Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1

Air standard cycles

About this chapter:

Gas power cycles are thermodynamic cycles, in which the working substance
remains a gas throughout the cycle of operation. Analysis of gas power cycles is an
important application of thermodynamics, as they are involved in the conversion of
some heat input into mechanical work output. They form the basis for the operation
of heat engines.

In the thermodynamic analysis of power cycles, the chief interest lies in

estimating the energy conversion efficiency (thermal efficiency) or in other words,
how the major parameters (pressure, volume and temperature variations etc.,) of the
cycle affect the performance of the heat engine. Such analysis is made based on the
following assumptions.

a. Air is used as the working substance, it behaves as perfect gas, ie., it obeys
the gas laws and has constant specific heats. (C p , and C v )
b. The engine operates in a closed cycle. The cylinder is filled with constant
amount of air and the same air is used repeatedly.
c. No chemical reaction takes place in the engine cylinder. Heat is supplied or
rejected by bringing a hot body or a cold body in contact with the cylinder
head at appropriate time during the process.
d. Compression and expansion processes are adiabatic (insulated) and
internally reversible (no mechanical or friction loss).

Note The efficiency calculated under the above discussed ideal conditions is known
as ideal efficiency or air standard efficiency. However, under actual conditions
variations occur because air and fuel mixture is used as the working substance, intake
and exhaust conditions vary, and also actual combustion process is different. Also
losses due to mechanical and frictional effects need to be taken into account. Thus
the actual efficiency of the cycle is always less than the air standard efficiency, and
this is measured by a term known as relative efficiency.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑙 =
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

The present chapter deals with the following gas power cycles: Carnot cycle, Otto
cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual combustion (Limited pressure) cycle and Stirling cycle.

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Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
Assumptions made

1. The working substance essentially behaves like a perfect gas and follows the characteristic
equation for a perfect gas, Thus, if p is the pressure and V is the volume of the gas then,

2. The Specific heat of the substance at constant volume (Cv) and constant pressure (Cp)
remains the same during the cycle at all temperatures and pressures.
Thus, for air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K
R = Cp - Cv and ᵧ = 1.4
3. The internal energy and enthalpy per unit mass of the working fluid at any point is given
by, u = Cv*T and h = Cp*T
4. The cycles are composed of reversible processes. Thus heat absorption and heat rejection
takes place in a reversible fashion and if required instantaneously also. Similarly
compression and expansion processes are isentropic or reversible adiabatic such that
change in entropy is zero either during compression or expansion.
Thus work done for a non-flow process is given by

5. No heat exchange takes place between the working substance and the engine walls either
during compression or expansion process.
6. No chemical reaction is taken in to account and the working; substance doesn’t undergo
any chemical changes.
7. The heat developed during combustion is considered as heat added from an outside source.
8. Heat carried away by the exhaust gasses is considered as heat taken away from the
working substance.
9. Any kind of friction is absent and kinetic and potential energy of the working substance is
neglected.

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 Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1

1.1 CARNOT CYCLE

Fig: P-V Diagram and T-S Diagram for Carnot Cycle

Sadi Carnot based on second law of thermodynamics introduced the concepts of

reversibility and cycles. He further introduced that the temperatures of heat source and heat
sink are the basis for determining the thermodynamic efficiency of a reversible cycle. He
showed that all such cycles must reject heat to the sink and efficiency is never 100 percent. To
show a nonexistent reversible cycle, Carnot invented his famous but a hypothetical cycle,
known as Carnot cycle.

Let the cylinder contain 'm' kg of air at its initial condition represented by point 1 on P-
V and T-S diagrams. The various processes involved in Carnot cycle are discussed below.

Process 1-2 Isothermal expansion

The air in the cylinder is heated by bringing the hot body in contact with the cylinder head. The
heat supplied by the hot body at constant temperature T1 is fully absorbed by the air in the
cylinder and this heat is utilized for doing external work (piston movement). In other words, air
expands on heat absorption and does work on the piston causing it to move from top dead center
(TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC).

Temperature remains constant T1 = T2.

Pressure falls from p1 to p2.
Volume reduces from V1 to V2.

Heat absorbed or heat added or heat supplied is given by

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Process 2-3 Adiabatic expansion

The heat source (hot body) is removed and an insulating cap is brought in contact with the
cylinder head. Air expands adiabatically and the temperature falls from T2 to T3. The piston
moves to BDC as shown in the Figure.

2
−
3

Process 3-4 Isothermal compression

The insulating cap is removed and a cold body is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
The piston removes upwards compressing the air at constant temperature T3.

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Process 4-1 Adiabatic compression

The cold body is removed and an insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
The piston moves to the TDC compressing the air adiabatically fro temperature T4 to T1.

Temperature rises from T4 to T1.

Pressure rises from p4 to p1.
Volume reduces from V4 to V1.

To find air standard efficiency or Thermal efficiency:

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Important Note:

a. From Carnot's efficiency, it is clear that if TL decreases, efficiency increases and

becomes 100% for TL = absolute zero, which of course is impossible to attain.
b. Carnot cycle cannot be used to design a heat engine, because the piston has to travel
slowly during the first part of the downward stroke (isothermal expansion) to maintain
constant temperature, and travel more quickly during the remainder of the downward
stroke (adiabatic expansion) in order to avoid heat transfer. However, this is not possible
in actual practice.
c. Carnot cycle permits the designer to arrive at a maximum efficiency that can be obtained
from any heat engine under the given conditions. The cycle is only of theoretical
importance, and is used to compare all other heat engines.

1.2 Otto Cycle or constant volume cycle

This cycle was introduced by a German engineer Dr. A.N. Otto, which is used to
approximately the operation of a spark ignition internal combustion engine. This cycle,
commonly known as Otto cycle can also be used to analyse both petrol and gas engines. This
cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic and two constant volume processes. It is also referred
as a constant volume cycle. Such a cycle is shown on the p-V and T-s diagrams in the Figure.

Fig: P-V Diagram and T-S Diagram for Otto Cycle

Otto cycle consists of four processes as shown on P-V and T-S diagrams in Figure.

Let the cylinder contain 'm' kg of air at its initial condition represented by point 1 on P-V and
T-S diagrams. The various processes involved in Otto cycle are discussed herein.

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Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
Process 1-2 Adiabatic compression
During this process, the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The piston
moves from BDC to TDC compressing the air adiabatically in the cylinder. The temperature of
air rises from T1 to T2.

Process 2-3 Constant volume heat addition

The insulating cap is removed and the hot body is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
Heat is supplied at constant volume resulting in increase in pressure (P3) and temperature (T3).

Process 3-4 Adiabatic expansion

The hot body is removed and the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
Air expands adiabatically and its temperature falls from T3 to T4. The piston moves towards
BDC.

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Process 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
The insulating cap is removed and the cold body is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
Heat is rejected (transferred) to the cold body at constant volume.

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Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
It is evident from the above equation that thermal efficiency of the cycle increases by
increasing the compression ratio, Rc. But use of high compression ratio is limited by the
selection of material, temperature and
combustion problems mainly knocking
in the engine. The variation of engine
efficiency with different compression
ratio of specific heats is shown in
Figure 1.3.

From the above graph it is

understood that cycle efficiency
increases with the use of monatomic
gases like helium, argon etc., with >
1.4. But they cannot be used as the Fig 1.3: Otto cycle efficiency V/S compression ratio
practical engine works on an open
system using atmospheric air.

To find Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

Mean effective pressure is defined as the mean or average pressure acting on the piston
during the power stroke of the working cycle.

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1.3 Diesel cycle or constant pressure cycle

Fig: P-V Diagram and T-S Diagram for Diesel Cycle

This cycle was introduced by Rudolph Diesel, which is applicable for slow speed compression
ignition engines or diesel engines. Heat addition takes place at constant pressure and hence the
cycle is also known as constant pressure cycle. This cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic, cycle
pressure process and one constant volume process. Heat rejection takes place during constant
volume process. Different processes are shown on the p-V and T-s diagram in Figure.
Let the cylinder contain ‘m’ kg of air at its initial condition represented by point 1 on P-V and T-S
diagrams. The various processes involved in Diesel cycle are discussed below.
Process 1-2 Adiabatic compression
During this process, the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The piston moves
from BDC to TDC compressing the air adiabatically in the cylinder. The temperature of air rises from T 1
to T2.
Temperature rises from T1 to T2.
Pressure rises from p1 to p2.
Volume reduced from V1 to V2.

Process 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition

The insulating cap is removed and the hot body is brought in contact with the cylinder head. Heat is
supplied at constant pressure resulting in an increase in the temperature from T 2 to T3. At point 3, the
supply of heat is stopped, and this point is called as cut-off.

Temperature rises from T2 to T3.

Pressure remains constant p2 = p3.
Volume increases from V2 to V3.

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Process 3-4 Adiabatic expansion

The insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. Air expands adiabatically and its
temperature falls from T3 to T4. The piston moves towards BDC.

Temperature falls from T3 to T4.

Pressure falls from p3 to p4.
Volume increases from V3 to V4.

Process 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

The insulating cap is removed and the cold body is brought in contact with the cylinder head. Heat is
transferred to the cold body at constant volume.

Temperature decreases from T4 toT1.

Pressure decreases from p4 to p1.
Volume remains constant V4 = V1.

To find air standard efficiency or Thermal efficiency

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To find Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

Mean effective pressure is defined as the mean or average pressure acting on the piston during the power
stroke of the working cycle.

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1.4 Dual Combustion cycle (Semi Diesel cycle or Limited pressure cycle)

Fig: P-V Diagram and T-S Diagram for Dual combustion cycle

This cycle which incorporates both Otto cycle and Diesel cycles, fits the actual cycle of an oil engine
or the modern high-speed Diesel engines. Heat addition takes place partially at constant volume and partially
at constant pressure. Constant volume heat addition improves the efficiency whereas as constant pressure heat
addition limits the maximum cycle pressure. Hence sometimes this cycle is also known as limited pressure
cycle.
Let the cylinder contain ‘m’ kg of air at its initial condition represented by point 1 on P-V and T-S
diagrams. The various processes involved in Diesel cycle are discussed below.

Process 1-2 Adiabatic compression

The insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The piston moves from BDC to TDC
compressing the air adiabatically in the cylinder.
During this process, the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The piston moves from
BDC to TDC compressing the air adiabatically in the cylinder. The temperature of air rises from T 1 to T2.
Temperature rises from T1 to T2.
Pressure rises from p1 to p2.
Volume reduced from V1 to V2.

Process 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition

The insulating cap is removed and the hot body is brought in contact with the cylinder head. Heat is supplied
at constant volume up to point 3.

Temperature rises from T2 to T3.

Pressure rises from p2 to p3.
Volume remains constant V2 = V3.

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Process 3-4 Constant pressure heat addition

At point 3, heat supplied at constant pressure up to condition 4 is reached.

Temperature rises from T3 to T4.

Pressure remains constant p3 = p4.
Volume increases from V3 to V4.

Process 4-5 Adiabatic expansion

The hot body is removed and the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. Air expands
adiabatically and its temperature falls from T4 to T5. The piston moves towards BDC.

Temperature falls from T4 to T5.

Pressure falls from p4 to p5.
Volume increases from V4 to V5.

Process 5-1 Constant volume heat rejection

The insulating cap is removed and cold body is brought in contact with the cylinder head. Heat is rejected to
the cold body at constant volume.

Temperature decreases from T5 toT1.

Pressure decreases from p5 to p1.
Volume remains constant V5 = V1.

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Thus, dual combustion cycle is a combination of Otto cycle and Diesel cycle. This cycle is a closer
approximation to the behaviour of the actual Otto and Diesel engine, because in actual engines, the
combustion process does not occur exactly at constant volume (Otto cycle) or at constant pressure (Diesel
cycle), but rather as in the dual cycle occurring partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure.

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 Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1

To find Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

Mean effective pressure is defined as the mean or average pressure acting on the piston during the
power stroke of the working cycle.

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1.5 STIRLING CYCLE

The cycle was introduced by Dr. Robert Stirling in 1815, which uses air as a working fluid. The
cycle has two isothermal processes and two constant volume processes. A regenerator adds heat at
constant volume and rejects heat at constant volume between the upper and lower temperature limits.
Regenerator

It consists of a matrix of
sheet iron plates with an air space in
the upper and lower ends. The lower
end is maintained at a higher
temperature by the furnace and the
upper end is maintained at a lower
temperature by water -cooler. The
hot air which is in contact with the
engine cylinder is forced upwards
through the bulky matrix by an
external pump. Hot air is cooled at
constant volume by the cold air at
the upper end at a uniform rate so
that temperature gradient is Fig: Regenerator
approximately a straight line. As

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the matrix is bulky, the increase in its temperature is very small.

Let us consider m kg of air at its initial conditions represented by point 1 on P-V and T-S
diagrams. The various process involved in stirling cycle is fallows.

Fig: P-V Diagram and T-S Diagram for Stirling Cycle

Process 1-2 Isothermal compression
During this process, the cylinder head is kept in contact with the heat reservoir at temperature T 1. The piston
moves towards the TDC; the air in the cylinder is compressed isothermally and heat is rejected from the
working medium to the external sink.
Temperature remains constant T1 = T2.
Pressure rises from p1 to p2.
Volume reduced from V1 to V2.

Process 2-3 Constant volume heat addition process

At condition 2, the air is made to enter the regenerator from its top. The air while passing through the
regenerator matrix gets heated from T2 to T3 (TL to TH). During constant volume process, work done = 0
Temperature rises from T2 to T3.
Pressure increases from p2 to p3.
Volume remains constant V2 = V3.

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Process 3-4 Isothermal expansion

The hot air is now admitted to the engine cylinder from the bottom portion of the regenerator. Expansion of
air takes place isothermally and work is produced. The piston moves towards BDC. During this process, the
cylinder head is kept in contact with the heat source at TH.
Temperature remains constant T3 = T4.
Pressure falls from p3 to p4.
Volume increases from V3 to V4.

Process 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection process

At condition 4, the air is made to enter the regenerator from the bottom and gets cooled while passing
through the regenerator matrix at constant volume.
The process is so controlled that ultimately the air comes to its initial condition 1 and the cycle is completed.
Temperature decreases from T4 toT1.
Pressure decreases from p4 to p1.
Volume remains constant V4 = V1.
Therefore, the work done during the process is, W4−1=0
Heat is rejected during the process. Q4−1=m Cv (T4−T1)

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 Applied Thermodynamics (18ME42) Module-1

1.6 COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL AND DUAL CYCLES

The performance of Otto, Diesel, and Dual combustion cycles are compared with respect to
some variable factors as discussed below:

1.6.1 For same compression ratio (Rc) and heat supplied (Qs)

The super-imposed p-v and t-s diagrams of Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles for same
values of Rc and Qs are shown in Figure 1.8.

Fig: P-V Diagram and T-S Diagram

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 Applied Thermodynamics (18ME42) Module-1
It is clear from p-v diagram that the compression ratio (Rc = V1/V2.) for all the 3-cycles remain
same.

On the t-s diagram, the area a-2-3-b representing heat supplied for Otto cycle equals to area a-
2-3'-d for Diesel cycle, and in turn also equals to the area a-2-3"-4"-c. In simple words, heat
supplied is same for all the 3-cycles.

Comparison

• The temperature and pressure attained in Otto cycle is greater (point 3) than that
obtained in Diesel (point 3') and Dual cycle (point 4").
• Heat rejection (QR) in Diesel cycle represented by area a- 1-4'-d is comparatively
grater (maximum).
• Heat rejection (QR) in Otto cycle (area a-1-4-b) is less than the other 2-cycles.
Q S − QR QR
η= =1−
QS QS

Hence, for the same quantity of heat supplied (Qs), Otto cycle has a comparatively
higher efficiency, as heat rejection is comparatively less.

• Heat rejected by Dual cycle lies in between that of Otto and Diesel cycles.

ηOtto > ηDual > ηDiesel

1.6.2 Same compression ratio (Rc) and heat rejection (QR)

The super-imposed p-v and t-s diagrams for same; Rc and QR are shown in Figure.

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Hence, for the same quantity of QR, Otto cycle has a comparatively higher efficiency.

1.6.3 For same maximum pressure, maximum temperature and Heat rejection

The super-imposed p-v and t-s diagrams for same Pmax, Tmax and QR are shown in Figure.

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1.6.4 For same maximum pressure and work output

The p-v and t-s diagrams for maximum pressure and work output are shown in Figure.
It is clear from p-v diagram, the maximum pressure is same for both Otto and Diesel cycles.
From t-s diagram, for same work output, the area 1-2-3-4 represented by Otto cycle is equal to the area
1-2'-3'-4, which is the work output for Diesel cycle. To achieve this, the entropy at point 3 must be greater
than the entropy at point 3'. Under such condition, the heat rejection for Diesel cycle given by the area a-
1-4`-b is less than that of Otto cycle given by the area a-1 -4-c.
The low heat rejection in Diesel cycle makes it to be more efficient than Otto cycle.

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1.7 IC Engines
An engine or heat engine can be defined as a machine or device that converts
the chemical energy of a fuel into heat energy (by combustion of fuel), and utilizes
this heat energy to perform useful mechanical work. Combustion of fuel can take
place either inside the engine or outside the engine thereby giving a means to classify
the heat engine into two types: Internal combustion engine and External combustion
engine.

If the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder, the engine is
called internal combustion engine, or simply IC engine. Examples include: Petrol
engines, Diesel engines and gas engines. In IC engine, the burning gas inside the
engine cylinder expands and exerts force to the movable component called piston.
The motion from the piston is transferred to the crankshaft by intermediate
mechanisms. The motion obtained at the crankshaft can be used to drive any machine
or devices, or perform any other useful work.

On the other hand, if the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine
cylinder, the engine is called external combustion engine, or simply EC engine.
Examples include: steam engines, steam turbines and closed cycle gas turbine. EC
engines are commonly used for generating power or electricity, while IC engines are
used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. Discussions related
to EC engines lies outside the scope of the present chapter.

1.7.1 I C ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

3.13-1 IC engine terminology

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Discussed below are a few common terms involved in the study of IC engines.

• Stroke or Stroke length is the linear distance travelled by the piston when it moves from
top dead centre to bottom dead centre. It is denoted by L. Refer figure 1.1-1
• Bore is the inner diameter of the cylinder. It is denoted by d.
• Stroke volume or Swept volume or Piston displacement is the volume swept by the
piston when it moves from top dead centre to bottom dead. It is denoted by Vs.
• Clearance volume is the volume of the cylinder above the top of the piston when the
piston is at the top dead centre. It is denoted by Vc.
• Compression ratio is defined as the ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance
volume.

w.k.t. total cylinder volume = stroke volume (Vs) + clearance volume (Vc).

Vs + Vc
∴ compression ratio = R c =
Vc

Note: The higher the compression ratio, the more powerful the engine is and the higher its efficiency. However,
the compression ratio should not exceed the limit in order to avoid pre ignition of the fuel mixture, which would
cause engine knocking resulting in damage to the engine. For example, the compression ratio in petrol engine is
about 8:1, which means that the fuel mixture is compressed inside the engine cylinder to about 1/8th of its original
volume. In case of Diesel engine, the compression ratio is about 16:1. Thus Diesel engines are capable of
producing more power than petrol engines, and hence more efficient.

• Piston speed is the average speed of the piston as it moves from the top dead centre to
bottom dead centre. It is described by the equation as given below:

Piston speed = 2.L.N

Where L = stroke length in meters
N = engine speed in revolutions per minute (rpm).

• Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is defined as the mean or average pressure acting on the
piston throughout the power stroke. It is also defined as the average pressure developed
inside the engine cylinder of an internal combustion engine. It is denoted by Pm, and
obtained from the indicator diagram using the equation:

𝑆𝑎
𝑝𝑚 =
𝑙

Where S = spring constant of the indicator (N/m2/m)

a = area of the indicator diagram (m2), and
l = Length of the indicator diagram (m).

• Indicated Power is defined as the total power developed inside the engine cylinder due to
the combustion of fuel. It is commonly denoted by IP and is expressed in kW (kilo Watts).

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npm LANk
IP = kw
60000

Where n = number of cylinders

Pm = mean effective pressure (N/m2)
L = stroke length (m)
A = cross-section of cylinder (m2)
N = Speed of engine (rpm)
k = a factor = ½ for 4-S engine and 1 for 2-S engine

• Brake Power (BP) is the net power available at the crankshaft of the engine for
performing useful work. It is denoted by BP and expressed in kW.

2πNt
BP = kW
60000

Where N = Speed of engine (rpm)

T = Engine torque = (W– S)R (N-m)
W = load on engine (N)
S = Spring balance reading (N)
Dd + d r
R = Effective radius of brake drum =
2
Dd= diameter of brake drum (m). and

dr= diameter of rope (m).

Note: The power developed inside the engine cylinder is transmitted to the crankshaft through the piston,
connecting rod, crank; etc. Hence, a fraction of the indicated power (actual power) developed is lost due to the
friction of these moving parts. The net power available at the crankshaft is the true output of the engine, and is
used for performing useful work. The power at the crankshaft is measured by applying a brake of some kind to
the pulley of the engine, and is therefore called brake power.

• Friction Power (FP) is the amount of power lost due to friction of the various moving
parts in an engine. Numerically, friction power is the difference between the indicated
power and brake power of the engine. It is denoted by FP and expressed in kW.

FP = IP – BP

• Mechanical Efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power to indicated power. It is

expressed in percentage.

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Mechanical efficiency of IC engine denotes the efficiency with which the moving parts
of the engine can transmit the power developed inside the engine cylinder to useful motive
power.

• Thermal Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power output to the heat supplied by the
burning fuel. It is expressed in percentage. The power output can be based on either IP or
BP. Thermal efficiency based on IP is called indicated thermal efficiency ( ITH), and is
defined as the ratio of indicated power to the heat supplied by the burning fuel.

While thermal efficiency based on BP is called brake thermal efficiency ( BTH),, and is
defined as the ratio of brake power to the heat supplied by the burning fuel.

• Volumetric Efficiency indicates the breathing capacity of the engine and is defined as the
ratio of the actual volume of the charge (reduced to NTP conditions) drawn in during the
suction stroke to the swept volume of the engine. Higher volumetric efficiency means more
air is inducted and consequently more power is developed.
• Specific Fuel Consumption abbreviated as SFC is a term used to describe the fuel
efficiency of an engine design_ It measures the amount of fuel needed to provide a given
power for a given time period. This measurement helps one to judge engines of different
manufacturers as to which engine will use the least fuel while still producing a high amount
of power. Specific fuel consumption is expressed as the mass of fuel consumed per kW
power developed per hour. SFC based on IP is termed indicated specific fuel consumption
(ISFC) while SFC based on BP is termed brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC).

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1.7.2 PERFORMANCE TESTING OF IC ENGINES

Testing of IC engines becomes necessary to verify the performance of the engine as per
the specification of the manufacturer. Following are a few basic measurements undertaken to
evaluate the engines performance.

(a) Speed
(b) Fuel consumption
(c) Air consumption
(d) Brake Power
(e) Indicated power
(f) Friction power
(g) Heat going to cooling water
(h) Heat going to exhaust
(i) Exhaust gas analysis
(j) Smoke density

1.7.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF AIR CONSUMPTION

Figure. shows the
arrangement of air box method for
measuring air consumption in IC
engine. The system consists of an
air tight chamber fitted with a
sharp edged orifice of known
coefficient of discharge. The
orifice is located away from the
Fig: Air Box Method for measuring air consumption suction connection to the engine.
Due to the suction of the engine,
there is a pressure drop in the air box chamber which causes air flow through the orifice. In
order to obtain a steady-flow of air, the volume of air box chamber is made sufficiently large
compared to the swept volume of the cylinder. A water manometer is used to measure the
pressure difference causing the flow through the orifice. The volume of air passing through the
orifice is calculated using the equation:

Where A = Cross sectional area of orifice

hw = Head of water
Cd = Coefficient of discharge through orifice
a = Density of air under atmospheric conditions

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1.7.2.2 Measurement of brake power

Brake power measurement involves the determination of torque (a force that produces
rotation) and the angular speed (N) of the engine output shaft. The speed can be measured using
a tachometer, while the torque is measured by a device called dynamometer. The dynamometer
can be of absorption type or transmission type. Absorption dynamometers are the commonly
used and include: prosy brake dynamometer, rope brake dynamometer, hydraulic
dynamometer, and electric dynamometer. From the syllabus point of view, only swinging field
dynamometer (Electric dynamometer) has been discussed herein.

1.7.2.3 Swinging Field Dynamometer

Swinging Field Dynamometer In a swinging field dynamometer, an electric generator

converts the mechanical energy to electrical energy. Figure. shows swinging field
dynamometer for measuring brake power of the engine. The dynamometer is so supported on
trunnion bearings to measure the reaction torque that the outer casing and field coils tend to
rotate with the magnetic drag. Hence the name swinging field. The torque is measured with an
arm and weighing equipment in the usual manner.

Principle

The principle of operation of the

dynamometer is based on Newton’s third law of
motion, which states that the forces of action and
reaction are equal and opposite. In motors and
generators, for example, the torque developed by
the armature current of the machine exerts an
equal and opposite (reaction) torque on the
machine frame. When a dynamometer is used to
Fig: Swinging Field Dynamome
test such machines, its reaction torque is used as
a measure of the tested machine’s torque.

Operation

The swinging field dynamometer consists of an electric generator, the stator of which
is mounted on trunnions so as to be able to revolve freely at whatever speed is required for the
test. The rotor driven by the engine under test is coupled to the stator, and hence when the rotor
revolves, the electromagnetic reaction set up by the field coils on the stator tends to cause
rotation of the stator casing. This rotation is prevented by the application of a dead weight or a
spring balance to an arm fixed to the stator casing. The reaction torque is the force required to
prevent the casing rotation multiplied by the torque arm length. From the measured reaction
torque and the known speed of rotation of the shaft, the power supplied can be calculated in
the usual manner. The resisting torque is varied by altering the resistance

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in the armature circuit, thus altering the current generated. The disadvantages of swinging field
dynamometer are that it is only suitable for comparatively high speed and small powers, and it
is much less robust than the hydraulic dynamometer.

1.7.3 Measurement of Indicated Power

Indicated power can be determined with the help of an indicator fitted to the engine, or
by Morse test as discussed below.

1.7.3.1 Calculating IP from Indicator Diagram

The IP of an engine at a particular running condition is obtained from the indicator

diagram. The indicator diagram is the p-v diagram drawn for one cycle at that load drawn with
the help of indicator fitted on the engine. The indicator consists of a piston-cylinder assembly
which communicates with the cylinder head of the engine being tested. A typical p-v diagram
taken by a mechanical indicator for a petrol engine is shown in Figure.

Figure Indicator diagram (p-v diagram) for

petrol engine The area of the positive loop and
negative loop of the indicator diagram are measured
with the help of an Instrument known as planirneter,
and let these areas be Ap and A cm2 respectively. The
area is then divided by the length of the diagram (l)
in order to obtain mean height. This mean height,
when multiplied by the spring scale of the indicator
mechanism (S), gives the indicated mean effective
Indicator diagram (p-v diagram) for Otto cycle pressure for the cylinder.

1.7.3.2 Calculating IP by Morse Test

Morse test method is used in multi-cylinder engines to measure IP without the use of
indicator. During the test, the engine is made to run at a constant speed and al same throttle
opening. Let us assume that the engine consists of four cylinders. The brake power (BP) of

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the engine at a particular speed with all the four cylinders operating is measured by means of a
dynamometer. Now, one of the cylinders is inactivated (cut-oil) by short circuiting the spark
plug or disconnecting the fuel injector. Under this case, the power developed by the cut-off
cylinder (IP) is lost and the speed of the engine falls down. The engine speed can be restored
to its original value (when all the 4-cylinders were firing) by reducing the load on the engine,
but by keeping the throttle positions same. When the speed is stabilized, the brake power is
measured as BP1.

Similar procedure is adopted by short circuiting the remaining cylinders one at a time
leaving the other three cylinders to develop power; the resulting brake power is measured as
BP2, BP3, and BP4 respectively for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th cylinder.

The indicated power of each cylinder is calculated using:

IP1 = BP – BP1, IP2 = BP – BP2, IP3 = BP – BP3, IP4 = BP – BP4,

The net indicated power (IP) is then obtained as: IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4

1.7.4 Measurement of Friction Power

The frictional power of an engine can be determined by any of the following methods:

(a) Willan's line method (used for compression ignition engines only)
(b) Motoring test, and
(c) Morse test

1.7.4.1 Willan's Line Method

At higher speeds, friction generated due

to reciprocating parts is more and hence the
power loss due to the frictional effects also
increases. Willan's line method also known as
fuel rate extrapolation method is used for
determining the friction power in an IC engine.
In this method, under constant engine speed, the
load is reduced in increments and the
corresponding brake power and gross fuel
consumption readings are recorded. A graph of
fuel consumption (y-axis) versus brake power
Willan's Line Method
(x-axis) is then plotted as shown in Figure

The graph is extrapolated (extended) back to cut the BP axis (x-axis) at point L as shown
in Figure. The reading OL is taken as the power loss or friction power of the engine at that
speed. The fuel consumption at zero brake power is shown by OM.

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As shown in the Figure, in most of the power range the relation between the fuel
consumption and brake power is linear when speed of the engine is held constant and this
permits extrapolation. Further when the engine does not develop any power, i.e. brake power
= 0, the engine still consumes a certain amount of fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been
spent in overcoming the friction. Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal
axis will be the work representing the combined losses due to friction, pumping and as a whole
is termed as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of measuring friction power will hold
good only for a particular speed and is applicable mainly for compression ignition [CI] engines.

1.7.4.2 Motoring Test Method

In Motoring test, the engine is steadily operated at the rated speed by its own power and
allowed to remain under the given speed and load conditions for sufficient time so that the
temperature of the engine components, lubricating oil, and cooling water reaches a steady state.
A swinging field type electric dynamometer is used to absorb the power during this period. The
fuel supply is then cut-off and by suitable electric switching devices, the dynamometer is
converted to run as a motor to drive or motor the engine at the same speed at which it was
previously running. The power supply to the motor is measured, which is a measure of friction
power of the engine at that speed. This test gives a higher value of friction power as compared
to that given by Willan's method.

1.7.4.3 Morse Test Method

Morse test method is used in multi-cylinder engines to measure friction power. During
the test, the engine is made to run at a constant speed and at same throttle opening. Let us
assume that the engine consists of four cylinders. The brake power (BP) of the engine at a
particular speed with all the four cylinders operating is measured by means of a dynamometer.
Now, one of the cylinders is inactivated (cut-off) by short circuiting the spark plug or
disconnecting the fuel injector. Under this case, the power developed (IP) by the cut- off
cylinder is lost and the speed of the engine falls. The engine speed can be restored to its original
value (when all the 4-cylinders were firing) by reducing the load on the engine, but by keeping
the throttles position same. When the speed is stabilized, the brake power is measured as BP1.

Similar procedure is adopted by short circuiting the remaining cylinders one at a time
leaving the other three cylinders to develop power, the resulting brake power is measured as
BP2, BP3, and BP4., respectively for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th cylinder.

The indicated power of each cylinder is calculated using:

IP1 = BP – BP1, IP2 = BP – BP2, IP3 = BP – BP3, IP4 = BP – BP4,
The net indicated power (IP) is then obtained as: IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4
The friction power is now calculated using FP = IP – BP.

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1.8 HEAT BALANCE SHEET

An engine is supplied with a certain quantity of fuel capable of releasing energy when
burnt. However, only a fraction of this heat energy is converted into useful mechanical work
available at the crankshaft, while the remainder is lost in various ways. Hence it is necessary to
trace the energy distribution in both its form and quantity, and this is done with the help of a
heat balance sheet.

A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied and heat utilized in various ways in
the engine system. The heat balance is generally done on second basis, minute basis, or hour
basis. A sample tabulation of the heat balance sheet is shown in Table.

Note Since there is a energy balance in combustion of fuel, the value of heat supplied by fuel
(Q) must be equal to the heat expenditure.

The heat supplied to the engine is only in the form of fuel-heat and is given by:
Q = mf ∗ CV
Where mf = mass of fuel supplied per sec or minute.
CV = lower calorific value of fuel in kJ/ kg
Heat Balance Sheet
Heat input/Sec kJ/s % Heat expenditure/sec kJ/s %
1) Heat lost for BP

2) Heat lost to FP

A) Heat supplied by fuel Q 100 3) Heat lost to cooling water

4) Heat carried by exhaust gases

5) Unaccounted heat losses= A – (1+2+3+4)

Total Q 100 Total Q 100

The various ways in which heat is used up in the system is given as follows:

1. Heat lost in producing useful power = BP = 2∗π∗N∗T kW

60000
2. Heat lost in overcoming friction = FP = IP – BP kW
3. Heat carried away by cooling water = mw Cpw Twout − Twin
4. Heat carried away by exhaust gases = mg Cpg Texh − Tr
5. Unaccounted heat losses = Q – Heat lost for (1+2+3+4) as given above.

Where mw = Mass of cooling water

Cp w = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/Kg K
Tw out = Exhaust gas temperature, Tw in = Room temperature
mg = Mass of exhaust gas, Cpg = Specific heat of exhaust gases

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