What is a computer Network?

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared network
medium. A computer network is a collection of two or more connected computers. When these computers are joined
in a network, people can share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, tape drives, or CD-ROM drives. When
networks at multiple locations are connected using services available from phone companies, people can send e-
mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct video conferences in real time with other remote users. As
companies rely on applications like electronic mail and database management for core business operations,
computer networking becomes increasingly more important.

Every network includes:

 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.

 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication between
networked computers and peripherals is also possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, XP, Novell NetWare,
UNIX and Linux.
 Types of Networks:
LANs (Local Area Networks)

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that connects computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory or office building. The
defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs), include their
usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased
telecommunication lines. The development of standard networking protocols and media has
resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations

Peer-to-Peer Network

WANs (Wide Area Networks)

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network
whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries). This is in
contrast with local area networks (LANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which are
usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city)
respectively.

Wide area network combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is
accomplished by connecting the different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone
lines, dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links etc. Wide area
networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for employees to dial into, or
it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked using special routing
protocols and filters to minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast distances.
Internet

The Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and facilitate data
communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web
and newsgroups.

With the rapid rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a communications
highway for millions of users. The Internet was initially restricted to military and academic
institutions, but now it is a full-fledged medium for any and all forms of information and
commerce. Internet websites now provide personal, educational, political and economic
resources to every corner of the planet.

Intranet

With the advancements made in browser-based software for the Internet, many private
organizations are implementing intranets. An intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type
tools, but available only within that organization. For large organizations, an intranet provides an
easy access mode to corporate information for employees.

MANs (Metropolitan area Networks)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that usually spans a city or a large
campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-
capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide
area networks (or WAN) and the Internet.

Models of Network:
There are two main models of a network:

 Peer-to-peer model.
 Server – based model.

In peer-to-peer networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers. All
of the computers are equal and therefore known as peers. Normally each computer serves as
Client/Server and there is no one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire
network.
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of small organizations where the users are
allocated in the same general area, security is not an issue and the organization and the network
will have limited growth within the foreseeable future.

Client/server network
A computer network in which there is one centralized, powerful computer (called the server) many less
powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are connected to it. The clients run
programs and access data that are stored on the server.
The client/server network is the most efficient way to provide:

 Databases and management of applications such as Spreadsheets, Accounting, Communications and

Document management.
 Network management.
 Centralized file storage.
Categories of Network:

Network can be
divided in to two main
categories:

 Peer-to-peer.
 Server – based.

In peer-to-peer networking there are

no dedicated servers or hierarchy
among the computers. All of the
computers are equal and therefore
known as peers. Normally each
computer serves as Client/Server
and there is no one assigned to be
an administrator responsible for the
entire network.

Peer-to-peer networks are good

choices for needs of small
organizations where the users are
allocated in the same general area,
security is not an issue and the
organization and the network will
have limited growth within the
foreseeable future.

The term Client/server refers to the

concept of sharing the work involved
in processing data between the client
computer and the most powerful
server computer.

The client/server
network is the most efficient way to provide:

 Databases and management of applications such as Spreadsheets, Accounting, Communications and

Document management.
  Network management.
 Centralized file storage.

The client/server model is basically an implementation of distributed or cooperative processing. At the heart of the
model is the concept of splitting application functions between a client and a server processor. The division of labor
between the different processors enables the application designer to place an application function on the processor
that is most appropriate for that function. This lets the software designer optimize the use of processors--providing the
greatest possible return on investment for the hardware.

Client/server application design also lets the application provider mask the actual location of application function. The
user often does not know where a specific operation is executing. The entire function may execute in either the PC or
server, or the function may be split between them. This masking of application function locations enables system
implementers to upgrade portions of a system over time with a minimum disruption of application operations, while
protecting the investment in existing hardware and software.

The OSI Model:

Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model has

become an International standard and serves as a guide
for networking. This model is the best known and most
widely used guide to describe networking environments.
Vendors design network products based on the
specifications of the OSI model. It provides a description
of how network hardware and software work together in
a layered fashion to make communications possible. It
also helps with trouble shooting by providing a frame of
reference that describes how components are supposed
to function.

There are seven to get familiar with and these are the
physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport
layer, session layer, presentation layer, and the
application layer.

 Physical Layer, is just that the physical parts of the network such as wires, cables, and there media along
with the length. Also this layer takes note of the electrical signals that transmit data throughout system.
 Data Link Layer, this layer is where we actually assign meaning to the electrical signals in the network. The
layer also determines the size and format of data sent to printers, and other devices. Also I don't want to
forget that these are also called nodes in the network. Another thing to consider in this layer is will also allow
and define the error detection and correction schemes that insure data was sent and received.
 Network Layer, this layer provides the definition for the connection of two dissimilar networks.
 Transport Layer, this layer allows data to be broken into smaller packages for data to be distributed and
addressed to other nodes (workstations).
  Session Layer, this layer helps out with the task to carry information from one node (workstation) to another
node (workstation). A session has to be made before we can transport information to another computer.
 Presentation Layer, this layer is responsible to code and decode data sent to the node.
 Application Layer, this layer allows you to use an application that will communicate with say the operation
system of a server. A good example would be using your web browser to interact with the operating system
on a server such as Windows NT, which in turn gets the data you requested.

Network Architectures:

Ethernet

Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today. Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast
Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and LocalTalk. Ethernet is
popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of installation. These benefits, combined
with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to support virtually all popular network protocols,
make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most computer users today. The Institute for Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines the Ethernet standard as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for
configuring an Ethernet network as well as specifying how elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another.
By adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can communicate efficiently.

Fast Ethernet
For Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds, the Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been
established. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Megabits per second (Mbps) to 100 Mbps with only
minimal changes to the existing cable structure. There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with
level 5 UTP cable, 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable, and 100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for
use with level 3 UTP cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most popular due to its close compatibility
with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard. For the network manager, the incorporation of Fast Ethernet into an existing
configuration presents a host of decisions. Managers must determine the number of users in each site on the network
that need the higher throughput, decide which segments of the backbone need to be reconfigured specifically for
100BASE-T and then choose the necessary hardware to connect the 100BASE-T segments with existing 10BASE-T
segments. Gigabit Ethernet is a future technology that promises a migration path beyond Fast Ethernet so the next
generation of networks will support even higher data transfer speeds.

Token Ring

Token Ring is another form of network configuration which differs from

Ethernet in that all messages are transferred in a unidirectional manner
along the ring at all times. Data is transmitted in tokens, which are passed
along the ring and viewed by each device. When a device sees a message
addressed to it, that device copies the message and then marks that
message as being read. As the message makes its way along the ring, it
eventually gets back to the sender who now notes that the message was
received by the intended device. The sender can then remove the
message and free that token for use by others.

Various PC vendors have been proponents of Token Ring networks at

different times and thus these types of networks have been implemented in many organizations.

FDDI

FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) is a standard for data transmission on

fiber optic lines in a local area network that can extend in range up to 200 km
(124 miles). The FDDI protocol is based on the token ring protocol. In addition
to being large geographically, an FDDI local area network can support
thousands of users.

Protocols:

Network protocols are standards that allow computers to communicate. A

protocol defines how computers identify one another on a network, the form that the data should take in transit, and
how this information is processed once it reaches its final destination. Protocols also define procedures for handling
lost or damaged transmissions or "packets." TCP/IP (for UNIX, Windows NT, Windows 95 and other platforms), IPX
(for Novell NetWare), DECnet (for networking Digital Equipment Corp. computers), AppleTalk (for Macintosh
computers), and NetBIOS/NetBEUI (for LAN Manager and Windows NT networks) are the main types of network
protocols in use today.

Although each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical cabling. This common method of
accessing the physical network allows multiple protocols to peacefully coexist over the network media, and allows the
builder of a network to use common hardware for a variety of protocols. This concept is known as "protocol
independence,"

Some Important Protocols and their job:

Protocol Acronym Its Job

Point-To-Point TCP/IP The backbone protocol of

the internet. Popular also
for intranets using the
internet

Transmission Control TCP/IP The backbone protocol of

Protocol/internet Protocol the internet. Popular also
for intranets using the
internet

Internetwork Package IPX/SPX This is a standard protocol

Exchange/Sequenced Packet for Novell Network
Exchange Operating System

NetBIOS Extended User NetBEUI This is a Microsoft protocol

Interface that doesn't support
routing to other networks

File Transfer Protocol FTP Used to send and receive

files from a remote host

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol HTTP Used for the web to send
documents that are
encoded in HTML.

Network File Services NFS Allows network nodes or

workstations to access
files and drives as if they
were their own.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol SMTP Used to send Email over a

network

Telnet   Used to connect to a host

and emulate a terminal
that the remote server can
recognize
Introduction to TCP/IP Networks:

TCP/IP-based networks play an increasingly important role in computer networks. Perhaps one reason for their
appeal is that they are based on an open specification that is not controlled by any vendor.

What Is TCP/IP?

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol. The term TCP/IP is not limited just
to these two protocols, however. Frequently, the term TCP/IP is used to refer to a group of protocols related to the
TCP and IP protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Terminal Emulation
Protocol (TELNET), and so on.

The Origins of TCP/IP

In the late 1960s, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency), in the United States, noticed that there
was a rapid proliferation of computers in military communications. Computers, because they can be easily
programmed, provide flexibility in achieving network functions that is not available with other types of communications
equipment. The computers then used in military communications were manufactured by different vendors and were
designed to interoperate with computers from that vendor only. Vendors used proprietary protocols in their
communications equipment. The military had a multi vendor network but no common protocol to support the
heterogeneous equipment from different vendors

Net work Cables and Stuff:

In the network you will commonly find three types of cables used these are the, coaxial cable, fiber optic and twisted
pair.

Thick Coaxial Cable

This type cable is usually yellow in color and used in what is called thicknets, and has two conductors. This coax can
be used in 500-meter lengths. The cable itself is made up of a solid center wire with a braided metal shield and
plastic sheathing protecting the rest of the wire.

Thin Coaxial Cable

As with the thick coaxial cable is used in thicknets the thin version is used in thinnets. This type cable is also used
called or referred to as RG-58. The cable is really just a cheaper version of the thick cable.

Fiber Optic Cable

As we all know fiber optics are pretty darn cool and not cheap. This cable is smaller and can carry a vast amount of
information fast and over long distances.
Twisted Pair Cables

These come in two flavors of unshielded and shielded.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Is more common in high-speed networks. The

biggest difference you will see in the UTP and
STP is that the STP use's metallic shield
wrapping to protect the wire from interference.

-Something else to note about these cables is

that they are defined in numbers also. The bigger
the number the better the protection from
interference. Most networks should go with no
less than a CAT 3 and CAT 5 is most
recommended.

-Now you know about cables we need to know

about connectors. This is pretty important and
you will most likely need the RJ-45 connector.
This is the cousin of the phone jack connector
and looks real similar with the exception that the
RJ-45 is bigger. Most commonly your connector
are in two flavors and this is BNC (Bayonet Naur
Connector) used in thicknets and the RJ-45 used in smaller networks using UTP/STP.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

This is the most popular form of cables in the network and the cheapest form that you can go with. The UTP has four
pairs of wires and all inside plastic sheathing. The biggest reason that we call it Twisted Pair is to protect the wires
from interference from themselves. Each wire is only protected with a thin plastic sheath.

Ethernet Cabling

Now to familiarize you with more on the Ethernet and it's cabling we need to look at the 10's. 10Base2, is considered
the thin Ethernet, thinnet, and thinwire which uses light coaxial cable to create a 10 Mbps network. The cable
segments in this network can't be over 185 meters in length. These cables connect with the BNC connector. Also as
a note these unused connection must have a terminator, which will be a 50-ohm terminator.

10Base5, this is considered a thicknet and is used with coaxial cable arrangement such as the BNC connector. The
good side to the coaxial cable is the high-speed transfer and cable segments can be up to 500 meters between
nodes/workstations. You will typically see the same speed as the 10Base2 but larger cable lengths for more
versatility.

10BaseT, the “T” stands for twisted as in UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and uses this for 10Mbps of transfer. The
down side to this is you can only have cable lengths of 100 meters between nodes/workstations. The good side to
this network is they are easy to set up and cheap! This is why they are so common an ideal for small offices or
homes.

100BaseT, is considered Fast Ethernet uses STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) reaching data transfer of 100Mbps. This
system is a little more expensive but still remains popular as the 10BaseT and cheaper than most other type
networks. This on of course would be the cheap fast version.

10BaseF, this little guy has the advantage of fiber optics and the F stands for just that. This arrangement is a little
more complicated and uses special connectors and NIC's along with hubs to create its network. Pretty darn neat and
not to cheap on the wallet.

An important part of designing and installing an Ethernet is selecting the appropriate Ethernet medium. There are four
major types of media in use today: Thickwire for 10BASE5 networks, thin coax for 10BASE2 networks, unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) for 10BASE-T networks and fiber optic for 10BASE-FL or Fiber-Optic Inter-Repeater Link (FOIRL)
networks. This wide variety of media reflects the evolution of Ethernet and also points to the technology's flexibility.
Thickwire was one of the first cabling systems used in Ethernet but was expensive and difficult to use. This evolved to
thin coax, which is easier to work with and less expensive.

Network Topologies:

What is a Network topology?

A network topology is the geometric arrangement of nodes and cable links in a LAN,

There are three topology's to think about when you get into networks. These are the star, rind, and the bus.

Star, in a star topology each node has a dedicated set of wires connecting it to a central network hub. Since all traffic
passes through the hub, the hub becomes a central point for isolating network problems and gathering network
statistics.

Ring, a ring topology features a logically closed loop. Data packets travel in a single direction around the ring from
one network device to the next. Each network device acts as a repeater, meaning it regenerates the signal

Bus, the bus topology, each node (computer, server, peripheral etc.) attaches directly to a common cable. This
topology most often serves as the backbone for a network. In some instances, such as in classrooms or labs, a bus
will connect small workgroups

Collisions:
Ethernet is a shared media, so there are rules for sending packets of data to avoid conflicts and protect data integrity.
Nodes determine when the network is available for sending packets. It is possible that two nodes at different locations
attempt to send data at the same time. When both PCs are transferring a packet to the network at the same time, a
collision will result.

Minimizing collisions is a crucial element in the design and operation of networks. Increased collisions are often the
result of too many users on the network, which results in a lot of contention for network bandwidth. This can slow the
performance of the network from the user's point of view. Segmenting the network, where a network is divided into
different pieces joined together logically with a bridge or switch, is one way of reducing an overcrowded network.

Ethernet Products:

The standards and technology that have just been discussed help define the specific products that network managers
use to build Ethernet networks. The following text discusses the key products needed to build an Ethernet LAN.

Transceivers

Transceivers are used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet media. Most computers and network interface cards
contain a built-in 10BASE-T or 10BASE2 transceiver, allowing them to be connected directly to Ethernet without
requiring an external transceiver. Many Ethernet devices provide an AUI connector to allow the user to connect to
any media type via an external transceiver. The AUI connector consists of a 15-pin D-shell type connector, female on
the computer side, male on the transceiver side. Thickwire (10BASE5) cables also use transceivers to allow
connections.

For Fast Ethernet networks, a new interface called the MII (Media Independent Interface) was developed to offer a
flexible way to support 100 Mbps connections. The MII is a popular way to connect 100BASE-FX links to copper-
based Fast Ethernet devices.

Network Interface Cards:

Network interface cards, commonly referred to as NICs, and

are used to connect a PC to a network. The NIC provides a
physical connection between the networking cable and the
computer's internal bus. Different computers have different
bus architectures; PCI bus master slots are most commonly
found on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots are
commonly found on 386 and older PCs. NICs come in three
basic varieties: 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the
number of bits that can be transferred to the NIC, the faster
the NIC can transfer data to the network cable.

Many NIC adapters comply with Plug-n-Play specifications.

On these systems, NICs are automatically configured
without user intervention, while on non-Plug-n-Play systems, configuration is done manually through a setup program
and/or DIP switches.

Cards are available to support almost all networking standards, including the latest Fast Ethernet environment. Fast
Ethernet NICs are often 10/100 capable, and will automatically set to the appropriate speed. Full duplex networking is
another option, where a dedicated connection to a switch allows a NIC to operate at twice the speed.

Hubs/Repeaters:

Hubs/repeaters are used to connect together two or more Ethernet segments of any media type. In larger designs,
signal quality begins to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum length. Hubs provide the signal amplification
required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance. A hub takes any incoming signal and repeats it out all
ports.

Ethernet hubs are necessary in star topologies such as 10BASE-T. A multi-port twisted pair hub allows several point-
to-point segments to be joined into one network. One end of the point-to-point link is attached to the hub and the
other is attached to the computer. If the hub is attached to a backbone, then all computers at the end of the twisted
pair segments can communicate with all the hosts on the backbone. The number and type of hubs in any one-
collision domain is limited by the Ethernet rules. These repeater rules are discussed in more detail later.

Max Nodes Max Distance

Network Type
Per Segment Per Segment

10BASE-T 2 100m
10BASE2 30 185m
10BASE5 100 500m
10BASE-FL 2 2000m

Adding Speed:

While repeaters allow LANs to extend beyond normal distance limitations, they still limit the number of nodes that can
be supported. Bridges and switches, however, allow LANs to grow significantly larger by virtue of their ability to
support full Ethernet segments on each port. Additionally, bridges and switches selectively filter network traffic to only
those packets needed on each segment - this significantly increases throughput on each segment and on the overall
network. By providing better performance and more flexibility for network topologies, bridges and switches will
continue to gain popularity among network managers.

Bridges:

The function of a bridge is to connect separate networks together. Bridges connect different networks types (such as
Ethernet and Fast Ethernet) or networks of the same type. Bridges map the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing
on each network segment and allow only necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. When a packet is received by
the bridge, the bridge determines the destination and source segments. If the segments are the same, the packet is
dropped ("filtered"); if the segments are different, then the packet is "forwarded" to the correct segment. Additionally,
bridges do not forward bad or misaligned packets.

Bridges are also called "store-and-forward" devices because they look at the whole Ethernet packet before making
filtering or forwarding decisions. Filtering packets, and regenerating forwarded packets enable bridging technology to
split a network into separate collision domains. This allows for greater distances and more repeaters to be used in the
total network design.

Ethernet Switches:

Ethernet switches are an expansion of the concept in Ethernet bridging. LAN switches can link four, six, ten or more
networks together, and have two basic architectures: cut-through and store-and-forward. In the past, cut-through
switches were faster because they examined the packet destination address only before forwarding it on to its
destination segment. A store-and-forward switch, on the other hand, accepts and analyzes the entire packet before
forwarding it to its destination.

It takes more time to examine the entire packet, but it allows the switch to catch certain packet errors and keep them
from propagating through the network. Both cut-through and store-and-forward switches separate a network into
collision domains, allowing network design rules to be extended. Each of the segments attached to an Ethernet
switch has a full 10 Mbps of bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in better performance (as opposed to
hubs that only allow bandwidth sharing from a single Ethernet). Newer switches today offer high-speed links, FDDI,
Fast Ethernet or ATM. These are used to link switches together or give added bandwidth to high-traffic servers. A
network composed of a number of switches linked together via uplinks is termed a "collapsed backbone" network.

Routers:

Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address. Routers also divide networks
logically instead of physically. An IP router can divide a network into various subnets so that only traffic destined for
particular IP addresses can pass between segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent
forwarding. Such filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which only looks at the Ethernet
address. However, in more complex networks, overall efficiency is improved by using routers.

What is a network firewall?

A firewall is a system or group of systems that enforces an access control policy between two networks. The actual
means by which this is accomplished varies widely, but in principle, the firewall can be thought of as a pair of
mechanisms: one which exists to block traffic, and the other which exists to permit traffic. Some firewalls place a
greater emphasis on blocking traffic, while others emphasize permitting traffic. Probably the most important thing to
recognize about a firewall is that it implements an access control policy. If you don't have a good idea of what kind of
access you want to allow or to deny, a firewall really won't help you. It's also important to recognize that the firewall's
configuration, because it is a mechanism for enforcing policy, imposes its policy on everything behind it.
Administrators for firewalls managing the connectivity for a large number of hosts therefore have a heavy
responsibility.
Network Design Criteria:

Ethernets and Fast Ethernets have design rules that must be followed in order to function correctly. Maximum
number of nodes, number of repeaters and maximum segment distances are defined by the electrical and
mechanical design properties of each type of Ethernet and Fast Ethernet media.

A network using repeaters, for instance, functions with the timing constraints of Ethernet. Although electrical signals
on the Ethernet media travel near the speed of light, it still takes a finite time for the signal to travel from one end of a
large Ethernet to another. The Ethernet standard assumes it will take roughly 50 microseconds for a signal to reach
its destination.

Ethernet is subject to the "5-4-3" rule of repeater placement: the network can only have five segments connected; it
can only use four repeaters; and of the five segments, only three can have users attached to them; the other two
must be inter-repeater links.

If the design of the network violates these repeater and placement rules, then timing guidelines will not be met and
the sending station will resend that packet. This can lead to lost packets and excessive resent packets, which can
slow network performance and create trouble for applications. Fast Ethernet has modified repeater rules, since the
minimum packet size takes less time to transmit than regular Ethernet. The length of the network links allows for a
fewer number of repeaters. In Fast Ethernet networks, there are two classes of repeaters. Class I repeaters have a
latency of 0.7 microseconds or less and are limited to one repeater per network. Class II repeaters have a latency of
0.46 microseconds or less and are limited to two repeaters per network. The following are the distance (diameter)
characteristics for these types of Fast Ethernet repeater combinations:

Fast Ethernet Copper Fiber

No Repeaters
100m 412m*
One Class I Repeater
200m 272m
One Class II Repeater
200m 272m
Two Class II
205m 228m
Repeaters

* Full Duplex Mode 2 km

When conditions require greater distances or an increase in the number of nodes/repeaters, then a bridge, router or
switch can be used to connect multiple networks together. These devices join two or more separate networks,
allowing network design criteria to be restored. Switches allow network designers to build large networks that function
well. The reduction in costs of bridges and switches reduces the impact of repeater rules on network design.

Each network connected via one of these devices is referred to as a separate collision domain in the overall network.

Types of Servers:
Device Servers

A device server is defined as a specialized, network-based hardware device designed to perform a single or
specialized set of server functions. It is characterized by a minimal operating architecture that requires no per seat
network operating system license, and client access that is independent of any operating system or proprietary
protocol. In addition the device server is a "closed box," delivering extreme ease of installation, minimal maintenance,
and can be managed by the client remotely via a Web browser.

Print servers, terminal servers, remote access servers and network time servers are examples of device servers
which are specialized for particular functions. Each of these types of servers has unique configuration attributes in
hardware or software that help them to perform best in their particular arena.

Print Servers

Print servers allow printers to be shared by other users on the network. Supporting either parallel and/or serial
interfaces, a print server accepts print jobs from any person on the network using supported protocols and manages
those jobs on each appropriate printer.

Print servers generally do not contain a large amount of memory; printers simply store information in a queue. When
the desired printer becomes available, they allow the host to transmit the data to the appropriate printer port on the
server. The print server can then simply queue and print each job in the order in which print requests are received,
regardless of protocol used or the size of the job.

Multiport Device Servers

Devices that are attached to a network through a multiport device server can be shared between terminals and hosts
at both the local site and throughout the network. A single terminal may be connected to several hosts at the same
time (in multiple concurrent sessions), and can switch between them. Multiport device servers are also used to
network devices that have only serial outputs. A connection between serial ports on different servers is opened,
allowing data to move between the two devices.

Given its natural translation ability, a multi-protocol multiport device server can perform conversions between the
protocols it knows, like LAT and TCP/IP. While server bandwidth is not adequate for large file transfers, it can easily
handle host-to-host inquiry/response applications, electronic mailbox checking, etc. And it is far more economical
than the alternatives of acquiring expensive host software and special-purpose converters. Multiport device and print
servers give their users greater flexibility in configuring and managing their networks.

Whether it is moving printers and other peripherals from one network to another, expanding the dimensions of
interoperability or preparing for growth, multiport device servers can fulfill your needs, all without major rewiring.

Access Servers
While Ethernet is limited to a geographic area, remote users such as traveling sales people need access to network-
based resources. Remote LAN access, or remote access, is a popular way to provide this connectivity. Access
servers use telephone services to link a user or office with an office network. Dial-up remote access solutions such as
ISDN or asynchronous dial introduce more flexibility. Dial-up remote access offers both the remote office and the
remote user the economy and flexibility of "pay as you go" telephone services. ISDN is a special telephone service
that offers three channels, two 64 Kbps "B" channels for user data and a "D" channel for setting up the connection.
With ISDN, the B channels can be combined for double bandwidth or separated for different applications or users.
With asynchronous remote access, regular telephone lines are combined with modems and remote access servers to
allow users and networks to dial anywhere in the world and have data access. Remote access servers provide
connection points for both dial-in and dial-out applications on the network to which they are attached. These hybrid
devices route and filter protocols and offer other services such as modem pooling and terminal/printer services. For
the remote PC user, one can connect from any available telephone jack (RJ45), including those in a hotel rooms or
on most airplanes.

Network Time Servers

A network time server is a server specialized in the handling of timing information from sources such as satellites or
radio broadcasts and is capable of providing this timing data to its attached network. Specialized protocols such as
NTP or udp/time allow a time server to communicate to other network nodes ensuring that activities that must be
coordinated according to their time of execution are synchronized correctly. GPS satellites are one source of
information that can allow global installations to achieve constant timing.

IP Addressing:

An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP network. An IP address
is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255
(known as octets) separated by decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation.

Example: 140.179.220.200

It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form.

140 .179 .220 .200

10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000

Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the node. The Class of the
address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network address and which part belongs to the
node address.

Address Classes:
There are 5 different address classes. You can determine which class any IP address is in by examining the first 4
bits of the IP address.

Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal.

Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal.

Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal.

Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal.

Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254 decimal.

Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on a local
machine. [You can test this: you should always be able to ping 127.0.0.1, which points to yourself] Class D addresses
are reserved for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for future use. They should not be used for host
addresses.

Now we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the IP address belongs to the network (N) and
which part belongs to the node (n).

Class A -- NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnn.nnnnnnn

Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn

Class C -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn

In the example, 140.179.220.200 is a Class B address so by default the Network part of the address (also known as
the Network Address) is defined by the first two octets (140.179.x.x) and the node part is defined by the last 2 octets
(x.x.220.200).

In order to specify the network address for a given IP address, the node section is set to all "0"s. In our example,
140.179.0.0 specifies the network address for 140.179.220.200. When the node section is set to all "1"s, it specifies a
broadcast that is sent to all hosts on the network. 140.179.255.255 specifies the example broadcast address. Note
that this is true regardless of the length of the node section.

Private Subnets:

There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The addresses are 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12,
and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home LAN behind
a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these because routers on the Internet will never forward
packets coming from these addresses
Subnetting an IP Network can be done for a variety of reasons, including organization, use of different physical media
(such as Ethernet, FDDI, WAN, etc.), preservation of address space, and security. The most common reason is to
control network traffic. In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see all the packets transmitted by all the other
nodes on that segment. Performance can be adversely affected under heavy traffic loads, due to collisions and the
resulting retransmissions. A router is used to connect IP networks to minimize the amount of traffic each segment
must receive.

Subnet Masking

Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network and node parts of the address. The
network bits are represented by the 1s in the mask, and the node bits are represented by the 0s. Performing a bitwise
logical AND operation between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network Address or Number.

For example, using our test IP address and the default Class B subnet mask, we get:

10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200 Class B IP Address

11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.000.000 Default Class B Subnet Mask

10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.000.000 Network Address

Default subnet masks:

Class A - 255.0.0.0 - 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

Class B - 255.255.0.0 - 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

Class C - 255.255.255.0 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

CIDR -- Classless InterDomain Routing.

CIDR was invented several years ago to keep the internet from running out of IP addresses. The "classful" system of
allocating IP addresses can be very wasteful; anyone who could reasonably show a need for more that 254 host
addresses was given a Class B address block of 65533 host addresses. Even more wasteful were companies and
organizations that were allocated Class A address blocks, which contain over 16 Million host addresses! Only a tiny
percentage of the allocated Class A and Class B address space has ever been actually assigned to a host computer
on the Internet.

People realized that addresses could be conserved if the class system was eliminated. By accurately allocating only
the amount of address space that was actually needed, the address space crisis could be avoided for many years.
This was first proposed in 1992 as a scheme called Supernetting.

The use of a CIDR notated address is the same as for a Classful address. Classful addresses can easily be written in
CIDR notation (Class A = /8, Class B = /16, and Class C = /24)

It is currently almost impossible for an individual or company to be allocated their own IP address blocks. You will
simply be told to get them from your ISP. The reason for this is the ever-growing size of the internet routing table.
Just 5 years ago, there were less than 5000 network routes in the entire Internet. Today, there are over 90,000. Using
CIDR, the biggest ISPs are allocated large chunks of address space (usually with a subnet mask of /19 or even
smaller); the ISP's customers (often other, smaller ISPs) are then allocated networks from the big ISP's pool. That
way, all the big ISP's customers (and their customers, and so on) are accessible via 1 network route on the Internet.

It is expected that CIDR will keep the Internet happily in IP addresses for the next few years at least. After that, IPv6,
with 128 bit addresses, will be needed. Under IPv6, even sloppy address allocation would comfortably allow a billion
unique IP addresses for every person on earth

Examining your network with commands:

Ping

PING is used to check for a response from another computer on the network. It can tell you a great deal of
information about the status of the network and the computers you are communicating with.

Ping returns different responses depending on the computer in question. The responses are similar depending on the
options used.

Ping uses IP to request a response from the host. It does not use TCP

.It takes its name from a submarine sonar search - you send a short sound burst and listen for an echo - a ping -
coming back.

In an IP network, `ping' sends a short data burst - a single packet - and listens for a single packet in reply. Since this
tests the most basic function of an IP network (delivery of single packet), it's easy to see how you can learn a lot from
some `pings'.

To stop ping, type control-c. This terminates the program and prints out a nice summary of the number of packets
transmitted, the number received, and the percentage of packets lost, plus the minimum, average, and maximum
round-trip times of the packets.

Sample ping session

PING localhost (127.0.0.1): 56 data bytes

64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=0 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=1 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=2 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=3 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=4 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=5 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=6 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=7 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=8 ttl=255 time=2 ms
64 bytes from 127.0.0.1: icmp_seq=9 ttl=255 time=2 ms

localhost ping statistics

10 packets transmitted, 10 packets received, 0% packet loss

round-trip min/avg/max = 2/2/2 ms
meikro$

The Time To Live (TTL) field can be interesting. The main purpose of this is so that a packet doesn't live forever on
the network and will eventually die when it is deemed "lost." But for us, it provides additional information. We can use
the TTL to determine approximately how many router hops the packet has gone through. In this case it's 255 minus N
hops, where N is the TTL of the returning Echo Replies. If the TTL field varies in successive pings, it could indicate
that the successive reply packets are going via different routes, which isn't a great thing.

The time field is an indication of the round-trip time to get a packet to the remote host. The reply is measured in
milliseconds. In general, it's best if round-trip times are under 200 milliseconds. The time it takes a packet to reach its
destination is called latency. If you see a large variance in the round-trip times (which is called "jitter"), you are going
to see poor performance talking to the host

NSLOOKUP

NSLOOKUP is an application that facilitates looking up hostnames on the network. It can reveal the IP address of a
host or, using the IP address, return the host name.

It is very important when troubleshooting problems on a network that you can verify the components of the
networking process. Nslookup allows this by revealing details within the infrastructure.

NETSTAT

NETSTAT is used to look up the various active connections within a computer. It is helpful to understand what
computers or networks you are connected to. This allows you to further investigate problems. One host may be
responding well but another may be less responsive.

IPconfig

This is a Microsoft windows NT, 2000 command. It is very useful in determining what could be wrong with a network.

This command when used with the /all switch, reveal enormous amounts of troubleshooting information within the
system.

Windows 2000 IP Configuration

Host Name . . . . . . . . . . . . : cowder

Primary DNS Suffix . . . . . . . :
Node Type . . . . . . . . . . . . : Broadcast
IP Routing Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
WINS Proxy Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
WINS Proxy Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
Connection-specific DNS Suffix . :
Description . . . . . . . . . . . :
WAN (PPP/SLIP) Interface
Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-53-45-00-00-00
DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : No
IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . . : 12.90.108.123
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.255
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 12.90.108.125
DNS Servers . . . . . . . . . . . : 12.102.244.2
204.127.129.2

Traceroute

Traceroute on Unix and Linux (or tracert in the Microsoft world) attempts to trace the current network path to a
destination. Here is an example of a traceroute run to www.berkeley.edu:

$ traceroute www.berkeley.edu

traceroute to amber.Berkeley.EDU (128.32.25.12), 30 hops max, 40 byte packets 

1 sf1-e3.wired.net (206.221.193.1) 3.135 ms 3.021 ms 3.616 ms

2 sf0-e2s2.wired.net (205.227.206.33) 1.829 ms 3.886 ms 2.772 ms

3 paloalto-cr10.bbnplanet.net (131.119.26.105) 5.327 ms 4.597 ms 5.729 ms

4 paloalto-br1.bbnplanet.net (131.119.0.193) 4.842 ms 4.615 ms 3.425 ms

5 sl-sj-2.sprintlink.net (4.0.1.66) 7.488 ms 38.804 ms 7.708 ms

6 144.232.8.81 (144.232.8.81) 6.560 ms 6.631 ms 6.565 ms

7 144.232.4.97 (144.232.4.97) 7.638 ms 7.948 ms 8.129 ms

8 144.228.146.50 (144.228.146.50) 9.504 ms 12.684 ms 16.648 ms

9 f5-0.inr-666-eva.berkeley.edu (198.128.16.21) 9.762 ms 10.611 ms 10.403 ms

10 f0-0.inr-107-eva.Berkeley.EDU (128.32.2.1) 11.478 ms 10.868 ms 9.367 ms

11 f8-0.inr-100-eva.Berkeley.EDU (128.32.235.100) 10.738 ms 11.693 ms 12.520 ms