much of it is necessary to cause harm
• How easily it can enter the body
LOSO and LCSO

These terms derive from laboratory tests on animals
LDS0 is the dose which when swallowed, injected, or applied directly, kills half the test subjects. This is defined as the
dose required to kill half the members of a specific animal population when entering the animal's body by a particular
route. LDS0 is a general indicator of a substance's toxicity within a short space of time. It is a measure of acute toxicity.
LCS0 is the concentration of a chemical in a test atmosphere that kills half the test subjects within one hour when
inhaled. LC stands for "Lethal Concentration". LC values usually refer to the concentration of a chemical in air but in
environmental studies it can also mean the concentration of a chemical in water.
Why LOSO and LCSO are values a measure of acute toxicity?

Acute toxicity is the ability of a chemical to cause ill effects relatively soon after one oral administration or a 4-hour
exposure to a chemical in air. "Relatively soon" is usually defined as a period of minutes, hours (up to 24) or days (up to
about 2 weeks) but rarely longer.
How are LD/LCSO tests done?

In nearly all cases, LDS0 tests are performed using a pure form of the chemical. Mixtures are rarely studied.
The chemical may be given to the animals by mouth (oral); by applying on the skin (dermal); by injection at sites such
as the blood veins, muscles or into the abdominal cavity.
17 1-1
The LDS0 value obtained at the end of the experiment is identified as the LDS0 (oral), LDS0 (skin), LDS0 (i.v.), etc., as
appropriate. Researchers can do the test with any animal species but they use rats or mice most often. Other species include
dogs, hamsters, cats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, and monkeys. In each case, the LDS0 value is expressed as the weight of chemical
administered per kilogram body weight of the animal and it states the test animal used and route of exposure or
administration; e.g., LDS0 (oral, rat) - 5 mg/kg, LDS0 (skin, rabbit) - 5 g/kg. So, the example "LDS0 (oral, rat) 5 mg/kg" means
that 5 milligrams of that chemical for every 1 kilogram body weight of the rat, when administered in one dose by mouth,
causes the death of 50% of the test group.
If the lethal effects from breathing a compound are to be tested, the chemical (usually a gas or vapor) is first mixed in a
known concentration in a special air chamber where the test animals will be placed. This concentration is usually quoted as
parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). In these experiments, the concentration that kills 50% of the
animals is called an LCS0 (Lethal Concentration SO) rather than an LDSO. When an LCS0value is reported, it should also state
the kind of test animal studied and the duration of the exposure, e.g., LCS0 (rat) - 1000 ppm/ 4 hr or LCS0 (mouse) -
Smg/m3/ 2hr.
How should an LOSO value be used?

The LDS0 can be used:
0 As an aid in developing emergency procedures in case of a major spill or accident.
0 To help develop guidelines for the use of appropriate safety clothing and equipment. For example, if the dermal LDSO
value for a chemical is rated as extremely toxic, it is important to protect the skin with clothing, gloves (etc.) made of the
right chemical-resistant material before handling. Alternatively, if a chemical has an inhalation LCS0 value which
indicates that it is relatively harmless, respiratory protective equipment may not be necessary (as long as the oxygen
concentration in the air is in the normal range - around 18%).
0 For the development of transportation regulations.
0 As an aid in establishing occupational exposure limits.
0 As a part of the information in Safety Data Sheets. Remember, the LDS0 is only a ball park figure so that lethal toxicity can
be compared. It says nothing about levels at which other acute toxic, but non-lethal, effects might occur.
The LDS0 is only one source of toxicity information. For a more thorough picture of the immediate or acute toxicity of a
chemical, additional information should be considered such as the lowest dose that causes a toxic effect (TDLO), the rate of
recovery from a toxic effect, and the possibility that exposure to some mixtures may result in increasing the toxic effect of an
individual chemical
1.2 What is Epidemiology?

The word epidemiology comes from the Greek words epi, meaning on or upon, demos, meaning people, and logos,
meaning the study of. In other words, the word epidemiology has its roots in the study of what befalls a population. Many
definitions have been proposed, but the following definition captures the underlying principles and public health spirit of
epidemiology:
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified
populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems
Occupational epidemiology involves the application of epidemiologic methods to populations of workers. Occupational
epidemiologic studies may involve looking at workers exposed to a variety of chemical, biological or physical (e.g., noise,
heat, radiation) agents to determine if the exposures result in the risk of adverse health outcomes. Alternatively,
epidemiologic studies may involve the evaluation of workers with a common adverse health outcome to determine if an
agent or set of agents may explain their disease..
Epidemiology Surveillance
Disease surveillance is the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data in order to detect, control, and
prevent health problems. Epidemiologic surveillance is the macroscopic surveillance perspective, carried out primarily by
public health agencies on a statewide or nationwide basis. These efforts seek to identify and quantify illness, injury or
excessive exposure, and monitor trends in their occurrence across different industry types, over time, and between
geographic areas. Medical surveillance, by contradistinction, focuses its surveillance components on the hazards and
potential hazards of a particular workplace, company or group of workers.
Example: Studies of Mortality

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, a confluence of interests led NIOSH to conduct a cohort mortality study of workers
exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), one of many dioxin congeners. Studies from Scandinavia were
pointing to an association among chemical production workers between TCDD exposure and excess risk for soft tissue
18 1-2
sarcoma and lymphoma.Concern existed for veterans and others exposed during the Vietnam War to TCDD, an inadvertent
contaminant of the widely used defoliant Agent Orange.Toxicological studies were also pointing to an increased risk and a
physiologic mechanism for toxicity, the aryl-hydrocarbon receptor. Risk for soft tissue sarcoma and lymphoma.Concern
existed for veterans and others exposed during the Vietnam War to TCDD, an inadvertent contaminant of the widely used
defoliant Agent Orange.Toxicological studies were also pointing to an increased risk and a physiologic mechanism for
toxicity, the aryl-hydrocarbon receptor.In 1980, the U.S. Department of Defense requested assistance from NIOSH in
conducting an epidemiologic study of soldiers who had served in Vietnam. A recent EIS Officer (W.H.) and the Director of
NIOSH, Tony Robbins, visited the Pentagon, where they learned of the limited available records that could be used to
accurately characterize the location of soldiers in Vietnam and their exposure to defoliants. They concluded that a study in
civilian exposed workers was more likely to be useful than a study among soldiers. The civilian study could then be applied
to Vietnam War veterans.
In 1981, NIOSH began efforts to identify plants in the United States that produced chemicals contaminated with TCDD (11).
In all, 5,172 workers at 12 plants were included in a cohort mortality study. An extensive effort was made to characterize
workers' potential exposure to TCDD at these plants from job assignment records. TCDD was measured in serum from a
subset of 253 workers. Cause of death on a death certificate was used as the outcome of interest. Vital status was
ascertained as of the last day of 1987. The duration of exposure of the cohort members varied: 54% had < 1 year of
exposure; 29% had 1--5 years; 13% had 5--15 years; and 4% had � 15 years. The latency from first exposure was substantial:
>20 years for 61%. The analysis of all workers did not substantiate an excess risk for lymphoma but found a non-significant
increase in soft tissue sarcomas. The analysis of workers with >1 year of exposure and 20 years of latency indicated a
significant increase in death from lung cancer and soft tissue sarcoma, and an analysis of all cancers combined also showed
a significant increase. In an updated analysis that extended determination of vital status and cause of death through 1993
(12), excess mortality from all cancers was still in excess---a 60% increase for workers in the highest exposure group.
Estimated exposure for this group was 100--1,000 times higher than for the general population and similar to doses used in
experimental animal studies that showed cancer excess. The original study (11) has been cited >400 times and the later
study (12) 175 times. Both studies have been used in risk assessments of national and international importance, in decisions
on compensation of veterans, and for other reasons.
1.3 Classification of Chemicals based on their health, Safety & Environmental Risk
The chemical agents present a variety of Risk to human safety & health, environmental damage. They can broadly be
classified into following 3 categories
1- Health Risk
Toxic
Very small doses of these types of chemicals can cause death or severe health effects. For example potassium cyanide (KCN)
or H2S gas
Toxicfor Reproduction
Some chemical agents affect the fertility & may affect the health of an unborn child. Acetone is an example.
Harmful
These chemical agents can cause death or severe health issues if exposed with large quantities.
Corrosive
This chemical destroys the living tissues e.g. skin concentrated sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) is an example.
Irritant
These chemicals causes inflammation on the contact area e.g. prolonged exposure to cement on hands. Similarly ozone gas
causes inflammation to lungs if exposed for prolonged time
Carcinogenic
These chemical agents cause cancer in the body. Asbestos dust cause lung cancer
2- Environmental Effects
Some chemicals agents effect the environment & can be detrimental for aquatic life and plants.
3- Physio- Chemical Effect

Some chemicals due to their physical & chemical properties present the risk of fire and/or explosion e.g. highly flammable
liquids etc.
19 1-3
1.4 Routes of entry into human body (At workplaces)

Humans are exposed to hundreds & thousands of chemical & biological agents on daily basis. These agents may enter the
human body through any of the following routes.
Inhalation
Inhalation is the main source of causing ill health issues. The substance is inhaled through nose or mouth & reaches the
lungs. Here the substance enters the blood which carries it to each part of the body. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a toxic gas &
its main route of entry is inhalation.
Ingestion
Ingestion is a process of swallowing a substance & it reaches the stomach. The toxic chemicals then move through the body
from digestive system. It is less likely that a human will swallow a toxic or harmful chemical but there are chances when un
intentional contaminations of hands lead to swallowing it along with normal food or a kid with no risk perception swallows
a detergent etc.
Injection
Injection is cutting/puncture of skin such as the blood is exposed. The substance may enter the blood through injection.
Biological agents normally enter the human body through injection e.g. Tetanus Virus.
Absorption through Skin

The human skin affects a natural resistance against the substances but some chemical agents may enter the human body
through skin. This is very rare possibility of ill-health issues originated from substance absorption through skin.
1.5 Human Immunity against chemical agents

Understanding the potential adverse human health effects of environmental chemical exposure has coincided with an
increased understanding of the immune system and an appreciation of its complex regulatory network. This has spawned a
broad interest in the area of immune-toxicology within the scientific community as well as certain concerns in the public
sector regarding chemical-induced hypersensitivity and immune-suppression. The incidence of alleged human
sensitization to chemicals has increased, in part, due to the fact that chemical companies are moving to larger and/or
different markets. It has been estimated that 35 million Americans suffer from allergic disease, of which 2-5% are from
occupational exposure. Although there is not yet a clear understanding of dose-response relationships or disease
predisposition, there are many well-defined examples (isocyanates, anhydrides) of chemical sensitizers in humans and
experimental animals. Evidence that chemicals suppress immune responses in humans is considerably less well
established, although there is a public perception that chemicals generally cause immune-suppression. This perception has
been fueled by highly publicized legal cases and scientific controversies within the academic and industrial communities.
As a consequence of these public and scientific concerns, many of the regulatory agencies are developing immune-toxicity
testing guidelines. At the present, however, there are limitations on adequate human methodology and data that allow the
extrapolation of animal data to assess human risk. The potential for human immune-suppression remains of concern,
however, because of a large database generated from animal studies that demonstrates immune-suppression as well as
reports of immune-suppression in humans inadvertently.
Local Immunity in the Skin

The skin is not merely an inert barrier that physically prevents entry of foreign materials, but possesses biologically active
systems and products, including immunological systems, that function as an effective defense system. The immune system
of the skin, called "skin-associated lymphoid tissue" (SALT) by Streilein, contains multiple cell types that participate in
immune-mediated processes. These include Langerhans cells, which possess antigen-presenting capabilities, and
dendritic Tcells, which retain helper and suppressor, function. Additionally, immune cells and active components (e.g.,
antibody-antigen complexes) are readily recruited to the skin from the circulatory system in response to stimuli initiated at
the skin surface. Abundant in the dermis are fibroblasts and capillary endothelial cells that bear cytokine receptors and can
be induced to secrete cytokines. Keratinocytes, which differentiate as they ascend through the epidermis, are also
reservoirs of cytokines, which are secreted in response to various stimuli. Because the skin is a common site of exposure to
environmental agents, it is not surprising that SALT is a common target. Depending on the chemical agent and the dose,
toxicity can be manifested as contact hypersensitivity, inflammation, or immune-suppression.Contact hypersensitivity
reactions in the skin are common, affecting literally millions of Americans. The incidence associated with environmental or
occupational exposure is unknown, but has been estimated
20 1-4
to be approximately 5-10% of all cases.The events associated with induction and elicitation of chemical induced
hypersensitivity reaction have been intensely investigated. It is thought that Langerhans cells initially interact with antigen
in the skin and transport it to the draining lymph nodes where the antigen is presented to immune-competent in context
with class 11 antigens. This initiates an immune response whereby subsequent exposure to the antigen can evoke elicitation
in sensitized individuals. This involves the interaction of processed antigen with sensitized lymphocytes. The sensitized
lymphocytes are transformed into lymphoblasts, which proliferate and secrete various biologically active products
including antibodies and lymphokines. These products, either directly or indirectly, are responsible for the generation of
inflammatory mediators such as chemo-attractants, adhesion molecules, and pharmacological mediators. A number of
chemical agents have the capacity to produce contact hypersensitivity, a widely recognized environmental and
occupational problem. The characteristic that sets allergic responses apart from immune mechanisms involved in host
defense is that the reaction is excessive and often leads to tissue damage. Chemical-induced hypersensitivities fall into two
categories distinguished not only mechanistically but temporally: delayed type hypersensitivity, a cell-mediated response
that occurs within 24-48 hr after challenge, and immediate hypersensitivity, which is mediated by immune-globin, and
manifests within minutes after exposure to an allergen. The type of immediate hypersensitivity response elicited depends
on the interaction of the sensitizing antigen or structurally related compound with antibody. In contrast, delayed-type
hypersensitivity responses are characterized by T-lymphocytes, bearing antigen-specific receptors, which, on contact with
cell-associated antigen, respond by secreting cytokines. Metals such as beryllium, mercury, cobalt, nickel, platinum,
chromium, and gold can induce a spectrum of hypersensitivity responses, from delayed-onset to immediate. Nickel is
considered a medium-to- strong contact sensitizer in humans and has been used as a "gold standard" in development of
new assays for assessing hypersensitivity. In addition to contact hypersensitivity responses, some chemicals and
environmental agents can alter the normal processes associated with SALT and in certain instances suppress systemic
immunity in laboratory animals. In the former, for example, the disappearance or functional loss of Langerhans cells is
associated with dermal exposure to ultraviolet light, particularly UV-B radiation or certain chemical agents such as dimethyl
benzanthracene, lanthanides (32), pentamidine (33), or phorbol esters (34). Subsequently, the ability to elicit contact
hypersensitivity with known sensitizers is lost when the skin is pretreated with these agents. On the other hand, some
compounds, such as those with antioxidant activity, exacerbate contact hypersensitivity in mice after dermal exposure. This
is associated with an increase in Langerhans cell function as evidenced by increases in la antigen density on the cell surface
(35). Systemic immunosuppression may occur in experimental animals at doses of UV-B higher than that which suppresses
local immunity (36). This is characterized by an inability to respond to sensitizers when applied to unirradiated as well as
irradiated sites and a decrease in delayed hypersensitivity responses. The mechanism(s) responsible for these effects are
unclear, but may depend on the induction of antigen-specific suppressor Tlymphocytes and bioactive products released
from UV-damaged keratinocytes. An association between skin cancers and immunosuppression by UV-B has been
established in laboratory animals where UV-induced immunosuppression affects the rejection of UV-induced skin tumors
(37). UV-B radiation may also affect SALT in humans, as suggested by the observation that UV exposure inhibited the
subsequent ability to induce contact hypersensitivity at the irradiated site in 40% of normal subjects and in 90% of patients
with sunlight-induced skin cancer (38). Chemical agents may also produce local inflammatory responses in the skin
through nonspecific mechanisms. The keratinocyte, which represents the vast majority of cells that compose the epidermis
(> 95%), is the primary source of immuno-active cytokines. It has been postulated that the release of these mediators in
response to various stimuli orchestrate many of the immunological and inflammatory responses that occur in the skin after
exposure to dermatotoxins (39). In this respect, the pathogenesis of psoriasis, a chronic skin disease characterized by
excessive keratinocyte proliferation and inflammatory cell infiltrates in psoriatic plaques, is closely associated with altered
regulation of keratinocyte-produced cytokines (40) and may serve to characterize chemical-induced dermatotoxicity. The
mechanisms and events by which these processes occur are currently major areas of research. Cytokines known or
presumed to be products of keratinocytes include IL-lea and (3, 1L-3, IL-6, IL-8, granulocytic macrophage colony
stimulating factor, tumor growth factor-ca and (3, and TNF-a. Based upon several lines of in vitro and in vivo evidence, a
cytokine network theory has been proposed (39). In this theory, environmental stimuli, which includes contact allergens,
ultraviolet light, or certain dermatotoxic chemicals, can act directly on keratinocytes, resulting in the release of IL-1 and
TNF-ca, as well as the expression of ICAM-1, an adhesion ligand for lymphocytes. The secretion oflL-1 and TNFa leads to the
expression ofsurface leukocyte adhesion molecules (e.g., VCAM-1) as well asthe releaseofkeratinocyte-derived IL-8, a
potent attractant for T-lymphocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Tumor necrosis factor-ax and/or IL-1 may also
stimulate keratinocytes in an autocrine fashion. When the initial environmental stimulant is antigenic, such as in the case
with N IS04, the response involves increased apposition ofmononuclear cells with subsequent involvement of sensitized T
cells, which increases the intensity and perpetuation of the response.
21 1-5
Local Immunity in the Lung

The average person who is moderately active during the daytime breathes about 20,000 liters (more than 5,000 gallons) of
air every 24 hours. Inevitably, this air (which would weigh more than 20 kilograms [44 pounds]) contains potentially harmful
particles and gases. Particles, such as dust and soot, mold, fungi, bacteria, and viruses deposit on airway and alveolar
surfaces. Fortunately, the respiratory system has defense mechanisms to clean and protect itself. Only extremely small
particles, less than 3 to 5 microns in diameter, penetrate to the deep lung.
One of the respiratory system's defense mechanisms involves tiny, muscular, hair-like projections (cilia) on the cells that line
the airways. The airways are covered by a liquid layer of mucus that is propelled by the cilia. These tiny muscles beat more
than 1,000 times a minute, moving the mucus that lines the trachea upwards about 0.5 to 1 centimeter per minute. Particles
and pathogens that are trapped on this mucus layer are coughed out or moved to the mouth and swallowed.
Because of the requirements of gas exchange, alveoli are not protected by mucus and cilia-mucus is too thick and would
slow movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Instead, the body has another defense system. Mobile cells on the alveolar
surface called phagocytes seek out deposited particles, bind to them, ingest them, kill any that are living, and digest them.
The phagocytes in alveoli of the lungs are called alveolar macrophages. When the lungs are exposed to serious threats,
additional white blood cells in the circulation, especially neutrophils, can be recruited to help ingest and kill pathogens
(foreign particles). For example, when the person inhales a great deal of dust or is fighting a respiratory infection, more
macrophages are produced and neutrophils are recruited.
Conclusions and Future Direction

The immune system is composed of several cell populations whose maturation is subject to orderly control by endogenous
hormones and/or exogenous bacterial products. These mediators possess activation, growth promotion, or differentiation
properties and are under the influence of potent and well-defined regulators. From studies in rodents and limited
observations in humans, it is apparent that a number of environmental and chemical agents can adversely affect the
immune systems, resulting in either immune-suppression, hypersensitivity, or autoimmune disease. These examples and
our current knowledge about the pathogenesis of disease support the possibility that chemical-induced damage to the
immune system may be associated with a wide spectrum of diverse pathological conditions, some of which may become
detectable only after a long latency. Likewise, exposure to chemical agents might represent an additional risk to individuals
with already fragile immune systems (e.g., malnutrition, infancy, old age). The value of incorporating immunological
experimental data for the toxicological assessment of drugs, chemicals, and biological for human risk assessment has been
increasingly accepted. For example, in addition to previously established test guidelines proposed by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) for hypersensitivity testing, the EPA (48) and the Food and Drug Administration (49) have recently
discussed the benefits of testing the immunosuppressive potential of biochemical pest control agents and antiviral drugs,
respectively. Furthermore, EPA has established reference doses (Rf or NOAEL/SF) using immunotoxicity data for several
compounds including 1,1,2- trichloroethane, 2,4-dichlorophenol, and dibutyltinoxide, and the Agency for Substances and
Disease Registry has derived, "minimum risk levels" for arsenic, dieldrin, nickel, 1,2-dichloroethane, and 2,4-dichlorophenol
from immune endpoints (M. Selgrade, personal communication). The preceding decade of research has provided a
database of immunotoxic and nonimmunotoxic compounds, a better understanding of the mechanisms responsible for
hypersensitivity disease, studies correlating immune dysfunction and altered host resistance, and more predictive methods
for detecting immunomodulatory chemicals. Future research is needed to a) further refine and validate immune function
tests and host resistance assays, particularly in the rat as well as tests for autoimmunity; b) establish better test methods to
evaluate the effects of chemical exposure on lung and skin immunity; c) develop and evaluate in vitro methodology for
detecting chemical-induced immunotoxicity; d) develop and implement a testing battery to examine immune changes in
humans occupationally or environmentally exposed to chemicals shown to be immune-toxic in laboratory animals; and e)
establish appropriate mathematical models to allow for extrapolating experimental studies.
Ref: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1519592/pdf/envhper00370-0221.pdf
1.6 Control of Chemicals as a regulatory compliance

Different countries have developed their own regulations regarding control of chemicals which are hazardous for humans.
The control includes; the control of exposure to chemicals and the transportation of such chemicals. ILO has developed
convention i.e. C170 and recommendation R177 regarding the control of chemicals.
ILO C170
Classifications and Related Measures

Classification Systems
0 Systems and specific criteria appropriate for the classification of all chemicals according to the type and degree of
22 1-6
their intrinsic health and physical hazards and for assessing the relevance of the information required to determine
$ whether a chemical is hazardous shall be established by the competent authority, or by a body approved or recognised
by the competent authority, in accordance with national or international standards.
$ The hazardous properties of mixtures composed of two or more chemicals may be determined by assessments based
on the intrinsic hazards of their component chemicals.
$ In the case of transport, such systems and criteria shall take into account the United Nations Recommendations on the
transport of dangerous goods.
$ The classification systems and their application shall be progressively extended.
Labelling and Marking

$ All chemicals shall be marked so as to indicate their identity.
$ Hazardous chemicals shall in addition be labeled, in a way easily understandable to the workers, so as to provide
essential information regarding their classification, the hazards they present and the safety precautions to be observed.
$ Requirements for marking or labeling chemicals pursuant to paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article shall be established by
the competent authority, or by a body approved or recognized by the competent authority, in accordance with national
or international standards.
$ In the case of transport, such requirements shall take into account the United Nations Recommendations on the
transport of dangerous goods.
Chemical Safety Data Sheets

$ For hazardous chemicals, chemical safety data sheets containing detailed essential information regarding their identity,
supplier, classification, hazards, safety precautions and emergency procedures shall be provided to employers.
$ Criteria for the preparation of chemical safety data sheets shall be established by the competent authority, or by a body
approved or recognised by the competent authority, in accordance with national or international standards.
$ The chemical or common name used to identify the chemical on the chemical safety data sheet shall be the same as that
used on the label.
Responsibilities Of Suppliers
$ Suppliers of chemicals, whether manufacturers, importers or distributors, shall ensure that:
eSuch chemicals have been classified in accordance with Article 6 on the basis of knowledge of their properties and
a search of available information or assessed in accordance with paragraph 3 below;
0 Such chemicals are marked so as to indicate their identity in accordance with Article 7, paragraph 1;
0 Hazardous chemicals they supply are labeled in accordance with Article 7, paragraph 2;
0 Chemical safety data sheets are prepared for such hazardous chemicals in accordance with Article 8, paragraph 1,
and provided to employers.
$ Suppliers of hazardous chemicals shall ensure that revised labels and chemical safety data sheets are prepared and
provided to employers, by a method which accords with national law and practice, whenever new relevant safety and
health information becomes available.
$ Suppliers of chemicals which have not yet been classified in accordance with Article 6 shall identify the chemicals they
supply and assess the properties of these chemicals on the basis of a search of available information in order to
determine whether they are hazardous chemicals.
Responsibilities of employers
IDENTIFICATION
$ Employers shall ensure that all chemicals used at work are labeled or marked as required by Article 7 and that chemical
safety data sheets have been provided as required by Article 8 and are made available to workers and their
representatives.
0 Employers receiving chemicals that have not been labeled or marked as required under Article 7, or for which chemical
safety data sheets have not been provided as required under Article 8, shall obtain the relevant information from the
supplier or from other reasonably available sources, and shall not use the chemicals until such information is obtained.
@ Employers shall ensure that only chemicals which are classified in accordance with Article 6 or identified and assessed in
accordance with Article 9, paragraph 3, and labeled or marked in accordance with Article 7 are used and that any
necessary precautions are taken when they are used.
$ Employers shall maintain a record of hazardous chemicals used at the workplace, cross-referenced to the appropriate
chemical safety data sheets. This record shall be accessible to all workers concerned and their representatives.
23 1-7
TRANSFER OF CHEMICALS
Employers shall ensure that when chemicals are transferred into other containers or equipment, the contents are indicated
in a manner which will make known to workers their identity, any hazards associated with their use and any safety
precautions to be observed.
Employers shall:
0 Ensure that workers are not exposed to chemicals to an extent which exceeds exposure limits or other exposure criteria
for the evaluation and control of the working environment established by the competent authority, or by a body
approved or recognized by the competent authority, in accordance with national or international standards;
0 Assess the exposure of workers to hazardous chemicals;
0 Monitor and record the exposure of workers to hazardous chemicals when this is necessary to safeguard their safety and
health or as may be prescribed by the competent authority;
0 Ensure that the records of the monitoring of the working environment and of the exposure of workers using hazardous
chemicals are kept for a period prescribed by the competent authority and are accessible to the workers and their
representatives.
OPERATIONAL CONTROL
$ Employers shall make an assessment of the risks arising from the use of chemicals at work, and shall protect workers
against such risks by appropriate means, such as:
0 The choice of chemicals that eliminate or minimize the risk;
$ The choice of technology that eliminates or minimizes the risk;
0 The use of adequate engineering control measures;
$ The adoption of working systems and practices that eliminate or minimize the risk;
0 The adoption of adequate occupational hygiene measures;
0 Where recourse to the above measures does not suffice, the provision and proper maintenance of personal
protective equipment and clothing at no cost to the worker, and the implementation of measures to ensure their
use.
$ Employers shall:
$ Limit exposure to hazardous chemicals so as to protect the safety and health of workers;
$ Provide first aid;
$ Make arrangements to deal with emergencies.
Duties of workers
0 Workers shall co-operate as closely as possible with their employers in the discharge by the employers of their
responsibilities and comply with all procedures and practices relating to safety in the use of chemicals at work.
0 Workers shall take all reasonable steps to eliminate or minimize risk to themselves and to others from the use of
chemicals at work.
RIGHTSOFWORKERS
$ Workers shall have the right to remove themselves from danger resulting from the use of chemicals when they have
reasonable justification to believe there is an imminent and serious risk to their safety or health, and shall inform their
supervisor immediately.
0 Workers who remove themselves from danger in accordance with the provisions of the previous paragraph or who
exercise any other rights under this Convention shall be protected against undue consequences.
0 Workers concerned and their representatives shal I have the right to:
$ Information on the identity of chemicals used at work, the hazardous properties of such chemicals, precautionary
0 measures, education and training;
0 The information contained in labels and markings;
0 Chemical safety data sheets;
0 Any other information required to be kept by this Convention.
0 Where disclosure of the specific identity of an ingredient of a chemical mixture to a competitor would be liable to cause
harm to the employer's business, the employer may, in providing the information required under paragraph 3 above,
protect that identity in a manner approved by the competent authority under Article 1, paragraph 2 (b).
Note: For detailed ILO recommendations R177, please study through following link
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p =NORM LEXPU B:55:0:::55:P55_TYPE,PSS_LANG,PS5_DOCU M ENT,PS5_NODE:REC,en,R 177,/Document
24 1-8
1.7 Type of health effects based on quantity of dose
Acute Health Effect

Acute effects are those ill-health issues which are caused by exposure with high quantity/concentration for a short period
of time. For example, exposure with H2S for more than SOOPPM can cause death in seconds
Chronic Health effects

Prolonged exposure to a low quantity substance may generate health effects over a period of time. For example, silica dust
prolonged exposure causes lung cancer.
It is noteworthy that a substance may present both acute & chronic effects e.g.H2S gas. Prolonged exposure with low PPM
(parts per million) H2S may cause headache, corneal blistering, sleep disturbance etc.
What are theOccupational Exposure Limits (OEL)?

The maximum safe dose of an airborne substance, which an employee may be exposed through inhalation for a specific
period of time, is OEL.
Exposure limits for different substances will be different e.g. H2S may have low value as compared to CO (Carbon
Monoxide)
It is also noteworthy that there is no uniform international standard which lays out the OEL (occupational exposure limits)
for the hazardous substances. Every country may have set exposure limits for substances.
Type ofOELOccupational exposure limits)

We have earlier studied the acute & chronic effects of substance on the health of the persons. The OEL may be divided into
02 main type based on the ill-health effect the substances may present
Short Term exposure limits (STEL)

STEL is the maximum safe dose/concentration of an airborne substance that an employee/person may be subject to
exposure for maximum 1 Sminutes duration. For example STEL for H2S gas is 1 SPPM/1 Smin.
Long Term Exposure limits (LTEL)

LTEL is the maximum safe dose of an airborne substance that an employee may be subjected to exposure for an 8hrs
(normal duty time per shift) time duration a day for a life time working. LTEL value for H2S gas is 10PPM/8 hrs.
Note: - Some substances may present both acute & chronic health effects & must be dealt accordingly while taking control
measures.
Time Weightage Average (TWA)

In the context of LTEL and STEL, it should be understood that exposure to uniform concentration of a substance may not be
practical to be monitored as the concentration level may be different throughout the day. This is the reason the concept of
TWA is introduced in which the specific hours are multiplied with the concentration value & added together. The sum is
then divided by 8 (total shift hours) to get the Average exposure in 8 hrs i.e. TWA.
Example
LTEL for H2S is 10PPM/8hrs. A worker has been exposed as follows:-
2hrs at SPPM
2hrs at 7 PPM
3hrs at 11PPM
1hr at 13 PPM
Calculate the TWA & decide if he has exceeded LTEL or not
Answer:-
2*5+2*7+3*11+1*13
10+14+33+13
TWA= 10+14+33+13/8 = 70/8= 8.8PPM
LTEL was not exceeded
Advantages ofOccupational Exposure Limits

Occupational Exposure Limits i.e. STEL & LTEL are very important in deciding the control measures against the
25 1-9
substances ill-health effects on the employees.. The organization may follow the general hierarchy of control measures (as
applicable) to safeguard its personnel against the exposure through inhalation.
Limitations of Occupational Exposure Limits

$ Exposure Limits have been tested for various substances on different animals (not the human). So it is very difficult to
figure out the exact exposure Limits
$ Exposure limits may vary from person to person depending on following factors
0 Gender
0 Age
0 Smoker/Non smoker
0 Alcoholic/Non Alcoholic
@ Psychological & physical health condition
0 OEL have been designed to tackle ill-health effects due to inhalation only. Whereas, the persons may be subject to
exposure through ingestion etc.
$ OEL have been designed for isolated substance e.g. H2S or CO etc. OEL may not work well where there is combined
exposure to various substances simultaneously
0 The environmental factors e.g. temperature humidity etc. may influence the validity of OEL's
$ OEL are guidelines only and do not force on employer to adhere to it.
$ Measuring & monitoring equipment may get unserviceable leading to false sense of safety against exposure.
0 The employees may not wear appropriate personal measuring equipment hence exact value of exposure may not be
known
$ Employees may not wear suitable RPE's to meet the production deadlines due to the lack of awareness & low risk
perception.
1.8 Chemical Processes and Implications on OH&S
Type of Chemical Reactions

The chemical reactions may be Exothermic or endothermic.
Exothermic are those chemical reactions which release heat and energy. The common example of exothermic reaction is
combustion in which a flammable substance reacts with oxygen to produce heat and energy.
Endothermic are those chemical reactions which absorb heat and energy. The common example is melting of ice,
evaporation of water etc.
The majority of chemical reactions carried out in industry are exothermic. In some cases, an exothermic reaction can lead to
a thermal runaway if the rate of heat generated by the reaction exceeds the removal rate. As the surplus heat begins to raise
the temperature of the reaction mass, the rate of reaction starts to increase. This in turn accelerates the rate of heat
production. Thermal runaway can occur because, as the temperature increases, the rate of heat removal only increases
approximately linearly but the rate of heat production increases exponentially. For example, an increase in temperature of
10 K often results in a two- to three-fold increase in the rate of reaction. Once control of the reaction is lost, the temperature
can rise rapidly leaving little time for correction. The elevated temperatures may initiate secondary, more hazardous
runaways or decompositions.
A runaway exothermic reaction can have a range of results from the boiling over of the reaction mass, to large increases in
temperature and pressure that lead to an explosion. Such violence can cause blast and missile damage. R elease of
flammable materials may result in fire or secondary explosions. Hot liquids and toxic materials may contaminate the
workplace or generate a toxic cloud that may spread off-site.
There can be serious risk of injuries to plant operators, other personnel and the general public and damage to the local
environment. At best, a runaway causes loss and disruption of production; at worst it has the potential for a major accident,
as the incidents at Seveso and Bhopal have shown.
Causes of exothermic runaway and decompositions
$ A number of factors can cause imbalance between the rates of heat production and heat removal that can result in
exothermic runaway or decomposition. Studies of real runaway incidents show that the main causes are:
$ Mischarging of reactants e.g. addition of the wrong material or the wrong amount, addition in the wrong order or at the
wrong rate or omission of a reactant;
$ thermo-chemistry e.g. poor appreciation of the heat of reaction, unknown thermal instability of reactants,
intermediates or products;
0 Temperature control e.g. failure to control temperature, misreading of temperature, incorrectly positioned or failed
thermocouples or coolant failure;
26 1-10
0 Inadequate agitation e.g. omission to start agitation, agitator failure or incorrect specification;
0 Maintenance e.g. unauthorized modifications, build-up of residues, blockages, leaks or equipment restarted in an
incorrect state;
0 Poor control of raw materials e.g. variable raw material specification or contamination; and
0 Others e.g. human errors, not following procedures or poorly defined procedures.
The underlying causes of many incidents involving chemical reactions are:
0 Inadequate knowledge of the reaction chemistry/thermo-chemistry;

0 Inadequate engineering design for heat transfer;
0 Inadequate process control; and
0 Inadequate procedures and training.
Protective measures
Protective measures mitigate the consequences of a hazard. They are rarely used on their own. Some preventive
measures are usually present to reduce the demand on the protective system. Protective measures include:
0 Containment within the reactor system;
0 Emergency pressure relief or venting, and dumping;
$ Crash cooling;
$ Reaction inhibition;
0 Drown-out and quenching; and
0 Secondary containment.
All the protective measures, with the exception of containment and venting, normally rely on a control system to
operate them. Therefore, the safety integrity of the protective measure and the integrity of the control system are both
important in its selection.
As with all other aspects of safe chemical processes, it is important that the design of any protective measure is
adequate. For this to happen you must understand the runaway reaction process in detail. An undersized vent on a
reactor will not totally protect the reactor against damage. As the protective measure is the last line of defense, it
needs designing to protect against the worst case scenario.
For the majority of businesses carrying out chemical reaction processes, there are four main events that individually, or
jointly, have the potential to cause significant harm or damage:
0 Fire;
$ Explosion;
0 Release of a toxic substance; and
0 Release of a corrosive substance.
Risk assessment needs to consider how these events could occur. Examples include:-
Fire
$ Mixing of incompatible chemicals
$ Ignition following a spill or release
0 Arson
0 Hazardous activities - welding, smoking, etc
0 External events - lightning, impact, fire at an adjacent location, etc
Explosion
$ Fire
0 Ignition following a spill or release
(:) Exothermic runaway or decomposition
0 Pressure build-up by gas generation
Releases
$ Containment failure
$ Impact
$ Human error
27 1-11
Riskassessment of chemical agents

To save the workers from potential ill-health issues, it is necessary to carry out a Risk assessment where employees may be
subjected to be exposed to chemical or biological agents. The risk Assessment will be similar 5 step process which we carry
out for any other activity at the workplace:-
$ Identity the hazardous nature of the substance and the potential ill-health effects it may cause. (we shall also study the
sources of information about the hazardous nature of the substance)
0 Identity the people who may be exposed. The routes of entry into human body must also be considered
0 Evaluate the health risk based on current control measures & suggest suitable control measures (Note:- General
principle risk control measures should be followed)
0 Record & implement the changes
0 Review for suitability
Factors need to be considered in riskassessmentfor chemical Agents

0 Hazardous nature of the chemical substance e.g. Toxic, Harmful etc.
0 The number of workers who might be exposed
0 The duration of time for which workers might be exposed & frequency of exposure in a day or in a week etc.
0 -The quantity of chemical substance present at the workplace to gauge the physio-chemical effects e.g. flammable
liquids
0 The concentration of the substance in the air e.g. PPM (Parts per million) for CO or H2S etc.
0 The physical form of the substance e.g. solid, liquid, vapor, mist, fume etc.
0 The routes of entry into human body e.g. inhalation, ingestion, injection etc.
0 Any reported ill-health issues at the workplace.
0 The availability & effectiveness of the existing control measures
0 The safety culture & general awareness & risk perception of the workers. This will help suggesting control measures
How to identify the hazardous nature of a substance

We have studied in the health Risk assessment procedure that the hazardous nature of the substance should be identified
to evaluate the potential ill-health effects on human body. There are several sources of information but following are
considered the authentic
0 Product Label
0 MSDS (Manufacturer Safety Data Sheet)
0 Guidance documents e.g. regulatory body website etc.
Product Label
Product Label bears following information
0 The name of the substance & hazardous nature e.g. Toxic
0 Guidance for the safe usage
0 The possible routes of entry into human body
0 Any emergency or first Aid action
0 A phrase/symbol indicating the potential Risk e.g. (keep away from children) etc.
0 Any restriction of use e.g. not to be used near a naked flame
$ The information about the supplier/manufacturer
MSDS
MSDS contains the basic kinds of information, such as
Chemical Identity: Name of the product.
Manufacturer's Information: Name, address, phone number and emergency phone number of the manufacturer.
Hazardous Ingredients/Identity Information: List of hazardous chemicals.
Physical/Chemical Characteristics: Boiling point, vapor pressure and density, melting point, evaporation rate, etc.
Fire and Explosion Hazard Data: Flash point, flammability limits, ways to extinguish, special firefighting procedures,
28 1-12
unusual fire and explosion hazards.
Reactivity Data: How certain materials react with others when mixed or stored together.
Health Hazard Data: Health effects (acute= immediate; chronic= long-term), ways the hazard can enter the body (lungs,
skin or mouth), symptoms of exposure, emergency and first aid procedures.
Precautions of Safe Handling and Use: What to do in case materials spill or leak, how to dispose of waste safely, how to
handle and store materials in a safe manner.
Control Measures: Ventilation (local, general, etc.), type of respirator/filter to use, protective gloves, clothing and
equipment, etc.
Guidance Documents
Safety Regulatory bodies in different country publish information about the hazardous products. This information include:
STEL
LTEL
Flash point
Fire point
Auto ignition point
Physical forms of substance
Health hazards etc.
Health & safety Executive (HSE) is a UK's regulatory body &OSHA (Occupational safety & Health Administration is an
American regulatory & enforcement body.
Limitation of Information available about the Hazardous substances

0 They take into account the hazardous nature of a substance once studied in isolation about the specific substance & do
not consider the synergistic /mixed exposure of various chemicals
0 The exposure limits are generic and do not take into account the personal susceptibility to substances. The risk of H2S
gas will be different for smoker & nonsmoker if exposed to same concentration for some period of time.
$ The information may not be understood or misinterpret by the user
$ The information is based on current human knowledge. There may be some unknown hazardous about the substance
which may not be exactly known so far. For example, frequent use of cell phones may affect the human brain but this
effect cannot be quantified so far.
0 Poor storage of hazardous substances may lead to lack of traceability. An un-labeled drum of H2SO4 may be used
instead of saline water drum compromising the control measures based on the information about the hazardous nature
of substance.
1.9 Monitoring & Measuring of Hazardous Substances at workplace

Purpose
We have earlier discussed the occupational exposure limits & time weightage Average (T WA) which necessitate the
requirement of measuring & monitoring the hazardous substances to ensure:-
$ The workers are not being exposed above the occupational exposure limits
0 To comply with legal requirements
0 To ensure that control measures are effective. LEV, Ventilation etc.
0 To alarm the workers of any sudden high release of any hazardous substance so that they may leave the workplace
0 To identify the workplace areas where PPE's are mandatory to be worn
0 To provide training, information, instructions & awareness to the workers
Methods of Monitoring & Measurement

Electronic detection System
T hese systems work using Electro-Chemical sensors to detect the presence of a specific type of airborne hazardous
substance. They may further be categorized into 02 main types:-
a) Fixed
These systems are fixed to some workplace where possibility of hazardous substance may exist. They may be
29 1-13
integrated with an audible alarm& beacon light which operates where the hazardous substance may reach a pre-set value:-
Advantages
$ They are highly accurate & Reliable
$ They alarm the workers of OEL's are exceeded
$ They can be programmed to calculate TWA, peak values & data logging
$ Does not require worker competence to interpret the values.
Limitations
$ Require calibration otherwise may provide false sense of safety
$ Very expensive
$ Training for maintenance, use & installations required
$ Separate system for each type of hazardous substance. for example H2S or CO. it will not alarm for any mixed
Exposure
$ It can be tempered with by the workers intentionally e.g. to avoid frequent Alarm or un-intentionally e.g. during
maintenance, calibration or use (Some cables may get damaged)
0 These cannot be used as a personal exposure verification
Personal Monitors
Personal monitors work on the same principle as fixed detection system but they are to be worn by the workers
Advantages
$ Portable
$ Cheap solution
$ Workers may use with short training
$ They beep/ alarm once a pre-set value of a hazardous substance is reached
Limitations
$ Required calibration & bump testing
$ May not be used to monitor TWA
$ May not store date e.g. peak values
$ It can only be used for a specific hazardous airborne material
Note: Bump testing is a method of ascertaining the serviceability of the personal monitor. In this method, the personal
monitor is exposed to very large quantity of hazardous substance in a very short time. The reliability & serviceability is thus
ensured
Other Detection systems
Passive Samplers
Airborne substance is diffused into the passive sampler. After a set time e.g. 8hrs, they are sent to the lab for analysis.
Advantages
$ They are used to measure TWA
$ It can identify the exposure of all type of hazardous substances present at the workplace through Lab Analysis
$ Accurate
Limitations
$ Require competence for Lab Analysis
$ It cannot be used forSTEL because it only gives the value over a period of time
$ Does not alarm the worker of any high exposure
$ The value of results cannot be used as personnel exposure
Stain Tube Detectors
Stain tubes are filled with a substance which reacts & changes color which exposed to a specific type of hazardous
gas/fumes or vapor. These tubes are calibrated in such a way that with higher concentration the color changes to a
30 1-14
specified length of the tube which is marked on the tube. These are available for more than 500 different gases etc.
Advantages
@ Cheap & easy method
0 Only short training is required to operate
$ No Lab analysis required
Limitations
$ Each stain tube will work for a specific type of hazardous substance e.g. H2S or CO etc.
$ Cannot be used for TWA
$ They have a shelf life & expires afterwards
@ Once use only
@ They have a specific range to measure
Dust Monitoring Equipment

Dust exposure at a workplace may be monitored by passive samplers or personal dust monitoring which is worn by the
worker. It consists of a pre- weighted filter fitted into a dust sampler& is attached to the nose. After a set period of time, it is
removed& filter is re- weighted. Any change is weight is actually the amount of Dust exposure
Advantages
$ Cheap option
@ Can be used for personal exposure monitoring
Limitations
@ May provide inaccurate results due to absorption of other chemicals/form
@ Can only be used as TWA
@ Once use filters
Smoke Tubes
The smoke tubes generate smoke through a chemical reaction & the smoke is pumped out of tube through a rubber bulb.
These are used to evaluate the effectiveness of ventilation system
General Limitations of Monitoring System

@ They require specific training for use & maintenance
@ Without proper calibration & maintenance, they may provide wrong results
@ They take into account the inhalation hazardous and do not measure or monitor the exposure through other routes of
entry
0 Most of them operate in a specific range i.e. 0-S0PPM etc.
0 They may be misused or tampered with to manipulate the data
Monitoring Devices Selection Consideration

Factor to consider
@ Environmental condition in which the measuring or monitoring equipment is to be used
0 Type of hazardous substance against which the detection system is required e.g. CO, H2S or S02 gases etc.
$ Workplace conditions e.g. requirement of spark proof system to be used in a flammable conditions
@ Detection range requirement e.g. 0-S0PPMor 0-1O0PPM or 0-100OPPM etc.
@ Any requirement of resolution of the displaying.1O.Oor10.00 or10.000 etc.
@ Response time for sensors to alarm immediately. This will be required where possibility of sudden release of toxic gases
is present
@ The compatibility with Alarm system
@ The competence of the people who are supposed to use, operate & maintenance & any specific training requirement.
@ Calibration frequency & any specific equipment training or competency requirement for the calibration
0 The Accuracy, reliability & repeatability of the equipment
$ Requirement of being tamper- proof & ruggedness
31 1-15
Factors effecting Efficiency of Monitoring & Measuring Devices

0 Extreme high or low temperatures
0 Extreme humid or dry weather conditions
0 Shelf life of the devices
0 Lack of competency will lead to inaccurate interpretation of results
0 Misuse by the workers
0 Noncompliance with manufacturers recommendations for use, maintenance & calibration
0 Improper installation
1.10 Risk Control Measures against Hazardous Substances

The organization need to establish, implement & maintain procedures & take action to control the Risk Associated with
exposure to hazardous substances. We shall now discuss various options that may be utilized using the General Hierarchy
of Risk Control i.e.:-
$ Elimination of hazardous substances from the workplace
0 Reduction/substitution of hazardous substances will less hazardous substances
0 Applying engineering controls
0 Applying Administrative controls
$ PPE
It should be noted that not all the control measures will be feasible to apply for all type of work places. Therefore the
hierarchy of control measures must be kept in mind to ensure lesser reliance on worker competence.
I. Elimination of hazardous substances

It is highly recommended (if feasible) to eliminate the hazardous substances or the processes from the workplace. The
example could be outsourcing a process e.g. surface treatment of metal parts.
11. Reduction/substitution of hazardous Substances

In certain situation, elimination of a hazardous substance or process may not be a wise decision but there may be some
options available which came reduce the risk. This may be carried out by substituting a hazardous substance with a less
hazardous substance. For example; the use of less flammable liquids instead of highly flammable materials and use of
natural pesticides (Pyrethrins) instead of pesticides may be carried out.
Note: Carefully examine before substituting the chemical to avoid any unforeseen risks with the new chemicals.
Ill. Engineering controls

Engineering controls may be applied to reduce the risk as follows:
$ Process control
0 Enclosure, isolation or segregation
0 Ventilation
We shall discuss each one in detail
a) Process Control
Process control requires the careful examining a process and change the way it's being done e.g.
0 Use of wet methods rather than dry e.g. during drilling, cutting, grinding, polishing etc. to damp down the dust
0 Use of electric motors instead of diesel motors
0 Decreasing the temperature of a process to reduce the evaporation
0 Automate the processes to exclude the workers minimum number of workers
0 Avoid spray painting & use brush painting or airless painting methods
b) Enclosure & Isolation

These methods aim to eliminate the requirement of workers & chemicals being present simultaneously. It may be used as
chemicals inside & workers outside (Robotic Spray painting Booth) or workers inside & hazardous chemicals outside
(Diesel Generator to be kept away from building).
0 Enclosure is sealing tightly a hazardous so that it may not escape
0 Isolation is placing a hazardous substance or process at a geographically distant location from the workplace so that it
may not pose a risk of high exposure.
32 1-16
c) Ventilation
(:) Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV)
(:) Dilation Ventilation
Ventilation is a method of controlling Risk from hazardous substances (mainly inhalation) through adding fresh air or
removing contaminated air from the workplace. Following methods of ventilation may be used
Local Exhaust Ventilation

Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) is an effective means of controlling hazardous exposure.
It comprises following parts
0 A hood placed near the source (emitting hazardous substance)
0 Dust system to carry the contaminated Air/ Airborne hazardous substance
0 A filter to avoid environmental pollution
0 A fan (extractor) which forces the Airborne substance to travel through the duct to the outside environment
It is very important that LEV must be designed & manufactured by competent persons keeping in view various factors
including:-
(:) The quantity of hazardous substances present at the workplace
0 The concentration of Airborne hazardous substances in the workplace
0 The hazardous nature of the substance
0 Occupational Exposure Limits for the substance
(:) Required number of hoods
0 The distance through which the airborne hazardous substance will travel through the ducts
0 Requirement of filtration before discharging into environment. (As per legal or regulatory guidelines)
(:) Any expected modification in future
(:) The presence of any other Risk control measures
0 The presence of hazardous substance detection, alarm system & emergency procedures
It should be noted that the efficiency of an LEV may be decreased with the passage of time.
Following may be the reasons which may lead towards an ineffective LEV system:-
$ The hood placed wrongly i.e. away from emission sources
0 Physical damage to the ducts which may have caused holes in ducts or reduction in inside area of the duct
0 Contamination/clogging of material along the inside of duct resulting lesser path for movement of airborne substances
$ The faulty/unserviceable fan/motor
0 Non approved modification e.g. Increased number of hoods or sharp edges in the ducting system
0 Blocked filter causing increased force of fan.
Dilution Ventilation
Dilute ventilation operates by dilating the concentration of hazardous substance in the workplace by pulling the
contaminated air from workplace or injecting fresh air into the workplace
Passive Ventilation
Large windows/voids causing the natural flow of air through workplace result the dilution of hazardous substance
Active Ventilation
It is done through exhaust fans/powered extractors
Advantages of Dilation Ventilation

0 Cheap option for the workplaces where the OEL for the substances are high and Risk is low with exposure
0 It may be used where the concentration of Airborne substances remain very low
Limitations of Dilation ventilation

0 It is not reliable for toxic substances
0 May not be effective for airborne hazardous substances which are heavier than air
0 It is also not suitable for the workplaces where outside air is more hazardous/contaminated than inside air
0 It is ineffective for Acute exposure situations
0 It does not completely remove the hazardous substances from the workplace
May be ineffective for the workplaces with high concentration of Airborne hazardous substances or where sudden
33 1-17
release of hazardous substances may occur
iv-Administrative controls
Administrative control measures are the procedures & rules which ensure that workers are not exposed beyond the OEL's.
This may be done through various measures including:-
Reduce the exposure Times

Reducing the time for which a worker may be exposed to hazardous substances will reduce the risk of ill-health for the
worker. This may be achieved through frequent job rotations, rest breaks & elimination of un-necessary persons from such
workplace.
Education, Information, Awareness & Training
The workers with increased risk perception are less likely to suffer ill-health issues. Therefore it is necessary to impart
training to the workers as follows:-
(:) Hazards and risk
(:) Control measures
(:) Use of PPE's
0 How to respond in emergency
$ Use of measuring and monitoring equipments
(:) Occupational exposure limits
Good House Keeping

It is important to prevent un-necessary accumulation of hazardous substances at workplace. This may be carried out
through an effective housekeeping program.
Personal Hygiene
It should also be considered that inhalation is not the only route of entry but there are absorption through skin, ingestion
etc. can also expose an employee to hazardous substances. Eating at workplace should be prohibited and workers should
be motivated to wash hands before they eat to avoid hazardous substance ingestion into the body. Similarly frequent
washing of working overalls should be made necessary
Health surveillance
It is though not a proactive approach towards the risk control but it may indicate any severe exposure to hazardous
substances or the violation of compliance with OEL's.
Health Surveillance may also be used to gauge the effectiveness of existing control measures. The organization must have
p r o c e d u r e i n place f o r m e d i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n a t t h e time of i n d u c t i o n & medical e x a m i n a t i o n
(weekly/monthly/Quarterly/Yearly) depending on level of risk or past ill health records
v-PPE's
The fifth and the last control measure in the hierarchy of the control are PPE. Although PPE's are assumed to be least
effective means of protection against the risks but certain situations e.g. emergency evacuation or temporary works
necessitate the use of PPE's. There are various types of PPE's designed to give protection against the inhalation hazardous,
ingestion hazardous, injection hazardous & skin absorption hazardous.
High Efficiency Particulate Air(HEPA)

High-efficiency particulate air filtration, or HEPA, is capable of filtering 0.3 micrometer particles with 99.97% efficiency, for
use in contaminated environments. Where airborne particles are less than 10 microns (µm= 1/1000000 of a meter) in
diameter, a HEPA (100) rated respirator is highly recommended.
Respiratory protection Equipment's (RPE's) are the type of PPE which are used where airborne hazardous substances may
enter through inhalation. We shall discuss in detail about the characteristics advantages & limitation of each type in
following paragraphs:-
Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE)

There are mainly 02 types RPE's
Respirators
They only filter the available air before it enters the human respiratory system
Examples: - Face piece respirator, ori-nasal respirator full face respirators etc.
34 1-18
Advantages of Respirators
0 Low cost
$ Can be re-used after filter replacement.
0 Some are available as disposable e.g. face piece respirators.
Limitations of respirators
0 These cannot be used in oxygen depleted environments
0 These cannot offer protection against toxic gases e.g. CO or H2S etc.
0 Difficulty in inhalation due to the presence of filter.
0 Negative pressure inside the face mask resulting atmosphere contaminated is to leak through & enter the human
respiratory system.
$ May not be comfortable for the wearer which will encourage workers not to wear them.
Breathing apparatus
Breathing apparatus provide the fresh air/oxygen from another source. They may further be categorized as:-
Fresh air breathing apparatus

The intake of air is from an outside source through a hose
Limitations
0 Supply of air restricted to a specific length of hose
0 Damaged hose can cause contaminated air to be inhaled
0 Kinked hose can cause difficulty in breathing
$ It cannot be utilized in fire evacuation
0 Restrict free movement of wearer
Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus

The supplied air is through an external source (compressor). As compared to fresh BA, these do not create breathing
difficulty because there is positive pressure inside the face mask.
Limitations
0 Hose may get damaged allowing contaminated air to enter inside
0 Supply of hose is restricted
0 Free movement of wearer is restricted
0 Kinked hose can cause suffocation/breathing difficulty
0 It cannot be used in fire evacuation emergencies
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)

Similar to compressed Air Breathing Apparatus i.e. positive pressure inside face mask but the supplied air is through a small
cylinder attached to the body of wearer. Because there is no hose attached. SCBA provides complete freedom of
movement. It can also be utilized for rescue & evacuation purposes
Limitations
0 Supply of Air is time bound
$ The wearer may feel uncomfortable to carry the cylinder
0 May become ineffective if not properly worn
0 Expensive
$ Training required for use and maintenance
We have so far discussed various options of PPE's against inhalation hazardous. But certain works require wearing PPE's
against hazards which might enter through other routes. Following are some of examples of PPE which are used against
hazardous substances:-
Gloves
Protection of hands against chemical or biological agents
35 1-19
Overalls and Aprons

There act as a shield against hazardous substances from coming into direct contact with skin. e.g. grease & liquid chemicals
safety
Goggles
Protection against chemical spillage into the eyes
Face Visors
It provides protection against chemical splashes onto the face.
Factors to consider for selection of PP E's

We have studied various PPE's but not all the PPE's will effectively work against all or a specified hazard at the workplace.
Therefore selection of PPE's may be made considering following factors:-
$ Type of hazard e.g. inhalation, absorption etc.
$ The risk level at the workplace
$ The level of protection required {OEL)
$ The competence & general safety culture of the workers
$ The nature of hazardous substance e.g. toxic, carcinogen etc.
$ Compatibility with other PPE's
$ Required level of degree of freedom in movement
$ The presence or absence of oxygen in the workplace
$ Required level of training for use & maintenance
$ Cost of the PPE's
$ Comfort of wearer
$ Physical fitness of the workers who are supposed to wear.
1.11 The Future of Personal Protective Equipments

Personal protective equipment is at the bottom of the hierarchy of controls. This has been kept for a reason. It is the least
reliable form of protection. It can be uncomfortable for the wearer and may not offer complete protection and workers
prefer not wearing them. It also shifts the burden of protection from the employer, who by law must provide a safe
workplace, to the worker.
It should instead be a goal to protect workers in such a way that no one needs to wear PPE to be safe? It may sound far
fetched, but zero PPE is not an impossible dream. We shall be discussing the elimination of personal protective equipment
in detail in subsequent elements.
Use of Nanomaterials for Personal Protective Equipments

Personal protective equipment {PPE) of the future will be built on a foundation of nanomaterials that will yield a range of
new properties to save more lives and prevent more injuries, as well as affording workers enhanced communication,
increased comfort and greater durability.
That is the bold new world of PPE envisioned by one of the leading U.S. authorities on nanotechnology science. Richard W.
Siegel, Ph.D., founding director of the Rensselaer Nanotechnology Center at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N.Y.,
shared his perspectives at "Protection 2033," a symposium on worker health and safety over the next 25 years. Dr. Siegel is a
pioneer in the field of nanotechnology, and his research has been recognized around the world. The International Safety
Equipment Association {ISEA) sponsored the event in November 2008 to commemorate its 75th anniversary and as a look
ahead to its centennial year.
What new technologies did Siegel's crystal ball reveal and how will they translate into better PPE? Workers and those
responsible for protecting them will have numerous options from which to choose.
In the area of eye and face protection, the professor predicts tougher, more scratch-resistant plastic face masks and
spectacles with transparency and reflectivity that workers can tune to their needs or that will respond automatically to their
environment. And this eye/face protection will have built-in, embedded electronic communications devices and
instrumentation, along with interactive displays powered by lightweight batteries. They will be equipped with sensors for
thermal, chemical and biological monitoring.
Head protection is likely to be transparent to enhance all-around visibility, and made from lighter weight, tougher
ceramic/polymer-nanocomposite armor. It also will come equipped with embedded communications devices, as well as
sensors to detect and warn of hazardous environments, and to provide thermal management {heating, cooling). Similar
advances will provide hearing protection that is more active and responsive, adjusting to fluctuations in
36 1-20
workplace noise level.

Hand and foot protection also will benefit from nanomaterials. Expect lighter weight, ceramic-nanocomposite armor
embedded in flexible polymer composites to yield more robust footwear and gloves that heal themselves. And these
protective devices also will have embedded, responsive thermal management systems for greater comfort, and embedded
sensors to detect and warn of environments carrying thermal, chemical or biological threats. Siegel even envisions foot and
hand protection having built-in first-aid with therapeutic delivery in the event of an injury, and more work-efficient
materials to enhance performance and reduce fatigue.
Siegel predicts that some of the most profound advances will be made in protective and high-visibility apparel. These
enhancements will be derived from instrumented, lightweight, responsive textiles that use tougher, wear-resistant
polymers that also benefit from embedded, ceramic-composite armor. Like future hand and foot protection, these
garments will have embedded warning, thermal-management and first-aid systems.
High- or modulated-visibility (tunable) textiles powered by lightweight, flexible batteries embedded in the fabric will
enable manufacturers to produce garments that are visible day or night - at any level of light. And when the need arises,
these items will be equipped with electronic communications systems with interactive displays and remote monitoring of
worker conditions.
In a real sense, the future of worker protection looks very bright. But how far away are these PPE advances? While some may
not be available until ISEA's 100th anniversary, others could be just around the corner. A show of hands at the "Protection
2033" symposium indicated that a number of ISEA member companies already are working to apply some of these
miraculous new technologies to their products. Stay tuned.
With Nanotechnology's Promise Also Comes Challenges
While carrying great promise for products that protect workers better, nanotechnology also presents new challenges in
protecting workers.
"Nanomaterials present new challenges to understanding, predicting and managing potential health risks to workers.
Following staid 20th century historical practices, by the time a material is in commerce, scientific data on the health effects
in exposed workers or the public- especially long-term health effects- are largely still unavailable and a government risk
management that is specific is still decades away.
"In the case of nanomaterials, the uncertainties are magnified because the characteristics of nanomaterials may be
different from those of the larger particles with the same chemical composition. As we forge ahead with these 21st century
technologies, we must simultaneously take a hard look at our current risk characterization, risk control and risk
communications methods and ask ourselves: 'Are they the ones that will best serve as effective tools to help us achieve
global occupational safety and health goals in a changing 21st century world? "'
1.12 Emergency procedures

Initiating emergency procedures at the earliest stage of an incident can significantly reduce the impact of an incident on
people and premises. You will need, therefore, a written procedure for dealing with any reasonably foreseeable incident, for
example fires, spills or leaks. It should cover:
0 Raising the alarm;
0 Calling the emergency services;
0 Evacuating the area and providing safe havens; and
0 Tackling the fire or controlling the spill or leak (when it is safe to do so).
You need to consider the range of possible events to take into account the following:
0 The nature and quantities of the materials involved;
0 The location of the process and its design; and
0 The people and environment, both on-site and off-site that may be affected.
When the fire brigade arrives they will assume responsibility for firefighting and rescue operations. They may, at the
discretion of the fire brigade incident commander, undertake any other appropriate emergency operations to prevent and
limit any environmental damage the incident might cause. It is therefore important that they are aware of the facilities and
capabilities at your site.
Where large numbers of employees on-site or people off-site may be at risk a nominated person should co-ordinate or
manage the risk assessments and, in consultation with the emergency services, prepare an emergency action plan.
1.13 Benefits of' Good Work'

Employing persons for jobs does not mean giving them financial incentives alone against the value of work they do. With
the evolvement of health and safety regulations, the employers have been assumed to invest on health, safety and welfare
provisions. The concept of acceptable risks however allowed the employers to achieve their production targets while
restraining the health and safety risks.
37 1-21
However, over a passage of time, it has been concluded that better work environment and "good work" are not only a key to
success of the businesses but betterment of the country's economy. Just 'having a job' - regardless of its quality - is not
sufficient. The objective must be to ensure that for as many people as possible, work is a source of well-being, personal
growth, fulfillment, autonomy and meaning. In other words, the jobs available in today's labor market should offer 'Good
Work'. A significant weight of evidence supports the argument that job quality, employee health, and an employee's ability
to perform productively at work, are closely linked
"Good work is engaging, fair, respectful and balances job demands, autonomy and job security. Good work accepts the
importance of culture and traditional beliefs. It is characterized by safe and healthy work practices and it strikes a balance
between the interests of individuals, employers and society. It requires effective change management, clear and realistic
performance indicators, matches the work to the individual and uses transparent productivity metrics."
Characteristics of "Good Work"
Job Satisfaction
The workers spend almost one third of their life at the workplaces. Job satisfaction is a key factor in productivity of
individuals. Job satisfaction has many facets mainly the aptitude of the individual for the job.
Job Security
The employees must be provided with job security. The organizations must devise policies for to ensure the job security.
Hiring and firing as a routine matter discourages the productive workers. It also results in non productive teams and groups
within the organizations.
Appreciation
Requiring appreciation for the work is a human nature. The workers get more satisfied and productive if they are
appreciated for the quality & any creative work they do
Autonomy
Autonomy is the degree of freedom for doing a specific job and decision making. The autonomy of the job is a key feature
of "Good Work" because it taps creativity and productivity.
Training and Development

What happens if we train them and they leave? A wise and visionary CEO replied that what happens if we don't and they
stay? It is very costlier to retain and untrained workforce. A "Good Work" opportunity must focus on personnel training and
development.
Challenging
A good work must provide its employees challenging opportunities for their self actualization and personal prestige
Flexibility
A "Good Work" must be result oriented and should provide flexibility in the working hours to suite the employees own
personal needs. However, this flexibility should be agreed upon so as not to adversely affect the productivity of
organization where the work of some individuals may become bottle neck
Career Development
A "Good Work" must provide a career path to all its employees and provide equal opportunities for career development
and growth
Participation and Involvement

Participation and involvement of employees and/or their representatives in strategic business decision making motivates
the employees and increases their loyalty and workplace ownership
Health, Safety and Welfare Facilities

Other than regulatory requirements, an organization's visible commitment for OH&S and welfare facilities retains the
skilled workforce which also remains happy, motivated and productive for the organizations.
Resources
The employees must be provided with all relevant technical and other resources as required, which should be
38 1-22
necessary in performing a task in a faster and better way.
Communication
The organizational policies should be communicated to all employees so that they remain aware of any changes. This way,
they feel themselves as part of the organization and feel the ownership
Note: The benefits of "Good Work" will not only result into business profits and growth of the organizations but more labor
will be inclined to doing job instead of waiting for good job opportunities and remain jobless for months.
1.14 Clean Energy and OH&S implications
What is clean energy?

Renewable energy generates electricity from sustainable sources like wind, solar, and geothermal power with little or no
pollution or global warming emissions.
Clean energy means lesser or no use of coal, flammable substances e.g. Methane, propane, gasoline, diesel, furnace oil etc.
The global warming is really hot issue and world is unanimously heading forward for making legislations e.g. many
countries like Japan, Netherlands, Germany etc have vowed to ban all natural fuel powered vehicles within next 10 to 15
years. Some countries are even thinking of banning the production of these vehicles. Some futurists have predicted that in
next 20 years, there will be more electric charging stations than the petrol/ gas stations in the world. Tesla; a renowned
electric car producer has reached almost equal demand than Ford in year 2017 which is a sign of complete paradigm shift
from Fuel powered to clean energy.
But how this paradigm shift will affect occupational health and safety is an important consideration.
Health risks in a green economy- mitigation and management

• Occupational hazards and risks associated with "green technologies" are often similar to those in conventional
industries. Known measures can be employed to reduce such risks. These include: design and protective gear against falls
from height; local exhaust encapsulation and exhaust ventilation for protection from excessive exposure to toxic chemicals
and indoor particulates; ergonomic devices (e.g. for lifting and carrying); training of workers and improved employment
terms.17 Clear policies and actions are needed to help governments, employers, workers and other social actors address
these known problems.
Some green economic strategies may draw more employment to sectors with known hazards; these need to be
managed and mitigated. For instance, retrofitting homes and recycling materials are both "green strategies." But these also
have known health risks to workers who may be obliged to work in close proximity sorting or removing materials
contaminated by unknown toxics, chemicals or bacteria. Particularly in developing countries, the informal sector also is
responsible for much of the materials recycling. And while recycling is of great value in resource conservation, jobs may
entail dirty, undesirable and even dangerous and unhealthy work, for which people are often poorly paid. Occupational
health measures targeted at the informal sector are thus of particular importance.
Some green technologies also may generate new or increased exposures to air pollution hazards. For instance,
workers may be exposed to nano-particles or hazardous chemicals in certain types of solar panel production which need to
be mitigated. Incineration, or "co-processing" of waste materials (tires, plastics, used oils and solvents, sewerage sludge,
etc.) to generate energy for steel and cement production and other industries can conserve energy and replace fossil fuels
while reducing waste volumes. However, poorly designed and managed technologies may generate toxic emissions that
can affect workers and people who live close to industrial facilities. Waste-to-energy schemes thus require oversight and
monitoring policies that are currently lacking or inconsistently applied
Some green technologies require further attention to workers' ergonomic risks. For example, production of
renewable energy can also involve hazards, e.g. falls from wind power installations, exposure to nano-particles or
hazardous chemicals in solar panel production, which need to be mitigated. Using waste materials for "co-processing" of
energy (tires, plastics, used oils and solvents, sewerage sludge, etc.) in steel and cement/clinker industries promotes
recycling and energy conservation (even replacing fossil combustibles) while eliminating toxic residues. However, poorly
designed and managed reuse technologies may generate toxic emissions; excessive exposures can increase risks of cancer
and reproductive / immune disorders for workers and people who live close to industrial facilities. This requires oversight
and monitoring that is often inconsistent or lacking
Some climate mitigation measures and green technologies present new hazards or risks to worker health. When a
technology raises threats of harm to human health, precautionary measures should be employed, even before final
scientific proof of cause-and-effect relationships. For example, a Precautionary Principle policy adopted by the city of San
Francisco (USA) with regards to chemical use notes that " ... early warning signs of harm" should trigger an occupational
health response that uses the "best available science to identify safer alternatives."
39 1-23
·This policy has encouraged the use of measures such as: financial incentives through procurement contracts; certification
and promotion of safer business practices; requirements for information disclosure; and outright bans and restrictions on
the sale of products when safer alternatives are readily available
Green technologies are highly varied in scale and job demands, and they are not free of hazards. Workers in these industries
will be exposed to risks that may be the same as, less than or elevated compared to conventional technologies. If green
technologies are disseminated in ways that present increased risk to worker health, sustainability will be achieved at the
cost of inequitably distributed risks and benefits, regardless of the benefit to the global community as a whole. Green
technologies that protect or enhance worker health will achieve sustainability not only at the community level but down to
the level of families, contributing to sustainability of income security and social equity. This document seeks to anticipate
green technologies' consequences for occupational health and safety, including hazards or risks they may present. The
goal is to remove impediments to the dissemination and adoption of green technologies and to reduce avoidable risks for
workers. This document identifies remediable hazards and manageable risks as well as the strategies to manage them so
green technologies can be implemented without compromising worker health.
Identified clean energy technologies
(:) The following are the clean energy technologies which are and will be replacing the existing fossil based energy.
(:) Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies
$ Photovoltaic (PV) solar technologies
(:) Solar hot water and space heating and cooling (installation and use in workplaces)
0 Wind energy
e Biofuels: bioethanol from sugarcane
0 Biofuels: bioethanol from corn, wheat and other crops
$ Biofuels: biodiesel from castor beans, soybeans, palm oil and non-edible plant oils
(:) "Modern" biomass resources and bio-energy conversion technologies
$ Fuel cells
(:) Replacement and/ or reduction of traditional fossil sources of energy (selected industries and vehicles)
(:) Materials recycling of both "external" raw materials or materials generated on site of selected industries
(:) Energy efficiency of buildings
$ Transportation: energy consumption and efficiency
$ Mitigation measures in agriculture: techniques for reduction of carbon emissions
0 Mitigation measures in forestry: techniques for reduction of carbon emissions and for carbon fixation
No t e : F u r t h e r d e t a i l r e g a r d i n g h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y r i s k s a n d t h e i r c o n t r o l s c a n b e s t u d i e d a t
http://www.who.int/hia/green_economy/hgebrief_occ.pdf
1.15 Chemical Agents

We shall discuss in detail about the following chemical agents which create a significant health risk at most of the
workplaces.
0 Asbestos
0 Silicadust
0 Cem en t
$ Wooddust
(:) Carbon monoxide (CO)
Asbestos
What is Asbestos
Asbestos refers to a set of six naturally occurring fibrous minerals. Asbestos has six primary sub-classifications: chrysotile,
crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. Among these, chrysotile and amosite asbestos are the most
common.
(Ref : www.mesothelioma.com/asbestos-cancer/what-is-asbestos.htm)
Characteristics of Asbestos
Asbestos has a host of physical properties that make it almost a superstar in the world of industrial chemistry. Its tensile
strength surpasses that of steel. It has tremendous thermal stability, thermal and electrical resistance and is non
flammable.
40 1-24
Why is asbestos dangerous?

0 Asbestos still kills around 5000 workers each year, this is more than the number of people killed on the road.
0 Around 20 tradesman die each week as a result of past exposure
0 However, asbestos is not just a problem of the past. It can be present today in any building built or refurbished before
the year 2000.
When materials that contain asbestos are disturbed or damaged, fibers are released into the air. When these fibers are
inhaled they can cause serious diseases. These diseases will not affect you immediately; they often take a long time to
develop, but once diagnosed, it is often too late to do anything. This is why it is important that you protect yourself now.
Health Risks
Mesothelioma
Mesothelioma is a cancer which affects the lining of the lungs (pleura) and the lining surrounding the lower digestive tract.
It is almost exclusively related to asbestos exposure and by the time it is diagnosed, it is almost always fatal.
Asbestos-related lung cancer

Asbestos-related lung cancer is the same as (looks the same as) lung cancer caused by smoking and other causes. It is
estimated that there is around one lung cancer for every mesothelioma death.
Pleural thickening
Pleural thickening is generally a problem that happens after heavy asbestos exposure. The lining of the lung (pleura)
thickens and swells. If this gets worse, the lung itself can be squeezed, and can cause shortness of breath and discomfort in
the chest.
Asbestosis
Asbestosis is a serious scarring condition of the lung that normally occurs after heavy exposure to asbestos over many
years. This condition can cause progressive shortness of breath, and in severe cases can be fatal
Note: It is also important to remember that people who smoke, and are also exposed to asbestos fibers, are at a much
greater risk of developing lung cancer.
Managing and working with asbestos

The importation, supply and use of all forms of asbestos are banned. However, many buildings, and some plant and
equipment, still contain asbestos-containing materials (ACMs).
Before you start any work in a building that might contain asbestos (e.g. built or refurbished before the year 2000), you need
to do the following:
Identify whether asbestos is present and determine its type and condition
People responsible for maintenance of non-domestic premises have 'duty to manage' the asbestos in them, and should
provide you with information on where any asbestos is in the building and what condition it is in.
If no information is available or it is limited and you suspect asbestos may be present you should have the area surveyed
and representative samples of the material you are going to work on analyzed.
Alternatively, you can assume that any material you need to disturb does contain asbestos and take the appropriate
precautions for the highest risk situation.
Carry out a risk assessment

Decide if it is possible to carry out the building or maintenance work avoiding the risk of asbestos exposure all together.
If that's not possible, identify who might be at risk and the level of possible asbestos exposure from any work.
On this basis, decide what work methods are necessary to provide effective control of the risks.
Decide if the work needs to be carried out bya licensed contractor

Most asbestos removal work will require a contractor holding a license from HSE.
All work with sprayed asbestos coatings and asbestos lagging and most work with asbestos insulation and asbestos
insulating board (AIB) require a license.
Identify if your work needs a licensed contractor; Find a licensed contractor, or find out how to ap ply for a license.
41 1-25
If the work is not licensable, decide if the work needs to be notified

If it doesn't need a license, you can do maintenance work on or aroundAC Ms with the appropriate controls in place.
Some non-licensed work also has additional requirements, i.e. notification of work, medical surveillance and record
keeping. This work is known as notify-able non-licensed work (NNLW).
Ensure those carrying out the work are suitably trained

Any worker who is liable to disturb asbestos during their day-to-day work needs to receive appropriate training to enable
them to protect themselves and others.
Silica dust
What is silica?
Silica is a natural substance found in most rocks, sand and clay and in products such as bricks and concrete. Silica is also
used as filler in some plastics. In the workplace these materials create dust when they are cut, sanded, carved etc. Some of
this dust may be fine enough to breathe deeply into your lungs and cause harm to your health. The fine dust is called
respirable crystalline silica (RCS) and is too fine to see with normal lighting.
Occupations at Risk with exposure to Silica Dust

Construction and demolition processes , Quarrying; slate mining and slate processing; potteries, ceramics, ceramic glaze
manufacture, brick and tile manufacture; foundries; refractory production and cutting; concrete product manufacture;
monumental and architectural masonry manufacture, stone fireplace and kitchen worktop manufacture; grit and abrasive
blasting, particularly on sandstone.
Health risks
Silicosis
Silicosis makes breathing more difficult and increases the risk of lung infections. Silicosis usually follows exposure to RCS
over many years, but extremely high exposures can lead rapidly to ill health.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD):

COPD is a group of lung diseases, including bronchitis and emphysema, resulting in severe breathlessness, prolonged
coughing and chronic disability. It may be caused by breathing in any fine dusts, including RCS. It can be very disabling and
is a leading cause of death. Cigarette smoking can make it worse.
Lung cancer
Heavy and prolonged exposure to RCS can cause lung cancer. When someone already has silicosis, there is an increased risk
of lung cancer. The health risks from RCS are insignificant when exposure to dust is adequately controlled - you do not
need to become ill through work activities.
Control Measures
0 Carry out Health RiskAssessment
0 Change the Process to eliminate/ reduce the silica dust
0 Provide Engineering controls e.g. LEV or dilution ventilation
0 Provide Administrative Controls e.g. compliance with OEL, reduced exposure time, Job Rotation, Health Surveillance
and Training etc.
0 Use of PPE e.g. RPE
Cement
Health Effects
0 Irritation of Skin, Eyes and Respiratory system
0 Corrosive skin burns with prolonged contact
Control Measures
0 avoiding exposure to cement powder by using pre-mixed concrete / mortar
42 1-26
using work methods that increases the distance between the worker and the substance such as longer handled tools
0 Use PPE e.g. respirators, gloves, aprons etc
0 Provide training to the worker about the hazards and risk control
Wood dust
Health Effects
$ It can cause asthma
Control Measures
0 Carry out Health Risk Assessment
0 Provide Engineering controls e.g. LEV or dilution ventilation
0 Provide Administrative Controls e.g. compliance with OEL, reduced exposure time, Job Rotation, Health Surveillance
and Training etc.
$ Use of PPE e.g. RPE etc.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
What is carbon monoxide?

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, poisonous gas produced by incomplete burning of carbon
based fuels, including gas, oil, wood and coal. This gas is produced by gas appliances and engines when there is not
sufficient air for them to work correctly. Carbon monoxide is highly toxic gas.
How does it affect human body?

When CO enters the body, it prevents the blood from bringing oxygen to cells, tissues, and organs.
Signs which indicate incomplete combustion

0 Yellow or orange rather than blue flames
0 Soot or yellow/brown staining around or on appliances
0 Pilot lights that frequently blow out
0 Increased condensation inside windows
Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning

Early symptoms of carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning can mimic many common ailments and may easily be confused
with food poisoning, viral infections, flu or simple tiredness. Symptoms to look out for include:
$ Headaches or dizziness
0 Breathlessness
0 Nausea
0 Loss of consciousness
0 Tiredness
0 Pains in the chest or stomach
0 Erratic (In-consistent) behavior
0 Visual problems
Risk control measures for carbon monoxide
Risk Assessment
Identify: Identify thosetasks/situations where significant levels of carbon monoxide may occur. This may include:-
• Using equipment involving liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in enclosed spaces e.g. work equipment or heaters/
cookers in welfare facilities
• Using petrol powered equipment in enclosed spaces (including trenches/ excavations) e.g. generators and
cut-off saws
• Refurbishing existing buildings which disrupts gas flues or ventilation systems;
• Inadequately installing new gas appliances
You are generally at lower risk if you are in an open/ well-ventilated space.
43 1-27
Control
Prevent: Think about eliminating or reducing carbon monoxide risks where possible. Consider:
$ Using electrical appliances instead of LPG or petrol ones
$ Locating generators etc outside / in well ventilated spaces
$ The impact of refurbishment work on existing gas-fired systems during the planning stage
$ Future maintenance access to duct systems concealed within voids etc
Note: Even if you minimize some of the risk this way, you may still do other work that might create carbon monoxide.
Control the risk by:
Ventilation:Make sure any facilities using LPG have adequate ventilation at both high and low level. Check it is not
blocked, e.g. fixed grilles covered by newspaper or rags in cold weather to "stop draughts". Petrol and LPG equipment
should be properly extracted / exhausted if used in enclosed spaces. Mechanical ventilation may also be needed.
Detectors: Use personal/mounted carbon monoxide detectors where appropriate.
Installation: Ensure a competent person carries out all LPG / gas installation or refurbishment work.
Other risks: Consider other risks of fire and explosion or confined space work.
Training: Workers
need to know how to use the controls properly. They also need to be aware of the signs and
symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning.
Supervise: Ensure that controls are effective and used by the workers.
Maintain: Properly maintain all equipment. LPG equipment can be particularly vulnerable. Blocked or partially blocked
burners can lead to higher carbon monoxide levels and flame failure. LPG can also leak from damage to hoses etc.
1.16 Requirement for the Work Environment

For effective and safe execution of the duties, the environment where work is being performed should have some basic
requirements. These requirements are quite generic in nature and can be quantified with respect to type of workplace.
For outdoor workplaces, it may not be possible to ensure all or some of these requirements fully but must be ensured
for indoor activities;
Lighting: Adequate lighting must be provided as per the requirement and the nature of job. Lighting requirement will
be different for a tailor who is sewing some clothes (Spot Lights) and for a watchman
Ventilation: Suitable ventilation should be provided to avoid any suffocation. This may be done with exhaust fans or
supply of fresh purified air into work area
Thermal Comfort: The employees working in cold storage are exposed to quite cold environment whereas bakery/
furnace workers are exposed to extremely hot environment. They must be provided with suitable clothing. Similarly
those working indoor/ outdoor must be ensured with thermal comfort.
Space: Adequate space should be provided such as each worker can perform his duties easily. And activities performed
by co-workers must not become a hazard due to limited space.
Seating: Appropriate seating (where applicable) must be provided. Where seating cannot be provided due to the
nature of job (Mason/ construction worker) then adequate rest brakes/ administrative measures should be taken to
ensure health and safety of workers
Noise: Noise level must be controlled. Adequate Engineering/ Administrative controls should be taken
44 1-28
Welfare Requirements
The employer must ensure the provision of following welfare requirements:
Drinking Water: Easy approach to clean drinking water with suitable temperature
Toilet Facilities: Toilet facilities must be provided. The number of toilets and their distance from the workplace must be
suitable. Separate toilets for men and women should be provided. Similarly, disabled workers should also have access to
the toilets as per their requirements.
Change Rooms: Where the workers need to change to overalls or aprons, there must be provided with changing rooms and
also the accommodation of clothes and valuables like watches/ Mobile phones etc.
Parking: Suitable Parking for the conveyances of the employees should be made such as the employees should not travel
too far to reach their workplace in extreme weather condition or else
Washing Facilities: Where there is nature of work may involves exposure to hazardous substances/ dirt etc, suitable
washing facilities located at the nearest places must be provided
Place for Resting and Eating: Hygienic place located at fairly away from the noise or other hazards of the workplace where
the workers may enjoy their tea breaks/ lunch/ dinner etc. or any other rest breaks.
Exposure to Extreme Temperatures

Depending on the nature of job, the workers may be exposed to extremely hot or cold temperatures. These extreme
temperatures may be due to the weather or may be due to nature of the job e.g. Steel Mills worker is exposed to extremely
hot temperatures and a cold storage worker is exposed to extremely cold temperature
Effects on Health & Safety due to extremely hot Temperatures
Dehydration: Sweating due to high temperature can lead to dehydration
Skin Burns: Exposure to direct sunlight or touching with a hot source can physically damage a worker
Skin Cancer: Exposure to direct Sunlight over a long period of time may lead to skin cancer as well
Heat Stress: Working in a hot temperature may lead to heat stress i.e. fainting, discomfort etc
Heat Stroke: The worker may become unconscious and suffer extreme fever which if not treated timely and correctly may
lead to death
Control Measures against the effects of extremely hot Temperatures

0 Eliminate or minimize the work under direct sunlight
0 Where elimination or minimizing the work under direct sunlight is not possible, the workers should be provided
sufficient work breaks
0 Plenty of suitable temperature water should be made available
0 Where the extreme temperature is due to some equipment or process e.g. steel furnace/Boiler/ Oven etc then the
workers should be provided with suitable clothing
0 Automate the process to avoid the presence of workers in the hot area (if feasible)
@ Area should be well ventilated
0 Shielding of the source (which is generating heat) should be carried out to avoid heat radiation
0 Unnecessary persons/processes should be relocated to other areas.
0 Cold Havens may be constructed if the nature of job allows to avoid prolonged exposure to extremely hot environment
0 Job Rotation should be used as an administrative measure
45 1-29
Effects on Health & Safety due to extremely Cold Temperatures

Frost bite: It is a condition in which localized damaged is caused to skin and tissues due to exposure to extreme cold
temperature. In extreme cases of frost bite, the affected area is amputated by the doctors.
Freeze Burns: direct contact with extremely cold surface may result freeze burn injuries.
Slippery Surfaces: The surface may become slippery due to ice and can present slip hazards
PoorReflexAction: Cold temperatures decrease the energy in the human body and movement of body parts may be
slower. This may create a hazard once working near moving parts/ machinery etc.
Hypothermia: Shivering of the body and in extreme prolonged situation, this may result into death
Control Measures against the effects of extremely cold Temperatures

Extreme Cold temperature may be categorized into two parts; Cold temperature due to the weather effects e.g. snow
fall or cold temperature due to the nature of job e.g. Cold storage workers. Control Measures can be categorized
accordingly:-
a) - Control Measures against Extremely Cold Weather

0 Eliminate (If feasible) to work in open areas where extreme cold weather conditions can create hazards
0 Minimize the work in open areas where complete elimination is not possible.
0 Provide suitable clothing to the workers
0 Provide warm drinks and plenty of food to maintain the energy level
0 Provide suitable information, instructions and training to the workers to deal with any emergency situation due to
cold temperatures
0 Proper rest breaks and suitable place for thermal comfort
0 The organization must have suitable emergency evacuation and rescue procedure to deal with the hazards of cold
temperatures
0 Job Rotation may be used as an administrative measure
0 Clear Slippery surfaces (Wet/ Icy floors) to avoid slip hazards
b)- Control Measures against Extreme Cold temperature due to Job/ Process/ Equipment
0 Following additional measures should be taken along with the control measures suggested above
0 Where the extreme temperature is due to some equipment or process e.g. Refrigeration etc. then the workers
should be provided with suitable clothing
0 Automate the process to avoid the presence of workers in the cold area (if feasible)
0 Shielding of the source (Which is generating cooling) should be carried out
0 Unnecessary persons/processes should be relocated to other areas.
0 Provide frequent rest breaks and access to warm refuges during the breaks
0 Thermally comfortable haven may be constructed if the nature of job allows to avoid prolonged exposure to
extremely cold environment
46 1-30
Element2
Assess and apply basic principles of Physics at the workplace
for occupational health and safety
Contents
Element 2: Assess and apply basic principles of Physics at the
workplace for occupational health and safety
2.1 Mechanical properties of materials 2-1

2.2 Hazards and control measures due to mechanical 2-6
properties of materials
2.3 Forms of energy 2-6
2.4 Explanation of various mechanical properties 2-9
2.5 Mechanical structures and their Inspection and evaluation 2-31
2.6 ERGONOMICS 2-32
Learning outcomes
II
Evaluate the hazards due to the mechanical properties of materials and suggest control measures from
hierarchy of control perspective
m Explain various forms of energy including the law of conservation of energy and their potential implications
on health and safety at workplace
II Explain Momentum, Inertia, Acceleration, force, load, Impulse, Work, Power, Moment, Pressure, Material Stress,
m
Strain, friction, Flow, Noise, Vibration, and their significance from occupational health and safety perspective
Explain lever, pulley, screws, slope, wheels, pendulum and their significance from occupational health and
safety perspective
II Inspect & Evaluate a mechanical structure for its strength and durability in a given condition
m Explain the human physiology with capabilities and capacities from an ergonomics perspective
2.1 Mechanical properties of materials

What are physical or mechanical properties of materials?
Physical properties are the characteristics of the material which define the behavior of material under stress or certain load
or testing conditions. Physical properties of material results into its mechanical properties or characteristics which are
influence engineering designs in a wide range of industries. We shall discuss the mechanical properties of materials along
with their uses and limitations. But before we proceed, it is important that we must have clarification on some useful
geometric calculations.
Diameter
Diameter is maximum linear length of a circular or round objects e.g. a pipe or shaft etc. It is represented by the letter D.
Verniers caliper or screw gauges are used to measure the diameters with accuracy upto microns (1/1000000 of a meter).
Diameter or Dia
Radius
One half of a Diameter is called radius and is represented by "r".
r = D/2
Area
Area is the measurement of a two dimensional surface.
There are different formulas to measure the area for different shapes e.g. a circle, a triangle or a square/ rectangle.
D
Area of a Circle = nr 2
Area of a square= x 2
Area of a rectangle= XV
Area of a Triangle= bh/2

D
lh
b
Perimeter
It is the continuous line forming the boundary of a closed geometrical figure.
Perimeter of a Circle= 21tr
Perimeter of a square= x+x+x+x= 4x
Perimeter of rectangle= x+y+x+y= 2x+2y= 2(x+y)
Perimeter of triangle= x+y+z i.e. adding lengths of all 3 sides of triangle
Tensile Strength
Tensile strength of a material is the maximum pulling force a material can withstand before the failure. The unit of
measurement is PSI (Pound per square inches). The tensile strength is considered to be a positive mechanical property of a
material.
51 2-1
Tensile strength of a material is the maximum pulling force a material can withstand before the failure. The unit of
measurement is PSI (Pound per square inches). The tensile strength is considered to be a positive mechanical property of a
material.
Tensile strength of any material is measured by a tester called Tensile Tester. The known diameter (e.g. 1 inch) is subject to
elongated by the tester and the maximum reading of the tester i.e. the force required I pounds to break the material is
noted. For example, the reading on tester was 20000 Pounds for a sample material with 1 inch dia then the tensile strength
will be 20000 PSI.
C-1: If the sample dia (Diameter) of material is 0.5 inches and the maximum force required before the
material failure was recorded as 15000 Pounds then what is the tensile strength of the material. Answer has
been given at the end of the book
Tensile Tester
Note: The tensile strength of materials can be improved with certain mechanical and thermal processes. These processes
may include quenching, normalizing, annealing, shot peening, forging etc.
Compressive Strength
The maximum force which breaks a material under compression is the compressive strength of material. In other words, the
maximum force a material can resist before it breaks. The unit of measurement is PSI (Pound per square inches). The
compressive strength is considered to be a positive mechanical property of a material and is often induced in the materials
through certain mechanical and thermal processes.
Compressive strength is most desirable characteristics in the design of the products which are supposed to bear
compressive loads during their life cycle. This may include many aircraft and engine parts which are under compressive
force while flying. Similarly, the concrete which is used as construction material must have certain level of compressive
strength because the concrete structures are under continuous compressive loads at all the times e.g. a bridge with tons of
loads passing by it and exerting compressive forces. It is therefore considered before designing a bridge to the load limits
the bridge will be exposed to on daily basis.
52 2-2
Force
Compression Force
/
Tension Force
A trailer carrying 100 tons with 5 axles is passing onto a concrete bridge. Another trailer with same load i.e.
100 tons but with 3 axles passes onto same bridge after 10 minutes. Please explain if the bridge undergoes
same amount of force for both cases or not.
Tester used to measure the compressive strength of a material is similar to a tensile tester but the sample is compressed
between two vertical columns of the tester unlike in a tensile tester where sample is pulled from both sides. The formula for
measurement of compressive strength is same as we did in case of tensile strength measurement.
Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a material to resist penetration, indentation and scratching. In other words, it is difficult to put a
dent in the hard material. Examples of Hard materials are diamonds. and glass. Hardness is important from engineering
design point because they put resistance to wear by friction or erosion due to any environmental or other reasons. Mostly
the material surfaces are exposed to these conditions therefore, only the surfaces of materials are hardened through some
thermal processes (Quenching) while keeping the inner side of materials less hard. The material with hard surface and less
hard inner sides are most often used in industry. With materials hardness, comes another mechanical property of materials
i.e. brittleness (We shall study in subsequent paragraph) which is mostly an undesired property of the materials from
engineering design point.
You have often heard that steel is used to cut steel parts. How is that possible? The tool steel being used is much harder than
the steel which is being cut. Hardness is a desirable property of material depending upon its use. For example, a scissor and
a knife surfaces must be hard otherwise they will not serve their purpose even if how sharp their edges are.
Hardness is measured through a special tester. The most widely used method is Rockwell Hardness testing which has three
scales i.e. HRA, HRB and HRC. lf you find hardness value written in HRC with some digits e.g. 140 HRC, you can get a chart
from internet for its equivalency with other scales i.e. HRB and HRA if required. The method is similar to compressive
strength tester but in hardness testing, a huge force is applied through a vertical column having a ball point like circular
end. The depth of penetration is measured which often is in microns. The machine automatically calculates the resistance
by taking into account the exerted force and depth of penetration. For example there are 2 samples being tested of 2
different materials. On application of 1000Kg force, one material penetration is 10 microns while other has 5 microns. Then
the material with lesser penetration will have more hardness than the other material.
53 2-3
Harness testing is a non destructive technique and is widely used as part of mass production in industries. It only puts a
small dent even invisible for a naked eye on the test piece.
Brittleness
Brittleness is the mechanical property of materials in which the material under load fractures without any plastic
deformation i.e. material does not deform partially before failure occurs. A simple daily life example is a black board chalk
stick. Which if tried to bend will not but will break instead. Brittleness is mostly an undesired characteristic of materials from
engineering design point. But brittleness characteristic is often used in some safety devices where a pin (Brittle) need to get
shear off or broken once a pre-calculated load is applied which serve the purpose for other safety devices to operate. But
brittleness in mechanical structures is mostly an undesired characteristic.
Example of Brittle Fracture
The example of a brittle fracture has been shown in above picture. An HSE officer while investigating incidents can get
evidence of material failure reasons with knowledge of brittle fracture.
Ductility
Ductility is opposite to brittleness and is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation (Permanent deformation)
before the fracture.
Ductility is the most desired characteristics of the materials but along with ductility, comes some other characteristic which
may be undesired e.g. less hardness.
Example of Ductile Failure
Ductile materials provide a hint of any upcoming disaster where the inspection team may take a clue from some
deformation whereas brittle materials fracture and collapse without any signs of deformation leaving no clue for the
inspection team unless the disaster happens
Toughness
Toughness is the desired characteristics in materials. It is the ability of a material to offer resistance to failure or fracture. In
other words, the maximum amount of energy a material may absorb and deformed before it gets fractured.
54 2-4
Some materials are under continuous loading (tensile, compressive, rotational etc.). These materials need to be tough to
withstand these loading over a long period of time. A tough material will bear more loadings and will have longer life.
Toughness measure's a metal's ability to maintain its integrity while being pressed, pulled, or deformed. A metal that can be
bent without breaking is tougher than a metal that will break rather than bend.
Another property of tough material is their ability to resist an impact or shock. For example, if you drop a cola bottle from 6
ft height, it will not break. However, if you drop a bucket of water from 6 feet height, it will break. Because the plastic
material used in bottling is PET which is tougher than P.E or PP which is used for buckets.
How Is Toughness Tested?

Material toughness is most commonly measured by an impact test known as a Charpy V-notch test (CVN). In standard CVN
testing, a 10 mm x 10 mm square bar has a small "V" -shaped notch machined on one face.
A hammer swung from a large pendulum will strike the side opposite the notch. If the metal does not break, the level of
energy is increased until the metal breaks. Once the impact machine breaks the bar, the amount of energy required to
cause the rupture is recorded, giving a measurement of toughness in pound-feet.
Elasticity
Elasticity is the most common property of materials known to human being. It is the ability of a material to return to its
original shape after load is removed. In other words, it is the resistance of a material to deformation.
Is rubber more elastic or a mild steel rod?

The answer to above question is mild steel. However, 99% people assume that more a material is stretched; more elastic it is
which is wrong from physics perspective.
Elasticity is a measure of ratio of stress to strain i.e. applied force/ the length of stretch which occurred and material came to
its original shape.
For example, if you apply 5kg force on steel: it may stretch 1 inches. The elasticity of steel will be= stress/ strain= force/
stretch= 5/1 = 5Kg/in
If you apply same 5 kg force on rubber and; it may stretch 10 inches. The elasticity of steel will be= stress/ strain= force/
stretch= 5/10= 0.2 Kg/in
Hence the steel is more elastic than rubber.
The elasticity of materials is a required characteristic from engineering design point. Certain tools, equipments and
structures are required to observe the elastic behavior for the integrity of the structure or system. The deformation in some
cases may initiate a chain reaction of deformations resulting collapse; therefore, elastic material selection is considered
along with some other required properties of materials for a specific component or structure. It is noteworthy that steel and
concrete structure provides both characteristics i.e. compressive strength of concrete and elasticity of steel both make it a
desired combination. If you reverse the direction of a lower and upper side of concrete roof, it will suddenly collapse.
55 2-5
Plasticity
When materials undergo certain amount of load, they get deformed. The deformation is of 2 type i.e. elastic deformation
where the material comes to its original shape once load is removed and plastic deformation where material deforms
permanently.
The plasticity is the ability of a material to get deformed to a required shape. Plasticity is a required characteristic in sheet
metal parts (Aircraft parts) where the sheet metal is supposed to adapt a required shape under pressure in a mould or die.
Remember, the deformation of materials within plastic range will occur without material failure or fracture.
Malleability
Malleability is the ability of materials to be drawn into specific shapes without cracking/fracture. Malleability and ductility
are closely related but not the same. Ductility is property of material under tensile load whereas malleability is under
compressive loads. For example, pure gold is extremely malleable and can be drawn into any shape.
2.2 Hazards and control measures due to mechanical properties of materials

As we have discussed in detail about various mechanical properties of materials, it is very easy to figure out that these
properties are considered while engineering design point for various tools, equipments, machinery, and structures etc. But
do these properties of material remain the same throughout the life of these equipments and structures? The answer is No.
We have discussed that mechanical properties can be induced in the materials (Especially metals) through certain thermal,
mechanical and chemical processes.
Thermal processes may include Quenching, Normalizing, and Annealing etc. and usually involve the use of furnaces.
Mechanical Process may include Shot peening (Small metallic balls are bombarded on metal parts to induce compressive
strength and other mechanical properties of metals), Sand Blasting, Hammering, Forging etc. Similarly Chemical processes
may include surface treatment (Anodizing, cadmium plating, chrome plating, galvanizing, and painting etc.)
When these mechanical properties can be induced in the materials, the same mechanical properties are affected by certain
environmental conditions e.g. high temperatures, exposure to steam or water, exposure to rough and tough conditions
and misuse. These conditions change the mechanical properties of materials over a passage of time and the materials used
in the structures and equipment may not be able to bear the intended load for which it was originally designed.
This situation can lead to equipment and structure failure. An example of an overhead crane with the capacity of 3 Ton has
been installed in a surface treatment shop. The steel rope attached to the overhead crane was originally tested to withstand
a load of 6 Tons to keep a safety factor of 2. Over a period of time, the chemical exposure to the steel rope will change the
tensile strength of the material and at certain point in time, the steel rope which had capacity to lift 6 ton and has been used
to lift 3 ton (Safety Factor of 2) may collapse even at 3 ton if not tested for its integrity on suitable intervals i.e. nature of use
of the steel rope.
The Control measures to avoid such incidents are to follow the manufacturer instructions and should include:-
• Selection of suitable materials for their intended use. This may be carried out by suitable engineering design
• Documented guidelines about the conditions which may lead to material or structure failure
• Inspection of materials (Visual as well as other Non destructive testing techniques) to ensure the strength of materials is
within the safety limits
• Discard the parts of structure or reinforce them through qualified and tested procedures and carry out strength tests
accordingly
• Ensure the reinforcement or modification in design has not adversely affected any other part of the structure
It should be noteworthy that the strength of structures with reference to mechanical properties of materials must
be inspected in a quantified form using the relevant test method and equipment. Relying on visual inspection may
not serve the function for occupational safety. This is more applicable to brittle fractures we have earlier studied
which give no clue to the inspection staff before failure occurs.
2.3 Forms of energy

Energy is the source of life on earth. It is defined as "capacity of doing work"
Energy has various forms. Energy can also be converted from one form to another.
56 2-6
Energy is measured in Joules (J) which is equal to One Newton Meter (Nm) i.e. the force of 1 Newton required to move an
object to a distance of 1 meter then the energy required will be 1 Joules.(1 Newton Force is equal to 0.1016 Kg of force). We
shall discuss about various important forms of energy to understand their implication for occupational safety and health in
subsequent paragraphs.
Potential Energy
As the name suggest, Potential energy is any energy within some substance, structure or equipment stored by virtue of its
position relative to others, stresses within itself, electric charge, and other factors. A simple example of Potential energy is a
brick lying on a height with a potential to be converted into kinetic energy and fall from height. Similarly, a compressed
spring also has the potential energy and upon sudden release, it can decompress and cause severe safety risk. The potential
energy can be gravitational, chemical, nuclear or mechanical energy. However, it is noteworthy that potential energy
contained within a body is harmful and injurious for people once it is converted into other forms of energy by some
external influence. For example, chemical energy stored in an inflammable material is a severe safety and health risk if
inflammable material is ignited and potential energy of the inflammable material is converted into thermal energy. It
should be noted that Potential energy is the major cause of accidents and ill health issues at the workplace because it is
present in range of ways at the workplaces may it be potential falling objects due to gravitational energy, Slip and fall at
workplaces and presence of inflammables and electricity.
Kinetic Energy
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. For example a moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy. You
need to apply force to stop the moving vehicle. Similarly a falling object possesses kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of
falling object is absorbed by the object on which it falls. The Kinetic energy is denoted by K.E and formula for calculating
kinetic energy of an object is:-
K.E= mv2/2
K.E= Kinetic energy
m= Mass of Body(ln simple words its weight e.g. Kg)An object is moving with a speed of 20 meter per second. Its weight is 5
Kg. What is the Kinetic energy of the object
v= velocity(In simple words speed)
An object is moving with a speed of 20 meter per second. Its weight is 5 Kg. What is the Kinetic energy of
the object
Answer
5x(20)2
K.E = ------- = 1000 Joules
2
It is noteworthy, that the kinetic energy increases with the increase in mass (Weight) but exponentially increases with the
increase in speed of an object. As we are aware that speed of a falling object once it hits the person on ground depends on
the height from which it was dropped(Speed of falling object does not however depend on the weight of the object). So an
object dropped from 100 ft height will cause severe damage than an object dropped from 50 ft height.
A 100 Kg cement bag and a 2 Kg tool was dropped from a height ofl00 feet simultaneously. Which
object will hit the ground first?
Thermal energy
As the name suggests, the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its temperature is called thermal energy. For
understanding more about thermal energy, we must understand the heat and difference between temperature and heat.
Heat is a form of energy which is in transit (Flowing) from one object to another object due to their difference in
temperature. Heat always flows from a hot object or environment to cold object or environment. Heat is measured in
joules.
57 2-7
Temperature (sometimes called thermodynamic temperature) is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles
in a system. Temperature is measured in Celsius scales (C°), Fahrenheit scale (F0) and Kelvin Scales (K).
To understand the difference between temperature and heat, we can carry out a simple experiment. There are 2 steel balls
of same material specifications. I ball is 5 Inches in diameter whereas the other one is 1 inches in Diameter. Both have been
uniformly heated to 100 C° temperatures.
Now put both steel balls in 2 separate similar bowls of water (Temperature of water for both bowls is 25C° and same
quantity of water). You will notice that the temperature of bowl having large steel ball has risen at much high temperature
than the other ball which was having small steel balls.
Although both steel balls were having same temperature and both bowls of water were also having same temperature but
what caused rise in temperature of one bowl? This was the amount of heat which transferred more from large steel ball.
From above experiment, it is obvious that a large object will contain more thermal energy at same temperature than a small
object.
Another important issue about thermal energy is the rate of heat transfer from one object to another object. Rate of heat
transfer is very important phenomenon used in various industrial processes. The rate of heat transfer has severe health and
safety implications. We shall now discuss the factors which may affect the rate of heat transfer from one object or
environment to another object or environment. Rate of heat transfer is measured in Joules per second i.e. J/Sec= Watt.
$ The thermal conductivity of the materials affects the rate of heat transfer. For example, copper is more thermal
conductor than steel. Careful consideration is therefore taken before selecting materials where large amount of heat
transfer is required in earliest possible time. This is specially taken care of in exothermic chemical processes, HVAC (Heat
Ventilation and Air-Conditioning) Systems etc.
G Temperature difference also is an important factor in rate of heat transfer. The more is the difference between high
temperature and low temperature object, the more is the rate of flow of heat from hot to cold object.
G Area of material is another factor which influences the rate of heat transfer. The more is the area, the more is the rate of
heat transfer. This aspect is specially considered in HVAC systems. You will see copper tubes bent in air-conditioning
units to increase their surface area for thermal conductivity. This way, the efficiency of the system increases.
G The thickness of material influences the rate of heat transfer. The thicker the material is, the lesser will be rate of heat
transfer from the thick object.
$ The flow of air over the hot temperature also increases the rate of heat transfer. For example, you put a fan over a hot
object, it will get cooler earlier. Similarly flow of water or coolant over hot temperature will have same affect. This factor
is used in radiators of the car engines.
Law of Conservation of energy

The law states that energy can neither be created nor it can be destroyed. It however can be transformed from one form to
another.
We cannot create energy. Similarly we cannot destroy energy. An engine uses potential energy of fuel to convert it into
thermal energy which moves the engine. Thus potential energy of the fuel is finally converted into kinetic energy.
Law of conservation of energy has many lessons from occupational safety and health perspective. We have seen falling
objects where potential energy converts into kinetic energy or un-compression of springs or material under stress convert
their potential energy into kinetic energy resulting safety issues. Similarly, we have seen explosions of inflammable
substances where potential energy gets converted into thermal energy.
There is however another thing which is an issue of concern from health and safety perspective. When the energy converts
from one form to another, not 100% energy is converted into the single other form. Some of energy is consumed in
overcoming the frictions resulting the temperature rise i.e. heat generation.
This heat generation as a bi-product of converting one form of energy to the other may be disastrous if not controlled. For
example, a machinist is working on a lathe machine cutting a metal part. The kinetic energy of the part is being used to cut
the metal part into required shape. But at the same time, the temperature of the tool and part rises to overcome the friction.
This rise in temperature can be a health and safety hazard for the worker. Similarly, if the temperature is not controlled, the
occurrence of fire and explosion may happen in the presence of some inflammable substances (If any)
58 2-8
2.4 Explain Momentum, Inertia, Acceleration, force, load, Impulse, Work, Power,
Moment, Pressure, Material Stress, Strain, friction, Flow, Noise, Vibration, and their
significance from occupational health and safety perspective
Momentum
Momentum is defined as the mass in motion. It is a product of mass and speed. The object having more mass (Weight in
common words) and speed will have more momentum.
Momentum is denoted by "M" and
M= mv (weight of moving object X speed of moving object)
Its units are Kg m/s (Kilogram meter per second)
What will be the momentum of a 10 kg object moving with 20 m/s speed?

M= 10X20= 200 Kg m/s
Why is momentum important in occupational safety and health?
A flying object with certain mass and speed will possess a certain amount of momentum. While applying engineering
controls e.g. machine guards, it is important to understand how much maximum momentum a flying object can have. This
way, the strength of guards is made sure to be commensurate to absorb the momentum of flying objects. Similarly, safety
helmets should be able to absorb specific amount of momentum from falling objects.
The more the speed the more is momentum and the more is the weight of object; the more is the momentum of the object.
And similarly, the more will be momentum, the more will be impact on collision. For example, the brakes of a vehicle fail
while coming downhill; the momentum of the vehicle will increase with the increase of the speed because of gravity. So the
impact on collision will be more leading to more safety issues.
Similarly you are driving alone and you are required to apply brakes, it will be quite easy for you to handle the situation. But
if you have co-passengers in the vehicle along with other luggage, the weight of the car will be increased and so will be the
momentum on same speed. If you need to apply brakes, the same vehicle at same speed will take some distance to cover
before it comes to stop. This happens because the momentum of the car in later case is more than in earlier case. Most
drivers do not assess the risk associated with loaded vehicles and hence come across unfortunate situations.
Inertia
Inertia is the property of matter by which it continues in its existing state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless
that state is changed by an external force. For example, a car has stopped due to some technical problem. You push it to
gain certain momentum. Initially it will quite difficult for you to start moving it but once it starts moving, lesser force is
required to maintain it in the motion.
The other part of the property is that the matter continues to move in straight line with uniform motion. But you often see
that if you hit a football, it will stop after some time. The reason is the external force e.g. wind or friction of earth. It is
assumed that the fuel consumption by cars is mainly covered to deal with wind resistance (Upto 90%) and only small
amount of fuel is consumed in overcoming road friction. This is the reason; car manufacturers put efforts in designing
aerodynamically tested cars so that the mileage could be improved.
But what health and safety implications do we have due to the property of matter i.e. Inertia.
It is noteworthy that there will hardly be any industry which does not use the rotary or linear motion for its processes. From
moving spindle of a lathe machine to moving grinding disc at construction site, the processes are performed through
movement of machinery parts. But what if we need to stop these parts instantly?
The machines do not come to stop instantly due to inertia. They will take certain amount of time before coming to stop
position. And how much time a moving part will take to come to stop position will depend on the size, weight and speed.
We shall discuss this in limitations of emergency stop buttons and limitations of sensory devices for protection of workers
from moving parts of machines.
59 2-9
Similarly if you are driving a vehicle at a speed of 100Km/ hour and you apply brakes; the car will cover some distance
before coming to stop due to inertia. In other words, one aspect of inertia i.e. "ability to move continuously in a liner path
unless external force is applied" is similar to momentum.
The other aspect of inertia i.e. ability of matter to stay in rest position may have certain safety implications. You might have
noticed that once a heavy motor is switched on, you observe a jerk of electricity for a second or so. This energy is absorbed
by the motor to overcome the inertia. In some instances, once the energy required to overcome the inertia is high, the
movement of current will also be high which can lead to overheating of cables or other electricity related safety
implications.
Acceleration
Acceleration is rate of change of velocity i.e. the change in velocity (increase in velocity) per second. In simple words, if a
moving object has initial velocity 1 m/s and on next second its velocity becomes 2 m/s and on 3rd second, its velocity
becomes 3m/s; then with every second, the velocity is changing by 1 m/s. So the acceleration will be 1 m/s2
The gravitation acceleration is denoted by "g" and it has a constant value i.e. 9.8 m/s2
This means if an object (Irrespective of its weight) is dropped from a height, with every passing second, the speed of the
object will increase by 9.8m/s. We take a simple example.
We have dropped a hammed from a certain height which took 5 seconds to reach the ground. If it was simply dropped i.e.
initial speed zero then what will be speed of hammer when it will hit the ground.
vf= vi+gt= 0+9.8x5= 49 m/s (vf= final speed, vi= initial speed, g= gravitational acceleration, t= time to reach the ground)
For ease of understanding, we are using word speed instead of velocity.
Speed at the end of 1st second= 9.8 m/s

Speed at the end of 2nd second= 9.8 +9.8 m/s
Speed at the end of 3rd second= 9.8 +9.8+9.8 m/s
Speed at the end of 4th second= 9.8 +9.8+ 9.8+ 9.8m/s
Speed at the end of 5th second= 9.8 +9.8+ 9.8 +9.8+ 9.8m/s= 5 (9.8) = 49m/s
The acceleration is an important area of concern once dealing with vehicle movements in hilly area, loading and unloading
or moving a patient on wheelchair through ramps, working on inclined surfaces e.g. roofs etc. All above examples involve
the gravitational pull which can give rise to acceleration. The acceleration results into high speed and high impact of
collision which is an extremely high safety hazard.
Force
A force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion of a body. It is denoted by "F". The common unit
of measurement of force is Newton i.e. "N". It may also be measured in pounds (Lb) or Kilograms (Kg). The conversion from
one unit to another can be carried out online through internet.
The force may be applied by direct contact e.g. frictional force, pulling/pushing, air resistance etc. or without a direct
physical contact e.g. gravitational force, magnetic force or electrostatic force.
The force is prime mover for any machinery, plant or equipment to run or stop them. Even we require frictional force to walk
and run. If there is no friction between our shoes and the ground, we may not walk. To overcome this frictional force, our
body needs to apply equal amount of opposite force. This is the reason, we get tired once we walk or run because our body
is continuously exerting force during this process.
From occupational safety and health perspective, the force is important:-

For engineers to design a tool, equipment or structure to withstand intended force or load. For example, a telecom
tower is designed to withstand the specific wind pressure, load of snow (Where applicable), Load of antennas and the
maintenance personnel which regularly climb the tower.
For manual handling so that force may be applied for better efficiency. The direction of applied force results into
the length of movement. Therefore, it is pertinent to apply force in the direction of movement.
60 2-10
For taking control measures during the use of specific equipment where environmental or other conditions may
exert some forces leading to failure of equipment or machinery. For example, a crane booms are designed to lift load in
vertical position only and may not bear the load if applied from any other direction. A crane operation in high wind speed
may result the load to swing. This will cause the application of force on crane telescopic booms in horizontal direction
which has not been designed to withstand the load in that direction.
For understanding the force and its implication at workplaces, we must understand the different force components. A
single force on any object may have its components in 3 dimensions. These are called X, Y and Z component of a single
applied force. For ease of understanding, we shall discuss only X and Y components of the force which will help HSE
practitioners take suitable control measures to avoid failure of equipments and structures by considering relevant
component of the force/s.
For further understanding, please consider the following equations.
In a right angle triangle as shown,
A C
e
B
a2+b2=c2 (a, b and c are the components ande is the angle of triangle)
Note: The 3 angles of a triangle sum up for 180° total. In a right angle triangle as shown above, one side of angle is always
90° and the sum of angles of other 2 sides are 90°.
From above equation, if any two values are known then the 3 rd value can be calculated by using above equation.
Now consider following example to understand the component of forces and their relevance from occupational safety and
health perspective.
A C
B
Consider the picture on right side where a load is manually being pushed. The load is required to be moved in direction b
where as the force is being applied in direction c (Direction of arrow).
If the direction of force is at an angle e.g.450 and the applied force is 20Kg to push the load then following component b of
force is effective only whereas component a of the force is not adding any value for pushing.
b= cCose
b= 20Cos45°
b=20 X 0.707 (You can getCos45° value from internet or through scientific calculator)
b= 14.14Kg
61 2-11
So only 14.14 Kg force is moving the load and remaining applied force i.e. (20-14.14) 5.86 Kg is being wasted.
So here, we have studied that the applied force at an improper angle may result into waste of force. If you keep on
decreasing the angle, the b component of the force will increase and the movement of same box will be easy and early.
Note: You can calculate a component of the force directly from above triangle but formula will be changed i.e. a= c Sine
(You can check value of Sin and Cos for any angle from calculator or through internet).
To understand further, let's take example of a person pushing a wheel chair through a ramp.
If the angle of ramp is700 and total weight of wheelchair and the patient is 100 Kg; how much force will be required to hold
the wheelchair on ramp?
As we can see that "a" component of gravitational force (Vertical) is being held by the ramp but "b" component of the force
(Horizontal) is being taken by the person pushing the wheelchair.
So we need to calculate only "b" component.
b= 100XCos70o
b= 100X0.342= 34.2 Kg
So just to hold a wheelchair on ramp, the person holding it will need to apply 34.2 Kg force to not let the wheelchair come
down due to gravitational pull.
Note: The above calculations have been made considering the other factors like air resistance and friction between wheels
and ramp as zero; which otherwise account some value but almost negligible.
Load
Anything which is being carried and exerting some force in any direction is a load. The load is commonly used in industries
as a synonym for the force.
Once any tool, equipment or structure is designed, it is considered that how much load they need to bear and following
considerations are made while designing.
0 The load will be constant or it will be changing i.e. sometimes high and sometimes low load.
(i) The maximum load which the subject tool, equipment or structure will be exposed to.
0 The frequency of loading and unloading on the subject item
0 The directions of the load e.g. the load exerted by the air may be from any direction from sideways. But the weight put
on a structure will be downwards.
0 The density of the load i.e. the load per unit area
62 2-12
• Any other factor which may affect the load type or conditions for example misuse of equipment or load due to impact. A
structure may hold a load of 100 Kg but if you drop 100Kg on the structure from 3 ft height, the structure may collapse.
Impulse
Impulse is the rate of change of momentum. It is used to study the impact of collision. The impact is multiplication of force
with the time of impact. For example, you drop a glass bottle from 10 ft height onto a hard floor; it will be crashed into
pieces. But if you drop same bottle from same height on sand, the bottle may not break because the sand provided some
cushion and it took some time of impact which reduced the impulse.
In above example, let's assume that an impulse above 100 will be required to break the glass bottle. In earlier case,
we assume that the impact remained for 0.1 seconds. The force on the bottle was:-
Impulse = FXt(ForceXTime)
F= lmpulse/ t = 100/0.1= 1000 Newton
In second case let's assume, it took 3 second for the sand to stop the bottle. The force on the bottle was:-
F= lmpulse/t= 100/3= 33.3 Newton
So we can see that shorter the time of impact, greater will be the force applied during the collision which will result into
fracture or disintegration of colliding objects.
There are several real-world applications of these phenomena. One example is the use of air bags in automobiles. Air bags
are used in automobiles because they are able to minimize the effect of the force on an object involved in a collision. Air
bags accomplish this by extending the time required to stop the momentum of the driver and passenger. When
encountering a car collision, the driver and passenger tend to keep moving in accord with Newton's first law. Their motion
carries them towards a windshield that results in a large force exerted over a short time in order to stop their momentum. If
instead of hitting the windshield, the driver and passenger hit an air bag, and then the time duration of the impact is
increased. When hitting an object with some give such as an air bag, the time duration might be increased by a factor of
100. Increasing the time by a factor of 100 will result in a decrease in force by a factor of 100. Now that's physics in action.
The same principle explains why dashboards are padded. If the air bags do not deploy(or are not installed in a car), then the
driver and passengers run the risk of stopping their momentum by means of a collision with the windshield or the
dashboard. If the driver or passenger should hit the dashboard, then the force and time required to stop their momentum
is exerted by the dashboard. Padded dashboards provide some cushion in a collision and serve to extend the time duration
of the impact, thus minimizing the effect of the force. This same principle of padding a potential impact area can be
observed in the fist of a boxer, inside the helmet, and on gymnastic mats.
Work
The work in physics has different meanings than it is commonly presumed.
When a force is applied on any object and it moves due to the application of force then it is said that work has been done.
Work is denoted by "W" and its units are N-m (Newton meter) or Joule i.e. "J". In simple words, Work is multiplication of
force and the distance travelled by application of the force.
W= FXd(Where d is displacement)
Note: Displacement is the linear distance from one point to another represented through a straight line.
The use of Lever, pulley, screw, and hydraulics utilize work principles resulting development of equipments which are user
friendly and ergonomically better for lifting heavy loads. We shall discuss Lever, Pulley, screw and hydraulics principles later
in this element.
Power
Power is defined as rate of change of work i.e. how early a work is done. It is denoted by "P" and is measured in Watts i.e.
Joule/ seconds= Watt
63 2-13
For example, you need to lift 100 cement bags from ground floor to 5th floor. You have two cranes installed on site. One is
able to lift 100 cement bags in 10 seconds whereas the second crane takes 20 seconds.The power of first crane thus will be
double than the second crane as follows:-
Power(P) =Work done/Time

= F X d / time
Assume gravitational force applied by 100 cement bags is 5000 Kg and the vertical distance travelled was 25 meters then
= S000X25/10
=12500 Watts or 12.5 KW (Kilo Watt) for the first crane
Note: Power is often represented in Horsepower. 1 Horsepower= 735.499 Watts
Moment
Moment is a concept of physics and engineering that refers to the tendency of a force to move an object. It is a measure of
the tendency of the force to rotate an object at an axis through a point. It is the perpendicular distance from the point of
rotation to the force's line of action.
It can be calculated at any point, and its value is the result of the force and the moment arm. Its symbol is the letter "M," and
the Newton meter(Nm) is its International System of Units(SI) unit. It is represented as "NM."
1--d --
The moment in above case will be:

M= F x d
The greater the distance from pivotal point, greater will be moment at the point of load resulting collapse of the beam.
The students often confuse moment with torque. Although both have same units of measurement and a product of Force
and displacement but it refers to tendency of force to cause a rotation against an axis and is particularly used for rotation
related calculations e.g. using a wrench to lose a bolt. However, moment is mostly used for non rotational circumstances
e.g. construction beams etc.
The application of moment and torque are widely used in engineering designs of structures, tools etc. Similarly, these are
widely used in calculation of safety at certain applications e.g. the allowed extended free length of a wooden plank over a
scaffold transoms.
Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
P= F/A. It is measures in PSI(Pound per square inches).

If a force of 10 pounds(Lbs) is being applied over an area of 2 Sq Inches, what will be pressure on the surface?
P=10/2=5 PSI
If we keep on reducing the area e.g. 0.5 Sq inches instead of 2 sq inches then;
P=10/0.5=20 PSI
With the same application of force, the pressure has been increased once we have reduced the area under subject force.
You have noticed that woodworker and construction workers use chisels to break the objects. The chisels have quite sharp
and pointed end.This pointed end reduces the area under application of force. Once the force is applied on chisel, it creates
a crack and breaks the objects.
64 2-14
But if the chisel end gets flattened, it does not work properly because same force is now distributed to a large area i.e.
flattened chisel end. Thus the required results i.e. breaking the objects do not occur.
Why construction workers use wooden plank to work on fragile roofs
If you stand on a fragile roof, the pressure applied will be:
Force= Weight of worker= 80 Kg= 176 Lbs

Area under one foot= 24 Sq Inches
Pressure= P= 176/24= 7.3 PSI
(Area under one foot has been used because once the worker is walking; the whole body weight is on any one foot at any
time)
If a wooden plank has been placed then whole body weight will be distributed over the area of plank.
Force= Weight of worker= 80 Kg= 176 Lbs
Area of plank= 216 Sq Inches (36 inch length and 6 inch wide plank)
Pressure= P= 176/216= 0.8 PSI
You have noticed that pressure on fragile roof has reduced by almost 9 times with the use of planks which will be a safe way
to work on a fragile roof. (Depending upon the existing condition of fragile roof and other factors, the calculations may be
made accordingly).
Pressure is very common term which is used in Occupational safety and health. There are huge numbers of equipments
used in wide range of industries which are under pressure e.g. any gas cylinder, compressors, portable fire extinguishers,
steam boilers, and hydraulic and pneumatic pressure lines. Another unit of pressure is Bar which is equivalent to 14.7 PSI.
Understanding Pressure is not only important from engineering design point but also from safety point during the
operation and use of the equipment. We are aware that quite a number of accidents occur at workplaces due to explosion
of pressurized vessels. As an HSE practitioner, you must have knowledge about the pressurized equipments under use at
the workplace, their maximum limits, the situation which may lead to exceeding pressure limits, and any safety devices
installed for releasing excessive pressure, reliability of those safety devices and their frequent maintenance. You must carry
out the risk assessments for all equipments categorized as pressurized.
Material Stress
Materials have certain atomic structures. Once external load is applied on the materials, they undergo certain type of
pressure. The materials from inside resist and apply equal amount of opposite force. This internal opposite force is known
as material stress. It is denoted by a:
a= F/A
The stress may be any of the following type i.e.

Residual stress
Subsequent to some manufacturing processes e.g. machining, forging, costing, molding, and welding etc. some stresses
are developed in the materials known as residual stress.
Pressure Stress
Once a vessel is under pressurized material, the pressure stress gets induced in the vessels.
Structural Stress
The stress generates in the structures due to the weight of the structure e.g. the weight on the foundations of the building
or foundation columns of the machinery or plant.
65 2-15
Thermal Stress
Once a material is rapidly heated or cooled, thermal stresses generate within the material. A simple common example is
welding where a material is exposed to extreme high temperature of welding which if suddenly cooled, creates stresses in
the weld area as well as the nearby area called "Heat Affected Zone" or HAZ. HAZ has been the most important concerns in
the manufacturing and fabrication industry because it initiates cracks due to thermal stresses if not taken care of properly
by relieving the thermal stresses.
Flow Stress
Once a fluid moves through a conduit (Pipe or tube etc.), It exerts a dynamic pressure on the walls of conduit. This dynamic
pressure induces stress within the conduit known as flow stress.
Fatigue Stress
When a material is subject to cyclic loading (Frequent loading may be very small or large), the fatigue stresses are
generated within the materials. A common example of fatigue stress is due to vibration. Aircraft industry is very much
concerned with fatigue stress because it is the most common type of reason for failure of aircraft and engine parts.
FORCE FORCE
FORCE
STRESS STRESS STRESS

PLANE PLANE PLANE
(A)TENSILE (B)COMPRESSIVE (C)SHEAR
When considering from occupational safety and health perspective, you will need to examine the type of stress and the
direction in which the stress may affect the material or structure. For example, tensile stress will lead to failure of material by
elongation; compressive stress causes material failure under compression and shear stress causes the material to fracture
due to two opposite stresses but line of forces is not the same.
TORQUE
TORQUE
Similarly, a material may be under torsional stress where 2 ends of a material (For example a shaft) have clockwise forces
acting at one end and anti-clockwise forces acting on other end.
Note: It is not necessary that a material is under one type of stress only at any time. A material may be exposed to more
than one type of stresses together. The fracture or failure will occur more quickly depending on number of stresses being
induced in the materials, extent of stresses within materials, direction of stresses e.g. tensile, compressive, shear or
rotational. The stresses within materials affect their characteristics like ductility, hardness, brittleness, tensile strength, and
toughness etc.
Strain
Strain in simple words is a measure of deformation of a material under some stress or pressure.
• Normal strain - elongation or contraction of a line segment
• Shear strain - change in angle between two line segments originally perpendicular
• Normal strain is expressed as
66 2-16
E=dl /lo
di=change of length (m, in)
lo=initial length (m, in)
There are no units of strain because it is ratio of lengths.
Strain is used to measure certain material characteristics like elasticity and toughness etc.
Under a known applied force, the strain (Deformation with reference to its original size and dimensions) is measured which
further is used to calculate various properties of materials as explained above
Hooke's law gives a relationship between the stress and strain. According to Hooke's law, within the elastic limit, strain
produced in a body is directly proportional to the stress produced.
Stress/ Strain= E (a constant, known as Modulus of Elasticity. Its unit is Nm-2.)
Plastic Region
Ultimate
tensile
Stress strengt
Yield tensile
strength
Elastic Region
Friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each
other.
Friction is very important part of our life because we may not walk and run without the friction between the ground and our
shoes. Similarly, the vehicles could not move if there is no friction between the tires and the road. What happens once the
road or ground is slippery? The vehicles slide and humans slip.
0 It is important to study friction from occupational safety and health perspective as well. We understand that the friction
also produces heat. The heat if not controlled properly may lead to fire, or material failures due to heat induced stresses.
@ When an object is moving, the friction is proportional and perpendicular to the normal force (N) i.e. weight of an object
being moved
0 Friction is independent of the area of contact so long as there is an area of contact.
0 The coefficient of static friction is slightly greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction. We have studied inertia earlier
and we understand that a material in rest will continue to be in rest unless an external force s applied and a material in
motion will continue to be in motion unless external force is applied to stop it.
0 Within rather large limits, kinetic friction is independent of speed.
0 Friction depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact. For example, the friction between rubber and ground will
be different from the friction between rubber and road.
Contacting Surfaces Coefficient of Friction (Static or Kinetic)
Rubber tires on dry concrete 1.02 (Kinetic)
Rubber tires on wet concrete 0.97 (Kinetic)
Wooden on wood 0.25 - 0.5 (Static)
Wooden on brick 0.6 (Static)
Glass on glass 0.9 -1.0 (Static)
Diamond on diamond 0.1 (Static)
Graphite on steel 0.1 (Static)
Nylon on Nylon 0.15-1.25 (Static)
Metal on ice 0.02 (Kinetic)
67 2-17
The more is coefficient of friction between 2 different materials, the more force will be required for relative movement
between 2 surfaces.
Friction is very important consideration from engineering design point. The relevant materials are selected to achieve a
certain level of friction. For example, if you need a rope for climbing, you will require maximum friction between hands and
the rope. Similarly, if you are selecting flooring, you may need maximum friction to avoid slip at the workplaces. But if you
require relative movement between 2 machinery parts, you need as low as possible the friction to avoid energy loss in
overcoming friction and excessive heat generation due to friction. Similarly, when designing the conduits for fluid flow, the
friction between the fluid and the conduit material is considered for efficiency of process and avoiding heat generation due
to the friction.
How to measure Coefficient of friction between 2 surfaces
An easy way to measure the coefficient of static friction is to place two objects together and then tilt them until the top one
slides. The angle at which one object starts to slip on the other is directly related to the coefficient.
When the two objects are horizontal there is no frictional force. As the objects are slowly tilted, the force of static friction
must increase from zero to counteract the component of the force of gravity that acts along the interface.
Eventually, as the angle increases, that component of the force of gravity exceeds the maximum value of the force of static
friction, and the top object slides off.
µs= tan (0)
If the material starts to slide at 300, the coefficient of friction will be:
µs= tan 300 = 0.577
If the material starts to slide at 600 i.e. friction is more than in earlier case, the coefficient of friction will be:
µs= tan 600 = 1.73
� is coefficient of friction between 2 surfaces.

Note: The above process is not the exact way for calculating the coefficient of friction because it does not exclude the air
resistance
Flow
The movement of liquids and gases is generally referred to as "flow," i.e. how fluids behave and how they interact with their
surrounding environment. Water flowing through an open or close channel is an example of flow.
How do we measure Flow Rate?

In certain engineering calculations, it is pertinent to measure the flow rate of fluids. Flow rate is the volume of any fluid
passing through a point in a certain period of time. It is denoted by "Q"
Q= Ft3/s (Cubic Foot per second) or in simple words Cusec
Another way of calculating the flow rate is to measure the area through which the fluid is passing. Multiply the area by
speed (Velocity) of the fluid.
Q= Ft2 X Ft/s = Ft3/sec= Cusec
Flow can also be measured in Cubic meter per minute, cubic meter per hour. You can make these conversions online
through internet very easily.
l Ft= 12 Inches
l Inch= 2.54 Cm= 25.4mm
1 Cm=10 mm
l meter= l0dm(Decimeter)= 100Cm (Centimeter)= 1000mm (Millimeter)
l meter= 3.28084 Ft
l Ft= 0.3048 Meters
l dm' = 1 Ltr
68 2-18
Static and Dynamic Pressure of Fluids
Static pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid on all directions once there is no movement of fluid and is measured in PSI
i.e. Force per unit Area: F/A
The dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid due to its motion and is somehow similar to kinetic energy of the
fluid. Dynamic pressure is equal to density multiplied by V2/2 0J is velocity of fluid).
While a fluid in a motion, it has both components i.e. static as well as dynamic pressures. It is noteworthy that once the
velocity of a fluid increases, the static pressure exerted by fluid decreases. This principle is used in designing aircrafts. The
upper side of the wings has large area than the lower sides of the wings. Once air passes through upper side, air velocity
increases; which lower the pressure on upper side of the wings. As we know the objects move from high pressure to low
pressure, the high pressure under the wings pushes aircrafts upward where the pressure is lowered. The wings of aircrafts
have in-flight adjusting provisions and hence at certain height, the level is maintained for a smooth flight.
Static pressures are also used to measure the flow characteristics. If the static pressure in a channel is increasing, it means
there s some obstruction in the channel which is causing decrease in dynamic pressure and hence the static pressure is
increasing. In chemical and process industries, measuring and monitoring flow is very important from occupational safety
and health perspective. We have already discussed the chemical processes safety in element 1 in detail.
Noise
A sound which is loud and unpleasant is called a noise.
Noise-related hearing loss is one of the most common occupational health issues. Every year thousands of workers are
exposed to workplace noise hazards that result in preventable hearing loss.
Effects of Noise Exposure
Auditory/ Physical Effects

Acoustic trauma: Sudden hearing damage caused by short burst of extremely loud noise such as a gunshot.
Tinnitus: Ringing or buzzing in the ear.
Temporary hearing loss: Also known as temporary threshold shift (TTS) which occurs immediately after exposure to a
high level of noise. There is gradual recovery when the affected person spends time in a quiet place. Complete recovery
may take several hours.
Permanent hearing loss: Permanent hearing loss, also known as permanent threshold shift (PTS), progresses constantly
as noise exposure continues month after month and year after year. The hearing impairment is noticeable only when it is
substantial enough to interfere with routine activities. At this stage, a permanent and irreversible hearing damage has
occurred. Noise-induced hearing damage cannot be cured by medical treatment and worsens as noise exposure
continues.
When noise exposure stops, the person does not regain the lost hearing sensitivity. As the employee ages, hearing may
worsen as "age-related hearing loss" add to the existing noise-induced hearing loss.
Non Auditory/ Psychological Effects

Stress: Prolonged exposure to noise may induce stress in the workers. The most obvious outcome of stress will be
irritability.
Performance: Difficulty in understanding the verbal communications and reduced perception of risk (Due to background
noise) may result into poor safety performance. For example, a fire alarm may go un-noticed by a worker or worker
continue the use of a faulty machinery (Creating Noise initially) may not be noticed due to workplace noise.
Important Terminologies for Noise Assessment

There are certain terminologies which are used quite often when assessing the health risk due to noise.
Frequency: The sound travels in the form of waves. The number of waves pass a point in one second is called the frequency
of Sound. It is measured in Hz (Hertz) or Cycles/second. A normal human ear can hear a sound from 20Hz to 20000 Hz. But
with the passage of age, this range gets shrink including many other factors.
69 2-19
Sound Intensity: The sound intensity is also called acoustic intensity. This is actually the sound pressure per unit area. Its
units are N/m2 and it is measured in Decibels (db)
Acoustic Attenuation: It is the measure of the sound energy loss through some media. It is particularly helpful for
selection PPE's or providing shielding/enclosure for the source producing noise.
"A" Weighting dB (A): Like the human ear, this effectively cuts off the lower and higher frequencies that the average
person cannot hear.
"C" Weighting dB(C): It is commonly used for higher level measurements and peak sound pressure levels
Noise Exposure Limits

Although there is not an internationally accepted noise exposure limits but different countries have developed the limits
and incorporated them in their legal requirements. The Noise Regulations require you to take specific action at certain
action values. These relate to:
0 The levels of exposure to noise of employees averaged over a working day or week. It is a measure of dB (A)
0 The maximum noise (peak sound pressure) to which employees is exposed in a working day. It is a measure of dB (C) i.e.
impulsive noise
The values are:

0 Lower exposure action values:
0 Daily or weekly exposure of80 dB;
$ Peak sound pressure of 135dB;
$ Upper exposure action values:
0 Daily or weekly exposure of85dB;
0 Peak sound pressure of 137 dB.
Symptoms of Hearing Loss

0 Conversation becomes difficult or impossible
0 Your family complains about the television being too loud
0 You have trouble using the telephone
0 You find it difficult to catch sounds like 't', 'd' and 's', so you confuse similar words
$ Permanent tinnitus (ringing, whistling, buzzing or humming in the ears) can also be caused
Generally hearing loss is gradual. By the time you notice it, it is probably too late. You can also suffer instant damage from
very loud or explosive noises.
Noise RiskAssessment
Why is Noise RiskAssessment Necessary?

The aim of the risk assessment is to help you decide what you need to do to ensure the health and safety of your employees
who are exposed to noise. It is more than just taking measurements of noise but involves top management commitment
for the control measures. Some of the reasons are as follows:-
0 To ensure there are no health issues due to noise exposure

0 To comply with legal requirements
0 To assess the effectiveness of existing control measures
0 To increase the productivity (Financial Benefits)
Principle of Noise Transmission

Noise travels in the form of pressure waves. They originate from a source and can travel through air, water or metals
(cannot travel through space) and reached the receiver.
Medium
Sound Source Receiver
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How to Carry Out Noise RiskAssessment?

0 Identify where there may be a risk from noise and who is likely to be affected;
0 Contain a reliable estimate of your employees' exposures, and compare the exposure with the exposure action values
and limit values;
0 Identify what you need to do to comply with the law, e.g. whether noise-control measures or hearing protection are
needed, and, if so, where and what type; and
0 Identify any employees who need to be provided with health surveillance and whether any are at particular risk.
0 Record and implement the changes
0 Review after suitable time or as necessary
Noise Risk ControlMeasures

Various approaches to the noise risk control measures may be adopted at the workplaces depending on the nature of work
and other factors. However, we shall discuss the possible options using general hierarchy of controls:-
Elimination
It is recommended to eliminate the noise source to stop the production of noise at all. This may not be practically a feasible
option for most of the work places but should be followed where possible without compromising the health and safety of
the workers.
Example: A generator creating noise should not be used at all.
Substitution/ Reduction
If elimination is not completely possible then the source which is creating noise may be replaced with some other option to
reduce the noise.
Example: Electric power tools should be used instead of petrol/diesel driven
Engineering Controls
Isolation
It is possible to relocate the noise source to a distant location to reduce the noise exposure.
Example: Relocating a generator to a distant location away from the workplace
Enclosure/ Shielding
If isolation is not feasible then the source must be enclosed so that the noise may be damped down.
Example: Putting a generator in a canopy to reduce the noise or creating a safe haven (Sound Proof room) for the
person
Silencing
Silencers can be useful on some of the equipments e.g. engine driven machines to reduce the noise
Administrative Controls
The organization may take some control measures through administrative controls to reduce the noise exposure. Some of
these controls include:-
0 Reduce exposure time through frequent rest breaks and job rotation
0 Elimination of un-necessary persons from the workplace
0 Frequent maintenance of equipment to avoid un-necessary noise due to un-serviceability
0 Health Surveillance of the workers
$ Information, instruction, training and awareness
PPE's
The PPE's should be provided to workers if the possibility of noise risk control through other options is not feasible.
EarMuffs
Ear Muffs are used for hearing protection. These fully encase the ears and are specifically designed to reduce the noise
level.
71 2-21
EarPlugs
Ear Plugs are also used for hearing protection. Ear plugs are inserted into both ears.
Difference between Ear Muffs & Ear plugs

Ear Muff Ear Plug
High Cost LowCost
Non Disposable Disposable
High Attenuation Low Attenuation
No Risk of cross contamination Risk of cross contamination
Can be enforced through supervision Not visible from a distant location
so difficult to enforce through supervision
May offer compatibility issues with other Do not offer compatibility issues with other PPEsPPEs
Occupations at Risk of Noise Exposure

0 Entertainment industry i.e. music
0 Defense force personnel (Artillery and gun fires)
0 Fireworks operators
0 Construction Workers
0 Industrial Power Plants/ Machinery workers
0 Fire warden in a busy traffic road
0 Aviation Maintenance Workers
Maintenance staff e.g. an auto mechanic
Noise Measurement
It is pertinent to measure the noise level at a workplace for subsequent control measures. However, the type of
measurement depends on various factors including:-
0 Nature of workplace e.g. Variation of noise level at different times

0 The task e.g. requirement for a worker to move around the workplace and exposed to different level of noise
Following methods may be used to carry out Noise measurement keeping in view the above mentioned factors:-
Sound Level Meters (SLM)

These sound level meters can measure a noise level at a particular time and are useful to measure uniform or peak noise
level at a workplace. For example, the measurement of Noise level at a busy road during the peak hours.
Integrated Sound Level Meters (ISLM)

These can measure a noise over a specified period of time and give an average reading of Noise level for which the workers
may be exposed. !SLM are used for the workplaces where the variation in Noise level is quite high.
Personal Noise Monitor

These are similar in principle to !SLM but are worn by the workers to monitor the average noise level for which the wearer is
exposed during the execution of his task.
Vibration
Effects of Exposure to Vibration

Health effects due to exposure to vibration can be categorized into 2 main areas:-
0 Hand Arm Vibration (HAV)
0 Whole Body Vibration (WBV)
1- HandArmVibration(HAV)
Hand-arm vibration comes from the use of hand-held power tools and is the cause of significant ill health (painful and
disabling disorders of the blood vessels, nerves andjoints).
72 2-22
Vascular disturbances: Vibration White Fingers 0/WF)

Neurological disturbances: Numbness, Reduced tactile sensitivity, Reduced manual dexterity
Effect on the locomotors system: Muscles Weakening, Bones, Joints, Tendons
Comfort and performance: Difficulty in machine operation
Who are at Risk?

G Concrete breakers, concrete pokers;
0 Sanders, grinders, disc cutters;
$ Hammer drills;
0 Chipping hammers;
0 Chainsaws, brush cutters, hedge trimmers,
0 Powered mowers;
0 Needle guns operators e.g. Dentist.
2- Whole Body Vibration (WBV)

Whole-body vibration can cause fatigue, insomnia, stomach problems, headache and "shakiness" shortly after or during
exposure. The symptoms are similar to those that many people experience after a long car or boat trip. After daily exposure
over a number of years, whole-body vibration can affect the entire body and result in a number of health disorders. Sea, air
or land vehicles cause motion sickness when the vibration exposure occurs in the 0.1 to 0.6 Hz frequency range. Studies of
bus and truck drivers found that occupational exposure to whole-body vibration could have contributed to a number of
circulatory, bowels, respiratory, muscular and back disorders. The combined effects of body posture, postural fatigue,
dietary habits and whole-body vibration are the possible causes for these disorders.
Studies show that whole-body vibration can increase heart rate, oxygen uptake and respiratory rate, and can produce
changes in blood and urine. East European researchers have noted that exposure to whole-body vibration can produce an
overall ill feeling which they call "vibration sickness."
Many studies have reported decreased performance in workers exposed to whole-body vibration.
Who are at Risk?
0 Vehicle Operator
0 Jet Aircraft Pilots
0 The occupations which require frequent traveling
Occupational Exposure Limits for Vibration
Exposure Action Value (EAV)

The exposure action value (EAV) is a daily amount of vibration exposure above which employers are required to take action
to control exposure. The greater the exposure level, the greater the risk and the more action employers will need to take to
reduce the risk. For hand-arm vibration the EAV is a daily exposure of 2.5 m/s2 over an average 8 hours per day.
Exposure Limit Value (ELV)

The exposure limit value (ELV) is the maximum amount of vibration an employee may be exposed to on any single day. For
hand-arm vibration the ELV is a daily exposure of 5 m/s2 for an average 8hrs per day. It represents a high risk above which
employees should not be exposed.
Vibration Control Measures

Various approaches to the Vibration risk control measures may be adopted at the workplaces depending on the nature of
work and other factors. However, we shall discuss the possible options using general hierarchy of controls:-
Elimination
Vibration source should completely be eliminated from the workplace. This may be possible by outsourcing the processes
which involve the workers with vibration exposure. This may not be practically a feasible option for most of the work places
but should be followed where possible without compromising the health and safety of the workers.
73 2-23
Substitution/ Reduction
If elimination is not completely possible then the vibration source may be replaced with suitable one to reduce the
vibration. Example: Use a breaker attachment on an excavating machine to break concrete rather than using a hand-held
breaker.
Engineering Controls
Isolation
The vibration travels through a solid source. It is therefore possible to break the pathway to reduce unnecessary vibration in
complete equipment.
Example: A vehicle engine must be mounted on anti-vibration system so that the engine vibration should not be
transmitted to other parts of the vehicle.
Equipment Design
The well designed equipment will produce less vibration as compared to poorly designed equipment. The equipments
especially handheld must be designed with such materials that could absorb the vibration. Similarly, use of padding and
shock absorbers should be used for the vibration control
Administrative Controls
The organization may take some measures through administrative controls to reduce the vibration exposure. Some of
these controls include:-
(i) Reduce exposure time through frequent rest breaks and job rotation
(i) Frequent maintenance of equipment should be carried out because loose parts in equipment will produce more
vibration. Similarly a blur cutting tool will also produce vibration
(i) Designing the layout of workplace sites to reduce the need to transport materials, and so reduce the WBV exposure of
drivers/operators
(i) Information, instruction and awareness about the ill health effect of vibration should be communicated to the workers
(i) Health Surveillance of the workers
Note: PPE's are not available to reduce the risk of health effects of whole body vibration.
Lever
A lever is a long rigid bar with a load at one end and the force to push or lift the load at the other end. The pivotal point on
which the lever rotates is called fulcrum.
What are benefits oflever?

Lever is used to lift heavy loads with small amount of force. A single person can lift even one ton of load using the lever. But
how is that possible?
We have earlier studies moment which is Force times the distance from the pivotal or fixed point. Same application is used
in the lever.
The length of the rigid bar is 10 ft. The pivotal pint is at 0.5 ft (d2) from one end with the load of 1000Kg and a person is
exerting the force on the other end with 9.5 ft from pivotal point (d2). The force required to lift 1000Kg can be calculated as
follows:-
Fd1 = Wd2 (F is force required to lift the weight and W is the weight i.e. 1000 Kg)
74 2-24
F=Wd2/d1
F= 1000X0.5/9.5= 52.63 Kg
With a lever of above mentioned specifications, a person with the application of only 52.63 Kg force can lift a weight of 1000
Kg.
Application of Lever principle in Industries

Lever principle is applied on a wide range of equipment and tool designs for their better ergonomic performance.
Mechanical load lifting aids use the principle of lever and workers lift huge loads with quite ease.
f Load
The longer the length of a wrench or tool, the lesser force will be required to carry out the intended task
75 2-25
Pulley
Pulley is a simple machine with a wheel on axle and is used to lift heavy loads with ease and or to change the direction of
applied force to lift objects.
Pulley is used in a range of manual and electrical lifting devices.
In above picture, we can see that the direction of force has been changed to lift the load. But interesting thing about above
picture is that you need only half the force to lift the load. The more will be number of pulleys to lift a single load, the lesser
the force will be required to lift that load. This principle is used in elevators, cargo lifts and industrial cranes where a 2 hp
motor can lift the weight in tons.
In above picture, if the weight is 100kg then force required will be 100/2= 50Kg (2 pulleys used)
The number of pulleys has increased in above picture i.e. 8 pulleys on one side and same number of pulleys on the other
side so total number of pulleys will be 16. The force required to lift a load "W" will be:
F= W/16
76 2-26
If load is 10 tons then force required to lift the load will be
F= 10/16= 0.625 Tons
So the motor will need to apply a force of 0.625 ton to lift a load of 10 ton.
But how can we lift such heavy loads with small use of force or power. Is this against the law of conservation of energy?
We shall explain it how the heavy loads are lifted with small amount of force.
We have earlier studied about work "W" which is a product of Force X Displacement = Fd
As per law of conservation of energy
Wd1 = Fd2
W= Weight to be lifted d1= Distance to which load is lifted
F= force required to lift the load d2= distance travelled by the force arm
If we need to lift a load of 10000 Kg upto 1 ft with 10 pulley system, then the distance which the force end of rope will travel
will be
10000 X 1= 1000X d2
d2= 10000/1000= 10 ft
It is evident from above equation that to lift a 10000 Kg of load upto 1 ft, 1000 Kg force will need to cover a distance
(Displacement) of 10 ft to compensate the force. Same principle is used in lever, screws and hydraulic lifting devices. We
shall explain them further in relevant topics.
Screw
The screws are widely used in various industries for fastening of more than one part with each other. The screws make a
provision for future dismantling options which in case of welding or riveting is difficult or even impossible.
In simple words, a screw is a threaded shaft with certain dia and pitch. The most important use of screws is lifting of heavy
loads with ease. A common example is a small car jack which most of you have been using. A car jack allows us to lift
approximately 1000 Kg of the load (Vehicle load).
______. ..__ Lead
Pitch
______. ..__
t
Minor lo Pitch Jo
t
Minor lo
i t i
Depending upon the screw pitch and Major Diameter, a single person can lift tons of load using a screw. The principle is
same as we have earlier studied in pulleys.
If a screw has major diameter of 12 inches with a pitch of 2.54 mm, then how much minimum load can be lifted using a force
of 50 Kg?
The answer is 6000 Kg (6 Ton). And if a wrench of 12 inches handle is being used then the lever effect will further increase
lifting capacity i.e. double (12 Ton).
Screws are preferred over other lifting mechanism like pulleys and hydraulics because they are lesser complicated and
require lesser maintenance. Moreover, screws have no or little risk of failures if routine visual inspections may be carried
out. In case of pulleys, there is always a hazard of rope breakage which can have severe safety repercussions.
77 2-27
Wheel
Wheel is so far considered to be the best invention of all times. There is hardly a machine or equipment which has been
assembled without a wheel as its integral part. Wheel has been used in various tools and equipments since the centuries.
Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating movement or transportation while
supporting a load, or performing labor in machines.
Wheel is also used in pulleys, motors and bearings etc. Wheels are used for making motion easier by reducing the friction
between the moving parts. Wheel itself is not a machine but once used in conjunction with axle, it forms a simple machine
i.e. axle and wheel.
Gears which are widely used in various industrial machines and vehicles for power transmissions, Power reduction or power
increase also are a type of wheel with threaded teeth.
From occupational safety and health perspective, working near or on machinery with circular motion creates hazards of
entanglement, draw in, and flying objects etc.
Hydraulic system
Hydraulic systems are extensively utilized in various industrial equipments for lifting loads and carrying out certain
construction works e.g. excavations, demolishing etc.
The hydraulic systems are considered to be the best choice due to their ease of operations in complicated system.
Hydraulic systems are used in industrial cranes, excavators, lifting equipments etc. Before going into further details, we
shall understand how a hydraulic system works?
Pump---. Big Force -----J
.- Small Force
Hydraulic Oil
Suppose the pump side have a cross sectional area of 1in2 and the load side has an area of 12 in2. What force will be
required to lift a load of 1000 Kg with this hydraulic system upto 1 inch height?
The area of load side= 12 inch2
Volume to be increased to lift upto 1 inch= 12x1= 12in3
To lift the volume of 12 in3 on load side, how much length the pump side be pushed?
12in3=1in2XL
L= 12in3/1in2
L= 12 Inches
If we consider the frictional forces as zero, the 1000 Kg load can be lifted with a force of 1000/12= 83.33 Kg
78 2-28
If we keep on reducing the cross sectional area then the mechanical advantage will be further increased. For example, in
above case, if the cross sectional area of pump side is 0.01 ln2 then the force required to lift 1000 Kg will be only 0.833 Kg
Difference in cross sectional area is directly proportional to the mechanical advantage we can get from hydraulic system.
The principle of mechanical advantage is the same as we studies in lever, pulley and screws.
Difference in cross sectional area is directly proportional to the mechanical advantage we can get from hydraulic system.
The principle of mechanical advantage is the same as we studies in lever, pulley and screws.
Important components of a hydraulic system
• Hydraulic Pumps
A Hydraulic pump is a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic power to lift the heavy load or
the tasks requiring heavy power. Pumps are driven through electrical motors. We shall study in detail about various types of
pumps in element 11.
External Gear Pump
t Outlet
Hydraulic Motors
Hydraulic motor is completely opposite to a hydraulic pump. Hydraulic motor is also a mechanical device which converts
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy i.e. rotary motion of hydraulic motor spindle. Hydraulic motors are used in cranes
etc.
Hydraulic Valves
Hydraulic valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow of the hydraulic within a system. We shall study about
various types of valves in element 11
Hoses
Hose is a conduit which is used in a hydraulic system for transportation of pressurized hydraulic liquid from pump to
various required points. The hoses are available in different sizes and pressure bearing ranges. Rubber hoses are quite
flexible which make hydraulic system design easy and simple.
79 2-29
• Mechanical fittings
Hoses are connected together with the help of mechanical fittings. These fittings must be tested at suitable pressure to
ensure there is no leakage or seepage which may result into pressure loss of the system.
• Seals
Various rubber seals are used within hydraulic system.
The purpose of seals is to avoid metal to metal contact
and pressure loss.
Gauges
Gauges are installed at any point within a hydraulic system to monitor the hydraulic pressure. If any abnormality is found,
the corrective actions are taken accordingly before the incident occurs. The gauges may be integrated with alarm system
for a pre-set value.
Hydraulic Plunger/ Jack

The hydraulic plunger or hydraulic jack is the device in a hydraulic system which reciprocates in both directions depending
upon the direction of hydraulic fluid. The plunger or jack is used for lifting loads, pushing, excavation or other heavy tasks.
• Hydraulic Reservoir
It is a tank which is used to store the hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic system is a closed circuit system and the hydraulic keeps
on circulating from the reservoir to the pump, hoses, valves, plunger and then back to the hydraulic reservoir.
• Filters
During the whole operation of hydraulic system, the hydraulic fluid may get contaminated over a passage of time. The
contaminated fluid can either reduce the efficiency of the system or create wear and tear of hydraulic pump, hydraulic
motor and plungers. Therefore, filters are installed in the system which are monitored and are replaced after suitable time.
80 2-30
2.5 Mechanical structures and their Inspection and evaluation

We come across our daily life with various types and sizes of mechanical structures. A mechanical structure is an assembly
of various parts and components designed to withstand a certain load. The examples include a steel bridge, scaffolding,
roller coaster, a ship, a railway track, a telecom tower, a bus or trailer etc. It is noteworthy that a load does not always mean
to be an external load. Sometimes, the structures withstand their own load as well e.g. a statue.
The mechanical structures have various functions and they are designed accordingly keeping in view what type of load the
structure will bear, expected life of the structure, mobility of structure, Weather and other environmental conditions to
which the structure will be exposed, future adaptability provisions, maintenance requirements, tamper proofing and
abusive use etc.
We have discussed various mechanical properties of material and their impact on their intended use. Similarly we have
earlier discussed the stresses to which a structure may be exposed.
In today's' technologically advanced world, the designers have a range of computer software available e.g. Ansys to test a
mechanical structure virtually before the design is finalized and production may be initiated. Design plays a pivotal role in
the life of a mechanical structure which in other words will ensure the safety of people which may be compromised if
structure collapse.
Question: A structure has been built after a careful design consideration and testing on computer software. But the
mechanical structure collapsed after 6 months which was designed to serve for 20 years. Outline various reasons
which lead to collapse of the mechanical structure
The computer softwares which are used for testing the mechanical structure design provide the provision for impact of
associated environmental and other factors which can cause excessive loading. Although these softwares do not provide
100% reliability in design because there are still certain limitations of these softwares and the actual loadings may
somehow differ than the intended loading on structures. Similarly, the synergized affect of different factors may have some
impact which the software may not assess.
From an HSE practitioner perspective, there are certain things to be ensured to maintain the integrity of the mechanical
structure for its implications on occupational safety and health which may be compromised if not complied with.
It takes years of experience to visually inspect a structure and reach to a conclusion that the structure is safe for operation.
In this conclusion too, 100% guaranty cannot be given because the visual inspection too has certain limitations. (We shall
discuss different inspection methods in Element 3). The visual inspection is used to identify:-
• Any obvious deflection of change in structure position etc.

• Any missing components of the structure
• Any loose components of the structures
• Erosion and corrosion in the structure parts and components
• Any cracks initiation
The designers mostly include a checklist for visual inspection and provide criteria for acceptance and rejection. For
example, in certain mechanical structures, a dent or crack of 5mm may be allowed at some part but in the same structure
within any other part, a dent or crack of 2 mm may not be allowed and require the maintenance staff to carry out the
maintenance job as per the design requirements.
The designs of mechanical structure make use of safety factor. For example, a structure is required to withstand a load of 3
ton; the designer keeps a safety margin of 2 or more i.e. the design will be made to withstand a load of 6 ton (safety factor 2)
or 9 ton (Safety factor 3) to incorporate any environmental or other adverse conditions. However, the maximum load limit
will still be 3 ton even if the safety factor is 3.
For safety critical structures e.g. a roller coaster and industrial cranes etc. only visual inspection is not sufficient. The parts of
such structures undergo various non destructive testing (NDT) methods (Detail in Element 3) to ensure that there are no
internal cracks with the parts of the structures which may lead to deformation or collapse of structure. The NDT method,
frequency of inspection and criteria for inspection is provided by the designers.
81 2-31
For industrial cranes, the sling or steel rope is very critical part from occupational safety perspective. The designer provides
the details of visual as well as other NOT and destructive method to ensure the integrity of the rope. A very simple tensile
testing method is often used for the ropes in which the piece of used wire (e.g. 1 ft) is cut from the main rope and is subject
to tensile loading. If the tensile strength of the rope is above the required limit, the rope is authorized to use for another
specified period of time. There is also a NOT method currently being applied to ensure there are no cracks within the rope.
In this method, the whole rope is passed through a roller with a device attached monitoring the structure of the rope. The
result appears on the computer through software which highlights the length at which there are some problems. That area
of the rope is tested again to ensure its strength and if the testing criteria are not met, the rope is discarded.
The inspection of a structure for its strength, durability and integrity is one part from occupational safety and health point.
What if a structure or any of its part is required to be replaced or re-enforced? This although is not a modification in
structure but the processes which will be carried out will affect the structure design limits etc.
Welding is a widely used process for re-working on rejected parts. But welding not only creates thermal stresses within the
parts being welded but also the neighboring area (Heat Affected Zones). To avoid the development of thermal stresses
within the parts, the pre-heat and post heat processes are widely used to reduce or eliminate the thermal stresses. Most of
the mechanical structures fail or collapse due to unauthorized welding procedures. It is also noteworthy that most welded
structures collapse due to failure of Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and not the welded point. It is therefore very important for
HSE practitioner to have through understanding of what type of rework process will be used and what will be its
implications on complete structure. Similarly, HSE practitioner should understand the allowed procedures for re-work, the
criteria for further inspections and any change in frequency of inspections subsequent to a re-work.
Question: A roller coaster has developed some cracks which need to be re-worked at the earliest as per the
designer's inspection criteria. What factors will need to be considered before and after the rework process starts.
2.6 ERGONOMICS
As we have studies earlier in MSDs, one thing is obvious about these health issues i.e. the role of human capability/
capacity, the work environment and the type of job he/ she is performing. So when it comes to the work, the worker and the
working environment, one subject is quite necessary to be studied to avoid the ill health issues e.g. MSDs.
"Ergonomics is the study of relationship between the worker, the work (which is being performed) and the
Working environment in which work is being performed"
Studying the ergonomics play a vital role in controlling the MSD's (Musculoskeletal Disorders). Its purpose is to minimize
the ill health effects by considering the individual capabilities (Both physical and mental), posture, height, torso and
adapting the task and environment to suite the individual requirements instead of adapting the individual to the task.
You will notice that same task performed by the same person in different work environments (Extreme hot or thermally
comfortable environment) will result different fatigue and exertion level on the worker.
Note: Ergonomics is a solution, not a problem
Ergonomics Factors which need to be studied to reduce MSD Risk(MSD Risk Factors)
There are mainly 3 Ergonomics factor which need to be studied in order to analyze the MSD risk. We shall discuss each one
so that we can devise suitable control measures to avoid the workers from MSDs.
The Task Factors

There are many facets of the tasks which individually and collectively contribute towards MSD risk. These include:-
$ Repetition of the same task (e.g. a cashier counting the currency notes on daily basis or brick laying)
0 Twisting i.e. the task requires the worker to twist either a body part or full body. (e.g. frequent use of screw driver)
0 Force requirement to perform a task e.g. with a poor design of screw driver (small handle and poor grip) can lead to
excessive use of force which if combined with above mentioned risk factors can lead to severe MSD problems.
$ Posture is also a risk factor e.g. a worker is required to assemble a part in an awkward position will increase the chances
of being affected. Overhead welding is a good example of posture.
0 Rest Breaks will allow the workers to recover from the fatigue. Some task may not allow a worker to have a rest break
e.g. a worker who is working on an assembly line may not leave the workplace. This will increase the fatigue on the
worker which combined with above mentioned factors will also increase the risk factor for MSDs.
82 2-32
The Environment Factors

0 Lighting as per the requirement of nature of job is mandatory to minimize the MSD risk factor. Unavailability of suitable
Iighting may put extra strain on eyes resulting fatigued and stressed worker which may contribute towards MSDs.
0 Thermal Comfort e.g. suitable temperature, humidity and ventilation are very necessary for the safe execution of the
task
0 Space Limitations e.g. very congested space which may create difficulty in movement to carry out the job
0 Radiation e.g. the worker is exposed to certain radiations as well along with the other environmental factors described
above.
The Equipment Factors

0 Design of the equipment should be so as to facilitate the worker in order to avoid the risk factors we already covered
under the Task Heading. For example, a screw driver with a small handle and slippery grip will increase the chances of
being fatigued and discomforted.
0 Adjustability e.g. the height of the chair or the adjustment of a car steering to suite the individual needs will result into
lesser chances of being affected by MSDs.
Human Physiology
What is musculoskeletal system?

The human musculoskeletal system enables them to move through muscular and skeleton system. It comprises bones,
muscles, tendons ligament and related tissues.
How the musculoskeletal system gets damaged?

During the execution of certain tasks, e.g. lifting a heavy load manually, working on Display Screen Equipments for long
duration of times, doing repetitive tasks frequently, there is likelihood of getting the ill health issues related to
Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD) if suitable control measures are not taken after the risk assessment of the specific task.
Following are the examples of High Risk Activities for the MSD's:-
0 Carrying heavy load on back on regular basis

$ Bricklaying (Repetitive task)
$ Cashier at a bank
$ Display Screen Equipment Users
$ Super market checkout points
0 Drivers (Who spend most of the time in driving a vehicle)
$ Small parts assembly
0 Maintenance workers (Who are required to work in awkward postures for assembling/ disassembling)
What is Musculoskeletal Disorder(MSD) and Work Related upper Limb Disorder(WRULD)?

During the execution of certain tasks, e.g. lifting a heavy load, working on Display Screen Equipments, doing repetitive
tasks, there is likelihood of getting the ill health issues related to Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD) if suitable control
measures are not taken after the risk assessment of the specific task.
Back Injury or Pain

Back injury or back pain may be result of prolonged work associated with poor posture, heavy lifting of load, sitting or
standing in awkward positions. All these situations can damage the back muscles, ligaments or spinal disc.
Work Related Upper Limb Disorders (WRULD's)

These ill health issues affect the arms, hands and may be the neck. The prolonged repetitive tasks e.g. cashier at bank,
employee working at grocery store checkout point, Bricklaying, assembling small parts etc. can cause WRULDs. These
condition start with a tingling sensation and if not properly treated may lead to surgery or sometimes the disability.
WRULDs are the issues associated with soft tissues, muscles, tendons ligaments and limbs.
Symptoms ofWRULDs
$ Tingling sensation in the affected part
$ Numbness and pain
83 2-33
e Immobility of the affected part

Other Soft Tissue Injuries
Ill Health issues associated with prolonged sitting, standing, kneeling or stooping may result into painful joints e.g. knee
joints.
Display Screen Equipment(DSE)

Display screen equipment's are computer and use of key boards/mouse. These are common use item for almost any type
of industry for managing the business affairs.
DSE Activities
(:) Office clerical staff or even managers using computers
(:) CCTV surveillance staff
(:) Consumer care & feedback department staff using telephones and display screen simultaneously
(:) Grocery store staff deployed at checkout point
(:) Employees getting training through E-Learning
(:) CNC Machine operators
RiskofDSE
WRULDs
This may be due to the repetitive use of keyboard and mosue etc.
BackPain
Prolonged sitting in awkward position (poorly designed chairs)
Physical/Mental Stress
Due to the nature of job that may require the worker to perform both physically & bear some mental exertion as well e.g.
consumer feedback staff holding phone cradles as well as are exposed to verbal abuses by some customers.
Eye Strain
Prolonged use on DSE will resent eye strain.
Use Of
Note: - Use of hand held tablets, Mobile phones & laptops can have all the above mentioned ill-health issues.
Control Measures
(:) The organization must carry out a risk Assessment for all such activities which involve use of DSE.
(:) Ergonomically designed workstations should be provided
0 The organization should also arrange free of cost eye sight test as a health surveillance measure for all its DSE users.
(:) The organization should manage the task in order to provide frequent rest breaks for DSE users.
0 Suitable information, instruction, training & awareness should be provided to the workers.
(:) The employees should also be cross-trained so that job rotation of such workers should be carried out to avoid fatigue
on a worker for extended period of times.
(:) Comfortable work environment should be provided to reduce the impact of fatigue and physical exertion.
Control Measures to Eliminate/ Minimize the RiskofMSDs

For devising a control measuring strategy, it is very important to consider the risk factors which can influence the
effectiveness of the control measures for MSDs. We have already studied the risk factors in detail. The organization need to
carry out the ergonomics risk assessment for the tasks which can cause ill health issues for a worker/ workers. The risk
assessment will be same 5 step procedure which we carry out for any other hazardous activity i.e.
(:) Identify the MSD hazards

(:) Identify the people who may be harmed
$ Evaluate the risk based on current risk control measures and suggest (if needed) further control measures
84 2-34
0 Record the changes and implement (and also measure its effectiveness)
0 Review (As per the organizations own procedures)
As a general reference, we can suggest following control measures:-

(:) Eliminate the manual work which requires repetition through automated electrical/ mechanical system. For examples,
banks now a days are using electric currency counters instead of manual counting
$ If elimination is not fully possible then minimize the task which requires repetition through administrative controls e.g.
job rotation or frequent breaks.
$ Minimizing the requirement of body force should be ensured for prolonged tasks e.g. use of an electric screw driver
instead of a manual screw driver.
(:) The work should be adapted to the worker and not the vice versa. Working in awkward postures should be eliminated
through devising ergonomically designed workstations
$ Twisting of full body or part of body should be eliminated through ergonomically designed workstations and tools.
(:) The work/ Task should allow rest breaks for the workers to avoid extra fatigue. For example, 1 spare person should be
managed for 4-5 workers on assembly line where task does not allow the rest breaks
(:) Suitable lighting should be provided at the workplace to avoid strain on eyes and discomfort in doing the task
$ Thermally comfortable environment should be provided where possible for the task. This may only be possible for
indoor works. Where this is not possible, then frequent rest breaks may be allowed to compensate with extreme
environments.
(:) Tools/ Equipments and Testers should be ergonomically designed and these should also be adjustable to adapt them to
the requirement of the user.
(:) The organization should measure the effectiveness of controls and take corrective actions if any non conformity is
found.
(:) The employees should be informed, instructed, aware and trained for the MSD hazards and risk control.
85 2-35
Contents
Element 3: Assess various inspection techniques and their
applications for mechanical equipments
3.1 Non destructive testing(NDT) methods 3-1

3.2 Destructive testing methods 3-4
3.3 Reasons and contributory factors for material failures 3-5
3.4 Measurement uncertainty 3-6
3.1 Non destructive testing(NDT) methods
Definition
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials, components or assemblies for
discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other words,
when the inspection or test is completed the part can still be used.
Scope of Non-destructive Testing

Scope of non-destructive testing is quite wide including the products under manufacturing or equipment under use. NDT
utilizes the technology for detection and measurement of flaws within the materials or structure. NDT however, does not in
itself is an acceptance or rejection method because; the design of the product may allow certain type of discontinuities
whereas at some occasions, even the pinholes may not be allowed. In such circumstances, NDT only provides a tool for
measurement and the acceptance or rejection (Or re-work) decision rests with the quality control department of the
organization.
Purposes of Nondestructive Testing

Nondestructive tests are use to detect variations in structure, changes in surface finish, the presence of cracks or other
physical discontinuities, to measure the thickness of materials and coatings and to determine other characteristics of
industrial products.
Nondestructive Test Methods
The following section briefly describes major NDT methods and the applications.
Visual Testing
Visual testing is the observation of a test piece, either directly with naked eyes or using optical equipment e.g. a magnifying
glass etc. to identify any surface cracks, pinholes, erosion, corrosion and measurement flaws. Visual testing should
preferably be the first NDT test method for an item under consideration. This is carried out to ensure if enough
discontinuities or flaws appear on the surface which are sufficient to accept or reject a part then there is no further need to
carry out other expensive NDT tests.
Applications
Visual testing methods and techniques are widely used on a variety of objects to detect surface discontinuities associated
with various structural failure mechanisms. The following discontinuities may be detected by a simple visual test: surface
discontinuities, cracks, misalignment, warping, corrosion, wear and physical damage.
Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to locate surface and near-surface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic field can be applied with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. When using
an electromagnet, the field is present only when the current is being applied. When the magnetic field encounters a
discontinuity transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines produce a magnetic flux leakage field of their
own as shown in Figure 1. Because magnetic flux lines don't travel well in air, when very fine colored ferromagnetic
particles ("magnetic particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles will be drawn into the discontinuity,
reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication on the surface of the part. The magnetic particles may be a dry
powder or suspended in a liquid solution, and they may be colored with a visible dye or a fluorescent dye that fluoresces
under an ultraviolet ("black") light.
Magnetic Particies
•••
• ......•••• Crack
. . . . . . . . . . . . .... ............··
• •
.
................ �-·············......•..............................
••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••• ••• •• ............................ 1
•
: ••• ••• •• a a a a a a a•• a• a a• a a• a a• a a• a a• a I
•••••••••••••• �--·············· ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1
;1:=········· .11••··············........ ..............................

··Magnetic
................ :••············• •• •••...............................
Lines
90 3-1
Liquid PenetrantTesting
The basic principle of liquid penetrant testing is that when a very low viscosity (highly fluid) liquid (the penetrant) is applied
to the surface of a part, it will penetrate into fissures and voids open to the surface. Once the excess penetrant is removed,
the penetrant trapped in those voids will flow back out, creating an indication. Penetrant testing can be performed on
magnetic and non-magnetic materials, but does not work well on porous materials. Penetrants may be "visible", meaning
they can be seen in ambient light, or fluorescent, requiring the use of a "black" light. The visible dye penetrant process is
shown in Figure 7. When performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being tested is clean and free of any
foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant from entering voids or fissures open to the surface of the part.
After applying the penetrant, it is permitted to sit on the surface for a specified period of time (the "penetrant dwell time"),
then the part is carefully cleaned to remove excess penetrant from the surface. When removing the penetrant, the operator
must be careful not to remove any penetrant that has flowed into voids. A light coating of developer is then be applied to
the surface and given time ("developer dwell time") to allow the penetrant from any voids or fissures to seep up into the
developer, creating a visible indication. Following the prescribed developer dwell time, the part is inspected visually, with
the aid of a black light for fluorescent penetrants. Most developers are fine-grained, white talcum-like powders that
provide a color contrast to the penetrant being used.
..,.
,....
_,r
Penetrant 'crack
'
Application
'
Cleaning
Developer-,
'
Developing
Indication-..
Interpretation
Figure 7
Eddy CurrentTesting
Eddy Current Testing uses the fact that when a an alternating current coil induces an electromagnetic field into a
conductive test piece, a small current is created around the magnetic flux field, much like a magnetic field is generated
around an electric current. The flow pattern of this secondary current, called an "eddy" current, will be affected when it
encounters a discontinuity in the test piece, and the change in the eddy current density can be detected and used to
characterize the discontinuity causing that change. A simplified schematic of eddy currents generated by an alternating
current coil ("probe") is shown in Figure 14-a. By varying the type of coil, this test method can be applied to flat surfaces or
tubular products. This technique works best on smooth surfaces and has limited penetration, usually less than¼".
Encircling coils (Figure 14-b) are used to test tubular and bar-shaped products. The tube or bar can be fed through the coil
at a relatively high speed, allowing the full cross-section of the test object to be interrogated. However, due to the
direction of the flux lines, circumferentially oriented discontinuities may not be detected with this application.
Encircling/
Coll
(b)
(a) Figure 14
91 3-2
Radiographic Testing
Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating radiation so that the radiation passes through the
object being inspected and a recording medium placed against the opposite side of that object. For thinner or less dense
materials such as aluminum, electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for thicker or denser
materials, gamma radiation is generally used.
Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with the two most commonly used sources of gamma
radiation being lridium-192 (lr-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-60). IR-192 is generally used for steel up to 2-1/2 - 3 inches,
depending on the Curie strength of the source, and Co-60 is usually used for thicker materials due to its greater
penetrating ability.
The recording media can be industrial x-ray film or one of several types of digital radiation detectors. With both, the
radiation passing through the test object exposes the media, causing an end effect of having darker areas where more
radiation has passed through the part and lighter areas where less radiation has penetrated. If there is a void or defect in
the part, more radiation passes through, causing a darker image on the film or detector, as shown in Figure 8.
Radiation Source ----:,.., : , \.

./;/l \ "\,. ....
1,
,,,/1 ///:
\ \.
/llf : .,
///f \ ,,
// I I !!
Discontinuity / / / / \ ·,
... ',.,...
t \
:
_.I / 1· !
• . I \, •
\
/ I } I
�'
/ / ! ! \
/
, �--'JI'----,"-,/ \.------"\.,
Test Piece
··,.
/ I I \
Receiving Medium
Acoustic Emission Testing

Figure 8
Acoustic Emission Testing is performed by applying a localized external force such as an abrupt mechanical load or rapid
temperature or pressure change to the part being tested. The resulting stress waves in turn generate short-lived, high
frequency elastic waves in the form of small material displacements, or plastic deformation, on the part surface that are
detected by sensors that have been attached to the part surface. When multiple sensors are used, the resulting data can be
evaluated to locate discontinuities in the part.
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR and fish finders. Ultra-high frequency sound is
introduced into the part being inspected and if the sound hits a material with different acoustic impedance (density and
acoustic velocity), some of the sound will reflect back to the sending unit and can be presented on a visual display. By
knowing the speed of the sound through the part (the acoustic velocity) and the time required for the sound to return to
the sending unit, the distance to the reflector (the indication with the different acoustic impedance) can be determined.
The most common sound frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz, which are too high to be heard and do not
travel through air. The lower frequencies have greater penetrating power but less sensitivity (the ability to "see" small
indications), while the higher frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but can detect smaller indications.
The two most commonly used types of sound waves used in industrial inspections are the compression (longitudinal) wave
and the shear (transverse) wave, as shown in Figure 10. Compression waves cause the atoms in a part to vibrate back and
forth parallel to the sound direction and shear waves cause the atoms to vibrate perpendicularly (from side to side) to the
direction of the sound. Shear waves travel at approximately half the speed of longitudinal waves.
Sound is introduced into the part using an ultrasonic transducer ("probe") that converts electrical impulses from the UT
machine into sound waves, then converts returning sound back into electric impulses that can be displayed as a visual
representation on a digital or LCD screen (on older machines, a CRT screen). If the machine is properly calibrated, the
operator can determine the distance from the transducer to the reflector, and in many cases, an experienced operator can
determine the type of discontinuity (like slag, porosity or cracks in a weld) that caused the reflector. Because ultrasound
will not travel through air (the atoms in air molecules are too far apart to transmit ultrasound), a liquid or gel called
"coolant" is used between the face of the transducer and the surface of the part to allow the sound to be transmitted into
the part.
92 3-3
••••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••••
Material (Particles) at Rest
••••••• •• •••••••
••••••• ••••••• •• •••••••
••••••• ••
Compressional (longltudunal) montlon
Partlclea Montion
Shear (Transvese) montlon
Figure 10
Infrared and Thermal Testing
Thermal/Infrared Testing, or infrared thermography, is used to measure or map surface temperatures based on the infrared
radiation given off by an object as heat flows through, to or from that object. The majority of infrared radiation is longer in
wavelength than visible light but can be detected using thermal imaging devices, commonly called "infrared cameras." For
accurate IR testing, the part(s) being investigated should be in direct line of sight with the camera, i.e., should not be done
with panel covers closed as the covers will diffuse the heat and can result in false readings. Used properly, thermal imaging
can be used to detect corrosion damage, delaminations, disbands, voids, inclusions as well as many other detrimental
conditions.
3.2 Destructive testing methods
We have discussed in detail about the requirements, applications and benefits of NDT methods. However, the requirement
of destructive testing methods cannot be completely ruled out. We have discussed in detail about the material physical
characteristics and mechanical properties. These properties can be better analyzed through a destructive testing method.
Types of Destructive Testing Methods
Destructive testing methods may include:

$ Bend test
$ Shear Test
$ Toughness test
$ Tensile test
$ Compression test
$ Hardness test
e lmpact test
$ Macro examination
$ Micro examination
$ Pressure test etc.
When to use?
Destructive testing methods definitely cannot be used for high value equipments which require lot of manufacturing and
fabrication resources. However, destructive testing methods can be used for:-
Test Sample
A test sample of specific dimensions is prepared along with the lot production. The test sample is then subject to
destructive testing e.g. tensile or shear test (Depends on the intended use of the final part). If the sample meets the
requirement as per the design, the whole lot is quality assured. This is especially applicable for parts which are used in final
assembly of a product e.g. an aircraft etc. For small and cheaper parts, the part itself may be subject to destructive testing to
ensure its integrity and strength and the requirement of a specific sample (Specific dimensions as per testing criteria) may
not be required
Incident Investigation
In certain investigations, where the product or assembly has already collapsed (Aircraft crash landing or boiler explosion)
the destructive testing methods e.g. macroscopic and microscopic analysis of the actual part may be carried out to form
the basis for any causes of failures.
93 3-4
• Product design
During the design and development phase, the destructive testing methods are employed to ensure that a specific
material or alloy may provide with the required mechanical characteristics or not. This is especially applicable to the latest
developments in metallurgical industry where the innovation for alloys with best mechanical, thermal and chemical
properties continues.
• Procedure Qualification
Once a welding or any other manufacturing procedure is employed for manufacturing or fabrication of products, the
destructive testing methods are normally employed to ensure there are no flaws in the procedure. For example, an
organization is going to weld dissimilar metals for which they do not have welding procedure; they will develop the
procedure and will keep on changing the welding parameters till the time final characteristics of the weld meet the
intended requirements.
3.3 Reasons and contributory factors for material failures
Accidents happen at the workplaces due to material failures. These accidents have severe health and safety implications for
workers, visitors and member of public at or around these workplaces. But why do material failure accidents happen? In
current technologically advanced world we are living in, the products and structures are developed after careful design
considerations including any testing requirements for the materials of parts, sub parts and all other components of a
product or structure. We have availability of software applications which calculate the mechanical, thermal and chemical
characteristics of single materials and the behavior of materials and components in the final assemblies. Having all those
resources available for designers along with the accident data including the trends and patterns, the failure of materials
could be eliminated or reduced. But, we need to discuss the reasons and contributory factors which lead to the failure of
products, components and structures etc.
Product Design
Human factor in the design and initial testing of the parts and products cannot be eliminated. A minor flaw in design inputs
or outputs can lead to finalization of a design which may not serve its intended function. Similarly, the available softwares
for design, simulation and testing have certain limitations and cannot really provide the actual environment for the product
for its intended use. All these issues lead to development of an unsafe design. Moreover, the available testing methods
have also certain limitations. They may provide torsional, compressive and tensile strength separately for a material but the
combined effect of all the forces with certain ratios may not be gauged.
Manufacturing Processes
A better product design is the basis of a safe to use final product. But a better design does not guarantee that the
manufacturing process will comply with the design requirements. The human factors, production pressures and other
environmental and job conditions may result into manufacturing processes not complying with the design requirements.
Robust quality control procedures at each level (Key manufacturing processes with implications on final product) must be
ensured. Testing requirements at each level should also be carried out to ensure the product development is being done as
per the design requirements.
Testing
It is often said that rely on instruments instead of relying on your 5 senses. However, the testing itself has certain limitations
including the calibration requirements of testers, human errors in testing, the traceability of documents etc.
Environmental Conditions
The environmental conditions in which the product is being used may influence the life of the products or any of its
associated parts. The environmental conditions may include humid, extremely hot or cold, acidic conditions which affect
the surface conditions of the products.
Weather Conditions
Weather conditions are different from environmental conditions. Weather conditions may include wind load, rains,
sunlight etc. These conditions can also be contributory factors in material failures.
Use of product
The use of product in context with above mentioned conditions may also influence the life of the product.
94 3-5
The misuse of the product (Over loading) or abuse of the product (Impact loading or collision with objects) may exert
fatigue on the product. The impact of abusive use may appear after quite some time and may or may not result into
immediate collapse or failure.
Routine Maintenance
The routine maintenance as per manufacturer or designer requirement will affect the life of the product. The effect may be
due to following factors:-
$ Quality of maintenance work and its frequency

$ Competence of maintenance workers
$ Quality of equipment for maintenance and testing and their calibration status etc.
0 Documented quality control procedures for maintenance
$ The availability of spare support etc.
3.4 Measurement uncertainty
What is uncertainty?
I used to be uncertain - now I'm not so sure. In ordinary use the word 'uncertainty' does not inspire confidence. However,
when used in a technical sense as in 'measurement uncertainty' or 'uncertainty of a test result' it carries a specific meaning.
It is a parameter, associated with the result of a measurement (e.g. a calibration or test) that defines the range of the values
that could reasonably be attributed to the measured quantity. When uncertainty is evaluated and reported in a specified
way it indicates the level of confidence that the value actually lies within the range defined by the uncertainty interval.
How does it arise?

Any measurement is subject to imperfections; some of these are due to random effects, such as short-term fluctuations in
temperature, humidity and air-pressure or variability in the performance of the person measuring the results. Repeated
measurements will show variation because of these random effects. Other imperfections are due to the practical limits to
which correction can be made for systematic effects, such as offset of a measuring instrument, drift in its characteristics
between calibrations, personal bias in reading an analogue scale or the uncertainty of the value of a reference standard.
Why is it important?
The uncertainty is a quantitative indication of the quality of the result. It gives an answer to the question, how well does the
result represent the value of the quantity being measured? It allows users of the result to assess its reliability, for example
for the purposes of comparison of results from different sources or with reference values. Confidence in the comparability
of results can help to reduce barriers to trade.
Often, a result is compared with a limiting value defined in a specification or regulation. In this case, knowledge of the
uncertainty shows whether the result is well within the acceptable limits or only just makes it. Occasionally a result is so
close to the limit that the risk associated with the possibility that the property that was measured may not fall within the
limit, once the uncertainty has been allowed for, must be considered.
Suppose that a customer has the same test done in more than one laboratory, perhaps on the same sample, more likely on
what they may regard as an identical sample of the same product. Would we expect the laboratories to get identical
results? Only within limits, we may answer, but when the results are close to the specification limit it may be that one
laboratory indicates failure whereas another indicates a pass. From time to time accreditation bodies have to investigate
complaints concerning such differences. This can involve much time and effort for all parties, which in many cases could
have been avoided if the uncertainty of the result had been known by the customer.
What is done about it?

The standard 1SO/IEC 17025:2005 [General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories]
specifies requirements for reporting and evaluating uncertainty of measurement. The problems presented by these
requirements vary in nature and severity depending on the technical field and whether the measurement is a calibration or
test.
Calibration is characterized by the facts that:

0 repeated measurements can be made
95 3-6
0 Uncertainty of reference instruments is provided at each stage down the calibration chain, starting with the national
standard and
0 Customers are aware of the need for a statement of uncertainty in order to ensure that the instrument meets their
requirements.
Consequently, calibration laboratories are used to evaluating and reporting uncertainty. In accredited laboratories the
uncertainty evaluation is subject to assessment by the accreditation body and is quoted on calibration certificates issued
by the laboratory.
The situation in testing is not as well-developed and particular difficulties are encountered. For example, in destructive
tests the opportunity to repeat the test is limited to another sample, often at significant extra cost and with the additional
uncertainty due to sample variation. Even when repeat tests are technically feasible such an approach may be uneconomic.
In some cases a test may not be defined well enough by the standard, leading to potentially inconsistent application and
thus another source of uncertainty. In many tests there will be uncertainty components that need to be evaluated on the
basis of previous data and experience, in addition to those evaluated from calibration certificates and manufacturers,
specifications.
How is uncertainty evaluated?

Uncertainty is a consequence of the unknown sign of random effects and limits to corrections for systematic effects and is
therefore expressed as a quantity, i.e. an interval about the result. It is evaluated by combining a number of uncertainty
components. The components are quantified either by evaluation of the results of several repeated measurements or by
estimation based on data from records, previous measurements, knowledge of the equipment and experience of the
measurement.
In most cases, repeated measurement results are distributed about the average in the familiar bell-shaped curve or normal
distribution, in which there is a greater probability that the value lies closer to the mean than to the extremes. The
evaluation from repeated measurements is done by applying a relatively simple mathematical formula. This is derived from
statistical theory and the parameter that is determined is the standard deviation.
Uncertainty components quantified by means other than repeated measurements are also expressed as standard
deviations, although they may not always be characterized by the normal distribution. For example, it may be possible only
to estimate that the value of a quantity lies within bounds (upper and lower limits) such that there is an equal probability of
it lying anywhere within those bounds. This is known as a rectangular distribution. There are simple mathematical
expressions to evaluate the standard deviation for this and a number of other distributions encountered in measurement.
An interesting one that is sometimes encountered, e.g. in EMC measurements, is the U-shaped distribution.
The method of combining the uncertainty components is aimed at producing a realistic rather than pessimistic combined
uncertainty. This usually means working out the square root of the sum of the squares of the separate components (the
root sum square method). The combined standard uncertainty may be reported as it stands (the one standard deviation
level), or, usually, an expanded uncertainty is reported. This is the combined standard uncertainty multiplied by what is
known as a coverage factor. The greater this factor the larger the uncertainty interval and, correspondingly, the higher the
level of confidence that the value lies within that interval. For a level of confidence of approximately 95% a coverage factor
of 2 is used. When reporting uncertainty it is important to indicate the coverage factor or state the level of confidence, or
both.
What is best practice?

Sector-specific guidance is still needed in several fields in order to enable laboratories to evaluate uncertainty consistently.
Laboratories are being encouraged to evaluate uncertainty, even when reporting is not required; they will then be able to
assess the quality of their own results and will be aware whether the result is close to any specified limit. The process of
evaluation highlights those aspects of a test or calibration that produce the greatest uncertainty components, thus
indicating where improvements could be beneficial. Conversely, it can be seen whether larger uncertainty contributions
could be accepted from some sources without significantly increasing the overall interval. This could give the opportunity
to use cheaper, less sensitive equipment or provide justification for extending calibration intervals.
Uncertainty evaluation is best done by personnel who are thoroughly familiar with the test or calibration and understand
the limitations of the measuring equipment and the influences of external factors, e.g. environment. Records should be
kept showing the assumptions that were made,
96 3-7
e.g. concerning the distribution functions referred to above, and the sources of information for the estimation of
component uncertainty values, e.g. calibration certificates, previous data, experience of the behavior of relevant materials.
Statements of compliance - effect of uncertainty

This is a difficult area and what is to be reported must be considered in the context of the client's needs. In particular,
consideration must be given to the possible consequences and risks associated with a result that is close to the
specification limit. The uncertainty may be such as to raise real doubt about the reliability of pass/fail statements. When
uncertainty is not taken into account, then the larger the uncertainty, the greater are the chances of passing failures and
failing passes. A lower uncertainty is usually attained by using better equipment, better control of environment, and
ensuring consistent performance of the test.
For some products it may be appropriate for the user to make a judgment of compliance, based on whether the result is
within the specified limits with no allowance made for uncertainty. This is often referred to as shared risk, since the end user
takes some of the risk of the product not meeting specification. The implications of that risk may vary considerably. Shared
risk may be acceptable in non-safety critical performance, for example the EMC characteristics of a domestic radio or TV.
However, when testing a heart pacemaker or components for aerospace purposes, the user may require that the risk of the
product not complying has to be negligible and would need uncertainty to be taken into account. An important aspect of
shared risk is that the parties concerned agree on the uncertainty that is acceptable; otherwise disputes could arise later.
Conclusion
Uncertainty is an unavoidable part of any measurement and it starts to matter when results are close to a specified limit. A
proper evaluation of uncertainty is good professional practice and can provide laboratories and customers with valuable
information about the quality and reliability of the result. Although common practice in calibration, there is some way to go
with expression of uncertainty in testing, but there is growing activity in the area and, in time, uncertainty statements will be
the norm.
97 3-8
Contents
Element 4: Assess the designs of tools, equipments or
structures for their reliability for use in a given environment
from an occupational health and safety perspective
4.1 Common end user requirements for tools, equipments 4-1

and machinery to be incorporated in design
4.2 The impact of a well designed tool, equipment 4-2
or structure in occupational safety and health
4.3 The design with respect to stated and implie d use of tools, 4-2
equipments and structures
4.4 ASME & occupational safety and health 4-3
4.5 The requirements of prevailing design testing soft ware and 4-5
their implications on OH & S provisions
4.6 Material Failures Investigations 4-6
,.1 Common end user requirements for tools, equipments and machinery to be
incorporated in design
The quality is defined as "The characteristics of products or services which bear on its ability to satisfy stated and implied
use". We can further add that the future requirements in addition to stated and intended use must be incorporated in
design for tools and equipment from occupational safety and health perspective.
The design of tools and equipment is very crucial because it forms the basis for its future implications on occupational
safety and health. We shall discuss the common end user requirements from a product which must be incorporated in the
design. These include:-
Ergonomically Designed
We have earlier discussed about ergonomics and its implications in terms of MSD's. Any tool, equipment or machinery
should be designed in a manner to avoid Musculoskeletal Disorders. We have discussed the risk factors for MSD from
ergonomics perspective in Element 2 and the designer must take care of avoiding those factors to the maximum extent in
design of the product. For example, a handheld manual tool must provide a sound grip, it should be light weight to carry
and it should be adjustable to suite the heights of various users etc.
Shape
The shape of designed product must be smooth and in no manner should have sharp corners, protrusions to avoid cut
injuries, tripping from the equipment. For example a glass table must not have extended sharp edges which may be
invisible to some worker moving around for some task
Load Bearing
The designed product (Tool, machinery or any equipment) should be able to withstand the designed load. The designer
must take care of the additional loads or factors which influence the loading conditions due to the environment in which
the product will be used. For example, a portable drill machine being used at a construction site must be rugged and should
be able to withstand the misuse and abuse upto certain level (Which is expected from construction workers). Load bearing
also takes into account the impact resistance of the products during the use.
User Friendly
The products should be designed in a manner that these should be user friendly i.e. no extensive training should be
required for use of these products and there should be no huge list of do's and don'ts. The product should be fool proof
from occupational safety perspective. For example, relying on worker to match positive or negative sides will have severe
health and safety consequences but if the design is made in such a way that there is no possibility that negative side can be
matched with positive side then the design will be foolproof and lesser dependent on human involvement for safety.
Maintenance Requirements
The products with frequent and extensive maintenance requirements create occupational safety and health hazards for the
maintenance staff. To avoid these hazards, the design of products should be simple which may require less maintenance
those too very small. We have already studies in Element 2 and we shall also discuss the hazards associated with
maintenance activities.
Portability
The products with electrical cords installed can create significant trip hazards. Similarly, handling equipment with electrical
or any other connection e.g. hydraulic hose or steam pipe may be difficult from ergonomics perspective. Careful
consideration should be taken and possibility of portability of handheld equipments and tools should be preferred.
Similarly, the tools and equipments which are not handheld but need to be transported from one site to another e.g. a
welding machine or a generator must be designed for ease of transportation.
Safety Devices
All the products which may create any risk e.g. electrocution, fire, explosion or cutting etc. should be installed with fool
proof and reliable safety devices. These safety devices should be designed and installed in such a manner so that there is no
or lesser risk to human safety and health.
102 4-1
Noise, Radiations and Vibration

As far as practically feasible, the design of product should be resulting into less noise level and lesser vibrations (within
defined legal limits or even less) produced by the product in operation. Similarly, the design should eliminate or reduce the
exposure to any radiations due to the use or presence of the product at the workplace.
Note: Due to the financial implications and generic design requirements of the products, it may not be within scope of the
designer to completely eliminate the hazards and risks however, designers should use their skill and knowledge for an
optimum design from occupational health and safety perspective
Question: Outline the factors a designer should consider while designing a portable drill machine?
,.2 The impact of a well designed tool, equipment or structure in occupational safety and
health
Well designed equipment from the user perspective will be the first step in eliminating or reducing the occupational safety
and health hazards from the workplace associated with the use of subject tool or equipment. But the user perspective may
not be the same. The user perspective will depend upon the type of organization, nature of work the organization is
involved in, the health and safety culture within the organization, the skill level of the worker, the organization's
management system in place etc. So it is not imperative that a tool being used in one site will be used in same environment
even in the same organization at some different sites. So the tools, equipment and machinery undergo certain
environmental and other factors which increase the impact on the product performance.
Design of the product will directly affect the occupational safety and health performance of the organization. We have
mentioned some of the common end user requirements which should be incorporated into the design of the products
(Tools, equipment, machinery or structures) to avoid a range of occupational hazards associated with each type of
requirement.
It is noteworthy that the organizations must take additional measures to augment the design limitations with suitable and
sufficient risk assessment for the use of products at the workplaces.
We shall now discuss various factors which influence the performance of the products and hence the occupational safety
and health at the workplaces.
(:) The type of environment in which the product is being used. For example, a surface treatment shop may expose a
product with acidic fumes. These fumes will result into internal and external erosion of the product and its parts.
Similarly environmental conditions may include extremely hot or cold temperature, exposure to dust and hydraulic
fluids etc.
(:) Weather conditions e.g. direct sunlight on the product, humid and rainy weather etc.
(:) Presence of flammable substances at the workplace and use of tools, equipment or machinery may create the risk of fire
and explosion.
(:) Biological hazards e.g. gnawing cables by rates and/or short-circuiting of PCB's due to presence of insects or wet
environment
(:) Nature of job e.g. cutting stones where pieces of stones may hit the cables and deteriorate it.
(:) Physical abuse with the equipment e.g. misuse (Not designed for intended purpose e.g. use of a drill machine for cutting
instead of drilling holes) or abusive use (Designed for intended function but limits exceeded e.g. designed for 2 tons
load and being used for more than 2 tons load)
,.3 The design with respect to stated and implied use of tools, equipments and
structures
The selection of well designed products is quite critical job from health and safety perspective. It is therefore the duty of
health and safety practitioner to provide advice to the top management regarding the specific design requirements as per
the context of organization in which the products will be used. This is very critical job because the future health and safety
performance of the organization will depend on the initial selection of the products may those be tools, equipment,
machines, structures or even personal protective equipment.
Selection of key products with major health and safety implications without thorough consideration may result into
103 4-2
This is especially applicable once the organizations are taking the products selection and purchase decision to get aligned
with the strategic direction of the organization. Before going into further details, we shall understand about stated
requirements and implied requirements of the products:
Stated use is what is told by the process owners e.g. workers and their supervisors or first line managers. This will include the
details of the requirement for the product. For example, stated requirement may include the SCBA to be used in an H2S
environment. But implied requirements are need to be considered along with stated requirements. Both will supplement
the final decision for the type of product which will be required. Implied requirements are based either on experiences or
gained from experiences of others. For example the implied requirement may be the environment in which the equipment
will be used, the number of time the equipment will be used in a specific time frame, the skill level of people who will be
using the product, the training requirements for using the equipment, maintenance requirements of the equipment,
maintenance personnel availability for subject equipment, spare support availability for the equipment, the foreseeable
physical abuse with the equipment etc.
The final selection of the products should be made on the basis of both stated and implied uses. It is however possible that
the availability of subject product with the 100% user requirements may not exist and there will be financial factors in
decision making as well which will lead to selection of products with some of the features compromised. But in that case,
the HSE practitioner or advisor should opt for the product with maximum value of money in terms of lesser occupational
safety and health implications with the products. In certain cases, if the requirement of the product is recurring or very high,
a customized design options can also be considered by the organizations instead of purchasing of the shelf products. This
way, the organizations can have maximum input into design of the products from health and safety perspective after
detailed considerations and discussions with end users. The design inputs provided by the end user i.e. workers will not
only motivate them for the use of the equipment and they will feel ownership and will less likely to physically abuse the
equipment inadvertently.
Question: Outline the design flaws in tools, equipment or machinery which may compromise occupational safety
and health at the workplaces
,., ASM E (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) & occupational safety and health
ASME is the leading international developer of codes and standards associated with the art, science, and practice of
mechanical engineering. Starting with the first issuance of its legendary Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code in 1914, ASME's
codes and standards have grown to nearly 600 offerings currently in print. These offerings cover a breadth of topics,
including pressure technology, nuclear plants, elevators/ escalators, construction, engineering design, standardization,
and performance testing.
Developing and revising ASME codes and standards occurs year-round. More than 4,700 dedicated volunteers.
-engineers, scientists, government officials, and others

-contribute their technical expertise to protect public safety, while reflecting best practices of industry. The results of their
efforts are being used in over 100 nations; thus setting the standard for code-development worldwide.
ASME develops voluntary standards that enhance public safety, health, and quality of life as well as facilitate innovation,
trade, and competitiveness.
ASME develops and revises standards based on market needs through a consensus process whose meetings dealing with
standards-related actions are open to all members of the public. ASME consensus committees are comprised of volunteer
subject matter experts from a diverse range of interests, including manufacturers, users, government, and general interest.
ASME standards and subsequent revisions are based upon review of reliable technical data by the consensus committee
and its sub-tier committees.
WHY STANDARDS?
During a time when there were few, if any, operating guidelines and inspections for steam pressure systems, many boilers
were unsafe. Partly due to the explosion of the steamship Sultana and the increase in boiler explosions and accidents, the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers was founded in 1880. Read more about ASME's founders, the Society's early
history, and its impact on American industry in The True Harnessing of Steam.
"Code and standards are an essential part of design and repair engineering requirements. Engineers that understand code
and regulation requirements are a must in my industry and will increasingly become more widespread in other industries,
as regulatory issues change and become more stringent.
104 4-3
All industries are becoming more aware of the benefits of adherence to Code and industry standards in ensuring reliability
of systems, components and structures." ASME Vision 2030 Survey Feedback.
Historical events that have helped define and shape ASME Standards & Certification.
Two boiler explosions in Massachusetts shoe factories (Brockton, 1905 and Lynn, 1906) motivated the Governor to
include in his inaugural address a demand for prompt action for improved public safety. One outcome of this mandate was
the creation of a new Massachusetts law, "An Act Relating to the Operation and Inspection of Steam Boilers" (1909). This
motivated another state, Ohio, to drafttheir own laws in 1911. At the same time, as both states were developing laws, ASME
was looking to the future in a way that would change the boiler industry and its future evolution, industry-wide
standardization. From ASME's actions, the first edition of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) was issued in 1914
and published in 1915.
Advancement in steel manufacturing and production in the late 19th and early 20th century allowed for the design and
construction of taller buildings. With taller buildings, elevator use increased as a quicker, more convenient way of
movement to upper floors. To outline safe and standardized elevator design and use, the first edition of the ASME A17
standard, "American Standard Safety Code for Elevators", was issued in 1921. After the publication of the standard,
requests for a guide covering the inspection of elevators were received. The A17 committee prepared, with input from
cities, states, insurance and elevator maintenance companies, and the Federal Government, the ASME A17, "American
Recommended Practice for the Inspection of Elevators Inspector's Manual", which was issued in 1937 simultaneously with
the third edition of the A17 standard.
The ability and desire to use nuclear energy for power generation began in the early 20th century when it was found
that radioactive elements released immense amounts of energy. Ernest efforts for private sector nuclear power generation
did not start until the passage of the 1954 Amendments to the Atomic Energy Act which allowed rapid commercialization
of U.S. reactor technology. The engineers who designed the first commercial nuclear reactors recognized a need for a set of
design and fabrication rules to facilitate the development of safe, economically competitive nuclear reactors. As there were
many similarities between thermal-neutron reactor and traditional steam powered pressure vessels, the nuclear industry
relied on ASME BPVC Sections I, "Rules for Construction of Power Boilers" and VIII, "Rules for Construction of Unfired
Pressure Vessels", to help standardize their practices. In 1963, ASME published the first edition of ASME BPVC, Section 111,
"Nuclear Vessels". Over the years, the scope of ASME BPVC Section Ill has expanded to cover practically all of the pressure
and liquid storage components involved at a nuclear power site.
Safety Engineering and Risk Analysis Division (SERAD)

The Safety Engineering and Risk Analysis Division (SERAD) was originally formed in 1991 by merging ASME's Safety
Division (est. 1951) and the Risk Analysis Task Force. Its function is to stimulate interest in and disseminate risk analysis and
safety information as applied to the process of mechanical engineering. Member activity has expanded to include product
liability, loss prevention and occupational health.
Safety is the reduced risk achieved by successful application of engineering understanding and controls to hazards. For
new products and processes, risk is identified and minimized by analysis of previous experience and conservative design.
The interests of SERAD extend across most of the other ASME Divisions. This Division works with industry, ASME Codes &
Standards, and other relevant professional and regulatory organizations to discuss, review, and promote practices which
lead to reduced risk and improved occupational environments. The basic concern for human health and safety as well as
the reduction in business interruptions and insurance costs makes the work of the Division increasingly important.
SERAD members include engineers conducting research and practicing engineers in risk analysis, mechanical equipment
design, occupational health and safety, environmental control, toxic and explosive hazards from dusts and gases, radiation
hazards, process (system) operations, design, maintenance, and testing. Also important are ergonomics, consumer
product safety, liability prevention, improvements to manufacturing processes for safety, and safety in transportation
systems.
Goals & Objectives

0 To educate ASME members and others about the importance of risk analysis, safety engineering, and environmental
and occupational health
0 To encourage members to provide their expertise in the standards-setting process
105 4-4
0 To promote codes and standards for new areas in risk analysis, safety engineering and environmental and occupational
health
0 To provide closer interface with other ASME Technical Divisions through joint efforts
0 To enhance the quality of technical papers on safety To increase active participation by more ASME members in Division
affairs
0 To help members keep pace with the latest developments
ASME's Breadth of Offerings

ASME offers the public and private sectors a comprehensive portfolio of codes and standards offerings, which govern
elevators and escalators. The Society develops and maintains eight major codes addressing safety in design, construction,
installation, operation, inspection, testing, maintenance, alteration, and repair of elevators, dumbwaiters, escalators,
moving walks, material lifts, and dumbwaiters with automatic transfer devices, wheelchair lifts, or inclined-stairway chair
lifts. Thus, ASME extends its broad perspective on safety across a full range of industry products and applications.
About ASME Safety Codes and Standards

ASME plays an active role in protecting the public through the development of Safety Codes and Standards, which are
managed by the Board on Safety Codes and Standards (BSCS). The BSCS is responsible for the management of all ASME
activities related to codes, standards, and accreditation and certification programs directly applicable to safety codes,
safety standards, and related accreditation and certification activities. The BSCS oversees the following:
0 A 13 Scheme for the Identification of Piping Systems

0 A 17 Elevators and Escalators
0 A 18 Platform Lifts and Stairway Chairlifts
0 A90 Safety Standards for Man lifts
0 A 120 Safety Requirements for Powered Platforms for Building Maintenance
0 B20 Safety Standards for Conveyors and Related Equipment
0 B30 Safety Standards Committee for Cableways, Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Hooks, Jacks, and Slings
0 BTH Standards Committee, Design of Below-the-Hook Lifting Devices
0 CSDAFB Controls and Safety Devices for Automatically Fired Boilers
0 Portable Automotive Lifting Devices Committee
0 Rail Transit Vehicle Standards Committee
0 P30 Planning for the Use of Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Hooks, Jacks, and Slings
4.5 The requirements of prevailing design testing software and their implications on
occupational health and safety provisions
There are hundreds of computer softwares available in the market which are used for designing products, easy to use
simulations, that provides design engineers with the tools necessary for conceptualizing, designing, and validating their
ideas right on their desktops. Even without advanced analysis knowledge, design engineers are able to perform real-world,
static structural and thermal, dynamic, weight optimization, vibration mode, and safety factor simulations on designs when
utilizing these softwares. Each of these softwares has certain features and limitations. However, in todays technologically
advance world, there will hardly be any product design which has been developed without the use of these softwares.
Key Features of these Softwares

Although key feature vary from on software to another but there are certain generic requirements for which these
softwares are used. These requirements include:-
0 How the final shape of the product will look and how various parts sizes make the ratio of whole product. At times, the
client has make up a sketch in her/ his mind and once on the given technical specifications; the product is designed, the
clients normally do not like it because they have perceived the shape in their minds in some other way. This is especially
applicable for the products which have great implications on sales due to their shape e.g. a car or a toy etc.
0 Evaluating the performance, reliability, and safety of materials and products before design engineers commit to
physical prototypes.
0 Load bearing capabilities and capacities of products and structures and identify the weak points for redesigning
0 Evaluation of flow, turbulence, heat transfer, and reactions for industrial applications.
0 Real time simulation of products to ensure the mating parts are inline and to ensure free movements of all the parts of a
product.
106 4-5
0 To evaluate the products from ergonomics perspective

0 Testing of PCB's, electronic circuits and electrical connections etc.
List of Softwares
There is a long list of Design testing softwares but we shall be listing down the ones which are famous and are widely used
0 Autodesk Product Design Suite

0 Ansys
0 Matlab
0 Catia
0 Solid Edge
0 ZW3D
0 MechDesigner
0 PTC Creo
0 Rhino
0 FreePCB and many more
Limitations
0 The use of each software require expertise and skill for effect evaluation
0 Most of these softwares are quite costly
0 Latest developments and updated versions of these softwares are launched very frequently which require financial
resources as well
0 The selection of suitable software as per the requirement of the product. Not all the softwares carry out all the design
0 and testing functions.
0 The environmental and other factor which may influence the operation of the product (e.g. Misuse or abuse of
equipment) is not taken into account by the softwares. Similarly, the environmental conditions to which the product or
0 structure is exposed to (Acidic environment, extreme hot or cold or changing temperature rapidly) is not estimated to
the original extent.
0 Design and testing software does not guarantee the product manufacturing as per design. The manufacturing
processes flaws may lead to product failure which has not been earlier estimated during the design and testing phase.
This requires the product to be tested in real time environment for its intended characteristics. (For example a welding
flaw if not detected and reworked during manufacturing or fabrication may lead to failure of product or structure)
0 Human error in designing and testing through these softwares cannot be ruled out. The designer may erroneously put
wrong reading or wrong material while testing which may lead to acceptance of a wrong design. It is therefore
imperative that the design and testing software procedure should be internally and externally quality assured.
4.6 Material Failures Investigations

Material failure investigations are carried out due to a number of reasons mainly:-
$ To investigate the root causes of the accident

0 To carry out corrective measures to avoid the recurrence
0 To carry out preventive actions for similar items to avoid similar failures
0 Insurance claim purpose
A successful material failure investigation will base upon fixing the fault and not fixing the blame. Overall safe work
practices and occupational safety and health culture may be a contributory factor which cannot be over ruled however. But
the purpose of investigations should be improving continually either with the design changes, or the way processes are
carried out.
Material failure studies require a thorough investigation requiring various testing methods to identify the facts and rule out
the assumptions. For an investigating officer, it is pertinent to ask following questions to evaluate the nature of failure:-
0 Was the design properly approved before installation/ commissioning?

0 Were there any modifications carried out in the design?
0 Was the failure occurred due to misuse?
0 Were there any signs of physical abuse with the equipment/ structure?
107 4-6
0 Were there any excessive loading or vibration exposures?

0 Was there any impact or sudden loading on the product/ structure?
0 The direction of loading which caused the failure (Visual Inspection)
0 Were the routine inspections carried out as per manufacturer/ designer recommendations?
0 Was it a sudden failure or certain early waning defects appeared and or reported by anyone?
0 Was the safe system of work processes followed during the use of the equipment/ structure?
0 Was there any weather or other environmental factors which expedited the material failure?
0 The type of failure e.g. brittle failure or ductile failure?
0 Since when the equipment/ structure was under use and what was its recommended life by designer or manufacturer?
@ Where is the fracture initiating point?
0 Was there any explosion or fire subsequent to a failure?
What microscopic lab analysis can reveal about the material failures?
Reaching to some conclusion on the root causes of the failure requires thorough analysis of the material. The analysis
includes the microscopic structure analysis of the material because mere relying on visual inspections may lead to wrong
conclusions. Visual inspections are mandatory to form the basis of certain facts and assumptions but engineering testing
must be used to rule out the assumptions or otherwise.
Microscopic analysis can reveal many things about the material and its failure e.g.
0 Where did the crack initiated?

0 How long since the crack initiated?
0 Surface treatment conditions of the metals e.g. erosion/ corrosion etc.
0 Heat treat conditions of the sample from failed material
0 Material type and grade comparison as per the original design of the product
0 Composition of the metal alloys and presence of any impurities etc.
0 Presence of unnecessary phases in microstructure that created failures
0 Crack study e.g. shape, behavior, location, size of crack and presence of any micro
0 Cracks in the material under investigation.
Note: Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) are used with capability of S000X magnifying power and integrated with
computer through software applications. The SEM can directly take photographs of the sample under analysis for further
analysis and discussions
108 4-7
Contents
electricity at the workplaces
5.1 The Principle of Electricity 5-1

5.2 Effects of electric shock on human 5-5
5.3 Risk Factors for the acc idents related to electricity and 5-6
electric equipment
5.4 Type of hazardous environment which might affect 5-7
the physical condition of equipment
5.5 Types of protective system 5-8
5.6 Type of Inspection for electrical system & equipment 5-9
5.7 Emergency preparedness and response procedure 5-11
Learning outcomes
II Explain the principle of electricity
m Explain common terminology related to electricity including current (Alternating and Direct), resistance,
voltage, single phase, 3 phase, circuits (Series and parallel), arcing, short circuiting.
II Explain various electrical protection devices for their suitability of use in a specific work environment
m
•II
Outline various electrical appliances and the risks to their users and other persons in varying work environments
Review and evaluate the sufficiency and adequacy of engineering controls against electricity hazards at the
workplaces to ensure health and safety provisions
Analyze and evaluate the emergency preparedness and response procedure for its relevancy and completeness
from electricity risks perspective
II Evaluate the training and skill requirement by the workforce for safe use and maintenance of electrical appliances
II Identify and assess prevailing electrical appliances and machinery being used in various industries with detailed
hazards and risks in familiar and unfamiliar situations and environments.
II Identify the potential risks of explosions from electrical appliances including any contributory factors which may
give rise to the likelihood or severity
5.1 The Principle of Electricity

Electricity is a form of energy which is produced due to the movement of electrons in a circuit. The electricity was invented
by Michael Faraday whose famous faraday's law of electromagnetism is still applicable. Electricity is produced in a number
of ways but most of widely used methods convert the form of energy into kinetic energy of the generator (Motor) which in
turns produces electricity. For example, in a wind turbine, the wind energy is used to move the turbine to produce
electricity. In a dam, the potential energy of the water stored in a dam is used to generate the kinetic energy of turbine. In a
solar cell however, when light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the
semiconductor material. If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical
circuit, the electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current The basic 03 electrical parameters for an electric
system are described as follows:-
The Voltage(V)
The voltage is basically the electrical pressure which causes the free electrons to flow. The more is the pressure i.e. voltage,
the more is the ability or power of the electric circuit. You have noticed that once the electricity is being transmitted over a
long distance, high voltage is used. Assume the power to be transmitted is P, and the resistance of the transmission line is r.
If the power is transmitted with voltage V, then the current flow through the transmission line is I= P/V.
The power loss

P-loss=i 2 r=(P/V)2 r
Since P and r are fixed conditions, less power will be lost if high voltages V are used.
TheCurrent(I)
The current is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. It is expressed as amperes (Amp). An ampere is defined as
6.241*1018 electrons (1 Coulomb) per second passing through a point in a circuit.
The symbol of current is I. Current always flows from positive to negative direction.
The Resistance(R)
The measure of the quantity, a device or material reduces the flow of current passing through it. Its unit is Ohm (0) & its
symbol is "R".
Electrical principle is expressed in Ohm's Law
V= IR
• There are two type of current flow i.e. direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC):-
• Direct current is unidirectional current & flows in one direction only. Battery powered system are usually direct current.
• Alternating Current (AC) flows in both forward & backward direction. The electricity supplied in homes is alternating
current. The alternating current is shown by sinusoidal wave which shows that the direction of the current changes every
moment i.e. with the rotation of the shaft being used to produce electricity. This happens because the North and South
poles of the magnets are continuously changing with respect to the moving shaft.
+ Sine Wave
113 5-1
Single and 3 phase

To understand single phase and 3 phase power of electricity, please consider the following 2 figure
Three-Phase ·Single-Phase
w I.I.I
C) C)
�o------��-------- �a-------_..------
,;.,,
0 0
> >
-0.S+--- ,_____.......,____....,._
-. -0.S+--------........-----+-
180 180 270

TIME lilME
You have often heard about the frequency of current. It is denoted by Hz (Hertz) or Cycles per second. Depending upon
location, it may be SO to 60 Hz i.e. cycles per seconds. It means that the sine wave of alternating current repeats its motion
SO to 60 times in a second. Imagine the point (1/SOth of a second with repetition on every cycle) in a single phase (Right side
of above picture) when the sine wave is at zero. Practically, there is no power being provided to the motor, or any other
electronic device. But this time is so small that it goes unnoticeable. But in a 3 phase, there will be no time when the supplied
power will be zero because any of the 3 phases will be providing power at any point in time.
So single phase power is normally used for homes with lesser power requirements and 3 phase is used for industrial
purposes where power requirement by the motors is quite high.
Circuits (Series and parallel)

A circuit is path from which the electrons flow through a voltage difference across the ends of the circuit. The entrance
point is called source and the exit point is called the return or earth ground. Circuits may be designed as series, parallel or
combination of both.
Following picture is an example of seripc ,.;,,., ,it·
R1
1.----�, , ______ .2
t
+
4 R3 ,3
In a series circuit, Voltage drops add to equal total voltage (the first component will consume the voltage and balance will
be transferred to the next component i.e. R2 and so on), all components share the same (equal) current and resistances add
to equal total resistance.
Total resistance in a series circuit

R= R1+R2+R3
Note: The Resistance shown in R1, R2 and R3 are the resistances being offered by the components e.g. motors, air
--- --- ---

conditioner, a bulb etc.
Following picture is an example of Parallel Circuit;
1 2 3 4
-=-! t t t
--- --- ---
Rt R2 R3
8 7 6 5
114 5-2
In a parallel circuit, All components share the same (equal) voltage, branch currents add to equal total current and
resistances diminish to equal total resistance.
Total Resistance in a parallel circuit is
1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
However, if circuit components are series-connected in some parts and parallel in others, we won't be able to apply a single
set of rules to every part of that circuit. Instead, we will have to identify which parts of that circuit are series and which parts
are parallel, and then selectively apply series and parallel rules as necessary to determine what is happening.
24 V .=_
R3 R,
Short circuit
A short circuit is the circuit with no or very low resistance in the circuit. It causes overheating of the circuit, fire and/or
explosion.
Damage from short circuits can be reduced or prevented by employing fuses, circuit breakers, or other overload protection
devices which disconnect the power in reaction to excessive current before overheating of other damages get started.
Overload protection devices must be chosen according to the current rating of the circuit. Circuits for large home
appliances require protective devices set or rated for higher currents than lighting circuits e.g. an air-conditioner installed
in the home. Wire gauges specified in building and electrical codes are chosen to ensure safe operation in conjunction with
the overload protection. An over-current protection device must be rated to safely interrupt the maximum prospective
short circuit current.
Reasons for Short Circuits
1-CircuitOverload
Once a circuit is overloaded than the designed specifications, it causes excessive current in the circuit which in turn will heat
up the wires and cables. Heated cables will cause insulation damage and hence, the positive and negative wires will come in
contact causing a short circuit.
2- Faulty Insulation
Continued use of faulty insulated cables will eventually cause the wires to contact resulting short circuit.
3- Poor work practices at the workplaces

The workers may connect wrong circuits inadvertently at the workplaces causing the occurrence of short circuits. Similarly,
a conductor (tool) left in a circuit during maintenance will cause the contact of wires.
,-worn out equipment

The equipments being used at workplaces may get worn out due to certain environmental or weather conditions. This is
highly likely in rainy season with highly humid environment once the electrical connections may become loose and contact
with other conductors causing short circuits.
5-Animals and Birds

Rats have the tendency to gnaw cables which causes short circuiting. Similarly, the birds collide with overhead structures
and conductors, contaminate insulators and equipment, and damage facilities leading to customer interruptions.
Note: It is noteworthy that short circuiting is the cause of many fire occurrences at workplaces and in domestic areas.
115 5-3
116 5-4
5.2 Effects of electric shock on human body
Direct effect
(:) Feeling of sensation at low current
(:) Painful sensational feeling & muscle contractions
(:) Irregular heart beat (fibrillation)
(:) Cardiac arrest
(:) Respiratory Paralysis
(:) Nervous system breaks down
$ Bleeding from the body
(:) Skin & internal burns
Indirect Effects
(:) Burn due to radiant heat produced as a result of spark/arcing
(:) Fall from height as a result of electric shock
(:) Indirect burns due to the fire as a result of electricity malfunction
(:) Cuts, bruises and/or broken bones as a result of being thrown away due to muscle contraction
Risk factors which influence the severity of injury due to electricity exposure
Voltage
The higher the voltage, higher will be the current passing through the body. This will result more serious injury or even
death of the effected.
Time Duration for exposure

The greater the time duration one has been exposed, greater is the current flow through the body
Current path
The electricity takes the shortest route to the earth when it passes through the body. If left hand is exposed than the current
will pass through the heart which is more dangerous than if the right hand is exposed
Contact surface area

The more is the contact area exposed to the conductor, the more current will pass
Contact area condition

Contact area if dry will offer more resistance to the flow of current hence less amount of current will flow. If the contact
surface is wet, there will be low resistance leading to severe injury.
Environmental condition
In dry environment there will be increased resistance & decreased current & injury and vice versa.
Competence of the worker

A competent worker with good risk perception will know these factors and will act accordingly. He will be less likely to be
severely injured as compared to an incompetent person
PPE's
Suitable PPE's if not being used can result into more severe injury
Nature ofjob
Nature of job can effect in various ways e.g. a stressed worker is more likely to present human error. Similarly secondary
effects of electric shock i.e. work at height.
Organizational Emergency Response Procedure

Unavailability of first aid measures and ineffective emergency response procedures including the Accident reporting
procedures can further worsen/deteriorate the condition of the effected worker.
117 5-5
How does water affect the flow of electricity?

Pure water is a poor conductor. But small amounts of impurities in water like salt, acid, solvents, or other materials can turn
water itself and substances that generally act as insulators into conductors or better conductors. Dry wood, for example,
generally slows or stops the flow of electricity. But when saturated with water, wood turns into a conductor. The same is true
of human skin. Dry skin has a fairly high resistance to electric current. But when skin is moist or wet, it acts as a conductor.
This means that anyone working with electricity in a damp or wet environment needs to exercise extra caution to prevent
electrical hazards.
How can you protect yourselffrom overhead power lines?
Before working under or near overhead power lines, ensure that you maintain a safe distance to the lines and, for very high
voltage lines, ground any equipment such as cranes that can become energized. If working on power lines, ensure that the
lines have been de-energized and grounded by the owner or operator of the lines.
Other protective measures like guarding or insulating the lines help prevent accidental contact.
Employees unqualified to work with electricity, as well as mechanical equipment, should remain at least 10 feet (3.05
meters) away from overhead power lines. If the voltage is more than 50,000 volts, the clearance increases by 4 inches (10
centimeters) for each additional 10,000 volts.
When mechanical equipment is operated near overhead lines, employees standing on the ground should avoid contact
with the equipment unless it is located outside the danger zone. When factoring the safe standoff distance, be sure to
consider the equipment's maximum reach.
Static Electricity, its hazards & risk control measure

Static current is the difference of voltage produced as a result of friction. For example if you rub your hand against a blanket
in a dark room, you will experience spark. Static current is not very dangerous itself for the human body & it may lead to the
following hazardous situation.
e Spark produced due to static charge in a flammable environment will lead to fire & explosion.
(:) Some sensitive circuits may get unserviceable resulting malfunction of machinery e.g. Aircraft Avionics parts
5.3 Risk Factors for the accidents related to electricity & electric equipment
These risk factors can also be studied as common causes of fire due to electricity
Use of unsuitable equipment

Equipment selection as per the nature of job & type of environment in which the job will be performed is very important.
For example only rated equipment should be used in a flammable environment.
Misuse of Equipment
The use of equipment over & above their intended capacity may lead to overheating & or spark fire etc.
Continued use of Faulty equipment

Continued use of faulty equipment due to work pressure may result into an accident
Improper maintenance/ no maintenance

The tools/equipments are not maintained as per the requirements. The Organization does not have a maintenance
program or maintenance is carried out by incompetent persons. Similarly unauthorized modification in equipment may
result into accidents.
Unauthorized use
The organization has no control over use of equipments. The equipments are used by unauthorized/incompetent persons
who may lead to hazardous situation.
Physical Abuse with Equipment

Examples of physical abuse with equipment are carrying equipment through its cable, driving vehicles over the cables and
overloading a circuit more than authorized etc.
118 5-6
Environment
Extreme hot/cold and or chemical/corrosive environment can result into wear & tear of the cords & other parts of the
equipment.
Blame Culture
The organization has a blame culture where due to the fear of any action, workers do not report faulty equipment & near
miss incidents.
Control Measures for safe use of portable electrical equipment

$ Prefer battery powered (12V) instead of AC powered electric equipment
$ Use low voltage e.g. 110V operating equipment instead of 220V
0 Use protective appliances e.g. Fuses, circuit , breakers & RCDs in the electrical system
0 Earthing should also be carried out and use of double insulated equipment.
0 Routine maintenance should be carried out for the equipment along with pre use check &formal visual checks
0 Restrict use to only authorized personnel only
0 Authorized personnel should be trained &supervised for a suitable period of time
0 Do not misuse the portable electrical equipment i.e. use beyond the recommended capacity &capability
0 Do not use in a flammable humid or dusty environment unless designed so for this purpose
0 Routing of cables should be carried out to avoid trip hazard
s., Type of hazardous environment which might affect the physical condition of equipment
0 Extreme temperature e.g. hot/cold due to machines
0 Corrosive environment e.g. a surface treatment shop where lots of chemical fumes are present
0 Contamination e.g. liquids (Hydraulic)
0 Humidity, rain, snow, sunlight etc.
0 Flammable substances
0 Biological hazards e.g. gnawing cables by rates and/or short-circuiting of PCB's due to presence of insects
0 Nature of job e.g. cutting stones where pieces of stones may hit the cables and deteriorate it
Factors to consider when setting a frequency of inspection/testing of electrical equipment

0 The current physical condition of the equipment
$ The age of equipment
$ The frequency &duration of use of equipment
0 The environment in which the equipment is used e.g. corrosive, flammable, hot &cold etc.
0 Any previous modification carried out in the equipment
0 Manufacturer recommendation
0 Any foreseeable physical abuse in future due to poor safety culture and lack of awareness and training of the employees
0 The training &competence of the workers who use the equipment
0 Cost of the inspection &maintenance
$ Machine down time and availability of any redundant equipment
$ Availability of spares
0 Legal inspection/testing requirements
$ Previous fault trends of the equipment
General control measures againstthe risk of electricity

0 Selection of suitable equipment as per the nature of job &type of environment
0 Training of the personnel for the use of equipment & working on electrical equipment & their competence must be
ensured through supervision &other measures
0 Safe system of work (SSOW) should be developed implemented & maintained & ensured its effectiveness through
inspection &Audits
0 Unauthorized use of equipment should be restrained
0 Suitable PPE's should be provided to the workers
0 Use of safety devices e.g. Fuses, CBs, RCDs, Earthing, double insulation, isolation should be ensured within the electrical
system to ensure safety
0 Permit to work (PTW) system should be followed for working on live electrical system or near overhead power lines
$ Inspection &maintenance of equipment should be carried out on routinely basis
119 5-7
0 Organization should establish, implement & maintains emergency rescue &evacuation procedure & must rehearse for
its effectiveness.
5.5 Types of protective system
Fuse
Dictionary meanings of Fuse are to melt. This protective system works on the same principle. The device is used to protect
the system against overload. A simple Fuse is a thin wire between the circuit which gets fuses (melts) & breaks the circuit
path to prevent the overload.
Advantages
0 There are very cheap solutions against the overload.
0 Very easy to install
0 Easy to maintain
0 Simple training is required for use, maintenance & installation
Limitations
0 These can easily be tampered resulting no protection against overload
0 They protect equipments mainly and are not a protection for the workers
0 This fuse wire may erroneously be replaced with less sensitive wire which will allow more current to pass resulting failure
of the device
0 Installation of thin wire(after is get fused)is time consuming
MCB's (Miniature Circuit Breakers)

These work on the same principle as fuses but they are electromechanical based devices. The difference is that the wire
does not melt in MCB and it only Trips off (not requiring wire replacement as in case of fuses).
Advantages
0 They cannot easily be tampered
0 Does not require to be removed from circuit for re-energizing
0 Dies not require any specialized training
Limitations
0 Can be misused e.g. installed incorrect rated MCB's by an incompetent person
0 Worker may bypass the circuit in order to avoid frequent tripping off
0 Does not protect electric shock to the workers and only protects the equipment
Earthing
Earthing as the name suggest is a process in which the equipment is connected to the earth (via a conductor) so that faulty
current can move to the earth. When the worker touches the faulty equipment which has become live then he/she may get
a minor shock because the electric current always take shortest & low resistance path to the ground. Earthing wire is
normally made of copper which is high electric conductor. Earthing is the measure to protect the worker as well as the
equipment.
Advantages
0 It protects the persons from severe electric shock
0 It also protects the equipment
0 It is easy to install and can be connected for all equipment in a building
Limitations
0 It requires frequent inspections for its required level of low resistance

0 It may get disconnected and goes un-noticed so it will not serve its intended purpose
0 It is somehow costli er option
0 It can easily be tampered & bypassed
120 5-8
RCDs (Residual Current Devices)

These devices detect the imbalance of current in a circuit & immediately trips off the connection if an imbalance of current
is detected i.e. flowing to the ground. These are specially designed to save the human lives
Advantages
• It provides an excellent protection against electric shock
Limitation
0 These are costly
0 Difficult to maintain
0 Very sensitive so may get frequently tripped due to minor imbalance of current in an equipment. This will encourage the
worker to bypass RCD.
Low voltage system

As we have earlier studied, lower the voltage of electrical system, lower will be the severity of injury associated with
electricity. Transformers are utilized to reduce the voltage. In some countries, portable power equipments are designed to
be operated at 11 OV instead of 220V.
Advantages
0 Lower the voltage, lower will be severely of electric shock
Limitations
0 Low voltage current present more line losses so it is not feasible to provide low voltage to all industries. Transformers
may be used to stop down the voltage which is costlier
0 Low voltage AC powered equipment are inefficient as compared to high voltage AC powered equipment
Isolation of power source

Isolation is the physical disconnection of power source from the equipment. This may be achieved through a switch or by
putting the plug out of circuit. The equipment will be dead & hence will be safer for any maintenance activities. It must be
ensured that some other person may inadvertently re-energize the system. For this purpose the organization must have an
efficient Lock-out/ Tag-out system to avoid any accident.
Advantage
Very simple & safe method to ensure safety of people who are working on electrical system
Limitation
0 Does not work unless the organization has a robust SSOW procedure of lock out/tag out.
0 Certain equipment requires to be tested for functional check. Isolation of power source may not work for such instances
Double Insulation
As the name suggest, there are two cores of protection (insulation) on electrical conductor for the safety of workers
Advantages
The protection against exposure to electric current is increased with double insulation
Limitations
More relying on double insulation for safety of personnel may work alone unless insulations are frequently inspected for
any defects
5.6Type of Inspection for electrical system & equipment
0 User check
0 Formal visual inspection
0 Combined inspection & testing {Both visual & through testing)
121 5-9
Use Visual check

0 Ensure insulation of portable equipment is not defective
0 There is no physical damage to the equipment
$ Equipment is not wet & contaminated
0 Power plug is not damaged/broken
$ Equipment is intact with no internal or external lose parts\cables connection with the equipment are not loose
Formal Visual Check

$ Ensure all above checks
0 Dismantle the plug for ensuring cables are connected firmly with the plugs
$ Dismantle the equipment & ensure no loose wires
0 Ensure proper routing/ of cables inside the equipment
0 Ensure the safety device e.g. fuse/MCB are correctly fitted & of correct rating
Combined visual/inspection & appliance testing

0 Includes all the checks mentioned in formal visual inspection
0 Some checks e.g. current consumption of equipment is not possible to check visually. Therefore there is a need of
inspection testers & appliances
Advantages
$ Detection of faults which are not possible through visual inspection
$ Complies with the legal requirement
0 Early detection of minor fault may be possible which can be used as a preventive maintenance approach
Limitations
0 Due to unsuitable documented system, some equipments may be missed out of inspection
0 Human error may occur while inspection which may result into no inspection at all
0 Costlier option for some equipments for some special inspection e.g. Aircraft Avionic system
0 The effectiveness depends on the frequency of inspection of an equipment & safety culture of the organization
Suitable measures for the maintenance of the equipment & electrical system
0 Selection of suitable equipment in the first stage keeping in view the electrical system whose part will it be & the
training & awareness of the users & maintenance staff, the environment & other similar factors
$ The organization should have a robust plan for the maintenance of all equipment. The frequency of each equipment
may be decided by considering various factors (studied earlier)
0 The organization must encourage the workers for user checks for the equipment. Effectiveness may be gauged through
Audits as well
0 Comply with any legal requirements for inspection & testing
0 Maintenance log book for each equipment should be maintained including the records of any spare
change/modification
0 Only authorized competent person should be allowed to perform maintenance operations
0 The organization must dispose-off faulty equipment which is beyond serviceability to avoid misuse.
Safe Wiring
0 Electrical hazards result from using the wrong size or type of wire. It is up to you to make certain your workers use wiring
safely. Following are some important tips.
0 Choose the correct size of wire for the amount of current in the circuit. The wire must be able to handle the current
safety.
0 Make certain that the wire's insulation is appropriate for the voltage that will be running through it. Make certain the
wire is tough enough to stand up in the environment in which it will be used.
0 Make sure the connections are reliable.
$ Make sure the connections are protected.
Following is a photo showing which wire size to use for a variety of amperages. Note that the larger the wire is, the smaller
its AWG (American Wire Gauge) number.
122 5-10
wires come in different sizes. The maximum current each size can conduct safely is shown above
Performing Lockout/Tagout
Here are the procedures for performing a lockout/tagout under OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147 (d).
Step 1-Prepare for Shutdown Before equipment or a machine is turned off, the person shutting it down must have
knowledge of the type and magnitude of the energy, the hazards of the energy to be controlled and the method or means
to control the energy.
Step 2 - Perform the Shutdown The machine must be turned off or shut down using the procedures established for the
machine or equipment. An orderly shutdown must be used to avoid any additional or increased hazard(s) to employees as
a result of equipment stoppage.
Step 3 - Isolate the Machine or Equipment. All energy isolating devices that are needed to control the energy to the
machine or equipment shall be physically located and operated in such a manner as to isolate the machine or equipment
from the energy source(s).
Step 4 - Apply the Lockout or Tagout Device Lockout or Tagout devices must be applied by an authorized employee. The
locks and tags must be affixed so that they hold the energy isolating devices in a "safe" or "off" position. Tagout devices
must clearly indicate that the operation or movement of energy isolating devices is prohibited.
Step 5 - Release Stored Energy All potentially hazardous stored or residual energy shall be released, disconnected,
restrained and otherwise rendered safe. The authorized person must verify that there is no stored energy. If there is a
possibility of re-accumulation of stored energy to a hazardous level, verification of isolation must be continued until the
servicing or maintenance is completed, or until the possibility of such accumulation no longer exists.
Step 6 - Verify Energy Isolation Before starting work on the machine or equipment, the authorized employee must verify
that isolation and de-energization of the machine or equipment have been accomplished.
5.7 Emergency preparedness and response procedure

The emergency preparedness and response procedure for dealing with incidents related to electricity hazard should be
made commensurate with the context of the organization. The procedure must be rehearsed at suitable intervals and
corrective actions should be taken to continually improve the procedure. But before establishing an emergency
preparedness and response procedure, the organization must be aware of any potential emergency situations related to
electricity hazards e.g.
@ Electrocution of a person or persons

@ Electrical fire e.g. due to short circuit
@ Broken electrical overhead wires
@ Contact with live overheads e.g. during transportation of a mobile scaffold
How do you protect yourself, your employees, and your business?

The best way is to prepare to respond to an emergency before it happens.
123 5-11
Few people can think clearly and logically in a crisis, so it is important to do so in advance, when you have time to be
thorough.
Brainstorm the worst-case scenarios. Ask yourself what you would do if the worst happened. What if a fire broke out due
to short circuit? Once you have identified potential emergencies, consider how they would affect you and your workers and
how you would respond.
What is an emergency action plan?

An emergency action plan covers designated actions employers and employees must take to ensure employee safety from
emergencies. Not all employers are required to establish an emergency action plan. Even if you are not specifically required
to do so, compiling an emergency action plan is a good way to protect yourself, your employees, and your business during
an emergency.
Putting together a comprehensive emergency action plan that deals with all types of issues specific to your worksite is not
difficult.
You may find it beneficial to include your management team and employees in the process. Explain your goal of protecting
lives and property in the event of an emergency, and ask for their help in establishing and implementing your emergency
action plan. Their commitment and support are critical to the plan's success.
What should your emergency action plan include?

When developing your emergency action plan, it's a good idea to look at a wide variety of potential emergencies that could
occur in your workplace. It should be tailored to your worksite and include information about all potential sources of
emergencies. Developing an emergency action plan means you should do a hazard assessment to determine what, if any,
electricity hazards in your workplaces could cause an emergency. If you have more than one worksite, each site should have
an emergency action plan.
At a minimum, your emergency action plan must include the following:
0 A preferred method for reporting electrical emergencies;

0 An evacuation policy and procedure;
0 Emergency escape procedures and route assignments, such as floor plans, workplace maps, and safe or refuge areas;
0 Names, titles, departments, and telephone numbers of individuals both within and outside your company to contact for
additional information or explanation of duties and responsibilities under the emergency plan;
0 Procedures for employees who remain to perform or shut down critical plant operations, operate fire extinguishers, or
perform other essential services that cannot be shut down for every emergency alarm before evacuating; and
0 Rescue and medical duties for any workers designated to perform them.
You also may want to consider designating an assembly location and procedures to account for all employees after an
evacuation.
In addition, you may find it helpful to include in your plan the following:
$ The site of an alternative communications center to be used in the event of a fire or explosion; and
0 A secure on- or offsite location to store originals or duplicate copies of accounting records, legal documents, your
employees' emergency contact lists, and other essential records.
How do you alert employees to an emergency?

Your plan must include a way to alert employees, including disabled workers, to evacuate or take other action, and how to
report emergencies, as required. Among the steps you must take are the following:
0 Make sure alarms are distinctive and recognized by all employees as a signal to evacuate the work area or perform
actions identified in your plan;
0 Make available an emergency communications system such as a public address system, portable radio unit, or other
means to notify employees of the emergency and to contact local law enforcement, the fire department, and others.
124 5-12
0 Stipulate that alarms must be able to be heard, seen, or otherwise perceived by everyone in the workplace. You might
want to consider providing an auxiliary power supply in the event that electricity is shut off.
0 You also may want to consider the following:
0 Using tactile devices to alert employees who would not otherwise be able to recognize an audible or visual alarm; and
0 Providing an updated list of key personnel such as the plant manager or physician, in order of priority, to notify in the
event of an emergency during off-duty hours.
How do you develop an evacuation policy and procedures?
A disorganized evacuation can result in confusion, injury, and property damage. That is why when developing your
emergency action plan it is important to determine the following:
0 Conditions under which an evacuation would be necessary;

0 A clear chain of command and designation of the person in your business authorized to order an evacuation or
shutdown. You may want to designate an "evacuation warden" to assist others in an evacuation and to account for
personnel;
0 Specific evacuation procedures, including routes and exits. Post these procedures where they are easily accessible to all
employees;
0 Procedures for assisting people with disabilities or who do not speak English or ;
0 Designation of what, if any, employees will continue or shut down critical operations during an evacuation. These
people must be capable of recognizing when to abandon the operation and evacuate themselves; and
0 A system for accounting for personnel following an evacuation. Consider employees' transportation needs for
community-wide evacuations.
Underwhat conditions should you call for an evacuation?

A designated person within your business should be responsible for making the decision to evacuate or shut down
operations. Protecting the health and safety of everyone in the facility should be the first priority. In the event of a fire
subsequent to a short circuit, an immediate evacuation to a predetermined area away from the facility is the best way to
protect employees.
What medical assistance should you provide during an emergency?

If your company does not have a formal medical program, you may want to investigate ways to provide medical and first
aid services. If medical facilities are available near your worksite, you can make arrangements for them to handle
emergency cases. Provide your employees with a written emergency medical procedure to minimize confusion during an
emergency.
If an infirmary, clinic, or hospital is not close to your workplace, ensure that onsite person(s) have adequate training in first
aid. The American Red Cross, some insurance providers, local safety councils, fire departments, or other resources may be
able to provide this training. Treatment of a serious injury should begin within 3 to 4 minutes of the accident.
Consult with a physician to order appropriate first-aid supplies for emergencies. Medical personnel must be accessible to
provide advice and consultation in resolving health problems that occur in the workplace. Establish a relationship with a
local ambulance service so transportation is readily available for emergencies.
What role should employees play in your emergency action plan?

The best emergency action plans include employees in the planning process, specify what employees should do during an
emergency, and ensure that employees receive proper training for emergencies. When you include your employees in your
planning, encourage them to offer suggestions about potential hazards, worst-case scenarios, and proper emergency
responses. After you develop he plan, review it with your employees to make sure everyone knows what to do before,
during and after an emergency. Keep a copy of your emergency action plan in a convenient location where employees can
get to it, or provide all employees a copy. If you have 10 or fewer employees, you may communicate your plan orally.
What employee information should your plan include?

In the event of an emergency, it could be important to have ready access to important personal information about your
employees. This includes their home telephone numbers, the names and telephone numbers of their next of kin, and
medical information.
125 5-13
What type of training do your employees need?

Educate your employees about the types of emergencies that may occur and train them in the proper course of action. The
size of your workplace and workforce, processes used, materials handled, and the availability of onsite or outside resources
will determine your training requirements. Be sure all your employees understand the function and elements of your
emergency action plan, including types of potential emergencies, reporting procedures, alarm systems, evacuation plans,
and shutdown procedures. Discuss any special hazards you may have onsite such as flammable materials, toxic chemicals,
radioactive sources, or water-reactive substances. Clearly communicate to your employees who will be in charge during an
emergency to minimize confusion.
General training for your employees should address the following:

0 Individual roles and responsibilities;
e Threats, hazards, and protective actions;
0 Notification, warning, and communications procedures;
0 Means for locating family members in an emergency;
0 Emergency response procedures;
0 Evacuation, shelter, and accountability procedures;
0 Location and use of common emergency equipment; and
0 Emergency shutdown procedures.
You also may wish to train your employees in first-aid procedures e.g.respiratory protection, including use of an escape
only respirator; and methods for preventing unauthorized access to the site.
Once you have reviewed your emergency action plan with your employees and everyone has had the proper training, it is a
good idea to hold practice drills as often as necessary to keep employees prepared. Include outside resources such as fire
and police departments when possible. After each drill, gather management and employees to evaluate the effectiveness
of the drill. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of your plan and work to improve it.
How often do you need to train your employees?

Review your plan with all your employees and consider requiring annual training in the plan. Also offer training
when you do the following:
0 Develop your initial plan;

0 Hire new employees;
0 Introduce new equipment, materials, or processes into the workplace that affect evacuation routes;
0 Change the layout or design of the facility; and
0 Revise or update your emergency procedures.
Note: In electrocution incidents, do not touch the victim unless the power source has been disconnected. Or use an
insulated equipment to disengage the victim from the power source
126 5-14
Contents
fire at the workplaces
6.1 Principle of Fire & Fire Terminologies 6-1

6.2 Principle of fire spread 6-2
6.3 Causes of Fire initiation at workplaces 6-2
6.4 Requirement of fire risk assessment 6-3
6.5 Precautions against Fire (Risk control measures) 6-5
6.6 Current technologies for es cape and rescue during 6-10
fire emergency
6.7 Latest developments for fire extinguishing 6-11
6.1 Principle of Fire & Fire Terminologies
Fire is a chemical process which can be represented through a triangle after known as fire triangle
Fuel
Fire Triangle
Oxygen
Oxygen is present 21 % by volume in our atmosphere. It is consumed during the fire/combustion process. Oxidizing agents
can also provide oxygen in combustion process
Fuel
Fuel is any combustible material which is consumed during the process e.g. wood, paper, fats, flammable materials etc.
Ignition source or Heat

Without an ignition or heat source, the presence of oxygen & fuel will not initiate the fire. It is noteworthy that ignition
starts the fire and combust on follows. It means there is no further need of ignition or heat source once fire has stated.
Importance of Fire triangle

It is important to understand fire triangle in order to understand the extinguishing methods. As we have studied that the
absence of any of 03 things will never result into a fire. So while taking control measures against the fire initiation or fire
spread following in ensured.
Fire Initiation
Take measures where oxygen, fuel & heat source are not combined in a workplace
Fire Spread
• Starvation
Remove the fuel source to reduce the further spread of fire
• Smothering
Remove the oxygen from the area or cut the source of oxygen. Fire blankets are a good example of smothering
Fire Terminologies
It is necessary to understand some terminologies related to fire which can help taking appropriate control measures
against fire for a specific type of fuel source
Flashpoint
Flash point is a temperature at which a liquid can produce enough vapors or gas that fire will start with an outside heat
source e.g. a spark. Flash point will be different for various
Materials & it is a measure of flammability of a substance. The lower the flash point, the higher will be the fire hazards for
the substance. For example Gasoline has much lower flash point than diesel. It is noteworthy that fire will not sustain at flash
point and will occur momentarily
Fire Point
Fire point is a lowest temperature at which a liquid will produce enough vapors that with an outside heat source (spark), the
fire will continue to sustain.
131 6-1
Auto Ignition Temperature or Kindling Point

The lowest temperature at which the substance will ignite at normal atmosphere without any outside ignition source is
called kindling point.
Too much oxygen (over 23.5%) is an unacceptable fire hazard!

Case Study: A welder entered a steel pipe to grind a bad weld at a valve about 30 feet from the entry point. Before he
entered, other crew members decided to add oxygen to the pipe near the bad weld. He had been grinding intermittently
for about five minutes when a fire broke out enveloping his clothing.
Another crew member pulled him 30 feet to the pipe entrance and extinguished the fire. However, the welder died the next
day from his burns.
Never use pure oxygen for ventilation, cooling or cleaning!
6.2 Principle of fire spread

It is important to discuss that how a fire may spread in a workplace. The organization are supposed to take measures
against fire initiation in the first stage but taking measures against the fire spread is equally important because in spite of all
the efforts, the organization may not rely only on measures against the fire initiation.
Following are various methods of fire spread:-
Direct Burning
Direct burning is a very simple method where the fire will continue to spread through a tangible fuel source. For example a
table on fire from one side will continue to burn through the table till the complete table is burnt.
Conduction
Due to the molecular movements, the materials transmit heat from one side to the other. Some material has very high
efficiency of transmitting heat e.g. copper
Convection
The hot air rises whereas the cold air is settled underneath is the principle of convection. The hot air may serve as the 3rd
element i.e. heat/ignition source in the fire triangle and will cause the fire spread.
Radiation
Radiation is the method in which the heat energy is transmitted in the form of infrared waves. Sunlight reaches on our
planet through same method where heat energy travels through space. We are able to produce solar energy from sun
through radiation. Instance of forest fire initiation in hot summer days is an example of radiation.
Classification of Fire based type of Fuel

Class A: Solid Materials e.g. wood, paper, plastic
Class B: Flammable liquids e.g. Gasoline, oil, paraffin
Class C: Flammable Gases e.g. methane propane etc.
Class D: Metals & metal powders that is magnesium, Aluminum etc.
Class F: Cooking oil, Fats etc.
The classification is based on type of fuel being combusted so there is no mention of class E fire to avoid any confusion as
electricity fire because electricity is not a fuel. Electricity may serve as ignition source only.
6.3 Causes of Fire initiation at workplaces

There may be any one or more of the causes of fire initiation in the workplace
Smoking
Smoking near a fuel source or throwing live cigarette butt near or on a fuel source.
Electrical Appliances
The electrical Appliances may get faulty and can cause a source of ignition.
132 6-2
Similarly use of non-rated electrical appliances in a flammable environment can also cause the fire initiation
Hot work
It includes welding. Cutting or any method which produces sparks e.g. grinding. Hot work can act as a heat/ignition source
if combined with fuel & oxygen may initiate a fire.
Heating Appliances
For example electrical or gas heaters
Cooking
The burning of cooking can cause the uncontrolled fire in the kitchen near workplace
Friction
The mechanical heat produced due to friction between moving parts
Chemical Process
Some chemical process (known as exothermic) produce heat e.g. sodium mixed with water causes fire
Intentional ignition by a Person

A person can cause the initiation of fire in a workplace due to his intentional malicious aims to destroy some data or due to
some revenge.
Unintentional Ignition due to Lack of Awareness

Hitting a nail with a hammer produces spark which may cause fire initiation in a flammable environment.
Static Charge
We have studied about static charge in element 5. Static charge may produce a spark resulting fire in a flammable
environment.
6.4 Requirement of fire risk assessment

These may be huge consequences of fire at the workplace including the risk of life & injury to the workers, damage to the
property & environment. These consequences necessitate the requirement of a fire risk Assessment in the work place. The
organizations carry out fire risk Assessment due to the following main reason.
Saving the precious human lives

The employees are a main resource form organization & due to moral & social reasons, the organization will carry out the
fire risk Assessment.
Legal Compliance
In certain countries, there are legal requirements to carry out fire risk Assessment. Regulatory Audits are carried out to
ensure the compliance
Avoid Property Damage

Fire causes damage to the property which can be a huge business risk
Fire Risk Assessment

Fire risk Assessment is similar to any other risk assessment & will follow the same 5 step procedure:-
1. ldentifythe Hazards
This will include:-
$ Availability, positioning & storage of fuel

0 Any sources of ignition either inside or from outside the workplace
0 Any chemical sources of oxygen
0 Any foreseeable unsafe acts due to lack of awareness of the workers which may cause fire
133 6-3
0 Any current or potential unsafe situation which could give rise to likelihood or consequences of fire initiation or
propagation
2. Identify the people who might be harmed

This will include:-
0 The employees doing normal routine activities

0 The visitors, contractors or member of public
0 Vulnerable persons e.g. infirm, disabled, children, pregnant women, lone workers
0 The employees doing non routine activities e.g. maintenance staff working inside an HVAC Duct
3. Evaluate the Risk& suggest suitable control measures

This should include:-
0 Any existing control measures

0 Requirement of additional control measures
0 Focus must be on prevention
0 Fire spread issues must be considered
Note: Emergency evacuation must be considered even if fire initiation & prevention control measures have been taken
, Record the findings & implement the control measures

This will include:-
0 Formally writing the findings & the suggested control measures

0 It will also serve as training need assessment for the prevention of fire initiation & fire spread
0 It will also necessitate the requirement for necessary information, instructions & training for emergency evacuation of
employees, contractor, visitors or member of public
0 This will serve as the basis for the organization fire plan.
S. Review of emergency escape procedure

It is necessary to check the validity of the risk Assessment after a suitable time or after any his will serve as the basis for the
organization fire plan.
The fire risk assessment should necessarily be reviewed as follows:
$ After a suitable time e.g. 6 month

0 After the induction of manpower on some important position relating to fire hazards
0 After inclusion of some new technology or process which may have created fire hazards
0 After the audit/ inspections which may have highlighted Non conformities
0 After the actual fire emergency which have revealed some anomalies
0 After any changes to the building structure or its materials
0 After addition of employees at the workplace.
Factor to consider in Fire RiskAssessment

We have already discussed in detail about the considerations to be made during each step of fire Risk Assessment.
Here we shall outline the main factors:-
0 The number of people occupying a premises in peak working hours

0 Presence of vu I nerable people in the workplace
0 Presence of member of public e.g. a shopping mall
0 General safety awareness/safety culture of the occupiers of the premises or employees of the organizations
0 Any past fire related incidents at the workplace. (this will also include the organizations incident reporting system
effectiveness)
134 6-4
$ Availability of trained personnel to assume the responsibilities related to fire prevention

$ The effectiveness of existing control measures
$ The cost implication for proposed control measures
$ Legal requirements related to fire control
$ The support&commitment of top management
$ Size of the building & no of stories of the building. This should include the building material & also means of escape
from the building.
$ Nature&scope of the organization/premises with respect to the fire hazard
$ Non Routine activities e.g. a special farewell gathering or some maintenance activities which require the staff to work at
some distant location i.e. confined space etc.
6.5 Precautions against Fire (Risk control measures)
Fire Risk control can further be sub divided as follows:-
$ Precautions against fire initiation

$ Precaution against fire spread
$ Saving lives (emergency evacuation)
$ We shall discuss each one in detail
1. Precautions against Fire initiation

We have studied in detail about the five triangles. The absence of any 01 element out of 03 elements of a fire triangle will
result into no fire initiation. This can be done as follows:-
a) Control of Fuel sources

The hierarchy of Risk control measures should be considered when planning&implementing Risk control measures for the
fuel sources. The primary focus should be on elimination of the need to use and or store any fuel source in the workplace. If
elimination is not practically feasible then substitution option should be considered i.e. flammable liquids instead of highly
flammables or highly flammable instead of extremely flammables. We shall now explain the control measures for class B &
class C materials which are highly hazardous as compare to other class of fires.
LPG Control Measures for Use & Storage

@ Min quantity of LPG cylinders should be kept in the workplace
$ LPG cylinders should be returned to storage area after the completion of work
$ LPG cylinder should be kept away from an ignition source
$ The personnel handling LPG should be instructed trained and informed about the associated hazards
$ LPG cylinders in minimum quantities should be stored
$ Separate storage area should be made away from the building/work location
$ The storage area should be fenced and visibly marked
$ Empty LPG cylinders should be removed from the storage area
$ Store LPG bottles vertically upright&chained with each other
$ There should be no foreseeable ignition source near storage area
$ Storage area should be well ventilated
$ Rated electrical equipment should be used to avoid the ignition or spark
$ Suitable signage should be displayed near LPG storage area
@ Only concerned personnel shou Id be given access to the or near the storage area
$ Oxygen bottles or oxidizers should not be stored with LPG cylinder
$ Firefighting equipment should be placed at suitable location
b) Control of ignition Sources

$ Smoking should be disallowed through a robust organizational OH&S Management system
$ No cooking appliances should be used inside the workplace
$ No heating appliances should be used inside the workplace
$ Electrica l system should be compa tible with its intended use. It should a lso ensure tha t no electrica l socket is
overloaded. Faulty electrical equipment should immediately be discarded.
135 6-5
$ No loose plugs inside the sockets

0 Spark proof electrical equipment should be used in a flammable environment
0 Arsenal/deliberate ignition should be controlled through suitable security measures & CCTV camera surveillance
0 Hot work should be carried out only through permit to work system
0 All employees should be instructed, trained & informed about the fire hazards to avoid unsafe acts which may lead to
fire ignition
c) Control of oxygen source
0 Oxygen is abundantly available in natural atmosphere i.e. 21 %. It is very difficult to contain/restrict the presence of
oxygen source however, following measures can minimize the continuation of oxygen supply:
$ Fire blankets should be used for small fire areas (smothering)
0 Windows shou Id be closed after the fire alarms
0 No oxygen cylinders should be stored in bulk quantities in a high fire Risk area
0 Oxidizers & flammable liquids should not be stored together.
2. Precautions against Fire Spread

The second important step in fire Risk control measures is to take precautions against fire spread. But why do we need to
take such precautions once we already had taken measures against fire initiation. This is because the accidents do just
happen although organizations take measures. So, relying solely on the precautions against fire initiation can be
disastrous.
Following methods can be used to restrict the spread of fire.
a) Building structural Measures

This method can be used during the design phase the building.
This includes following measures
Compartmentation of building
Compartmentation is constructing the building in form of blocks/compartments with fire resistant material in between to
contain fire in that specific apartment. Compartmentation restricts the fire & smoke for a specific period of time. Its
efficiency depends on the strength & proportion of fire retardant material used. Specifically designed doors are used
known as fire doors which have following characteristics
Fire Doors
0 Fire doors are designed to withstand & restrict fire & smoke for a minimum period of time as required e.g. 30mins or
60mins or even more.
0 Glass panel should be installed for a view of inside of the building
(!) Fire doors are labeled as "Fire Door"
(!) Installed with gaskets to restrict smoke.
0 Fitted with intumescent strip which expands when exposed to heat
Other materials which may be used include:-
Concrete
It has high resistance against fire so it can be used in building structures.
Steel
It is badly affected with heat. It must be coated with intumescent paint which has high resistance to fire.
Timber
Thick timber does not burn easily such as Timber beams. Timber should also be coated with heat resisting paints.
Bricks
Bricks can also withstand high temperature & fire.
136 6-6
Wall paints/Covering/Curtains
Wall paints should be fire resistant. Curtains made be fire resistant. Curtains made of cloth should not be used.
Windows
Windows often become a source of fire, heat & smoke spread. Windows of suitable rating should be installed to withstand
the fire.
b) Fire detection & Extinguishing system

Second & most important aspect in prevention of fire spread is detection of fire at an early stage & subsequent fire control
system to ensure it is restricted to certain area. This aspect can be divided into 02 parts i.e. fire detection & fire
extinguishing systems. We shall discuss each one in detail.
1- Fire Detection & Alarm System

An early detected fire is easy to be controlled. Therefore, it is very important that the organization must have some fire
detection & Alarm system in place. The organization may have one or more of the following detection & Alarm system.
Simple human detection & Shouting Fire

This system although is applicable (in combination with some more sophisticated system) for all type of the workplace but
it can solely be used for simple workplace with no major risk of fire and the area of workplace is small so that human voice is
audible to all the occupiers.
Simple Human detection with some Alarm System

Detection is same as in previous case but alarm system may be a whistle and/or a hand bell in this case.
Manually Operated Alarm system

Detection through human eye with manually triggered centrally operated Alarm system. These manually operated Alarm
systems are installed at many convenient locations across the building & are called call points.
Auto Fire Detection &Alarm system

This system consists of Automatic fire detectors linked with various Alarms across the building. The Alarms may be sound
or a flashing beacon light. The fire detectors may work on any of the following principles:-
Smoke detectors
These detectors are sensitive to smoke. They will operate once there is smoke in the workplace.
Limitations
May not work well in dusty & or humid environment
(:) False Alarm may encourage the workers to bypass/deactivate it
(:) Costly system
e Frequent maintenance required
(:) Power backup system will be required
Heat Detectors
The second type of automatic fire detectors is heat detectors. These are sensitive to heat and may operate as follows:
$ Once the temperature level is reached to a pre-set value
0 Once the difference in temperature level i.e. rate of rise of temperature is reached.
Limitations
(:) They are sensitive to heat only & may not detect a fire out early stage.
(:) May give false alarm which can encourage workers to de-activate them
(:) Emergency power system needed in case main electrical system shutdown
e Frequent maintenance will be required
II- Fire Extinguishing System

Once fire is detected & alarm is operated, it is time to control the spread of fire. Following methods may be used:-
137 6-7
Fire Blankets
For small fires, there are used which restrict the supply of oxygen (smothering)
Sprinkle System
It may be manually operated /automatic operated and linked with organizations detection & Alarm system. Sprinklers are
located to ensure full coverage of the building.
Hose Reels
Folded hose reels are located at various convenient points within workplace. Their serviceability should be ensured
through inspection & testing on routine basis. Water is the extinguishing media in hose reels.
Fire Extinguishers
These portable fire extinguishers may be any one of the followings:-
Water
Water is normally used for class "A" fires. Water should never be used to extinguish other type of fire because it will cause
further spread of fire.
CO2
CO2 restricts oxygen hence the fire is controlled. It is suitable for class "B" fires.
DryPowder
It takes away heat & oxygen from the fire resulting the extinguishing. It may be used for all type of fire Classes
Foam
Works on smothering principle & it is used for class A & B fires.
Fire Tender
A vehicle/Tanker designed for transporting water for fire extinguishing. It also carries other extinguishing media as well.
Siting of fire extinguishers
Fire extinguishers should be sited at very conspicuous places preferably:

$ Near exit doors
$ Close to a fire hazard
$ Fire extinguishers should be easily detachable from their sites
0 Sited in such a way that there is no obstruction to access the fire extinguishers
Maintenance requirement for fire extinguishers
Fire extinguishers require frequent maintenance to ensure serviceability once required. This should include:
$ Frequent routine maintenance e.g. every month
$ Condition based maintenance
(:) Planned preventive maintenance
(:) Maintenance should be managed through a documented procedure under the OH&S management system of the
organization. The effectiveness of maintenance system should also be monitored through inspections and audits
Note: In no circumstances, there should be shutdown maintenance for fire extinguisher system because there is no holiday
for fire
Saving Lives (Emergency Evacuation)

In case of fire detection, it is important that the occupier of the workplace must leave the premises and do not return unless
it is declared safe by some relevant person. It is noteworthy that the employees or occupiers of premises must not rely on
the organizations fire extinguishing/fire spread prevention but immediately follow the emergency escape procedure.
Emergency evacuation procedure is a multi-dimensional task including the top management commitment for provision of
necessary resources e.g. Escape routes etc. and awareness and training of personnel on how to react in a fire emergency.
138 6-8
Following are the main elements of an emergency evacuation procedure:-
a. Escape Route requirement & Characteristics

Escape route must be provided for all the occupiers of the premises during any shift of the job. This is equally applicable for
routine & non routine activities at premises. The characteristics of the escape route are as follows:-
$ Escape route should be available to each and every person present or supposed to be present any near or distant
location inside the premises.
(:) Escape routes should be clear from any obstruction and should be wider enough to avoid stampede.
(:) Escape routes should not pose risk of slip, trip, collision with fixed objects etc.
0 Suitable sign boards should be placed showing the direction towards safe point (Assembly point)
(:) Escape routes should be properly lighted. Emergency lighting should also be provided in case main power supply shuts
down.
(:) 02 or more Escape routes should be available as a proactive measure so that if one escape route is blocked then the
other route may be used.
(:) The escape route should preferably be constructed with fire retardant material.
(:) Sufficient ventilation is available in the escape route to avoid accumulation of smoke.
0 Escape route should be kept as simpler & straight as possible & the length of escape route should be kept as short as
possible so that a normal person can cover it easily
0 The doors in an escape route should be kept as minimum as possible. These doors should not be locked any time and
must open in the direction of travel. The doors must be wider enough to avoid any bottle necking
0 Lifts should not be used as an escape route or should not be part of escape route
(:) For large storey buildings, special designed lifts may be installed as a means of escape. At each floor of the building,
there must be a "Refuge" which is designed to withstand any outside fire & smoke for a specific period of time unless
rescued for the final exit.
(:) The means of escape should be shown in building plan. ( the building plan must be displayed at suitable locations)
Factors to consider in designing escape route

(:) The maximum number of personnel occupying a premises at any time
(:) The area and geographical spread of the workplace
0 The number of stories in the building
$ The fire Risk level in the premises
$ Any data of past fire accidents & lessons learnt
$ Availability of natural lighting and/or emergency lighting
(:) The general awareness level of the occupiers of the premises
Characteristics of Assembly Point

0 It should be away enough from the building so that there is no risk of fire or risk of injury due to building collapse
0 It should not restrict fire services
(:) It should itself not pose any risk due to its location
0 It should provide further escape if needed
0 It should be visibly marked as "Assembly point"
Requirements for safe evacuation of vulnerable persons

Vulnerable persons include infirm, disabled, visually impaired, young children, patients (e.g. a hospital) and expectant
mothers. Following should be ensured for their safe evacuation from premises.
(:) Visible flash lights as a means of fire alarms for the persons with hearing impairment
(:) Buddy system may also be used in a workplace
(:) Assigning responsibilities for helping in emergency evacuation to the vulnerable persons
(:) In a workplace, vulnerable persons should be adjusted for their job near the safe exit
To summarize, it is necessary for the organization to include the vulnerable persons in its emergency evacuation plan. The
presence of vulnerable person must be accounted for both routine & non routine activities.
b. Information, instruction &Training

The organization should carry out a training need assessment for the fire safety. This should include imparting training for
fire hazards and risk, fire initiation and controls, fire spread and control and safe evacuation of the occupiers of premises.
139 6-9
In some cases; providing training for safe evacuation will be a challenging job e.g. a multi storey shopping mall where
different people including the vulnerable may be present. But an organizations' own employees, visitors & contractor can
be under the organization's control for providing necessary information, instructions & training.
c. Role, Responsibilities, Authorities & Accountabilities
The emergency escape procedure must outline in detail about the specific duties & clearly establish job description
for the following:-
Fire Fighters
$ How to operate fire extinguishers
0 Selection of extinguishing media for the type of fire practical application
0 Use of suitable PPE's
0 Emergency escape procedure in case fire goes out of control
Fire Marshals
The duties may include:-
$ Investigate the fire site to ensure it is not a false alarm
0 Ensure everyone has evacuated including the vulnerable persons
0 Ensure windows are closed to restrict oxygen supply
0 Must count the personnel at assembly point to ensure everyone has made a safe exit. (Note : In some cases i.e. a
shopping mall, it may not be practically feasible to take a roll call)
0 Ensure escape route is clear from obstructions
d. Fire Drills
Emergency escape procedure must be tested for ensuring its effectiveness. This is carried out through the fire drills. The
frequency of carrying out fire drills in the organizations depends upon the level of fire risk. Any anomaly highlighted during
the Fire Drill is taken care of through corrective actions.
e. Review of Procedure
The emergency escape procedure must be periodically reviewed to ensure its effectiveness. Some other circumstances
may also require this procedure to be reviewed which we have already discussed.
6.6 Current technologies for escape and rescue during fire emergency
Fire is a one specific hazard that is present in almost all type of workplaces. The hazard may be significant in some places
and may be lesser in other but its complete elimination may not be practically feasible. This is the reason; most of the
countries have their fire departments (Separate from HSE departments) to regulate the fire safety at the workplaces and at
domestic areas. Since the occurrence of fire at workplaces cannot be completely rules out (Even after robust controls in
place), there is a need to safely evacuate the persons from the workplace without any significant damage to their safety and
health.
The requirement necessitates the development of technological solutions for speedy and effective evacuation of persons
from the workplaces. We have earlier discussed that the organization cannot claim exemptions from emergency
preparedness, response and evacuation procedures on the basis that they have a well established and implemented
system to control the fire initiation and spread. We have earlier discussed that the fore and smoke can be deadly for
workers. It should therefore be the priority of organizations to take immediate rescue and evacuation measures and should
not rely on their measures of controlling fire spread. We have discussed earlier about certain engineering and
administrative controls for rescue and evacuation but we have witnessed a number of occurrences where workers have
suffered from fire at the workplaces due to lack of controls in evacuation procedures.
Many industries across the world are doing research and developments for preparing the cost effective solutions for
evacuation in case of fire. The research resulted into the production of textiles which are fire proof. An example of such
textile is an overall which a pilot of fighter aircraft wears. Although these fabrics are quite costly and have certain limitations
in their use (For example they cannot be useful in a fire explosion where the face has been affected) but are still very helpful
in certain high fire risk area.
140 6-10
Following are some of the latest developments for rescue. Although each product has certain limitations but the
organization must provide its workers with alternate solutions i.e. a combination of more than one emergency evacuation
system.
Personal Rescue Backpack Safety Escape Chute
Inflated Airbags Emergency parachute for skyscrapers
6.7 Latest developments for fire extinguishing

We have earlier discussed that the hierarchy of control measures for fire incidents is
Controlling the initiation of fire
Controlling the spread of fire
The evacuation plan should be robust in nature irrespective of the control measures the organization has taken for fire
initiation or fire spread.
With the fast moving technological world, new hazards and risks are becoming more prominent. For example, skyscrapers
have replaced the working conditions of the people and necessitated the developments in evacuation and control of fire
spread. This is because a single building may accommodate thousands of workers and in case of fire or emergency
evacuation; the incident can turn into disasters if the organizations are not prepared to deal with them.
Faster, smarter technology means better fire safety technology. The basics of fire safety, from stocking the right
extinguisher to knowing fire classes, remain the same, but technological advances build on the basics, making fire fighting
quicker, easier, and more effective.
There are some truly amazing technologies being produced to fight fires in the 21st century. These advances make the
most of sound waves, video, and detection technology to keep us all safer when fire strikes.
141 6-11
Sound Wave Fire Extinguisher

Two engineering students at George Mason University harnessed sound to put out fires. Their chemical-free, water-free
extinguisher uses sound waves to separate burning fuel from oxygen. Fire dies out without oxygen, so using the sound
wave extinguisher on a small fire snuffs it out.
Researchers previously patented this idea but this is the first sound wave extinguisher to work reliably. Not only does it
work, but the final prototype is handheld and only cost $600 to build.
The sound wave extinguisher provides non-destructive fire safety technology, which is ideal for home use. At the moment,
the technology is only suitable for small fires since it does not contain a coolant. This means larger fires put out with sound
waves could reignite on hot surfaces. Researchers suggest that pairing this technology with drones could help in fighting
large fires.
Water Mist Systems

Water mist fire safety technology improves on typical sprinkler systems, and is
considered to be a major part of the future of firefighting. Water simply works, and
it's the most common agent used to fight fires today.
Instead of large droplets of water, water mist systems send out a fine mist that smothers
a fire. Since the droplets are smaller, the mist systems create more of them. The larger
surface area of droplets converts water to steam faster. The steam absorbs more heat from the flame, lowering the
temperature of the fire, suffocating the fire faster than regular old water. Mist systems also significantly decrease water
damage. This is good news for business owners with costly equipment to protect. Even dry chemical systems are more
likely to damage buildings and equipment when used. Water mist systems can be installed locally (for one area) or can
cover an entire room. Mist can potentially fight electrical fires, making mist systems more versatile than typical sprinkler
type suppression systems.
Fire Extinguishing Balls

Fire Extinguishing Ball is a ball shaped fire extinguisher. Simply thrown into a fire, it will
activate within 3 seconds and effectively disperse-extinguishing chemicals. When a fire
occurs and no one is present, Fire Extinguishing Ball will self-activate when it comes into
contact with fire and give a loud noise as a fire alarm. Because of this feature, it can be
placed in may fire prone area such as above electrical circuit breaker or in a kitchen.
There is no special training or skill required to operate the ball and no need to face the
dangers of the fire
Please visit
https://www.dhs.gov/science-and-technology/future-first-response-vision-firefighting
to watch a video about the future of first response - vision for firefighting
142 6-12
Contents
nuclear and other radiations hazards
7.1 Fission Reaction 7-1

7.2 Health and Safety Implications with Atomic Power Plants 7-2
7.3 Radiation 7-3
7.4 Engineering Controls for Ionizing Radiations 7-12
7.5 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 7-13
7.1 Fission Reaction

In a fission reaction, a heavy atomic nucleus is split into smaller nuclei, other particles and radiation. In a typical reaction, an
atom of uranium 235 absorbs a neutron and splits into two lighter atoms, barium (Ba) and krypton (Kr), emitting radiation,
very high energy and neutrons. The emitted neutrons can split further atoms, which in turn bring about more splitting,
producing a very fast chain reaction. Nuclear power plants use this fission process to create energy in form of heat. This
heat is then used to produce steam which converts the turbine into kinetic energy to produce electricity.a
Uranium nucleus
3 neutrons
inteNnediate
nucleus
It is noteworthy that the Fission reaction does not normally occur in nature. It produces radioactive radiations as well which
are quite harmful for living organisms. The energy released by fission is a million times greater than that released in
chemical reactions, but lower than the energy released by nuclear fusion.
Fusion Reaction
Fusion is the fusing of two or more lighter atoms into a larger one. The mass change in the process is the source of nuclear
energy. Fusion within the cores of the sun and other stars generates their radiating energy by fusing two hydrogen atoms
to produce a helium atom. Current researchers are using magnetic vacuum chambers and laser beams in an attempt to
generate the extreme high-temperatures necessary for the fusion process. If successful, the net energy gain would create a
viable alternative energy option. Few radioactive particles are produced by fusion reaction, but if a fission "trigger" is used,
radioactive particles will result from that. Very high temperature is required to start a fusion reaction. Fusion releases more
energy, but is harder to trigger than fission. Hydrogen bombs work all too well, but we as yet do not have a way to make a
controlled fusion reactor. The sun works by fusion, and burns hydrogen, emitting light in the process. However, it is not so
easy to reproduce the conditions in the sun on earth. Hydrogen bombs require an atomic bomb to trigger the fusion
reaction. So far, the scientists have failed to produce a controlled environment for fusion reaction. If this happens, fusion
would effectively solve the world's energy problem for centuries.
Deuterium Helium
Fusion
- �-
Tritium Neutron
Why do we require Atomic Power Plants?

The power plants across the globe are used to produce energy in the form of electricity. The electricity is the widely used
form of energy which is being used to fuel electric driven vehicles, cooking appliances, medical and other engineering
machinery. Electricity is the backbone of the industry for the economy growth. The countries that are providing the energy
to the industry at better rates are more likely to capture overseas market. Energy i.e. electricity is the main factor in
production cost.
147 7-1
Power plants may consume Coal, Gas, diesel or any other fossil based fuel to produce electricity (Depending on design of
the power plants). We are aware that burning of fossil fuels produces air pollution, including large quantities of CO2, which
is a major concern because of its role in global warming. Use of fossil fuels as an energy source is also very inefficient, with
most of the energy present in the fuel being wasted as heat rather than turned into useable energy. However, in many ways
nuclear energy is far superior to fossil fuels. Nuclear energy produces no greenhouse gases, and an 8.5g pellet of uranium
can provide as much energy as burning one ton of coal.
7.Z Health and Safety Implications with Atomic Power Plants

The main problem with nuclear energy is that it produces radioactive waste. This raises concerns about radioactive
pollution escaping into the environment. People are also concerned about the possibility of having a nuclear accident that
could cause radioactive contamination to escape, or of terrorists or other groups deliberately causing such a problem.
Subsequent to Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986, many countries have stopped venturing into nuclear power plants. But
with the increasing demand of energy at low price and environmental concerns, many countries have reconsidered nuclear
energy as a good option. But, when a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and the massive tsunami triggered devastated Japan's
Fukushima nuclear power plant; three reactors were severely damaged, suffering at least partial fuel meltdowns and
releasing radiation at a level only a few times less than Chernobyl. The event caused widespread public doubts about the
safety of nuclear power generation.
The tsunami that hit Japan in March marked the first time that an external event led to a major release of radioactivity from
a nuclear power plant. The 14-meter-high wave was more than twice the height that Fukushima was designed to withstand,
and it left the flooded plant cut off from external logistical support and from its power supply, which is needed to cool the
reactor and pools of spent fuel. Such natural disasters, although infrequent, should have been planned for in the reactor's
design: the Pacific Ring of Fire has seen a dozen earth- quakes in the 8.5 to 9.5 range in the last hundred years, and Japan
has the most recorded tsunamis in the world, with waves sometimes reaching 30 meters high. Just four years ago, the
world's largest nuclear generating station, Kashiwazaki-Kariwa, was shut down by an earthquake that shook the plant
beyond what it was designed to handle, and three of the seven reactors there remain idle today.
After Fukushima, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, an independent federal agency that licenses nuclear reactors,
reviewed the industry's regulatory requirements, operating procedures, emergency response plans, safety design
requirements, and spent-fuel management. The NRC will almost certainly implement a number of the resulting
recommendations, and the cost of doing business with nuclear energy in the United States will inevitably go up. Those
plants that are approaching the end of their initial 40-year license period, and that lack certain modern safety features, will
face additional scrutiny in having their licenses extended.
The NRC also proposed regulations that would require nuclear power stations to have systems in place to allow them to
remain safe if cut off from outside power and access for up to three days. It issued other recommendations addressing
issues such as the removal of combustible gas and the monitoring of spent-fuel storage pools. These proposals do not
mean that the NRC lacks confidence in the safety of U.S. nuclear reactors; their track record of running 90 percent of the
time is an indicator of good safety performance and extraordinary when compared with other methods of electricity
generation. Nevertheless, the incident at Fukushima clearly calls for additional regulatory requirements, and the NRC's
recommendations should be put in place as soon as is feasible.
At the same time, new reactors under construction in Finland and France have gone billions of dollars over budget, casting
doubt on the affordability of nuclear power plants. Public concern about radioactive waste is also hindering nuclear power,
and no country yet has a functioning system for disposing of it. In fact, the U.S. government is paying billions of dollars in
damages to utility companies for failing to meet its obligations to remove spent fuel from reactor sites. Some observers are
also concerned that the spread of civilian nuclear energy infrastructure could lead to the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
Nuclear Power Plant Waste: A major health concern

If nuclear energy is to enjoy a sustained renaissance, the challenge of managing nuclear waste for thousands of years must
be met. Nuclear energy is generated by splitting uranium, leaving behind dangerous radioactive products, such as cesium
and strontium that must be isolated for centuries. The process also produces plutonium etc., which are heavier than
uranium, do not occur in nature, and must be isolated for millennia. There is an alternative to disposing the waste: they can
be separated from the reactor fuel every few years and then recycled into new nuclear reactor fuel as an additional energy
source. The downside, however, is that this process is complex and expensive, and it poses a proliferation risk since
plutonium can be used in nuclear weapons. The debate over the merits of recycling waste elements has yet to be resolved.
148 7-2
Instead of being stored near reactors, spent fuel should eventually be kept in dry casks at a small number of consolidated
sites set up by the government where the fuel could stay for a century. This approach has several advantages. The
additional cooling time would provide the Department of Energy, or some other organization, with more flexibility in
designing a geological repository. The government would no longer have to pay utilities for not meeting the mandated
schedule and communities near reactors would be reassured that spent fuel has a place to go. At each site, the aging fuel
would be monitored, so that any problems that arose could be addressed. The storage facilities would keep Washington's
options open as the debate over whether spent fuel is waste or a resource works itself out. These sites should be paid for by
the Nuclear Waste Fund, a change that would require congressional approval.
Halflife
The time taken for the radioactivity of a specified isotope to fall to half its original value is called half life. The terminology is
often used in establishing the waste disposal method for the radioactive waste from nuclear power plants.
Note: Strontium-90 and cesium-137 have half-lives of about 30 years (half the radioactivity will decay in 30 years).
Plutonium-239 has a half-life of 24,000 years. High-level wastes are hazardous because they produce fatal radiation doses
during short periods of direct exposure.
7.3 Radiation
Radiations can't be seen or sensed. Even the fatal doses of radiation only increase the body temperature to only a 0.0001 °
Celsius. Due to its invisibility workers are always at greater risks and require the equipment for sensing and measuring
radiations.
Radiation
Radiation is energy that is transmitted, emitted or absorbed in the form of particles or waves. The effect of radiation on our
bodies is variable and the ability of this energy to ionize body tissue is represented from the vast electromagnetic spectrum
as "ionizing" and "non-ionizing radiation" Ionizing radiation is radiation with enough energy so that during an interaction
with an atom, it can remove tightly bound electrons from the orbit of an atom, causing the atom to become charged or
ionized. One type of ionizing radiation includes gamma and X rays, which are electromagnetic, indirectly ionizing radiation.
These are indirectly ionizing because they are electrically neutral (as are all electromagnetic radiations) and do not interact
with atomic electrons through columbic forces. Ionizing radiations occurs as either electromagnetic rays (such as X-rays
and gamma rays) or particles (such as alpha and beta particles). It occurs naturally (e.g. from the radioactive decay of
natural radioactive substances such as radon gas and its decay products) but can also be produced artificially.
Gamma rays and X-rays are both electromagnetic radiation but differ in the way they are produced. Gamma radiation is
emitted continuously by radioactive decay. X-rays are generated in special electrical equipment by bombarding a metal
target with electrons. Consequently, an X-ray beam only exists while the machine is switched on, whereas gamma radiation
is emitted continuously. The penetrating power of electromagnetic radiation depends on its energy and the properties of
the matter through which it passes. Hence X-rays are able to pass right through the human body, but gamma rays and X
rays can be stopped by lead shielding. X-rays are and Gamma sources used in medical diagnosis and treatment, the testing
of welds and in baggage detectors in airports, etc.
People can be exposed externally, to radiation from a radioactive material or a generator such as an X-ray set, or internally,
by inhaling or ingesting radioactive substances. Wounds that become contaminated by radioactive material can also cause
radioactive exposure.
Everyone receives some exposure to natural background radiation and much of the population also has the occasional
medical or dental X-ray. It is extremely necessary to control exposure to radiation arising from the use of radioactive
materials and radiation generators in work activities in the nuclear industry; medical and dental practice; manufacturing;
construction; engineering; paper; offshore drilling; education (colleges, schools) and non-destructive testing.
All kinds of ionizing radiations produce health effects. The damages incurred by different kinds of tissue vary with the type
of radiation to which the person is exposed and the means of exposure. Direct exposure to radiation and radiation emitters
(radionuclide) can affect the whole body while inhalation or ingestion affects tissues inside the body. The body attempts to
repair the damage caused by the radiation. However, at times the damage is so severe and widespread that repair is
impossible.
149 7-3
History of Radiation Hazard
Radiation was discovered in the late 19th century. However, people were not initially aware of the damage radiation
exposure and radioactive rays could cause. The acute effects of radiation exposure were first seen in 1896 when Nikola
Tesla purposefully subjected his fingers to X-rays and reported that this caused burns to develop, although at the time he
attributed the burns to ozone. The mutagenic effects of radiation were not realized until decades later. The genetic effects
and increased cancer risk associated with radiation exposure were first recognized by Hermann Joseph Muller in 1927.
Muller went on to receive the Nobel Prize in 1946 for his research. However, before these effects were understood, many
radioactive substances had already been marketed by corporations and various physicians. Examples included radium
enema treatments and radium-containing water tonics. It was Marie Curie who protested against these therapies and
pointed out that the effects of radiation exposure were poorly understood. Radiation poisoning was the cause of the
aplastic anemia that eventually killed Curie.
In 1932, a famous American socialite called Eben Byers died after ingesting large amounts of radiation over the course of
several years. This death and many others among radiation enthusiasts sparked intrigue over the effects of consuming
radiation- containing products and they were eventually removed from the market.
The gravity of the effects caused by radiation was not fully understood until the 1940s. Two scientists from the USA died in
1946 after working with fissile materials without using protective clothing or shielding. The Hiroshima bombing also
caused wide-scale radiation poisoning and the actress Midori Naka, present during the bombing, was studied extensively
for radiation poisoning. Her death in 1945 was the first to be officially documented as having been caused by radiation
poisoning. At the time, this radiation poisoning was referred to as Atomic bomb disease.
Early ignorance of the hazards of radiation resulted in numerous unexpected injuries to patients, physicians, and scientists,
and as a result, some researchers took steps to publicize the hazards and set limits on exposure. In July 1896, only one
month after the discovery of x rays, a severe case of x-ray-induced dermatitis was published, and in 1902, the first dose limit
of about 10 rad per day (or 3000 rad per year), was recommended. The 10 rad-per-day limit was based not on biological
data but rather on the lowest amount that could be easily detected, namely, the amount required to produce an observable
exposure, or fogging, on a photographic plate. By 1903, animal studies had shown thatX rays could produce cancer and kill
living tissue and that the organs most vulnerable to radiation damage were the skin, the blood-forming organs, and the
reproductive organs.
By 1915, the British Roentgen Society had adopted a resolution to protect people from overexposure to X-rays. This was
probably the first organized effort at Radiation Protection. In September 1924 at a meeting of the American Roentgen Ray
Society, Arthur Mutscheller was the first person to recommend a "tolerance" dose rate for radiation workers, a dose rate
that in his judgment could be tolerated indefinitely. He based his recommendation on observations of physicians and
technicians who worked in shielded work areas. In 1934, the U.S. Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Protection
proposed the first formal standard for protecting people from radiation sources. By then the quantitative measurement of
ionizing radiation had become standardized in units of roentgens, and therefore, the recommended limit on dose rate was
expressed as 0.1 roentgens per day [6]. A great deal of research, particularly animal studies, on the biological effects of
radiation was carried out during and immediately after World War II. In 1949 the United States, Canada, and Great Britain
held a conference at Chalk River, Ontario, on permissible doses and then published the Tripartite report in which all
radiation protection information that had been gathered was discussed and collated.
Radiation protection was primarily a non-governmental function until the late 1940s. After World War 11, the development
of the atomic bomb, and nuclear reactors caused the federal government to establish policies dealing with human
exposure to radiation. In 1959, the Federal Radiation Council was established. The Council was responsible for three things:
i) Advising the President of the United States on radiological issues that affected public health
ii) Providing guidance to all federal agencies in setting radiation protection standards
iii) Working with the States on radiation issues.
In 1970, Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and radiation protection became a part of EPA's
responsibility. Today, EPA's Radiation Protection Division (RPD) is responsible for protecting the public's health and the
environment from undue exposure to radiation. This is accomplished by setting safety standards and guidelines. Now,
organizations that deal with ionizing radiation must meet these standards to comply with the law.
150 7-4
In 1977, the ICRP adopted a more formal risk-based approach to setting standards. That approach required that the
average incremental risk of death from radiation exposure to workers in radiation industries be no larger than the average
incremental risk of death from traumatic injuries to workers in "safe" industries. The incremental risk of death in safe
industries is one in ten-thousand, or 10-4, per year. Based on that risk coefficient, the ICRP recommended a maximum
annual dose limit to a radiation worker of 5 rem per year. The 5-rem annual limit was set under the assumption that the
average dose would be less than 1 rem per year, and, thus, the average risk of death would be the same as for safe
industries. Thus, the new 1977 limit was unchanged from the 1957 limit, but it was now justified in terms of a risk-based
philosophy [6].
The ICRP released a new set of international recommendations in 1990. They recommended limiting radiation exposure to
10 rem over any 5-year period and 5 rem in any one year. The public limit was set at a 100 millirem per year averaged over
any 5- year period. The NCRP released its own new set of national recommendations in 1993. They relate both to stochastic
effects, such as cancer and genetic effects, and to deterministic effects. The present limits for deterministic effects are not
much different than the first recommendations: 50 rem per year to any tissue or organ and 15 rem to the lens of the eye to
avoid cataract formation.
A relatively new radiation protection advisory committee was formed in 1997, the European Committee on Radiation Risk
(ECRR). This committee was formed by the Green Group in the European Parliament to discuss details of recent progress in
radiological protection standards. The ECRR strives to make no assumptions about radiation safety based on preceding
analyses and to remain independent of previous risk assessment committees such as the ICRP and the UNSCEAR. A report
from the ECRR was released in 2003. Over the years, as the general consciousness has evolved about the risks of radiation
exposure, the international and national radiation protection standards have dramatically changed [8].
Potential Health Effects of Radiation

Radioactive materials that decay spontaneously produce ionizing radiation, which has sufficient energy to strip away
electrons from atoms (creating two charged ions) or to break some chemical bonds. Any living tissue in the human body
can be damaged by ionizing radiation in a unique manner. The body attempts to repair the damage, but sometimes the
damage is of a nature that cannot be repaired or it is too severe or widespread to be repaired. Also mistakes made in the
natural repair process can lead to cancerous cells. The most common forms of ionizing radiation are alpha and beta
particles, or gamma and X-rays.
In general, the amount and duration of radiation exposure affects the severity or type of health effect. There are two broad
categories of health effects: stochastic and non- stochastic.
Stochastic Health Effects
Stochastic effects are associated with long-term, low-level (chronic) exposure to radiation. ("Stochastic" refers to the
likelihood that something will happen.) Increased levels of exposure make these health effects more likely to occur, but do
not influence the type or severity of the effect.
Cancer is considered by most people the primary health effect from radiation exposure. Simply put, cancer is the
uncontrolled growth of cells. Ordinarily, natural processes control the rate at which cells grow and replace themselves.
They also control the body's processes for repairing or replacing damaged tissue. Damage occurring at the cellular or
molecular level, can disrupt the control processes, permitting the uncontrolled growth of cells cancer This is why ionizing
radiation's ability to break chemical bonds in atoms and molecules makes it such a potent carcinogen.
Other stochastic effects also occur. Radiation can cause changes in DNA, the "blueprints" that ensure cell repair and
replacement produces a perfect copy of the original cell. Changes in DNA are called mutations. Sometimes the body fails to
repair these mutations or even creates mutations during repair. The mutations can be teratogenic or genetic. Teratogenic
mutations are caused by exposure of the fetus in the uterus and affect only the individual who was exposed. Genetic
mutations are passed on to offspring.
Non-Stochastic Health Effects

Non-stochastic effects appear in cases of exposure to high levels of radiation, and become more severe as the exposure
increases. Short-term, high-level exposure is referred to as 'acute' exposure.
151 7-5
Many non-cancerous health effects of radiation are non-stochastic. Unlike cancer, health effects from 'acute' exposure to
radiation usually appear quickly. Acute health effects include burns and radiation sickness. Radiation sickness is also called
'radiation poisoning.' It can cause premature aging or even death. If the dose is fatal, death usually occurs within two
months. The symptoms of radiation sickness include: nausea, weakness, hair loss, skin burns or diminished organ function.
Legislation and Regulatory requirements regarding Radiation Protection
Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon and natural sources of radiation are features of the environment. Radiation and
radioactive substances have many beneficial applications, ranging from power generation to uses in medicine, industry
and agriculture. The radiation risks to workers and the public and to the environment that may arise from these
applications have to be assessed and, if necessary, controlled. Activities such as the medical uses of radiation, the operation
of nuclear installations, the production, transport and use of radioactive material, and the management of radioactive
waste must therefore be subject to standards of safety. Regulating safety is a national responsibility. However, radiation
risks may transcend national borders, and international cooperation serves to promote and enhance safety globally by
exchanging experience and by improving capabilities to control hazards, to prevent accidents, to respond to emergencies
and to mitigate any harmful consequences.
International Labor Organization (ILO)
Radiation protection is part of the fields of the ILO,,s action on the protection of workers against sickness, disease and injury
arising out of his employment as mandated by the Organization's constitution. The ILO's programme of action on
occupational safety and health uses, in a coordinated manner, the various means of action available to the ILO to give
governments, employers' and workers' organizations the necessary help in drawing up and implementing programmes for
the improvement of working conditions and environment. These means include international standards in the form of
conventions and recommendations, codes of practice, dissemination of information and technical cooperation.
The ILO"s activities on radiation protection cover the protection of workers against both ionizing and non-ionizing
radiations. The ILO has developed over the years a number of policy instruments on radiation protection which include
Conventions and recommendations (e.g. Convention No. 115 and Recommendation No. 114), codes of practice, practical
guides and reports. Some of these instruments and publications have been developed and promoted in collaboration with
other international organizations such as IAEA and WHO and with international professional bodies such as IRPA, ICRP and
ICNIRP.
The IAEA, WHO, ILO and OECD Nuclear Energy Agency co-sponsored the revision of the 1967 edition of the IAEA Basic
Safety Standards for Radiation Protection in the light of the ICRP publication, No. 26, 1977.
Excerpt from the International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of
Radiation Sources (1996, co-sponsored by the FAO, IAEA, ILO, OECD/NEA, PAHO and WHO)
Occupational exposure
Dose limits
11-5. The occupational exposure of any worker shall be so controlled that the following limits be not exceeded:
0 an effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years;38
0 an effective dose of 50 mSv in any single year;
0 an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 150 mSv in a year; and
0 An equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or the skin39 of 500 mSv in a year.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Under the terms of Article Ill of its Statute, the IAEA is authorized to establish or adopt
standards of safety for protection of health and minimization of danger to life and property, and to provide for the
application of these standards. The publications by means of which the IAEA establishes standards are issued in the IAEA
Safety Standards Series. This series covers nuclear safety, radiation safety, transport safety and waste safety. The
publication categories in the series are Safety Fundamentals, Safety Requirements and Safety Guides.
Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources: International Basic Safety Standards are jointly sponsored by the
European Commission (EC), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the IAEA, the International
Labor Organization (ILO), the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA),
152 7-6
the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Health
Organization (WHO) (the Sponsoring Organizations).
As per IAEA Safety standards GSR Part 3 the dose limit for radiation worker is:
Schedule Ill
DOSE LIMITS FOR PLANNED EXPOSURE S ITUATIONS

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
111.1. For occupational exposure of workers over the age of 18 years, the dose limits are:
0 An effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years66 (100 mSv in 5 years) and of 50 mSv in any
single year;
0 An equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years (100 mSv in 5 years)
and of 50 mSv in any single year;
0 An equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or to the skin67 of 500 mSv in a year.
Employer's Responsibilities regarding Radiation Hazard Protection
An employer has the responsibility to conduct a radiation-safety program that does not result in the injury of a radiation
worker. Individual radiation injury can be avoided by compliance with the basic individual dose limitations that have been
in existence since the mid-1950s. Beyond this most basic responsibility, employers should have a program in place to
reduce individual exposures below the dose limits in accordance with the ALARA philosophy.
It is clear that the duty to comply with the Ionizing Radiations Regulations rests with the radiation employer. A Radiation
Protection Adviser (RPA) assists that employer in compliance with the regulations by providing advice on compliance with
those regulations and a Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS) assists the employer by supervising the work of employees
so that it is done in accordance with the Local Rules and regulations. Management must be involved in radiation
protection.
Training
Regulations require that employees receive adequate and appropriate information, instruction and training in the field of
radiation protection. It is therefore employer's responsibility to arrange training in this regard. All employees working with
ionizing radiations and those likely to affected by that work must receive adequate and appropriate training. This applies to
employees of all ranks even those who are highly qualified in a particular field and an employer should always ensure that
they have.
The employer must ensure that employees receive such information and instruction as is suitable and sufficient for
them to know, including:
The risks to health created by exposure to ionizing radiation;

The precautions which should be taken; and
The importance of complying with all medical, technical and administrative requirements as required by any relevant
statutory provisions and/or as required by the employer.
Procedures for Dealing with Incidents and Emergencies
The radiation employer may be required to notify the local authorities in any case where a quantity of a radioactive
substance which was under his control and:
0 Has been released or is likely to have been released into the atmosphere as a gas, aerosol or dust; or
0 Has been spilled or otherwise released in such a manner as to give rise to significant contamination.
To establish that these occurrences have occurred, the employer will need to make an immediate investigation before
making the notification. In addition, a report of the investigation should be made and, unless the investigation showed that
no such occurrence occurred, the employer must keep that report or a copy of it for at least 50 years from the date on which
it was made or, in any other case, for at least two years from the date on which it was made.
153 7-7
Monitoring of the Control Procedures

Controlled or supervised areas must be monitored to ensure that levels of ionizing radiation are assessed and recorded
and that working conditions in those areas are kept under review. Consequently the employer must provide suitable and
sufficient equipment for carrying out monitoring and ensure that it is properly maintained so that it remains fit for the
purpose for which it was intended and that it is adequately tested and examined at appropriate intervals. The employer
must also make suitable records of the results of the monitoring carried out and of any tests carried out. Records of the
tests carried out should be authorized by a qualified person and records kept for at least two years from the respective
dates on which they were made. A radiation employer who provides any engineering control, design feature, safety feature
or warning device must ensure that any such control, feature or device is properly maintained and, where appropriate, that
thorough examinations and tests of such controls, features or devices are carried out at suitable intervals.
ASSESSMENT OF RISKS
Employers have a legal obligation under the Local Regulations to make a sufficient and suitable assessment of the risk to
employees from the radiation hazard. This is a legal requirement and the Regulations must be complied with. The purpose
is to identify the measures needed to restrict the exposure to ionizing radiation of anyone who might be affected by it, for
example the radiation worker, other people working in the vicinity, maintenance and cleaning staff, or members of the
public. To do this risk assessment the guidelines in HSE"s Five Steps to Risk Assessment have been followed. My risk
assessment is Scenario Based Risk Analysis and is qualitative in nature. This assessment qualitatively assesses the risks
associated with those hazards. The hazard identification process focuses on human action/inaction, work process,
equipment used and external factors that may cause an incident to occur. Hazards are identified using one or more
methodologies such as brainstorming, What-if/Checklist, workplace inspections, consultation between employees and
employers, monitoring injury and illness records and observation. Once hazards have been identified along with their
possible causes, consequences and safeguards, risk scenarios are developed to describe how each event may occur.
Identifying Risks
One of the most important aspects of your risk assessment is accurately identifying the potential hazards in our workplace.
Identification of risks was carried out by walking around the workshop, observing the jobs being performed and talking to
workers. The following was also carried out in identifying risks;
(:) Checking manufacturers' instructionsX-Ray machines and radioactive sources
(:) Looking at accident and ill-health records
(:) Taking account of non-routine operations (e.g. maintenance, cleaning operations or changes in production cycles)
0 Thinking about long-term hazards to health
0 Referring to applicable regulations
Following aspects were covered in the process of risk assessment:

0 Radiation procedure, amounts of activity, duration, frequency, location
0 Steps taken to control the radiation exposure, both external and internal, i.e. designation and suitability of the
laboratory, access restriction, containment, shielding and design of procedure, training and competence.
0 A prediction of the possible dose assuming that the controls are successfully implemented
Following risks were identified through the process;

(:) Exposure to external radiation arising from close proximity to, limited shielding of source,
(:) Prolonged exposure to a source,
(:) Internal radiation exposure through ingestion, inhalation, inoculation or skin absorption.
(:) Exposure during handling and disposing of the decayed source.
(i) Failure of radiation measuring equipment
(i) Struck of radioactive source in the guide tube
(:) Accident during transportation of the radioactive source to the work site
e Unauthorized use of source i.e. unsecured source
154 7-8
Who might be harmed

The next step was deciding that who might be harmed by the identified risks. Keeping in view the above risks following
group of personnel were identified that me harmed by the identified risks;
$ Employees doing the radiographic testing i.e radiation worker
$ Employees of SES working on other jobs in the workshop where RT is being performed
$ Workers performing other activities when carrying out RT at site
0 Students/Trainees undergoing RT training
$ Public while transportation of Radioactive source
Evaluating the risks

Identified risks were then evaluated in terms of the likelihood of the hazard occurring and the degree of harm that may
result. The risks associated with sources of radiation are dependent on issues such as the type of work being carried out, the
nature of the sources (type and energy of radiation emitted), radiation dose rates, working environment, security and
safety measures in place.
The following issues were considered while evaluating the risks:

$ The nature of the sources of ionizing radiation used, held or transported.
$ Radiation dose rates to which anyone may be exposed.
0 The likelihood of airborne and/or surface contamination in the work area and other locations.
$ Access to working areas where dose rates or contamination levels are likely to be significant.
0 Results of any previous personnel dosimetry or area monitoring relevant to the proposed work.
0 Consequences of possible failures of control measures such as electrical, ventilation systems and warning devices.
$ Consequences of failure to comply with work procedures or safety rules.
$ Adequacy of written work procedures and safety rules, including clear designation of responsibilities.
Through the above mentioned evaluation process it was concluded that most likely event is of external exposure to the
radiation workers causing serious injury/illness. Second highest probability is for the external exposure to the non
radiation workers in the workshop. Third highest probability of external radiation is to Trainees/Students
There are low chances of radiation exposure to public in case of accident and transportation of radioactive source
Checking existing controls and precautions
Some of the necessary control measures are already in place. These include:
Shielding of radiation sources inside the camera however design of the camera needs to be reviewed as per regulations of
PNRA
Well designed Separate exposure rooms for Lab testing are available
$ Procedures for performing RT are adequate
$ Safety devices, warning devices, measuring devices are all calibrated and regularly tested
$ A suitable programme of dose monitoring for employees
$ PPEs for radiation workers are not adequate
$ Radiation safety procedures and safety rules are well defined and are in place
$ Adequate security at the workshop level to prevent unauthorized access to the radioactive sources is available.
However as the RT is also performed at sites additional measures needed to be placed for the security of sources.
PROPOSED CONTROL MEASURES

Industrial radiography usually involves using intense radiation sources which can expose people at work to significant
amounts of radiation. Over the years several serious incidents have been caused by the failure to maintain equipment, to
carry out routine monitoring or to employ proper emergency procedures. Generally, people working in industrial
radiography have received higher doses than those working in other sectors using ionizing radiation.
Concluding the discussion following control measures need to be addressed:
155 7-9
Planning for thejob

In order to achieve minimum dose levels as required by the regulatory bodies, the RT jobs must be planned before actual
execution. Too often, clients or main contractors can cause difficulties for their contractor by not allowing sufficient time or
ensuring effective communication to plan work properly. There is rarely a valid reason for calling in an NDT contractor at
the last minute. This work is normally a vital part of a quality assurance process and should be carried out in a carefully
planned way to minimize radiation exposure to as low as reasonably achieved. For site radiography work, the risk
assessment made by the client (or main contractor) in control of the site should take into account any special features of
the site. This might be problems of access or lighting; manual handling or lifting equipment difficulties; or the need to
isolate vessels or pipelines carrying dangerous materials or atmospheres. The cost involved in the planning is lowest as
only some more time is required to carry out the job and no other additional costs involved.
Personal protective equipment
Although some of the PPEs are already available, purchase of some lead aprons and gloves will minimize the risk of
accidental exposure to radiation. Secondly the design and suitability of some of the PPEs need to be reviewed in order to
allow workers to do the job with ease. Cost involved in purchasing such PPEs will be compensated by the reduction in
amount spent on health insurances.
Training
The radiation worker(s) concerned should receive information, instruction and training in the risks of the work and the safe
conduct of this. Records of training should be maintained. There should also be effective supervision to confirm that
procedures are operating correctly. The workers need to be sent regularly to local regulatory authorities for such trainings.
Such trainings were also identified by the regulatory authorities in their last audit report. The cost involved in the training of
one worker is about 400 $. However this cost will minimize the risks of radiation exposure accidents and in turn health care
expenses born by the employer.
Regular medical surveillance

Regular medical surveillance is the mandatory legal requirement in many countries. The cost of such surveillance will be
compensated by reduction in health insurance rates and will reduce the risks of any fines from the regulatory authority.
Restriction of Exposure
The project supervisor should use and clearly document all reasonably practicable means to restrict exposure to ionizing
radiations to very low levels. Risks from ionizing radiations should be minimized by using the optimum choice of
radionuclide or X-rays of energy consistent with the experimental requirements. The use of techniques not involving
ionizing radiations must also be explored fully.
Doses can be minimized by:

$ Keeping one's distance
$ Use of effective shielding
$ Keeping the time of exposure to the source to a minimum, and
Work at other sites
When employees visit other sites and undertake radiation work there, they should endeavor to ensure that the standards of
safety are at least as good as those at main site. When working on another's premises they should seek out the host's
Radiation Protection Supervisor (or equivalent) and ask to be familiarized with the local rules. When the work involves
routine radiography of readily moveable articles it is nearly always reasonably practicable to carry it out in an adequately
shielded enclosure or cabinet. Where practicable, using a suitable shielded enclosure must always be the first choice for
radiography work. The client can either construct an enclosure on site or arrange for articles to be transported to an
enclosure at the contractor's yard. In some cases it may be practicable to build a temporary enclosure on site if the contract
is of sufficient duration. Enclosures can make it far easier to restrict exposure and prevent accidental exposures. This has a
number of advantages over undertaking the work out of hours under 'open shop' conditions. It will make work safer and
the client will also have much more flexibility about the timing of the work. If it is not practical to built enclosures, site
radiography requires people to be excluded from the work area. Exposures must be kept as low as reasonably practicable
by using temporary enclosures or localized shielding e.g. appropriate collimation, moveable panels, pre-formed shields,
lead mats, bags of lead shot. A number of special systems are available which use purpose-made localized shielding
around exposed sources to significantly reduce the size of the controlled area.
156 7-10
Shielding
When assessing shielding requirements, the three dimensional space surrounding the source needs to be considered, as
people working near, above or below the enclosure may also be at risk. Scattered radiation outside large open-top
enclosures can often be controlled by adequate collimation. During typical radiographic set-ups, it is very important to
monitor levels of radiation around the enclosure to ensure that levels of radiation are as low as reasonably practicable.
Monitoring should include measurements away from the enclosure walls to detect the presence of scattered radiation.
Review of procedures
Radiation safety procedures need to be reviewed regularly to accommodate relevant regulations updated time to time by
the local authority and IAEA. The assigning of responsibilities for ensuring that all regulatory and licensing conditions are
adhered to is also needed to be addressed. Similarly a self-assessment programme which may include internal auditing of
work procedures and safety rules.
Cost and Benefit analysis

To optimize radiation protection for a given practice, the incremental costs involved in reducing the collective dose, from a
given level to a range of lower levels, are compared with the incremental health benefits that result. The ALARA value is that
level of collective dose below which the cost of any additional radiation protection measures would exceed the worth of
the reduction of health detriment.
However, a precise a value is not always needed in practice, since significant reductions in dose may be achieved at low
costs and in such cases, no formal analysis or value is needed. Conversely, it is sometimes apparent without a formal
analysis that a possible improvement will be exceedingly costly but results in trivial dose reduction. From the viewpoint of
radiation protection, it is just not enough to justify a practice by demonstrating a net benefit. Although analysis may show a
net benefit, there may be instances where radiation exposure risks for some individuals may be unacceptably high
Therefore an overriding requirement is that the individual dose limits, as set by the international bodies or authorized by
the national competent authorities should not be exceeded; otherwise the practice is unjustifiable.
Non-Ionizing Radiation
Non-ionizing radiation is described as a series of energy waves composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
traveling at the speed of light. Non-ionizing radiation includes the spectrum of ultraviolet (UV), visible light, infrared (IR),
microwave (MW), radio frequency (RF), and extremely low frequency (ELF). Lasers commonly operate in the UV, visible, and
IR frequencies. Non-ionizing radiation is found in a wide range of occupational settings and can pose a considerable health
risk to potentially exposed workers if not properly controlled.
Extremely Low Frequency Radiation (ELF)

Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) radiation at 60 HZ is produced by power lines, electrical wiring, and electrical equipment.
Common sources of intense exposure include ELF induction furnaces and high-voltage power lines.
Health Effects
Acute Effects: It cause nerve and muscle stimulation and changes in nerve cell excitability in the central nervous system
Chronic Effects: Carcinogenic
Control Measures
$ Isolate the radiation source
$ Reduce time duration of the work
$ Provide information, instruction and training about the risk
$ Eliminate un-necessary workers from the area
Radiofrequency and Microwave Radiation

Microwave radiation (MW) is absorbed near the skin, while Radiofrequency (RF) radiation may be absorbed throughout the
body. At high enough intensity both will damage tissue through heating. Sources of RF and MW radiation include radio
emitters and cell phones.
Health Effects
Acute Effects: Internal Organs Damage
Chronic Effects: Internal Organs Damage, a malignant type of brain cancer, associated with wireless phone use.
157 7-11
Control Measures
(:) Isolate the radiation source
(:) Reduce time duration of theworker
0 Provide information, instruction and training about the risk
0 Eliminate un-necessaryworkers from the area
Infrared Radiation (IR)

The skin and eyes absorb infrared radiation (IR) as heat. Workers normally notice excessive exposure through heat
sensation and pain. Sources of IR radiation include furnaces, heat lamps, andIR lasers.
Health Effects
Acute Effects: Skin Burns, Eye irritation
Chronic Effects: Cataracts (where suitable goggles are notworn)
Control Measures
0 Provide information, instruction and training to the employees
(:) Cover the skin to reduce the exposure
0 Wear suitable goggles to reduce eyes exposure
0 Reduce the time duration for exposure
(:) Eliminate un-necessaryworkers from the area
Visible Light Radiation

The different visible frequencies of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum are "seen" by our eyes as different colors. Good
lighting is conducive to increased production, and may help prevent incidents related to poor lighting conditions.
Excessive visible radiation can damage the eyes and skin.
Health Effects
Acute Effects: Skin Burns, Retinal Damage
Chronic Effects: Cataracts (where suitable goggles are notworn
Control Measures
(:) Provide information, instruction and training to the employees
(:) Cover the skin to reduce the exposure
(:) Wear suitable goggles to reduce eyes exposure
0 Eliminate un-necessaryworkers from the area
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)

Ultraviolet radiation (UV) has a high photon energy range and is particularly hazardous because there are usually no
immediate symptoms of excessive exposure. Sources of UV radiation include the sun, black lights, welding arcs, and UV
lasers.
Health Effects
Acute Effects: Burns, Skin dryness and itching, Eye irritation or conjunctivitis (where suitable goggles are notworn).
Chronic Effects: Skin cancer, Cataracts (where suitable goggles are notworn), Premature ageing of the skin, whichwill look
coarse, leathery andwrinkled.
Control Measures
0 Provide information, instruction and training to the employees
0 Cover the skin to reduce the exposure
0 Wear suitable goggles to reduce eyes exposure
Eliminate un-necessaryworkers from the area
7.4 Engineering Controls for Ionizing Radiations

Ionizing radiations are more dangerous than non-ionizing radiations.
158 7-12
The organizations must take measures to eliminate or reduce the exposure of its employees, visitors or member of public
with ionizing radiations. These radiations are not evident through the human's five senses. Also, its adverse effects are also
not immediately noticed. There is no way a person can know that he or she is being exposed to dangerous dosages of
radiation without any third party instrument.
First thing in taking control measures is to gauge the radiation value so that the control measures should be taken
accordingly. As the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States of America government puts it,
"the first and best strategy is to control the hazard at its source." Engineered controls are based on this principle unlike the
administrative controls which focus on the workers or people who are exposed to potential harm. The work itself and its
environment are designed to be less harmful than it's naturally to be. Engineering controls include alarms, interlocks,
shielding, material containment and warning signals. Engineering controls such as interlocks and shielding are used for
containment of the radiation in a cabinet or vault. Lead or high density concrete is most commonly used as shielding
materials. The interlocks, on the other hand, are used to immediately cut the power source of the equipment that is
generating the radiation, once the door if accidentally opened during radiation production. Warning red lights are also
used to inform other workers and people that there is ongoing radiation production, much like in x-ray rooms. There are
also sensors that detect a certain amount of radiation and warning alarms that will go off if the amount of radiation is
higher than the tolerable amount.
In cases where portable radiography is needed to be performed, alarms or warning lights are not advised to be used. Ropes
and signs are more practical to block the public from entering a radiation area. But at times, battery operated flashing lights
will make do to warn the public. Materials found in the area can be makeshift or temporary shielding devices. Sheets of
aluminum or steel can be enough to protect the public from radiation. It all really depends on the knowledge of the
radiographer. The radiographer must know the radiation absorption values of varying materials. It is his responsibility to
choose the right kind of materials to prevent anyone from being harmed by the radiation.
7.5 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

The Department of Nuclear Safety and Security works to provide a strong, sustainable and visible global nuclear safety and
security framework, protecting people and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation.
IAEA Safety Standards for protecting people and the environment
What are the Safety Standards?

The IAEA safety standards provide a system of Safety Fundamentals, Safety Requirements and Safety Guides for ensuring
safety.
Hierarchy
Safety Fundamentals
As the primary publication in the IAEA Safety Standards Series, the publication Fundamental Safety Principles (SF-1)
establishes the fundamental safety objective and principles of protection and safety.
Safety Requirements
An integrated and consistent set of Safety Requirements publications establish the requirements that must be met to
ensure the protection of people and the environment, both now and in the future. The requirements are governed by the
objectives and principles of the Safety Fundamentals. If the requirements are not met, measures must be taken to reach or
restore the required level of safety. Their format and style facilitate their use by Member States for the establishment, in a
harmonized manner, of their national regulatory framework.
Safety Guides
IAEA Safety Guides provide recommendations and guidance on how to comply with the requirements. They indicate an
international consensus that it is necessary to take the measures recommended (or equivalent alternative measures). The
Safety Guides present international good practices, and increasingly they reflect best practices, to help users striving to
achieve high levels of safety. They reflect an international consensus on what constitutes a high level of safety for
protecting people and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation. The IAEA safety standards are applicable
throughout the entire lifetime of facilities and activities - existing and new - utilized for peaceful purposes, and to
protective actions to reduce existing radiation risks. The IAEA safety standards have a status derived from the 'IAEAs
Statute, which authorizes the IAEA "To establish or adopt, in consultation and, where appropriate, in collaboration with the
competent organs of the United Nations and with the specialized agencies concerned, standards of safety for protection of
health and minimization of danger to life and property ... and to provide for the application of these standards".
159 7-13
One of the statutory functions of the IAEA is to establish or adopt standards of safety for the protection of health, life and
property in the development and application of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, and to provide for the application of
these standards to its own operations as well as to assisted operations and, at the request of the parties, to operations
under any bilateral or multilateral arrangement, or, at the request of a State, to any of that State's activities in the field of
nuclear energy.
The following advisory bodies oversee the development of safety standards:
0 The Advisory Commission for Safety Standards (ACSS)

0 The Nuclear Safety Standards Advisory Committee (NUSSAC)
0 T-the Radiation Safety Standards Advisory Committee (RASSAC)
e The Transport Safety Standards Advisory Committee (TRANSSAC)
0 The Waste Safety Standards Advisory Committee (WASSAC).
Member States are widely represented on these committees. In order to ensure the broadest international consensus,
safety standards are also submitted to all Member States for comment before approval by the IAEA Board of Governors.
The IAEA's safety standards are not legally binding on Member States but may be adopted by them, at their own discretion,
for use in national regulations in respect of their own activities. The standards are binding on the IAEA in relation to its own
operations and on States in relation to operations assisted by the IAEA. Any State wishing to enter into an agreement with
the IAEA for its assistance in connection with the siting, design, construction, commissioning, operation or
decommissioning of a nuclear facility or any other activities will be required to follow those parts of the safety standards
that pertain to the activities to be covered by the agreement. However, it should be recalled that the final decisions and
legal responsibilities in any licensing procedures rest with the States. Although the safety standards establish an essential
basis for safety, the incorporation of more detailed requirements, in accordance with national practice, may also be
necessary. Moreover, there will generally be special aspects that need to be assessed by experts on a case by case basis.
List of Published Safety standards by IAEA

There is a huge list of safety standards published by IAEA which can be purchased from IAEA. We have however mentioned
here some important publications which are closely concerning the safety from radiations.
160 7-14
Element 8
Assess the Biological health hazards at the workplace and the
application of suitable controls
Contents
Element 8: Assess the Biological health hazards at the workplace
and the application of suitable controls
8.1 What are Biological Agents? 8-1

8.2 What work activities might involve exposure to 8-2
biological agents?
8.3 What measures should be put in place if it is not technically 8-2
possible to prevent exposure to biological agents?
8.4 Hazards generated by biological agents 8-2
8.5 How to do a Risk Assessment 8-3
8.6 What is Industrial Hygiene? 8-6
8.7 Detection of Biological Agents 8-6
8.8 Relationship between occupational, environmental and 8-8
public health
8.9 Workplace Health Promotion 8-9
8.10 Rehabilitation and workplace adjustments 8.12
8.1 What are Biological Agents?
Biological agents are widely found in the natural environment and as a result found in many work sectors. They include
bacteria, viruses, fungi (yeasts and moulds) and parasites. Some of these agents are harmless whilst others may have
potential to cause ill health.
As they are usually invisible, it is often difficult to appreciate the risks they present. As a worker you may be harmed by being
infected by a biological agent, by being exposed to toxins produced by the biological agent or have an allergic reaction to
the biological agent or substances it produces, for example, enzymes.
Biological agents have the ability to replicate rapidly, require minimal resources to survive and can infect at very small
doses.
In the workplace, exposure to biological agents can be intentional, whereby the employee works directly with them, for
example, in a laboratory or research facility or unintentional, whereby the employee is exposed to the biological agent due
to the work they do, for example, a healthcare worker who is exposed to a blood borne virus, a laundry worker who receives
a needle stick injury or a farmer who is exposed to an animal disease that can also affect humans. Biological Agents have the
ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from relatively mild, allergic reactions to serious
medical conditions, even death. These organisms are widespread in the natural environment; they are found in water, soil,
plants, and animals. Because many microbes reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for survival, they are a
potential danger in a wide variety of occupational settings.
Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by a spore-forming bacterium called Bacillus anthracis. It is generally
acquired following contact with anthrax-infected animals or anthrax-contaminated animal products.
Avian Flu. Avian influenza is a highly contagious disease of birds which is currently epidemic amongst poultry in Asia.
Despite the uncertainties, poultry experts agree that immediate culling of infected and exposed birds is the first line of
defense for both the protection of human health and the reduction of further losses in the agricultural sector.
Blood borne Pathogens and Needle stick Prevention. OSHA estimates that 5.6 million workers in the health care industry
and related occupations are at risk of occupational exposure to blood borne pathogens, including human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (H BV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and others.
Botulism. Cases of botulism are usually associated with consumption of preserved foods. However, botulinum toxins are
currently among the most common compounds explored by terrorists for use as biological weapons.
Ebola. Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) (sometimes called Ebola Virus Disease, or EVD) is the disease caused by infection with
an Ebola virus. It is a type of viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) brought on by any of several strains of viruses in the Ebola virus
genus. Ebola viruses are capable of causing severe, life-threatening disease.
Food borne Disease. Food borne illnesses are caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites, toxins, metals, and prions (microscopic
protein particles). Symptoms range from mild gastroenteritis to life-threatening neurologic, hepatic, and renal syndromes.
Hanta-virus. Hantaviruses are transmitted to humans from the dried droppings, urine, or saliva of mice and rats.
Animal laboratory workers and persons working in infested buildings are at increased risk to this disease.
Legionnaire's disease. Legionnaires' disease is a bacterial disease commonly associated with water-based aerosols. It is
often the result of poorly maintained air conditioning cooling towers and potable water systems.
Molds. Molds produce and release millions of spores small enough to be air-, water-, or insect-borne which may have
negative effects on human health including allergic reactions, asthma, and other respiratory problems.
Plague. The World Health Organization reports 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague every year. A bioterrorist release of plague
could result in a rapid spread of the pneumonic form of the disease, which could have devastating consequences.
Ricin is one of the most toxic and easily produced plant toxins. It has been used in the past as a bioterrorist weapon and
remains a serious threat.
165 8-1
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome(SARS). Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a viral respiratory illness causes by
a corona virus, called SARS-associated corona virus (SARS-CoV). Since 2004, according to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), there have not been any known cases of SARS reported anywhere in the world.
Smallpox is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. It is estimated that no more than 20 percent of the population
has any immunity from previous vaccination.
Tularemia is also known as "rabbit fever" or "deer fly fever" and is extremely infectious. Relatively few bacteria are required
to cause the disease, which is why it is an attractive weapon for use in bioterrorism.
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers(VHFs). Along with smallpox, anthrax, plague, botulism, and tularemia, hemorrhagic fever viruses
are among six agents identified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as the most likely to be used as
biological weapons. Many VHFs can cause severe, life-threatening disease with high fatality rates.
8.2 What work activities might involve exposure to biological agents?

Activities that may involve exposure to biological agents include, but are not limited to:
$ Work in food production plants
$ Work in agriculture
$ Work in biotechnology, including the production of some pharmaceutical products
$ Work activities where there is contact with animals or products of animal origin (or both)
$ Work in health care, including isolation and post mortem units, funeral and cremation undertakings.
$ Work in clinical, veterinary and diagnostic laboratories, excluding diagnostic microbiological laboratories
$ Work in refuse disposal plants
$ Work in sewage purification installations
8.3 What measures should be put in place if it is not technically possible to prevent
exposure to biological agents?
$ Where it is not technically possible to prevent exposure to biological agents, measures to be taken so as to reduce the
risk of exposure and to ensure the control of any remaining risk so as to protect the worker should include:
0 Keep the number of employees exposed or likely to be exposed to a biological agent as low as possible.
$ Work processes and engineering control measures should be designed so as to avoid or minimize the release of a
biological agent into the place of work.
0 Use both collective protection measures and individual protection measures where exposure cannot be avoided by
other means.
$ Use hygiene measures compatible with the aim of preventing or reducing the accidental transfer or release of a
biological agent from the workplace.
$ Use the bio-hazard sign (depicted in the Third Schedule of the 2013 Biological Agents Regulations), and other
relevant warning signs.
$ Draw up plans to deal with accidents involving a biological agent.
0 Test, where it is necessary and technically possible, for the presence, outside the primary physical confinement, of a
biological agent used at work.
0 Use means for safe collection, storage and disposal of waste by employees, including the use of secure and
identifiable containers, after suitable treatment where appropriate.
0 Make arrangements for the safe collection, storage and disposal of waste by employees within the workplace.
8.4 Hazards generated by biological agents

Biological agents are necessary to life and have beneficial effects, although in some cases they may endanger human
life. Biological risks have been around ever since living organisms appeared on earth, and they are to be found
everywhere.
Biological agents may be used deliberately, but most of the time workers are exposed to them unintentionally. This
fact will deal with situations where workers are potentially exposed to biological agents as a result of their work and do
not distinguish between intentional and unintentional exposures.
166 8-2
Infection at the workplace can occur via different sources such as

0 blood and other body fluids;
0 human bodies, animal carcasses and raw meat;
0 human or animal waste products such as faeces and urine;
0 respiratory discharges such as coughs and sneezes;
0 Skin contact.
Allergic and toxic reactions can occur via:

e moulds or mould spores;
$ Dust mites, feathers, animal hairs, pollen.
Scientists, doctors and laboratory staff are aware of these risks but most employees and employers know little about
them, not least because they are invisible. This may explain why risk assessment is difficult to undertake. Lack of
adequate information on biological risks and the inadequate provision of OSH training to workers can also inhibit
effective risk assessment.
To determine where biological risks are present one has to consider the activity taking place. If living or dead humans
or animals, food, plants and wood, soil or water are present in the work environment, biological risks must be assessed.
Relevant activities include farming, the food industry, health care and social services, veterinary services, waste and
wastewater management, and funeral services. Fishing, ceramic tile making, cotton and paper production, cork making
and many other economic activities are also potentially at risk from biological hazards.
Another way to pinpoint critical places is to consider the occupation. In addition to farmers, health care staff and food
industry workers, many other occupations are affected, such as gardeners, sewage workers, prison warders, emergency
services workers and even museum staff or people working on roofs littered with bird droppings. It is apparent that a
sizeable percentage of the working population is potentially at risk.
Technologies using biological agents in metal working shops are increasing the spectrum of at-risk trades, as is the use
of high-pressure water generating aerosols.
8.5 How to do a Risk Assessment

Risk assessment is the process of evaluating risks to workers' safety and health from workplace hazards. A risk
assessment is a systematic examination of all aspects of the work undertaken to consider what could cause injury or
harm, whether the hazards could be eliminated, and if not what preventive or protective measures are, or should be, in
place to control the risks.
For most businesses, especially small and medium-sized enterprises, a straightforward five-step approach
(incorporating elements of risk management) such as the one presented below should work well.
0 Step 1. Identifying hazards and those at risk. Looking for those things at work that have the potential to cause harm,
and identifying workers who may be exposed to the hazards.
0 Step 2. Evaluating and prioritizing risks. Estimating the existing risks in terms of severity and probability of possible
harm and prioritizing them in order of importance.
0 Step 3. Deciding on preventive action. Identifying the appropriate measures to eliminate or control the risks.
0 Step 4. Taking action. Putting in place the preventive and protective measures through a prioritization plan.
0 Step 5. Monitoring and reviewing
The assessment should be reviewed at regular intervals to ensure that it remains up to date. However, it is important to
know that there are other methods that work equally well, particularly for more complex risks and circumstances.
Some situations where workers are likely to be exposed to biological agents may appear complex but the transmission
chain concept discussed below may be used by anybody who has to proceed with a risk assessment. The overall risk
assessment method does, however, have to be adapted to the particular biological risk concerned.
The transmission chain

Reservoir: the source of the infectious agent: any contaminated part of a human being or of an animal, soil, water or
object,
t
t
Portal of exit: for contamination to happen, the biological agent has to get out of the reservoir or has to be accessible,
Mode of transmission: direct (inhalation or contact), semi-direct (transmitted on dirty hands) or indirect (the biological
agent uses a carrier: insect, contaminated instrument, etc.),
167 8-3
Portal of entry: respiratory tract, digestive tract, intact or damage skin: previous injury or via a contaminated instrument or
mucus,
Potential host: the worker at his/her works station.

The process of infection can therefore be seen as a chain. The first link is the biological agent's reservoir. The second is the
process by which the agent escapes from the reservoir through the portal of exit, the method of transmission of the
biological agent (inhalation, ingestion or absorption) and the portal of entry to the host. The final link is the potential host
or worker.
Breaking a link at any point will reduce the risk of infection. When a hazard has been identified (by using the checklist), one
must work out what the links composing the chain are in order to identify the best way to break one - or several - of the
links to control the risk. Ideally, the link(s) closest to the reservoir should be targeted in particular.
What is (and is not) a checklist and how to use it

(:) A checklist can help identify hazards and potential prevention measures and, used in the right way, forms part of a risk
assessment.
0 A checklist is not intended to cover all the risks of every workplace but to help you put the method into practice.
(:) A checklist is only a first step in carrying out a risk assessment. Further information may be needed to assess more
complex risks and in some circumstances you may need an expert's help.
(:) For a checklist to be effective, you should adapt it to your particular sector or workplace. Some extra items may need to
be covered, or some points omitted as irrelevant.
0 For practical and analytical reasons, a checklist presents problems/hazards separately, but in workplaces they may be
intertwined. Therefore, you have to take into account the interactions between the different problems or risk factors
identified. At the same time, a preventive measure put in place to tackle a specific risk can also help to prevent another
one; for example, air conditioning put in place to combat high temperatures can also prevent stress, given that high
temperatures are a potential stress factor.
(:) It is equally important to check that any measure aimed at reducing exposure to one risk factor does not increase the risk
of exposure to other factors; for example, reducing the amount of time a worker spends reaching above shoulder level
may also increase the time spent working in a stooped posture, which may lead to back disorders.
0 It is essential that checklists are used as a means of development support, not simply as a 'tick-the-box' exercise.
Control Measures
Work activities
(:) Informing workers about the biological risks. Consider posting written information in the workplace.
(:) Regular training of workers about risks posed by biological agents and how they can be handled safely.
(:) Registering exposed workers and their work activities. Specific conditions apply to workers exposed to biological agents
of group 3 and 4 (a list of the names of such workers has to be kept for ten years).
0 Assessing the nature, degree and duration of workers' exposure to biological agents.
0 Classifying (ranking) identified biological agents according to one of the four groups described above.
0 Providing/implementing immunization programmes for workers when necessary.
0 Examining workers regularly with regard to health risks at their workplace.
(:) Avoiding generation of aerosols by using low pressure.
Workers
• Informing workers about possible risks and hazards.
• Providing Safety Datasheets and guidance material on biological agents.
• Examining workers regularly with regard to health risks at their workplace.
• Regular training of workers about risks posed by biological agents and how they can be handled safely.
• Informing workers about their rights and special safety and health precautions. Arranging suitable instructions and
information.
• Giving special attention to workers at risk. 2.2 Preventing exposure to biological agents that can affect the unborn child
(e.g. chlamydia, toxoplasma, rubella, and listeria).
• Providing/implementing immunization programmes for workers when necessary.
• Training workers on how to use personal protective equipment.
• Providing information about biological agents and work activities that can affect the unborn child.
• Informing and training workers about the chain of infection.
168 8-4
0 Ensuring that cleaners and maintenance staff are informed about biological risks.
0 Training cleaners and maintenance staff on how to deal with contaminated workplaces (biological agents).
$ Ensuring that workers are aware of and informed about safety and warning signs and how to use them.
$ Ensuring that new and young workers are trained.
$ Ensuring that young/new workers are appropriately supervised
$ Training workers on how to use personal protective equipment.
$ Ensuring that all workers understand the safety information and training.
$ Providing information in different languages and/or with many illustrations.
Workplace
$ Establishing waste management procedures.
$ Ensuring that waste material is collected and disposed of in a safe manner and that it cannot be accessed easily
(preventing public access).
$ Providing special waste disposal (e.g. special containers for needles and sharps).
0 Regular cleaning and disinfection.
0 Keeping records on cleaning activities (cleaning plan).
0 Providing appropriate restrooms, washing equipment, eating areas for all workers.
$ Installing adequate ventilation.
$ Inspecting and cleaning exhaust ventilation systems on a regular basis to maintain maximum efficiency and to
decontaminate.
$ Informing all workers about exposure monitoring and health surveillance.
$ Advertising results of exposure monitoring and health surveillance.
Organization
$ Accident procedures have been developed such as persons to notify, measures to take, accident reporting and record
keeping.
PPE
$ Providing appropriate protective equipment.
$ Ensuring that the PPE is appropriate to EU Standards and CE marking.
$ Training of workers on how to use PPE.
$ Making sure that protective equipment is stored where it cannot be contaminated by biological hazardous substances
and where it will not contaminate outdoor clothing.
0 Carrying out regular technical checks of the personal protective equipment and respiratory protection.
$ Ensuring that PPE is not used outside the workplace.
e Providing appropriate changing rooms
$ Ensuring that the workers have enough time to change their clothes.
$ Providing appropriate respiratory protection if necessary.
0 Providing face visors (effective against splashes).
Hygiene
$ Prohibiting smoking, eating, drinking and application of cosmetics at the workplace.
$ Providing adequate (hand) washing facilities (with soap and if necessary disinfectants).
$ Ensuring that all workers have easy access to (hand) washing facilities.
$ Washing hands before eating, drinking, smoking.
$ Cleansing and disinfecting all wounds and covering wounds with plaster.
First aid/evacuation of workers

$ Informing and training workers about what to do in case of emergency or problems.
$ Providing well-trained safety personnel.
$ Encouraging workers to report problems at the workplace.
$ Developing an emergency plan in close cooperation with safety representatives.
$ Informing workers about the emergency plan.
$ Providing first aid kits for each workplace.
0 Checking the content of first aid kits regularly.
$ Training personnel in first aid.
0 Ensuring that trained first aid personnel are available for each worker.
169 8-5
8.6 What is Industrial Hygiene?

Industrial hygiene is the science of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling workplace conditions that may
cause workers' injury or illness. Industrial hygienists use environmental monitoring and analytical methods to detect the
extent of worker exposure and employ engineering, work practice controls, and other methods to control potential health
hazards.
What is a Worksite Analysis?

A worksite analysis is an essential first step that helps an industrial hygienist determine what jobs and work stations are the
sources of potential problems. During the worksite analysis, the industrial hygienist measures and identifies exposures,
problem tasks, and risks. The most effective worksite analyses include all jobs, operations, and work activities. The industrial
hygienist inspects, researches, or analyzes how the particular chemicals or physical hazards at that worksite affect worker
health. If a situation hazardous to health is discovered, the industrial hygienist recommends the appropriate corrective
actions.
How do IH's Recognize and Control Hazards?

Industrial hygienists recognize that engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are the primary means of
reducing employee exposure to occupational hazards. Engineering controls minimize employee exposure by either
reducing or removing the hazard at the source or isolating the worker from the hazards.
Engineering controls include eliminating toxic chemicals and replacing harmful toxic materials with less hazardous ones,
enclosing work processes or confining work operations, and installing general and local ventilation systems.
Work practice controls alter the manner in which a task is performed. Some fundamental and easily implemented work
practice controls include:-
(:) Following proper procedures that minimize exposures while operating production and control equipment
(S) Inspecting and maintaining process and control equipment on a regular basis
(S) Implementing good house-keeping procedures
(S) Providing good supervision and
(S) Mandating that eating, drinking, smoking, chewing tobacco or gum, and applying cosmetics in regulated areas be
prohibited.
Administrative controls include controlling employees' exposure by scheduling production and workers' tasks, or both,in
ways that minimize exposure levels. For example, the employer might schedule operations with the highest exposure
potential during periods when the fewest employees are present. When effective work practices and/or engineering
controls are not feasible to achieve the permissible exposure limit, or while such controls are being instituted, and in
emergencies, appropriate respiratory equipment must be used. In addition, personal protective equipment such as gloves,
safety goggles, helmets, safety shoes, and protective clothing may also be required. To be effective, personal protective
equipment must be individually selected, properly fitted and periodically refitted; conscientiously and properly worn;
regularly maintained; and replaced as necessary.
https:ljwww.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3143/0SHA3143.htm
8.7 Detection of Biological Agents

Sampling and analysis for biological agents is a rapidly growing field. Many techniques and technologies are still under
development. There are various factors to consider when sampling for biological agents, such as: method of dispersion for
the agent, purpose of the sampling (e.g., to identify the agent, determine extent of contamination, confirm
decontamination, etc.), environmental conditions, persistence of the agent, and physical state of the agent, area/volume to
be sampled, laboratory protocols, and others. It is important to note that biological agents (such as bacteria, viruses, and
endotoxins) are particulate matter, and, therefore, detection methods are designed for particulate sampling. The following
sections highlight some types of equipment that may be used for sampling and detection of biological agents.
A. SURFACE/BULKSAMPLING
1- Swabs
Swabs have been used frequently when sampling surface areas for the presence of biological agents. Swab tips come in a
variety of materials, such as cotton, Dacron TM, polyester, rayon, and foam. Shafts can be comprised of either wood or
plastic. Generally, synthetic swab tips with plastic shafts are recommended because they are not of biological origin and will
not interfere with DNA-based detection systems. Swabs may be used dry or wetted with a buffer solution. In general,
studies have shown that wet swabs have higher collection efficiency than dry swabs.
170 8-6
2- Wipes and Sponges

Wipes and sponges are often used because they can sample larger surface areas and have a higher collection efficiency
compared to swabs. They can also be used in a dry or wet fashion. Various styles and materials for wipes and sponges are
available. As with swabs, synthetic materials are recommended to eliminate potential interference problems with detection
systems.
3- Vacuum Methods
Vacuum methods can be used when it is necessary to sample very large surface areas or surfaces which are porous or
irregular such as carpeting, where it is impractical to use swabs or wipes. These methods are also useful to gather bulk dust
samples for analysis. One method utilizes a HEPA-filtered vacuum equipped with a dust collection filter sock which is used
to capture the sample. Large surface areas can be vacuumed, and the dust gathered in the sock is then analyzed for the
presence of biological agents. A similar method uses a portable sampling pump equipped with a filter cassette to "vacuum"
particulate matter from smaller areas, and at lower flow rates. The filter can then be analyzed for biological agents.
4- Agar Plates
Agar plates, also known as "sticky plates," can be used to sample a surface by contacting the plate directly to the surface.
The particles from the surface will adhere to the plate, which can then be analyzed by culture to identify any biological
agents. This method has been used by various agencies during investigations of incidents involving biological agents.
B. AIRSAMPLING
Air sampling can be performed to determine the presence of airborne biological particulates. Essentially, a volume of air is
drawn through a filter or deposited in another medium, and the captured particulates are then analyzed to identify
biological agents. High flow rates are generally desirable because this allows higher sample volumes and increases the
likelihood of detecting the suspect agents. However, it should be noted that some organisms are fragile, and the high
velocities and impact mechanisms may kill the organism during the sampling process. Consult with SLTC to determine the
appropriate flow rate and procedures for your situation. Low flow air sampling methods consist of traditional personal
sampling pumps equipped with capture devices such as filter media or liquid impingers. These low flow methods have the
advantage of being small and portable; however, due to their low sample volume they will have a relatively high limit of
detection. Impactors, such as the Six Stage Viable Andersen Cascade Impactor, utilize higher flow rates (around 30 L/min),
sample a greater air volume, and, therefore, increase the likelihood of detecting the agent. This and similar types of
impactors capture the biological particulate directly on an agar plate which can then be analyzed in a laboratory by culture
method. High volume area samplers are also available for biological agents. These samplers possess flow rates ranging
from 200 to 600 L/min, so they are able to sample very large volumes of air. Some instruments deposit the particulate
matter on a filter, while others capture it in a liquid solution.
C. GENERIC DETECTION
There are several techniques and instruments available that will allow responders to perform a generic detection for
biological agents. These methods will not identify a specific agent, but can be used to determine if a suspect material is
of biological origin, and to rule out hoax materials. The following are some examples of equipment types:
1. Particle Analyzers: The particle size of a sample can be analyzed and compared to known size ranges for biological
materials. If the particle size is too large or too small, biological materials can be ruled out.
2. Fluorometer: These instruments will detect the presence of DNA, which is a component of most biological materials.
A positive response by the meter for a given sample indicates a biological material, but again, does not identify the
material or agent.
3. Luminometer: A luminometer operates similarly to a fluorometer, except that it will detect the presence of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) in a sample. ATP is another component of a cellular organism, thereby indicating a biological
material.
,.colorimeter: Colorimeters can be used to detect protein from a sample. Again, protein is present in biological
organisms, so these instruments can indicate if the material is biological in origin.
5. Protein Paper: Similar to a colorimeter, these paper strips can indicate if a given sample contains protein, and is,
therefore, biological.
6. pH Paper: The pH of a sample is tested with pH paper strips; if the pH range is between 5 and 9, the material may be
biological. If the pH is outside this range i.e. below 5 or above 9, then biological materials can be ruled out.
171 8-7
A. IDENTIFICATION
1. lmmunoassay/HandheldAssay
An immunoassay test, also known as a handheld assay (HHA), can be performed on a sample to identify a specific agent.
These HHA tests rely on an antigen/antibody reaction to identify the suspect agent. The test is presumptive, meaning that a
given agent must be suspected and then tested with its specific HHA for confirmation. For example, if Bacillus anthracis
(anthrax) is suspected, the sample is tested using an HHA designed for Bacillus anthracis; a positive result confirms the
presence of the organism while a negative result indicates that the sample does not contain that specific organism. The
HHA units are small, the test can be performed in the field, and they rely on a visual colorimetric change for sample results.
Some HHA systems come with an electronic reader to aid in detecting the colorimetric change. HHAs are under scrutiny
due to limitations on sensitivity and specificity; i.e., high rates of false-negative and false-positive results. The results from
an HHA test should not be relied upon alone and further confirmatory analysis should always be performed. However,
these tests are used widely by first responders as a rapid field test. Although they are presumptive, their results can assist
decision makers in taking protective actions, treating potential infections, and involving other authorities as necessary.
2. Polymerase Chain Reaction

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a system that allows identification of an agent based on its DNA. The DNA from the
sample is obtained and reproduced rapidly to produce a quantity that is detectable by the instrumentation. For example,
after 30 cycles with the PCR system, one copy of DNA from an agent sample can be reproduced until there are one billion
copies, which can then be analyzed and identified. PCR is performed real-time through detection by fluorescence. During
the PCR cycle, DNA-specific "probes" with fluorescent dyes are attached to the DNA sample which allows detection. PCR
can be performed in a laboratory, or in the field with semi-portable instrumentation. Specific reagents and supplies are
necessary to perform the analysis. PCR has been useful for biological agent detection because it has excellent sensitivity,
good specificity, and provides real-time results. Some weaknesses of PCR to consider are the following: potential
interferences from other substances in the sample, reagent stability, and sample viability, because PCR will detect the
presence of both live and dead organisms, but will not distinguish between the two.
3. Culture
Analysis by culture is considered by many to be the "gold standard" for the identification of biological agents. Samples are
sent to a laboratory where they are prepared and applied to an agar plate on which the suspect biological organisms are
allowed to grow. After a sufficient period of time (usually 24 hours or more), visible growth can be examined to detect the
presence of the biological agent(s). Often, culture is used for the confirmatory analysis of previous detection methods for a
given sample (HHAs, PCR). Some disadvantages of culture include delayed results and the procedure will only detect living
organisms. Any biological agent that has died before the analysis has begun will not be detected. Note that biological
toxins or allergens associated with nonviable/non-culturable agents may still cause health effects.
8.8 Relationship between occupational, environmental and public health

The broader aim of occupational, environmental and public health is to achieve a healthier society. These disciplines have
been separated from each other based on factors which influence the health conditions. First we shall study these factors
for each of the discipline and then we shall discuss the relationship between each of them.
Environmental Health
The role of the Environmental Health is to protect the health of the public by controlling and preventing factors in the
environment which may cause ill health or reduced quality of life. Enforcing regulations and legislation is a central part of
this work and we aim to do this in a fair and consistent way. It works to protect the health of the public by controlling and
preventing those factors in the environment which may cause ill health or reduced quality of life.
The water you drink, the food you eat, the air you breathe, the cosmetics you use, the pre-school your children attend are all
just a few of the areas in your daily life where you will have come into direct contact with the work of a unique group of
health professionals known as Environmental Health Officers.
Public Health
Public Health is defined as "the art and science of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the
organized efforts of society" (Acheson, 1988; WHO). Activities to strengthen public health capacities and service aim to
provide conditions under which people can maintain to be healthy, improve their health and wellbeing, or prevent the
deterioration of their health. Public health focuses on the entire spectrum of health and wellbeing, not only the eradication
of particular diseases. Many activities are targeted at populations such as health campaigns.
172 8-8
Public health services also include the provision of personal services, to individual persons such as vaccinations, behavioral
counseling, or health advices.
Some examples of the many fields of public health:
0 First responders
$ Restaurant inspectors
0 Health educators
0 Scientists and researchers
0 Nutritionists
0 Community planners
0 Social workers
0 Epidemiologists
$ Public health physicians
$ Public health nurses
0 Occupational health and safety professionals
$ Public policymakers
0 Sanitarians
Occupational Health
Occupa tiona l hea lth dea ls with a ll a spects of hea lth and sa fety in the workpla ce a nd ha s a strong focus on primary
prevention of hazards. The health of the workers has several determinants, including risk factors at the workplace leading to
ca ncers, a ccidents, musculoskeleta l disea ses, respira tory disea ses, hea ring loss, circula tory disea ses, stress related
disorders and communicable diseases and others.
Employment and working conditions in the formal or informal economy embrace other important determinants, including,
working hours, salary, workplace policies concerning maternity leave, health promotion and protection provisions, etc.
From above discussion on environmental, public and occupational health, we have noticed that these 3 fields are closely
related. We have earlier studied that the actual dose limits for various toxic chemical exposure will vary from person to
person depending upon various individual factors. Those individual factors mainly come from environmental and public
health.
The ma in functions of WHO (occupa tiona l hea lth) ma nda ted in a rticle 2 of its Constitution include promoting the
improvement of working conditions and other aspects of environmental hygiene. Recognizing that occupational health is
closely linked to public health and health systems development, WHO is addressing all determinants of workers' health,
including risks for disease and injury in the occupational environment, social and individual factors, and access to health
services.
WHO is implementing a Global Plan of Action on Workers' health 2008-2017 endorsed by the World Health Assembly in
2007 with the following objectives
0 devising and implementing policy instruments on workers' health;

0 protecting and promoting health at the workplace;
0 improving the performance of and access to occupational health services;
0 providing and communicating evidence for action and practice; and
0 Incorporating workers' health into other policies.
8.9 Workplace Health Promotion

The workplace, along with the school, hospital, city, island, and marketplace, has been established as one of the priority
settings for health promotion into the 21st century.
The workplace directly influences the physical, mental, economic and social well-being of workers and in turn the health of
their families, communities and society. It offers an ideal setting and infrastructure to support the promotion of health of a
large audience. The health of workers is also affected by non-work related factors.
The concept of the health promoting workplace (HPW) is becoming increasingly relevant as more private and public
organizations recognize that future success in a globalizing marketplace can only be achieved with a healthy, qualified and
motivated workforce. A HPW can ensure a flexible and dynamic balance between customer expectations and
organizational targets on the one hand and employees skills and health needs on the other, which can assist companies
and work organizations to compete in the marketplace. For nations, the development of HPW will be a pre-requisite for
sustainable social and economic development.
173 8-9
Benefits
Proper attention to workers' health and safety has extensive benefits:
$ Healthy workers are productive and raise healthy families; thus healthy workers are a key strategy, i.e. goal, for
overcoming poverty.
(e) workplace health risks are higher in the informal sector and small industry which are key arenas of action on poverty
alleviation, where people can work their way out of poverty; safe workplaces contribute to sustainable development,
which is the key to poverty reduction;
(e) the processes of protecting workers, surrounding communities and the environment for future generations have
important common elements, such as pollution control and exposure reduction;
(e) much pollution and many environmental exposures that are hazardous to health arise from industrial processes, that
may be influenced by occupational health and safety programmes;
(e) occupational safety and health can contribute to improving the employability of workers, through workplace (re)design,
maintenance of a healthy and safe work environment, training and retraining, assessment of work demands, medical
diagnosis, health screening and assessment of functional capacities;
(e) Occupational health is fundamental to public health, for it is increasingly clear that major diseases (e.g. AIDS, heart
disease) need workplace programmes as part of the disease control strategy.
Benefits of Workforce Health Promotion
Organizations Employees
a well-managed health and safety programme a safe and healthy work environment
a positive and caring image enhanced self-esteem
improved staff morale reduced stress
reduced staff turnover Improved morale
reduced absenteeism increased job satisfaction
increased productivity increased skills for health protection
reduced health care/insurance costs improved health
reduced risk of fines and litigation improved sense of well-being
While some health promotion activities in the workplace tend to focus on a single illness or risk factor (e.g. prevention of
heart disease) or on changing personal health practices and behaviors (e.g. smoking, diet), there is a growing appreciation
that there are multiple determinants of workers' health. In addition to person-focused interventions, workforce health
promotion initiatives have moved toward a more comprehensive approach, which acknowledges the combined influence
of personal, environmental, organizational, community and societal factors on employee well-being. A health-promoting
workplace recognizes that a healthy workforce is essential and integrates policies, systems and practices conducive to
health at all levels of the organization. Rather than a series of projects, workforce health promotion is an ongoing process
for improving work and health. Effective health promotion assists employers to adopt appropriate administrative
procedures and workers to use safe working practices. Occupational health personnel benefit from training and education
in health promotion to enable them to implement it as a part of their occupational health practice.
Experience in workplace health promotion has shown that competitions and awards are valuable in engaging enterprises in
occupational health and safety activities. Firms and enterprises achieve valuable publicity and a boost in staff morale
through competing to become the healthiest and caring company.
Process of building a workplace health promotion
Step 1-Workplace Health Assessment

A successful workplace health program is one that is targeted to the specific employee population, suiting the worksite,
employee needs, and personal and organizational health goals. This information can be gained through the first step in the
process- a workplace health assessment. An assessment should aim to capture a picture of the many factors that influence
employee health including: individual level factors such as lifestyle choices, the work environment (e.g. physical working
conditions and social support), and the organizational level (e.g., culture, policies, and practices). This assessment can take
place informally through conversations, a call for input/opinions (such as a bulletin board, opinion box, email requesting
ideas), or more formally by using instruments such as an employee health survey or environmental audit. Both current
health issues as well as employee interests should be considered when prioritizing program and policy interventions as well
as evaluating and making improvements to the workplace health program on an ongoing basis. Involving employees from
174 8-10
Step Z- Planning the Program

Next, a careful planning stage should precede any implementation of workplace health programs, policies, benefits or
environmental supports. The overall program requires a basic governance structure or infrastructure to administer and
manage health promotion activities which can be initiated during the planning phase and recognizes the size and scope of
each step may be influenced by factors such as the company's size, sector, or geographic location.
The enterprise governance structure provides the strategic direction, leadership, and organization necessary to
operationalize the program elements. Organizational strategies provide the infrastructure to ensure program objectives
are achieved, employee health risks are appropriately managed, and the company's resources are used responsibility.
Organizational strategies include:
$ Dedicating senior leadership support to serve as a role model and champion

$ Identifying a workplace health coordinator, council or committee to oversee the program
$ Developing a workplace health improvement plan with sufficient resources to articulate and execute goals and
strategies
@ Communicating clearly and consistently with all employees
$ Establishing workplace health informatics to collect and use data for planning and evaluation
It is important to remember that a successful program does not necessarily incorporate all potential workplace health
strategies. A truly successful program is one whose components are carefully selected, implemented efficiently, and is
suited to the employee population. It may be more prudent to focus on one or two policies/programs at first and build on
early successes rather than poorly implement several interventions at the beginning. Workplace health programs also do
not have to cost significant amounts of money. Many effective interventions such as health-related policy changes exist
that are low-cost which is especially important for small and medium sized employers who may not have lots of resources
to dedicate to employee health.
Step 3- lmplementing the Program

Most employers, when they think about improving worker health, think of actions individuals can take. Losing weight,
quitting smoking, and exercising more are all examples of individual actions that can result in better health. It is important
to realize, however, that improving health requires a broad perspective that also includes the environments in which people
work, live, and play. A person's health is a result of both individual actions and the context or environment within which
those actions are taken. Employers and employees have many opportunities to influence the work environment to
promote health and prevent disease. Changing the environment affects large groups of workers simultaneously and makes
adopting healthy behaviors much easier if there are supportive workplace norms and policies. Therefore, it is important for
the overall workplace health program to contain a combination of individual and organizational level strategies and
interventions to influence health. The strategies and interventions available fall into four major categories:
$ Health-related Programs - opportunities available to employees at the workplace or through outside organizations to
begin, change or maintain health behaviors
$ Health-related Policies -formal/informal written statement that are designed to protect or promote employee health.
$ They affect large groups of employees simultaneously
$ Health Benefits - part of an overall compensation package including health insurance coverage and other services or
discounts regarding health
$ Environmental Supports - refers to the physical factors at and nearby the workplace that help protect and enhance
employee health
Step 4- Determine lmpactthrough Evaluation

Lastly, worksites should plan to evaluate the programs, policies, benefits, or environmental supports implemented. It is
important to assess how well the workplace health program can be sustained over time, how it is received by employees
and management, and its return on investment (ROI). While program evaluation is widely recognized as a core function of
public health, differences in definition of "good evaluation practice" often lead to evaluations that are time-consuming and
expensive, and, most importantly, produce findings that are not employed for program improvement. The evaluation
should focus on questions that are relevant, salient, and useful to those who will use the findings and that the evaluation
process feeds into a continuous quality improvement loop to improve and strengthen existing activities; identify potential
gaps in current offerings; and describe the efficiency and effectiveness of the resources invested. The evaluation module
provides general and topic specific guidelines, tools, and resources for evaluating the program's efforts.
175 8-11
8.10 Rehabilitation and workplace adjustments

Rehabilitation has two main aims:
$ To help employees return to work after an illness or disability
$ To help employees with chronic health conditions stay in work.
Good rehabilitation practice involves employers, managers, employees and a range of other professionals working
together to find solutions to achieving these aims. The methods they use include medical intervention and making changes
to the workplace. Rehabilitation should be part of a wider strategy on employees' health and wellbeing, whose aims should
be to tackle the causes of work-related ill health and injury, get involved before absence occurs, and - through health
promotion-encourage employees to take responsibility for their own health.
Why support rehabilitation?

Work is generally good for people and can help them lead healthier lives, as long as the work is 'good' and they're in safe
and supportive workplaces. A 2006 review found that:
$ There's a strong association between unemployment and poorer health, including mental health, and a large part of this
seems to be caused by not being in work
$ Work can help reverse the adverse health effects of unemployment.
The review also suggested that 'good jobs' may have elements such as employee autonomy/control and job satisfaction.
Unemployed people can lose their skills and confidence. Long periods of inactivity and isolation can have a negative impact
on their physical, psychological and social health, as well as their general wellbeing.4 It's even been reported that people
out of work for more than a year have, on average, eight times more psychological ill health than those in work. Long-term
absence isn't just costly for employees -employers and society pay a high price too. In the UK, around 23 million working
days are lost as a result of work-related illness and injury each year. The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) estimates that
this represents an annual loss to UK society of up to £28 billion-a figure that includes treatment for occupational cancers. If
you're an employer, long-term ill health or injury can mean:
e losing the skills of valuable employees
$ A reduction in your productivity
$ Extra expense in the form of finding and hiring replacement or temporary staff, and sick pay.
There can be non-financial costs too. For example, if an employee has a serious accident at work, this can be bad for your
brand, reputation and public image. And while your employer's liability insurer may bear some of the cost of compensation
claims, over the longer term your premiums could rise if you make frequent claims. What often goes unrecognized is that
an employee's absence can have a negative impact on the day-to-day work of their fellow workers and manager, and this
issue has to be dealt with too. The best and most cost-effective way an employer can support rehabilitation is by setting up
a formal occupational health and rehabilitation programme. A well-managed programme can help to:
e keep employees in work
e reduce employees' short-term pain and suffering
$ minimize or eliminate long-term disabilities
$ get employees back to work quickly and safely.
Rehabilitation programmes can more than pay for them by significantly reducing compensation claims or even wiping
them out entirely because employees either no longer need or want to make them. And even if a claim is made and
awarded, providing rehabilitation or offering support generally reduces the costs.
Examples of reasonable adjustments for an employee
Working arrangements
$ Encourage employees to visit the workplace so that they stay in touch
$ Offer them a phased return to build up their strength, gradually increasing their hours of work
$ Change their working hours so they don't have to travel at busy times, or offer them flexible working to support their
e work-life balance
$ Provide them with help travelling to and from work, or let them park nearer workplace entrances
$ Allow them to work from home
$ Give them time off work for medical treatment and assessments
176 8-12
Working environment
0 Move their workstation so that it's more accessible, or closer to washing and toilet facilities
0 Alter the work premises, for example install ramps or improve lighting
Work adjustments
0 Give them specialist equipment or modify existing equipment
0 Modify their workstation or furniture
0 Change or simplify their work pattern, such as no shift or night work
0 Give them extra or refresher training
0 Modify instruction manuals and standards to suit their abilities
0 Modify their work tasks, such as reducing the need for face-to-face meetings or travel if they cause anxiety
0 Modify management systems to give them more control
0 Reduce their pace of work- give them less difficult targets or deadlines, longer breaks and so on
0 Modify procedures for testing and assessing competence or ability to do a job
0 Give them a 'companion', mentor or more supervision
0 Give some of their tasks to other employees, give them different work, or re-deploy them
0 Give them training and information, for example on back care
177 8-13
Contents
Element 9: Assess the significance of engineering controls
against a range of hazards at the workplaces
9.1 Significance of engineering control 9-1

9.2 Effectiveness of engineering controls 9-2
9.3 Cost Benefit analysis for Engineering Controls 9-3
9.4 Engineering controls for potential e xplosion hazards 9-4
9.5 Engineering control options for a range of hazards 9-5
9.6 Are Engineering Control Fail -Safe? 9-6
9.1 Significance of engineering control

Engineering control is the 3rd option from hierarchy of control after Elimination and Substitution/ reduction. But
engineering controls are considered to be most viable and feasible options from occupational health and safety
perspective. Elimination and Substitution/ reduction options may either be very costly for organizations or they will be
impossible to be implemented. An example is work at height. In the prevailing industrial practices and availability of
engineering equipments, the possibility of elimination of work at height cannot be eliminated for all work at height
activities. Similarly, some activities can be reduced but it will take requirements of process change and costly engineering
equipments to carry out those activities with reduced work at height activities. Therefore, the organizations do not prefer
elimination and/or substitution/reduction options for occupational safety and health. We have discussed in detail the
organizations work for business. Occupational health and safety is incorporated into the businesses to comply with the law
and satisfy other reasons i.e. social etc.
This is the reason; engineering controls are widely used across a range of industries to control the hazards. They are very
useful and are comparatively very effective than administrative controls and PPE's.
What are engineering controls?

Engineering controls protect workers by removing hazardous conditions or by placing a barrier between the worker and
the hazard. Examples include local exhaust ventilation to capture and remove airborne emissions or machine guards to
shield the worker. Well-designed engineering controls can be highly effective in protecting workers and will typically be
independent of worker interactions. They typically do not interfere with worker productivity or personal comfort and make
the work easier to perform rather than more difficult. The initial cost of engineering controls can be higher than some other
control methods, but over the longer term, operating costs are frequently lower, and in some instances, can provide a cost
savings in other areas of the process.
It should however be noteworthy that certain engineering equipments are used for monitoring, measuring and detection
of hazardous substances or hazardous situations or use of certain engineering equipments for rescue and evacuation e.g.
safety escape chute. These engineering equipments may be integrated with automatic alarm system e.g. a fire or smoke
detector integrated with an alarm. The use of such engineering equipment cannot be categorized as engineering controls
as they do not reduce or isolate the hazard but only alarm about the hazard or assist in rescue and evacuation. In these
cases, certain administrative controls are coupled with alarm system e.g. the training of employees to vacate the workplace
after the alarm rings. So the total system including engineering equipments and subsequent action taken are covered in
administrative control measures. However, if the detection and alarm system is further integrated with automatic controls
e.g. a sprinkler or water mist system then the whole system will be categorized as engineering controls.
What are examples of engineering controls?

The basic types of engineering controls are:
0 Process control.
0 Enclosure and/or isolation of emission source.
0 Ventilation.
Process Control
Process control involves changing the way a job activity or process is done to reduce the risk. Monitoring should be done
before and as well as after the change is implemented to make sure the changes did result in lower exposures.
Examples of process changes include to:

0 Use wet methods rather than dry when drilling or grinding. "Wet method" means that water is sprayed over a dusty
surface to keep dust levels down or material is mixed with water to prevent dust from being created.
0 Use an appropriate vacuum or "wet method" instead of dry sweeping (e.g. with a broom) to control dust and reduce the
inhalation hazard.
Note: Never use a regular "household" vacuum cleaner, especially when cleaning toxic material such as lead, or asbestos.
Use a vacuum specifically designed for industrial workplaces and be sure to use appropriate filters, etc.
0 Use steam cleaning instead of solvent degreasing (but be sure to evaluate the potential high temperature hazard being
introduced such as heat stress).
0 Use electric motors rather than diesel ones to eliminate diesel exhaust emissions.
0 Float "balls" on open-surface tanks that contain solvents (e.g. degreasing operations) to reduce solvent surface area and
to lower solvent loss.
0 Instead of conventional spray painting, try to dip, paint with a brush, or use "airless" spray paint methods. These
methods will reduce the amount of paint that is released into the air.
0 Decrease the temperature of a process so that less vapour is released.
182 9-1
0 Use automation - the less workers have to handle or use the materials, the less potential there is for exposure.
0 Use mechanical transportation rather than manual methods.
Enclosure and Isolation

These methods aim to keep the chemical "in" and the worker "out" (or vice versa).
An enclosure keeps a selected hazard "physically" away from the worker. Enclosed equipment, for example, is tightly sealed
and it is typically only opened for cleaning or maintenance. Other examples include "glove boxes" (where a chemical is in a
ventilated and enclosed space and the employee works with the material by using gloves that are built in), abrasive blasting
cabinets, or remote control devices. Care must be taken when the enclosure is opened for maintenance as exposure could
occur if adequate precautions are not taken. The enclosure itself must be well maintained to prevent leaks.
Isolation places the hazardous process "geographically" away from the majority of the workers. Common isolation
techniques are to create a contaminant-free booth either around the equipment or around the employee workstations.
Ventilation
Ventilation is a method of control that strategically "adds" and "removes" air in the work environment. Ventilation can
remove or dilute an air contaminant if designed properly. Local exhaust ventilation is very adaptable to almost all chemicals
and operations. It removes the contaminant at the source so it cannot disperse into the work space and it generally uses
lower exhaust rates than general ventilation (general ventilation usually exchanges air in the entire room).
Local exhaust ventilation is an effective means of controlling hazardous exposures but should be used when other methods
(such as elimination or substitution) are not possible.
A local exhaust ventilation system consists of these basic parts:
A hood that captures the contaminants generated in the air (at the source).
0 Ductwork (exhaust stack and/or recirculation duct) that carries the contaminated air to the air cleaning device, if present
or to the fan (away from the source).
$ A fan which draws the air from the hood into the ducts and removes the air from the workspace. The fan must overcome
all the losses due to friction, hood entry, and fittings in the system while producing the intended flow rate.
0 Air cleaning devices may also be present that can remove contaminants such as dust (particulates), gases and vapors
from the air stream before it is discharged or exhausted into the environment (outside air), depending on the material(s)
being used in the hood.
The design of a ventilation system is very important and must match the particular process and chemical or contaminant in
use. Expert guidance should be sought. It is a very effective control measure but only if it is designed, tested, and
maintained properly.
Because contaminants are exhausted to the outdoors, you should also check with your local environment ministry or
municipality for any environmental air regulations or bylaws that may apply in your area.
9.2 Effectiveness of engineering controls

It is not imperative that all engineering controls will be effective. The effectiveness of engineering controls relies on a
number of factors which have been outlined as follows:-
The selection of engineering control options for a specific hazard is very important factor for the effectiveness of
engineering controls in occupational safety and health. Consider a workplace with significant chemical agents present but
a local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system has been purchased which has very low capacity. The required suction rate should
have been 100m3/min but the selected LEV has the capacity of only 25m3/min. So the capacity of engineering controls is an
important factor in their effectiveness. In simple words, engineering controls should be suitable and sufficient for specific
hazards.
183 9-2
The second aspect in selection of engineering controls is their use in a specific work environment. For example
a proximity sensor may have limitations due to the type of environment. A sensor may not work well in a chemical or
corrosive environment so engineering controls should be selected for correct rating so that they may be used with
effective output in a specific type of environment.
Engineering equipments installed and commissioned as engineering controls against certain hazards will
require maintenance after a certain period of time. Engineering controls may not serve their intended function if not
maintained as per the manufacturer recommendations and/or requirements as per the workplace environment. The
engineering controls will remain effective only if they are properly maintained. Certain monitoring and detection
sensors and equipment as part of engineering control may also require calibration after specific period. If the
calibration is not carried out, the results from sensors or other such equipments will be dubious and engineering
control effectiveness will be compromised.
• Another factor in engineering control is their fool proofing or tamper proofing. The employees have tendency
to bypass engineering controls to expedite the productions. They may alter the engineering controls if the provision
may allow. The effectiveness of engineering controls will thus be compromised if the workers can alter or change the
way the engineering controls have been installed. A simple example is a fixed guard installed on the machine. The
worker may prefer to uninstall the guard to avoid wastage of time in frequent installations due to requirements of
maintenance in a machine.
Engineering controls should be robust for the type of environment in which they are being used and the
competency and risk perception of the people who will be beneficiary of the engineering controls. An unintentional
change in the engineering control by the worker of accidental damage to the engineering controls can compromise
the effectiveness of the engineering controls. For example, a damaged fixed guard may collide with moving parts of
the machinery and create more hazards for the workers etc.
• Engineering controls may fail due to the failure of some part or equipment i.e. material failure. We have
discussed in preceding elements about the material failure reasons. If any such failure occurs, the engineering controls
will not work for the intended function.
Any modifications and alterations in the engineering controls without suitable authorizations and testing may
also lead to ineffectiveness of engineering controls. Some engineering controls have provisions for expansions while
others do not. It should be ensured that the modification or alteration in engineering control should only be carried
out by competent professionals and the authorization should be taken from the designers.
9.3 Cost Benefit analysis for Engineering Controls

A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) finds, quantifies and adds all the positive factors. These are the benefits. Then, it
identifies, quantifies and subtracts all the negatives, the costs. The difference between the two indicates whether the
planned action is advisable. The real trick to doing a cost benefit analysis well is to make sure that you include all the
costs and all the benefits and properly quantify them.
CBA is performed to determine how well, or how poorly, a planned action will turn out. Although a CBA can be used
for almost anything, it is most commonly carried out on financial questions.
The process involves monetary value of initial and ongoing expenses vs. expected return. Constructing plausible
measures of the costs and benefits of specific actions is often very difficult. In practice, analysts try to estimate costs
and benefits by using survey methods.
We have discussed in principles of risk assessments that the control measures should be taken on the basis of severity
level of the potential risk and the number of people who might be affected. This is also a basis for establishing the
requirement of engineering controls from cost and benefit perspective. For example, an organization has a certain
hazardous activity once per year. The exposure of the hazard is only for a single isolated worker. Deploying
engineering controls for such situations will not be a wise decision. The possible controls could be elimination (through
outsourcing) or deploying robust administrative controls through safe system of work and stringent permit to work
procedures.
This is indeed the job of a safety practitioner or safety advisor to quantify and analyze the cost benefit analysis of
engineering controls for evaluation and decision making of the top management. The safety advisor/ practitioner thus
have the knowledge of the following:-
$ Economics and financial principles e.g. ROI, Depreciation costs, End of life costs etc.
$ Prevailing engineering control options and their effectiveness
$ Capital and running costs for engineering controls
$ The reliability of engineering controls
184 9-3
• The benefits in quantified manner for the engineering controls

• The cost and benefits analysis from other options from hierarchy of controls for comparison with engineering
controls
• The future requirements and provisions for adaptation and alterations in engineering controls
• The use of engineering controls for a range of hazards (Instead of a single hazard) and the portability option for the
engineering controls (Depending on type and nature of work within the organization)
• Benchmarking i.e. the experiences of other organization with similar nature of work that have earlier deployed the
engineering controls and lesson learnt from them.
• The extent of human intervention with the engineering controls subsequent to installation and commissioning
(Repair, maintenance, calibration, exposure with engineering controls e.g. through softwares, possibility of
accidental damage to the engineering controls and requirement of tamper proofing etc)
Question: Outline the factors you will consider before deploying engineering controls for a specific hazard/s at the
workplace
9.4 Engineering controls for potential explosion hazards

We have discussed the fire and explosion hazards and the control measures for combustible environments,
compressed combustible gases etc. in Element 6. The scope of discussion here is limited to the equipment and devices
that may explode. We shall identify any such equipment and devices used in various industries and will outline the
control measures (Especially Engineering Controls) to eliminate the risk of explosion or reduce the consequences of
explosion (As applicable). The most significant and widely used such equipment is steam boilers which are used in a
number of industries. The safety of boilers is very crucial because a boiler explosion can be disastrous and the impact
of explosion can be quite high from both OH&S and property damage perspective.
There is a huge list of boiler explosion incidents available on internet where you can figure out the significance of their
safety on the basis of the lives these incidents have claimed so far.
Over a period of time, certain safety features were added while designing the boilers. Similarly, standards were
developed for establishing inspection criteria for specific type and sizes of the boilers during their life cycle. The
engineering controls have been at the forefront of these developments and have been present in following 2 facets:-
$ Engineering Controls to eliminate the risk of explosion
0 Engineering controls to minimize the consequences of risk in case of explosion.
Before going into further details about engineering controls, we shall identify the reasons for the explosion of boilers.
A boiler is mechanical equipment which converts water into pressurized steam. The possibility of boiler explosion exists
only if the boiler does not cope with the steam pressure (Design Failure or equipment malfunction). Based on accident
investigations, the reasons of boiler explosion could be:-
0 Excessive furnace temperatures
0 Poor boiler design
$ Poor maintenance of boiler parts
0 Faulty pressure relive valves
$ Inner corrosion
$ Low water levels in the boilers
0 Impurities in water causing scaling on inner side of boiler tubes
Now we shall discuss the engineering controls options for elimination of risk of explosion or minimizing the risk of
explosion.
1- Engineering Controls to eliminate the risk of explosion

As we have discussed the causes of boiler explosion, we can devise and suggest suitable engineering and or
administrative controls coupled with engineering equipments to make the boilers fail safe. But it is noteworthy that
alone a good design and engineering controls may not serve the purpose. The organizations must take administrative
control measures e.g. maintenance by competent professionals against suitable national or international standards is
carried out. The engineering controls may include
0 Water level monitoring and alarm system or water level sensing and automatic level adjustment through an
electronic signal to the water pumps
0 Water quality monitoring equipment and automatic shut off the boiler if high impurities are found in water.
185 9-4
0 Installation of pressure relieves valves that will operate once the steam pressure reaches to a pre-adjusted value. The
pressure relieves valves should be installed at more than one point so that if one fails, the other may operate to avoid
explosion.
2- Engineering controls to minimize the consequences of risk in case of explosion.

In case all the safety features fail, the boiler may explode. The explosion can create disasters because the impact of
explosion will be on all directions. Therefore, the designers had an idea to direct the explosion to one safer side i.e. top.
Designers incorporate a weak point in the steam chamber (For example 1 ft2 plate) which will explode at any given pressure
before the whole steam chamber explodes. The strength of the material used with such weak area is much less than the
strength of materials and structure of other integral parts of pressurized system of boilers. This way, the explosion is only in
upward direction and steam pressure is released without explosion of complete boiler. This way, the impact of explosion
will be very less as compared to the whole boiler explosion.
Note: The boiler has been discussed here as a reference only. The control measures and causes of explosion are applicable
to pressure vessels, water geysers etc.
9.5 Engineering control options for a range of hazards

Engineering is an ever growing field with latest developments in equipments, processes and technologies in a rapid way.
The engineering controls which were applicable previously have been developed in much safer and convenient ways to
cope with the requirements of industries for occupational safety and health provisions. There are a huge number of generic
engineering controls available for a range of hazards across various workplaces. These engineering controls come in
variety of sizes, shapes and with certain environmental protection levels. The organizations can even get designed and
developed the specific engineering controls for the specific hazards and type of environments in which these hazards need
to be controlled.
The job of safety engineer is very crucial as we have discussed earlier. The Safety engineers should have the knowledge and
understanding of various aspects for ensuring effective engineering controls deployment at the workplaces. Safety
Engineers should bridge the gap between the user and the designers. This can be done by systematic establishing the
problem statements. The problem statements then are reviewed by the engineering designers who come up with variety of
engineering control options. These options are then reviewed by safety engineers in consultation with the workers and top
management to reach to some conclusion. This method is especially applicable for a customized engineering control
designs and developments or even seeking amendments in already designed engineering controls to tailor as per the
organization's requirements.
The best way for a safety engineer is to keep upto date with legislative requirements pertaining to the type of work the
organization is involved in. these requirements become the basis for the extent of any subsequent control measures.
Similarly, the safety engineers need to be updated with latest technological advancements in processes and engineering
controls. Benchmarking is another important tool for safety engineers before deciding the engineering controls
applications for hazards at the workplace. It is far better to learn from the mistakes of others instead of learning from own
because the repercussion of incidents can be disastrous or can result into wastage of resources i.e. ineffective engineering
controls.
You can study a wide range of engineering applications for a range of hazards developed by various organizations at
For a simple understanding, let us take a case study. An organization has analyzed that the 80% of the incidents during the
year were attributed towards the reversing of vehicles. Top management wishes to implement robust and fool proof
engineering controls to eliminate the risk of accident from reversing vehicles. The top management has already considered
the elimination and/or substitution options will not work due to the nature of work the organization is involved.
You being the safety officer/ safety engineer have been tasked to identify the possible engineering controls with cost
implications. Outline the engineering control application you would wish to implement and explain the features of the
engineering controls.
There could be a number of engineering controls which can be applied depending upon the financial strength of the
organizations and number of total vehicles. Moreover, the decision for engineering controls application will rely on the
following factors
0 Vehicles are owned by organization itself or owned by subcontractors?

0 If owned by sub-contractors do these vehicle changes every time or remain the same?
0 Will sub-contractor allow any modifications in the vehicles if owned by them?
$ Are the drivers under the sub-contractors control?
186 9-5
Based on the above factors, there could be a range of engineering controls e.g.
0 The modification in vehicles (Gear system) to make reversing speed as low as possible
0 Installation of rear camera and light on all vehicles with display in driver's cabin
$ Installation of proximity sensor on rear side of vehicles integrated with braking system of vehicles. If any person or
object is in close proximity e.g. 3 feet, the brakes should apply automatically
(i) Installation of a soft padded material on rear sides of the vehicles which may provide cushion to the victim on collision.
This soft material should be incorporated with alarm system audible in the drivers' cabins who should apply brakes on
alarm.
The engineering control options have no limits and depend on the latest technological advancements, the competency of
safety engineers and availability of engineering design providing firms in the locality of the business.
9.6 Are Engineering Control Fail-Safe?

The answer to this question is simply no. We cannot rely 100% on engineering controls even if they are effectively designed.
We have studied earlier a number of reasons for ineffectiveness of engineering controls. Those reasons may contribute to
failure of engineering controls. One may ask that why do we invest huge resources in engineering controls if they do not
give us a sense of 100% protection. The answer is probability of failure or accidents with engineering controls is very less if
designers and/or manufacturers' recommendations are complied.
We have witnessed the accidents where the probability of accident was 0.0001% but the accidents took place. For example,
a passenger aircraft has 4 engines. If 3 engines fail, the 4th engine still can safely land the airplane. But we have seen the air
accidents where only one engine failure resulted into crash landing of the plane.
The designers although have latest tools and testing equipments available with them but still forecasting what will go
wrong is a difficult task. We come across a number of new reasons for the accidents and/ or material failures. The good
thing however is that we are learning lessons from these accidents. T he latest technologies and materials are being
developed to cope with accidents from material failure or human error. Similarly, the development of rescue and escape
equipments and personal protective equipments is in progress to minimize the consequences of accidents. It is being
believed that human lives have more worth than the materials and equipments.
Redundant engineering controls

Redundant engineering controls are those who may or may not necessarily operate in normal circumstances but serve as
standby from the main equipment and take control as the main equipment fails. Redundant engineering controls are
deployed for increased safety and reliability of equipments and machines which can have catastrophic results in case of
failure e.g. a passenger aircraft. A Boeing 787 is equipped with four engines which are simultaneously working for a
comfortable flight. However, in case of failure of even 3 engines, the 4th engine (Any one of four engines) can safely land an
aircraft. The reason for providing 3 extra engines serves as redundant engineering controls.
In safety critical equipments, machines or structure, redundant engineering controls are provided for ensuring safety.
However, it should be noted that redundant systems other than safety requirements are rarely used because of their cost
implications. The designers take care of the redundancy during the design phase of safety critical equipments, machines or
processes
Reliability in engineering
Reliability is the dependability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time.
Reliability is closely related to availability.
In simple words, the reliability is the probability of the component or system for its availability i.e.
Reliability= 1- Probability of failure
System reliability is calculated by assessing the probability of failure for each component during a specified period of time
and the connections of the components i.e. series or parallel.
A series connection as shown below means that if the component "A" fails, it will also lead to the failure of the
component "B".
•
-�
-------- -----
----•I�--A - � a
·I�__
187 9-6
The combined availability will be product of both components i.e.

Availability= AB
Component Availability Downtime/Year
A 97% 10.95 Days/year
B 99.99% 52 Minutes/year
Combine availability of system 96.99 10.98 Days/year
A Parallel connection as shown below means that one component is redundant and failure of both components will
lead to system failure only and availability of either component will run the system
- A -
- --
- B -
The combined availability in a parallel system will be
Availability= 1-(1- Availability of component A)2
Component Availability Downtime/Year
A 97% 10.95 Days/year
2 "A" components operating

in parallel 99.91% 7.8 Hrs/year
188 9-7
Contents
Assess the requirement of information Technology for
Occupational Health and safety within the workplaces
10.1 Latest developments and innovations in Informat ion 10-1

Technology for occupational health and safety
10.2 Use of Information Technology for training and 10-1
awareness, communications, incident investigations
10.3 OH&S related Communications through IT 10-2
10.4 Incident investigations and role of IT 10-3
10.5 Utilization of Information Technology against a range of 10-3
OH&S hazards
10.6 IT based OH&S Management system 10-4
10.7 Security and legal issues with use of IT 10-5
10.1 Latest developments and innovations in Information Technology for occupational

health and safety
Information technology has become the back bone of the economic progression of organizations across the world. We
have witnessed in last 2 decades that information technology oriented companies have emerged and lead the business
market. Google, Microsoft, Yahoo and hotmail are some of the examples of businesses which emerged in late 90's and
changed the way the businesses were being done earlier.
The rapid advancements in the field of telecommunications, softwares and hardwares developments have given rise to the
inclusion of information technology in business processes. This has made the management of businesses simpler and
easier with more visibility of the processes. Occupational health and safety has equally benefitted from the onslaught of
information technology. But, there is still room for further use of information technology in occupational safety and health
provisions at the workplaces across the world. We shall discuss how information technology is being used and what
prospects are still available for information technology to play its role in Occupational safety and health.
Information technology is the application of computers to store, process, retrieve, receive, send and/or manipulate the
data. The information technology makes use of hardwares and softwares for specific uses. For example, centralized control
of CCTV systems including the inbuilt sensor installed with the cameras with motion detection or face recognition option is
an example of use of information technology in security. The use of information technology is wide spread in a range of
workplaces for myriad reasons. From detection and monitoring equipment to Alarm system integrated with control
measures are also examples of Information technology. Information Technology has extensive use in the process industries
for process safety management as well. Processes within the systems are optimized through the use of computer
softwares. The developments of processor based mobile phone with android and iOS applications have made use of
information technology for common man in a user friendly way. We can have complete picture of how the processes are
running on our mobile phone through use of customized software applications.
Information Technology has given the options of remote diagnostics for machines and processes. Boeing is using satellite
based system to gauge the performance of the engines flying across the world. Through real time data analysis, they are
able to troubleshoot the problem (if occurs) in the engines of the aircraft during the flight. AHM is a maintenance decision
support capability provided through the MyBoeingFleet.com Web portal. AHM uses real-time airplane data to provide
enhanced fault forwarding, troubleshooting, and historical fix success rates to reduce schedule interruptions and increase
maintenance efficiency. It delivers relevant information whenever and wherever it's needed - data received directly from
airplanes is delivered by Boeing within the MyBoeingFleet.com Web portal.
AHM integrates the remote monitoring, collection, and analysis of airplane data to determine the status of an airplane's
current or future serviceability or performance. An airline's engineering and maintenance staff can use this data to make
timely, economical, and repeatable maintenance decisions that can help improve overall fleet operation.
The use of information technology has made the tracking of any object or humans more easily. With a simple chip in ones
pocket, the person can be identified for its presence at any location. This technology is being used to track the lone workers
especially in high risk areas. The processes safety has become simpler and easier than ever before. Real time data from the
various stages of the processes is gather and is processed in computer servers where any abnormality if found at any stage
will generate a signal and the process will either get smooth or the system will shut down to avoid occupational safety and
health implications from process failures. Information technology is extensively being used in disaster management
including saving human lives. Early flood warning system is an example of use of information technology. Similarly,
information technology is being used to monitor and process the environmental data to forecast the weather.
Hence you can claim that the Information Technology has become indispensible in every field of life including occupational
safety and health. You will easily find the example of use of information technology as part of control measures against any
type of hazards in some of the industries (If not by majority of the industries). The trend is no doubt changing and
organizations are steeping into use of information technology instead of relying on other methods.
10.2 Use of Information Technology for training & awareness, communications, incident
investigations
Information technology has really changed the business processes and is being used in almost all type of organizations in
some or other way. The minimum possible use of information technology is being made in almost all type of organizations
e.g. use of Microsoft products like Word, Excel and power point etc.
193 10-1
The organizations that are changing their business attitudes and incorporating information technology as part of their
business strategy are growing rapidly taking the real advantages of information technology. We shall now discuss the use
of information technology in various processes with specific emphasis on occupational safety and health.
Training and awareness through IT

Training and awareness about the processes, work practices and procedures are very critical for an organization from
occupational safety and health point. We have discussed the implications of lack of awareness and/or skill by the workers at
workplaces. The organizations are paying heed to the use of information technology for occupational safety and health
awareness of the workers and managers. Similarly, the workers themselves get lot of information regarding OH&S through
various sources using information technology. Some of the uses of information technology in training and awareness are
outlined as follows:-
0 The class room based tutor lead training and awareness sessions are being tremendously replaced by E-learning
modules. E-learning provides the flexibility of learning for the learners and they can decide the pace of the training or
awareness session. The use of E-learning technique is a manifest of the benefits of information technology.
0 You do not need to print books and carry them along. You can have a small SD card with thousands of books in PDF or
other format. You can open your smart phone and start studying whenever and wherever you get some spare time.
Information technology has broken the barriers between information and humans.
0 Although the use of cell phone is very dangerous at the workplaces and should always be discouraged but in today's'
world, there will be hardly some workers without the smart phones at home. The organizations can have their own
groups on Whatsapp or facebook etc. and can share important and significant information regarding health and safety.
However, the organization should not force its employees to join those groups because in certain countries, there may
be some legal aspects as well i.e. engaging employees after cease of work.
0 Tremendous information is available on internet. The one who wishes to know about his rights and or obligations and
other aspects of occupational safety and health can have the information from regulatory body websites etc.
0 The one who witnesses an incident is more likely to follow safety instructions at the workplace. With the use of
information technology, the videos of workplace accidents are available and increase the risk perception of viewers. The
impact of these videos is almost similar as if the one is witnessing the incident in real time. Similarly, the violation of
safety procedures resulting into serious implications become more obvious in recorded videos shared through a wide
audience for awareness purpose.
0 With the use of latest IT tools, a trainer can provide online training as well i.e. through video conferencing. This way,
thousands of audience at various locations can be trained simultaneously without relocating them to the training site.
This increases the effectiveness of resources for training and awareness.
10.3 OH&S related Communications through IT

We have earlier discussed that the information technology has revamped the business models of the organizations.
Business processes have been changed to exploit maximum benefits from Information Technology. Similarly, the
occupational health and safety processes have not only been streamlined but the use of information technology has
proved to be very effective in hazards identifications, risk assessments and control measures. The use of communications
through IT for OH&S related issues are outlined as follows:-
• IT has made the communication simpler and easier. The operation rooms within the organizations have real time
data available from various processes. You do not need to be physically available to check the gauge temperature installed
on a furnace. You can remotely check the temperature from all gauges and can take action if there is any anomaly. Similarly,
the use of information technology allows taking action for any pre-set value without the intervention or monitoring of
persons.
• The communication has become faster and reliable. We are connected to the world through internet. The
organizations can identify legal requirements through the use of internet and take suitable control measures accordingly.
The organizations can have personnel and vehicle tracking system to facilitate the smooth working especially lone
working in high risk areas. Similarly, lone workers can immediately call the rescue services.
• Vehicle tracking gives you the vehicle conditions e.g. engine running or not, the speed of vehicle etc. It allows the
organization to control the speed limits within or outside the organization through administrative control measures. The
drivers with reported violating speed limits may be dealt through disciplinary actions. Google has invented a driverless car
as well. So we can foresee a driverless vehicle system centrally controlled by some single agency. This will completely
eliminate the risk of vehicle collisions.
194 10-2
• The communication system in place within some of the technologically advanced organizations can allow them to
respond to an emergency situation in an efficient and effective manner. These communications system identify the
incident scene and through a centrally controlled operation room, the relevant evacuation and rescue services are
immediately positioned at point of incident.
The internal and external communication for OH&S matters has become more efficient and the decision making
has become quicker subsequently.
• The work in confined spaces has become easier because the workers do not need to tell you by physical
monitoring of the internal conditions. The sensors provide real time conditions from the inside of confined space and the
organizations can take effective rescue and evacuation actions if the conditions change during the work in progress in
confined space to save the life and health of the workers
• Biometric and information technology has made the processes simpler. The machines and certain premises can
only operate and allow entrance after ensuring the authorized person. This way the accidents due to unauthorized use of
equipment and premises will be reduced in future.
10.4 Incident investigations and role of IT

Incidents investigations for occupational safety and health issues are carried out for a number of reasons we have
discussed in detail in Unit 1. But here we shall discuss how Information Technology has changed the way and outcome of
incident investigations.
The major breakthrough in investigation was the invention of Polygraph i.e. a lie detection machine. The subject
machine can measures and records several physiological indices such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin
conductivity while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions. The belief underpinning the use of the polygraph
is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated with non
deceptive answers. Although there is no evidence yet if this machine has been used for OH&S related incidents by
organizations or regulatory bodies but the future of investigating incidents may involve these machines to reach to
conclusions from interviews with witnesses, victim (if applicable) and accused etc.
The data availability and the analysis of past trends and patterns give a clue about how and why did the accident
happen. The more the accurate data available subsequent to an incident, the easier it is for the investigating officer to have
fact based findings. With the use of data storage tools and paperless working environments, it is getting easier to have
accurate and sufficient data.
• Information technology has made the world a global village. The incident at any one place of the world and any
investigation findings become visible to the world in a very short span of time. The huge data availability through various
sources on internet makes the work of investigating officer quite simple, easy and effective. Similarly, the incident
investigation latest techniques become known to others.
• With the use of various equipments and systems e.g. a CCTV camera, the incident investigations have become
easy because the data provide the fact based findings for the investigation outcome.
10.S Utilization of Information Technology against a range of OH&S hazards

The developments and advancements in information technology have given a new direction to occupational safety and
health control measures and the options for control measures available today have become possible for various
workplaces. But it is noteworthy that the use of information technology for occupational safety and health is yet to be
explored and organizations must be encouraged to use IT as a tool in identifying hazards and applying suitable controls as
per the context of the organization. Just like an occupational health and safety management system of one organization
differs from other organizations, similarly, the use of IT for occupational safety and health provisions may vary from
organization to organization depending on various factors mainly the context of the organizations.
It is therefore the duty of safety engineers to identify the hazards along with suitable engineering control coupled with
information technology. There is no limit in engineering and information technology and a simple idea and approach can
help saving lives at the workplaces. The optimum use of information technology will improve the effectiveness and
performance of the organization for occupational safety and health. Relying on administrative controls only can give a false
sense of protection. The future of occupational safety and health is more IT oriented with lesser dependence on human
interactions.
The safety engineers must broaden their knowledge about the possibilities of use of IT in occupational safety and health
provisions. They need to devise new ideas of the use of information technology against various hazards. Similarly, the
safety engineers should be aware of recent developments in IT and engineering being used for identification of hazards,
control of hazards and/ or evacuation and rescue of people. We are presenting a number of situations where you will need
to identify the possibility of use of information Technology for occupational safety and health perspective.
195 10-3
You are advised to look into these situations carefully and devise a suitable use of IT and engineering/ administrative
control:-
0 Fire safety at a 6 storey shopping mall where approximately more than 20000 people (including disabled, children, and
$ women) visit on daily basis. Peak crowd timing is 1900 hrs to 2200 hrs
$ A pizza company is offering home delivery services. They wish to ensure safety of their riders from violence
$ A courier company which has suffered lot of road accidents from vehicles in previous year. They have established their
OH&S objectives to reduce the vehicle accidents by 80%
0 A construction company with backbone reported ill health issues due to manual handling
10.6 IT based OH&S Management system

We have discussed in quite detail about theOH&S management system in Unit 1. In this topic, we shall discuss the extent of
use of IT in an OH&S Management System. The possibility of a completely paperlessOH&S management system can also
be visualized with an IT based system. But there will be very limited organizations that will be running a paperless OH&S
management system. Before going into detailed benefits of a paperless OH&S management system, we shall figure out
what it takes to achieve the goal of paperless OH&S management system and if the benefits are real, why didn't
organizations ventured into these system.
Requirements for an IT based OH&S Management System

It is easier said than done to transform from conventional procedures to a fully integrated paperless OH&S Management
system. We have earlier discussed that most of the employers still assume that occupational safety and health provisions
incur cost. They although provide OH&S requirements at the workplaces to comply with the legal requirements but still
they assume that it is a financial burden which they need to comply. We can call it occupational safety and health attitude of
the employers. This is the reason; the occupational health and safety legislations are quite lenient in certain states and
countries to promote the industry. The first step in establishing an IT based OH&S Management system with 100%
paperless environment is to establish, implement, maintain and continually improve a paper based OH&S management
system. To take real benefits from an OH&S Management system, the maximum out of it should be exploited. Most of the
organizations with established and implementedOH&S management system do it for the purpose of obtaining a 3rd party
certification. OH&S Management system becomes a burden for such organizations and mere serve as paper filling
activities making the work more complicated. So the first requirement is to have a well established and tested OH&S
management system before making it to IT basedOH&S management system.
The second factor is the cost of developing an IT based OH&S management system which will depend on context of
organization specifically the size of the organization, geographical spread with remote locations, complexity of processes
and skill level of workforce etc. If the cost factor is considered in conjunction with the top management commitment for
OH&S (As stated above), there will be quite fewer organizations who will be venturing into IT based OH&S management
system.
The third factor is top management commitment for OH&S management system. If the top management is aware of the
benefit in terms of OH&S performance and effectiveness then they will allocate resources otherwise, they will prefer not to
initiate. Similarly, the workforce have tendency to follow stereotype paper based management system. The change is
always alarming for the workforce because they believe the change is being done to control the workforce and make them
more accountable. Fourth factor is the availability of competent external providers who will execute the project in a
professional manner. If all above factors are positive but there is scarcity of competent and professional external providers
with similar experience then the organization may not initiate the project.
Benefits of IT based OH&S Management System

IT based OH&S management system can have numerous benefits depending upon the extent of use of information
technology. We shall outline the benefits for a complete IT based management system with 100% paperless environment
forOH&S.
0 The recurring cost saving in Printing and stationery forOH&S Management system
0 Increased competence of workforce in IT and increased risk perception and control measures
0 Real time data availability for allOH&S processes through a centralized computer servers.
0 Effective communication and allocation of resources for certain high risk activities e.g. where permit to work system is
required; the work centre does not require filling paper based PTW and get it signed. Instead, PTW will be initiated
through web based application and will be authorized online by all concerned.
196 10-4
e Easy data storage and retrieval. Just a single click on computer will give you all the activities of the days, weeks or
months. Or even you can look for a certain type of activity e.g. how many times; confined space work was carried out
through PTW.
e Easy control of documented procedures without the risk of obsolete documents being used. Similarly, easier to update
the documents as and when required
e You do not need to track when is calibration of equipments is due. The system will alarm at a pre-set date about any
equipment for its calibration requirements.
e Data analysis and evaluation for OH&S management system inputs will be easier.
e Easier to centrally control emergency response and evacuation teams. Similarly, easier to communicate by the victim (if
applicable) or the witness to call for emergency support
e Lesser human involvement will result into lesser chances of human error. The incident rate will decrease.
e Optimum management of OH&S resources through a centralized system
e Easier to identify the training needs and gauge the training effectiveness
e Hazards identification integrated into OH&S management system with automatic response e.g. fire or smoke detectors
integrated with sprinkler system and the auto communication to relevant interested parties etc.
10.7 Security and legal issues with use of IT

Nothing comes with 100% benefits and zero side effects. Even the life saving drugs has the side effects. Similarly use of
Information technology in OH&S matters has certain legal and security issues which have been outlined as follows:-
$ If your IT based OH&S management system is available through internet then the risk of hacking can cause huge
financial loss to the organization. Similarly, hacking can affect the OH&S performance of the organizations because the
data will be manipulated and cannot be relied for analysis evaluation and decision making
0 Loss of data from computer hardwares is also an important issue. The device or software may get corrupted due to
certain technical reasons and all the data saved is lost. Recovering the lost data may take quite some time and in some
cases, might not be possible.
(:) IT based system make extensive use of DSE (Display screen equipment) especially in a paperless environment. The use
of DSE has certain OH&S implications as well. The affected workers may sue the organization for civil claims on the basis
of ill health attributed towards extensive use of DSE.
0 The privacy and data protection is very important. The cyber security lapse can lead to organizations being legally
penalized for violation of privacy and data protection requirements. Because the data may include customers, clients
and other confidential information.
0 Legal issues may arise for use of certain non licensed computer softwares e.g. Microsoft products or even the software
application license for OH&S management system if being used beyond the agreement clauses. The organization
should carefully deal the software license issues to avoid any legal implications
0 Huge amount of data can be stored in a small chip (SD cards). Therefore, the data theft is very easy with IT based system.
This is a severe data security issue with the use of information technology based system.
197 10-5
Contents
Element 11: Assess various mechanical devices used in industries
for Occupational Health and safety at the workplaces for their
suitability of use in specific environments
11.1 Valves 11-1

11.2 Pumps 11-3
11.3 Pascal law and its applications 11-4
11.4 Use of locking & braking devices 11-4
11.1Valves
A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various
passageways. Valves are extensively used in chemical, process, construction, oil & gas, irrigation, food, pharmaceutical and
many other industries including hydraulic and pneumatic machinery and equipments. But our scope is limited to the
application of valves where their performance can attribute towards occupational safety and health.
$ The valves have basically the following 4functions

$ Stop/ start a flow (A simple example is a water tap in washrooms)
$ Regulate a flow e.g. to control a flow rate at set pressure
$ Non-return i.e. allows only unidirectional flow
$ Over Pressure Protection i.e. Pressure relieve valves
All four types of valves may be used in a hydraulic or pneumatic system to achieve the flow in a specified manner.
Type of valves
Based on the 3 functions of the valves, the design of the valve may be different depending upon the following factors:-
$ The size requirement of the flow

$ The pressurized/ non pressurized flow
$ Fluid type (for example hydraulic or pneumatic)
$ The automation requirements in the system
$ The space available for valves installations
$ The accuracy of the flow
$ The expected frequency of use for a specified period of time
$ Environmental protection level
e Life of valves etc.
You will notice that there are number of different design and shapes in valves are available for same function e.g. non
return. The prices of the valves also depend on the factors we have mentioned above.
Safety Implications with the use of valves

In chemical, process, oil & gas and other industries, the valves are used for various functions as discussed above. The valves
are subject to regulate the fluid under immense pressure. The pressure needs to be diverted to its intended location
through the valve e.g. in an excavator, the pressure needs to be applied to the excavation basket. Similarly, in a chemical or
process industry, the sudden increase in pressure need to be purged to avoid explosion in the system. The incapacity or
inability of a valve to serve its intended function may lead to catastrophic accidents.
We shall discuss the implications through a simple example. A hydraulic crane is lifting 80 tons load at a height of 30 ft. This
process is being carried out by hydraulic pressure system. Now this 80 tons load needs to be put on ground. You have
noticed that mostly the lowering speed is very slow and load is carefully put on ground. But sometimes, the load suddenly
drops with gravitational force. The sudden drop of load can cause severe safety issues because the banksman and other
persons involved in lifting and lowering operations were not expecting this to happen.
It should be noteworthy that lowering a load does not require any force because the gravitational pull is enough to speedily
lower the load. However, the hydraulic system is required to exert a force opposite to gravitation force so that speed of
lowering should be kept as low as desirable. This is carried out by the use of a combination of non return valve (Which does
not allow backward movement of hydraulic oil and till the time hydraulic oil does not move back, the load will not be
lowered) and a pressure regulating valve (e.g. needle valve) which allows backward flow of hydraulic oil in a controlled
manner with controlled flow rate. The pressure regulating valve can be adjusted to increase/ decrease the lowering speed
under gravitation pull. If any of these two valves installed in the crane is unserviceable, the load will fall down under
gravitation force with extremely high speed and may cause the crane toppling as well.
Another example is a pressure relieve valve installed on a steam boiler. The boiler design capacity is to withstand 3500 PSI.
The pressure of steam needs to be maintained at much pressure lower than the design capacity e.g. 2000 PSI. But due to
certain failures (As we have discussed in element 9), the boiler pressure may start rising above the operating pressure. The
excessive pressure needs to be purged before it reaches at 3500 PSI causing the boiler to explode. A pressure regulating
valve may be installed within the system to purge any such pressure.
202 11-1
The pressure regulating valve is already set at 2500 PSI. If the operating pressure rises, then pressure relieve valve operates
at 2500 PSI so that the boiler pressure does not rise above 2500 PSI. However, it should be noted that the pressure
regulating valve should be of suitable rating i.e. capacity as per the size of boiler. Similarly, installation of a redundant valve
(2600 PSI setting) may also be installed to ensure the safety in case one valve in non-functional or increase in pressure rate
is very high and valve cannot cope to purge such high pressure increase rate.
In above 2 examples, we have discussed the functions of non return valve, pressure regulating valve and pressure relieve
valves. But how are stop/ start valves used. Once a hydraulic or pneumatic pump is working and producing the pressurized
fluid, it must be regulated. If we do not regulate, the pressure system may be burst resulting equipment failure and safety
and health disasters. The stop and start valve in hydraulic machinery is used when the load lifting or lowering (Work done) is
required. Otherwise, the stop/ start valve automatically operates in safety mode i.e. diverts the hydraulic pressure
(hydraulic fluid) to the main reservoir. In case of pneumatic pressure, the stop/ start valve is installed after the pressurized
compressor followed by other valves in the system.
Valves actuating methods

There are a number of ways these vaIves can be actuated interna I ly or externaIly for their intended operations
$ Manual e.g. a tap or a valve installed in plumbing system of a home or valves installed inside the cabin of a hydraulic
machinery e.g. excavator, fork lift truck or a hydraulic crane.
0 Hydraulic actuating method is used for operating very large valves which may require tremendous force to operate. For
example, a valve installed in the dams to regulate the flow of water is under immense pressure and cannot be operated
manually because it will require huge force.
0 Pneumatic actuating methods are used where sudden and frequent valves operations are required e.g. bottle filling
plants etc. Their efficiency of operation is far better in such scenarios.
0 Solenoids are electro-mechanical actuators with a magnetic relay operated by electric current. These types of actuators
are widely used in industries to streamline the flow for various processes and equipments.
(S) Mechanical/ Gravitation force etc. actuation is normally used in non-return valves and pressure relieve valves (Spring
loaded at pre-set value through a screw type actuator for adjusting the operating pressure of valve)
Why do valves fail to operate?

The valves operations guaranty safety at the workplaces. But there have been a number of workplace incidents where the
failures of the valves lead to the destruction of system with severe health and safety repercussions. We shall outline the
reasons why do valves fail to operate;-
0 No matter how expensive and excellent a valve is, it still requires maintenance as per designer or manufacturer's
recommendations. The valves are exposed to certain conditions both internally and externally which can lead to their
malfunction. For example, a pressure relieve valve in a boiler is exposed to pressurized steam. The spring loaded valve
may fail to operate because the spring installed in the valve has changed its mechanical properties due to exposure with
steam and was not replaced after certain required time.
0 A valve has been installed with a low capacity where a large capacity valve may be required. For example, the flow rate
required with a valve is 100 ltr/ minute but the installed valve can allow 75 ltr/ min only. This normally happens when the
modifications in the systems are carried out i.e. human error or some design failure.
$ A valve was supposed to work at 3500 PSI but the valve installed was not capable to withstand this load for continuous
48 hours and resulted into failure.
$ Human error in valve opening i.e. actuating manually. A worker may assume that valve is fully open or close whereas,
practically the valve is half open. This condition based on human error can lead to failure of the valves for their intended
functions
$ In a valve with spring loaded or gravitation force application (non-return valve for example), the spring, ball or plate got
stuck and resulted into backward flow in the system.
$ Valves may also fail if they have been exposed to certain pressures and conditions which they were not supposed to
bear as per their design limitations. For example, the designer did not expect the pressure increase rate@ 500 PSI per
minute whereas, this condition happened and resulting into valve not meeting the requirement and hence failed to
deliver.
$ Valves can also malfunction if they are installed in a wrong way. A non-return valve if installed in opposite direction in a
system will lead to severe safety implications because it will stop the fluid flow (Which it is required to allow) resulting
excessive pressure build up in the system.
$ FOD (Foreign Object Debris) if available in the fluid which can cause contamination of valves resulting obstruction in
their free movement.
203 11-2
Note: For detailed study on how valves operate, please surf through Google and YouTube websites and you will find
relevant data quite in detail about functions, actuating methods and safety of valves.
11.2Pumps
Pump is a mechanical device used to move the fluids. Pump may use any kind of energy required for their motion e.g. an
electrical motor. Similarly manual pumps are also available (The hand pumps used for waters or a manual hydraulic jack
used for lifting vehicles). The basic purpose is to provide the energy to the pump so that it could move the fluid. This energy
may be gained through electric current, an engine, wind energy or potential energy etc.
The pumps come in various sizes and specifications depending upon the requirements. However, following 2
characteristics of pumps are very significant i.e.
1-Capacity
Capacity is defined in terms of work done over a specified period of time e.g. 100 ltr / minute or 1000 ltr/ minute flow
requirements.
2-Capability
Capability is defined in terms of the pressure requirements e.g. a pump can produce maximum 500 PSI while another pump
can produce 3000 PSI.
Pumps are extensively used in a number of industrial sectors including the ones we have discussed in valves topic.
Pumps work on following 2 basic principles:-

• Reciprocating pumps
• Rotary pumps
There are further many other types of pump utilizing any of the above principle. The pumps can further be sub-divided
into 2 main categories based on their output
1- Positive displacement pumps

A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount and forcing that trapped volume into the
discharge pipe. The volume is constant through each cycle of operation. A simple example of a positive displacement
pump is a gear type or reciprocating pump used in hydraulic machinery. Positive displacement pumps can produce the
same flow at a given speed (RPM) no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps are constant
flow machines. A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump,
because a positive displacement pump operating against a closed discharge valve continues to produce flow and the
pressure in the discharge line increases until the line bursts, the pump is severely damaged, or both.
A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the positive displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief valve can
be internal or external. The pump manufacturer normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The
internal valve is usually only used as a safety precaution. An external relief valve in the discharge line, with a return line back
to the suction line or supply tank provides increased safety.
2-Centrifugal pumps
A centrifugal pump is normally used in fluid flow requiring the fluid to be conveyed at certain point of use e.g. irrigation,
waste water flow, refineries, power plants. They are quite efficient with high flow rate. But centrifugal pumps are not use
where the fluid requirement is to exert pressure for execution of the job e.g. in a hydraulic or pneumatic machinery.
A centrifugal pump has a small inlet and a large outlet. It works on the principle of centrifugal force. The fluid is sucked and
the primer rotates to provide the centrifugal force to the fluid.
OH&S implications with the sue ofPumps

Thanks to the better available designs for positive displacement pumps having pressure relieve valve within the pumps to
ensure that pressure does not build in the system if the check valve is inadvertently locked. The centrifugal pumps have no
major implications if the valve is closed. However, the requirement and use of these pumps can be significant from OH&S
perspective. A pump is supposed to operate in a certain condition and it fails to operate then there may be some safety
implications. For example, in an underground workshop, centrifugal pumps have been installed to discharge rain and/or
flood water from the basement to the sewerage lines. The incapacity or incapability of these pumps can lead to flooding of
underground workshops.
204 11-3
Similarly, the discharge of flammable materials requires special type of pumps to avoid heat or spark generation. These
pumps should be routinely maintained to avoid friction. Such types of pumps are used in refineries and gasoline stations.
A hydraulic pump installed in lifting equipment is very critical. The risk of pump failure while lifting operation is in progress
cannot be ruled out. This situation can create safety hazards at the workplaces because a suspended load has potential
energy and needs to be lowered to avoid accident e.g. in case of high speed winds. Similarly, a worker in elevated position
for the execution of job needs to be lowered. These situations must be risk assessed and alternate methods should be
incorporated in the lifting equipments which may not require the use of pumps for lowering operations etc.
11.3 Pascal law and its applications

Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every part of the fluid, as well as to the walls of the
container. A daily life application of Pascal law is a hydraulicjack used to raise a car off the ground. A small force applied to a
small-area piston is transformed to a large force at a large-area piston.
The applications of Pascal law in industries are quite extensive. Following are some of the other applications of Pascal law in
the industries:-
$ Hydraulic machinery operation e.g. excavators, hydraulic presses etc
0 Hydraulic braking system and power steering system in automobile industry
0 Application in dams for generating electricity etc.
0 Hydraulic manual handling aids e.g. manual hydraulicjack etc.
With the applications of Pascal law, the life has become easier. It has positive outcomes in the development of
ergonomically designed equipments, tools and workstations.
11.4 Use oflocking & braking devices

A brake is a mechanical device which stops a moving part by absorbing the energy most ofte through friction. Brakes are
widely used in automotive industry and we cannot assume a vehicle without the brakes. We all are aware of the
consequences if the brakes fail to work for a running vehicle. The brakes have certain other uses in the industry as well. The
uses include:-
1- Electromagnetic brakes with the electric motor being used for overhead lifting cranes.
This type of brakes utilizes the principle of electromagnetic induction. Once the motor is switched on, the electric current
through a strong magnetic field pulls the brakes for easy rotary motion of the motor. Once the circuit breaks, the circuit is
de-energized resulting spring loaded brakes applied on the plate attached to the motor. The suspended load will not fall
even if the motor is stopped
1- Inertia system used in the seat belt to apply brakes
SPROCKET
LOCK BAR
,
�ULUM
205 11-4
This is one kind of locking and braking system used in the vehicles for safety belts
1- Locking and Braking system in elevators

Elevators have made the possibility of construction of skyscrapers across the world. Without the invention of elevators, the
dream of high rise buildings could not come true. But safety in elevators is very important because the elevators are widely
used with millions of lifting and lowering operations across the world. The elevator designers make use of dual safety
system i.e. the braking system with the motors and another redundant locking and braking system with the cabin. The
locking and braking system is a spring loaded mechanical device which locks with the side rails once the rope is broken. So
even if the rope to which elevators are attached get broken for any reason, the cabin will get locked with the side rails
making it impossible to fall under gravitational force.
2- The fourth and most common use as we have discussed earlier is in the vehicles.
ABS (Anti-lock Braking system) brakes are used in the vehicles for efficient and controlled deceleration. ABS provides
control over the vehicle and avoids vehicle skidding which otherwise will happen due to sudden stoppage of rotary motion
of wheels. In simple words, ABS braking allows braking as well as controlled steering. For detailed elaboration of how ABS
works, please go through the videos available on YouTube.
Note: The locking and braking devices may be customized for their intended use. Safety Engineers should identify any
such equipment or machinery which may require braking system for their possible implications on occupational safety at
the workplaces
206 11-5
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Introduction

1.1 Forms of Chemical Agents 17

2.1 Mechanical properties of materials 51

3.1 Non destructive testing(NDT) methods 90

4.1 Common end user requirements for tools, equipment 102

4.2 The impact of a well designed tool, equipment 103

5.1 The Principle of Electricity 113

6.1 Principle of Fire & Fire Terminologies 131

7.1 Fission Reaction 147

8.1 What are Biological Agents? 165

9.1 Significance of engineering control 182

10.1 Latest developments and innovations in Informat ion 193

11.1 Valves 202

1.1 Forms of Chemical Agents 1-1

1.1 Forms of Chemical Agents

LOSO and LCSO

Why LOSO and LCSO are values a measure of acute toxicity?

How are LD/LCSO tests done?

How should an LOSO value be used?

1.2 What is Epidemiology?

Example: Studies of Mortality

3- Physio- Chemical Effect

1.4 Routes of entry into human body (At workplaces)

Absorption through Skin

1.5 Human Immunity against chemical agents

Local Immunity in the Skin

Local Immunity in the Lung

Conclusions and Future Direction

1.6 Control of Chemicals as a regulatory compliance

Classifications and Related Measures

Labelling and Marking

Chemical Safety Data Sheets

1.7 Type of health effects based on quantity of dose

Acute Health Effect

Chronic Health effects

What are theOccupational Exposure Limits (OEL)?

Type ofOELOccupational exposure limits)

Short Term exposure limits (STEL)

Long Term Exposure limits (LTEL)

Time Weightage Average (TWA)

Advantages ofOccupational Exposure Limits

Limitations of Occupational Exposure Limits

1.8 Chemical Processes and Implications on OH&S

Type of Chemical Reactions

The underlying causes of many incidents involving chemical reactions are:

0 Inadequate knowledge of the reaction chemistry/thermo-chemistry;

Riskassessment of chemical agents

Factors need to be considered in riskassessmentfor chemical Agents

How to identify the hazardous nature of a substance

Chemical Identity: Name of the product.

Hazardous Ingredients/Identity Information: List of hazardous chemicals.

unusual fire and explosion hazards.

Limitation of Information available about the Hazardous substances

1.9 Monitoring & Measuring of Hazardous Substances at workplace

Methods of Monitoring & Measurement

Other Detection systems

Dust Monitoring Equipment

General Limitations of Monitoring System

Monitoring Devices Selection Consideration

Factors effecting Efficiency of Monitoring & Measuring Devices

1.10 Risk Control Measures against Hazardous Substances

I. Elimination of hazardous substances