Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Effects of Kibbutz communal upbringing in adulthood: trait emotional

intelligence and attachment patterns
Ronen Sidi *, Daniela Aisenberg Shafran
Department of Clinical Psychology, Ruppin Academic Center, Emek Hefer, Israel

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Past research regarding the emotional characteristics of kibbutz children raised with communal sleeping ar-
Psychology rangements (CSA) showed inconsistent findings for emotional difficulties, such as insecure attachment and
Kibbutz lowered ability for intimacy. Only little research has examined these children's emotional characteristics in their
Emotional intelligence
adulthood. Trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) is a new concept measuring a constellation of correlated
Attachment
Late adulthood
emotional traits that capture a person's typical way of processing emotional information and reacting to it.
Communal sleeping arrangement The present study examined if difficulties in intimacy and trait EI characterize adults who had been raised in
CSA kibbutzim (Hebrew plural of kibbutz). Participants comprised 1185 adults, aged 30–79, of whom 735 were
raised in CSA kibbutzim, and the rest did not grow up in a Kibbutz at all. The participants completed three self-
report questionnaires: Schutte's Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) to measure trait EI; the Revised
Adult Attachment Scale to measure adult attachment; and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Questionnaire to measure
self-esteem.
Results showed that most of the kibbutz CSA participants revealed levels of intimacy and trait EI comparable to
the non-kibbutz group. However, a significant difference was found among adults with low self-esteem and poor
attachment quality: For these participants, trait EI and intimacy were significantly lower for the CSA kibbutz
group than for the non-kibbutz group. Furthermore, the CSA kibbutz group reported poorer non-verbal
communication skills than the non-kibbutz group.
We suggest that a minority of the CSA kibbutz children were less resilient to the kibbutz ecology. These
children might have been more vulnerable to the effects of limited social options, decreased parental support, and
the kibbutz education's ideological demands. For these children, the effects of communal upbringing on intimacy
and attachment appear to be long-lasting, extending throughout their adulthood.

"In the social experiment in which I participated, you always had to repress and deny distress (Cohen, 2013). These difficulties appear to be
adjust yourself to others. You could not be unique and special; you associated with attachment patterns (Fonagy, 2018) and trait emotional
could not express your own needs, but rather had to be a 2-year-old intelligence (trait EI; Petrides et al., 2016) that begin to formulate from
socialist, a 10-year-old socialist, and a 15-year-old socialist. To be 'a early childhood. Some collectivistic societies –– societies that emphasize
good kid' meant to conform to a lifestyle forced upon you without solidarity, selflessness, cooperation, and group cohesion and generally
being asked for your opinion or desires" (Balaban, 2000). focus on group goals over personal desires –– tend to implicitly
encourage their members to put a reduced emphasis on personal adver-
sity, and even at times, repress or deny personal difficulties (Triandis,
1. Introduction
2018).
Collective-socialist ideology was dominant in the Soviet Union and
Subsyndromal psychopathology indicates well-functioning in-
the Eastern Bloc and in Israeli communities called "kibbutzim" (Hebrew
dividuals with minor subthreshold symptoms of depression, anxiety, and
plural of "kibbutz") during the 20th century. Most Israeli kibbutzim
other psychological difficulties (Meeks et al., 2011; Bylsma et al., 2011).
practiced a radical collective childrearing tradition, where the children
Such latent pathology is also typically associated with a tendency to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Sidi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05775
Received 23 August 2020; Received in revised form 6 November 2020; Accepted 15 December 2020
2405-8440/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

were raised communally, spending only limited hours each day with education of its children. Hence, parental authority was subordinate to
their parents, and sleeping communally in a separate children's home the educational personnel of the kibbutz (Lieblich, 2010).
without their parents (Lieblich, 2010). Whereas this "social experiment" The kibbutz's educational establishment sought to create an ideo-
(Gavron, 2000) ended in the 1990s, this study sought to examine some of logical commitment to the values of equality and cooperation among the
the implications of this social experiment and observe attachment and kibbutz children while constraining the pursuit of individual aspirations
trait-EI patterns of these individuals, who are now adults or elderly (Spiro, 2004). In practice, a caregiving staff was responsible for tending
individuals. to the children during the day, whereas a rotating woman-on-duty
To imagine collective kibbutz child-rearing, picture a baby in her first watched the children throughout the night. These rotating "night
year of life sleeping in a communal Kibbutz children's home, with many guards" were women with whom the children were not closely familiar.
other infants, a distance away from her parents' home. In the middle of Kibbutz children met with their parents and siblings for only a few hours
the night, the infant wakes up due to hunger or cold, and she finds herself in the afternoon and on Saturdays and holidays (Weiss and Shilkret,
alone. She becomes anxious and cries, but her mother or father does not 2010).
come. At first, as no one responds to her cry, her anxiety intensifies, and Alongside the communal sleeping arrangements, education of the
her cries increase in volume. Only after about 10 min, a strange face and kibbutz children included four essential characteristics (Ebenstein et al.,
voice present themselves. The infant refuses to be comforted. Eventually, 2018), which distinguished it from normative education:
the crying wears the infant out. She eats a bit and falls asleep. This
episode repeats itself almost every night during her infant years. (a) A dual focus on the collective and the family:
Does this experience in infancy leave a mark on the infant's person-
ality? Does this impression affect the infant for several decades? The far-reaching diminution of the family's role and sleeping outside
In addition to the extraordinary experience in infancy, young kibbutz of the family home, led to a weakening of the family's influence and
children continue to develop within "a comprehensive social experiment" strengthening of the collective's influence on the child. Whereas the
(Aviezer et al., 2002), which might leave another mark on their per- kibbutz educational establishment played a primary role in education
sonality. Kibbutz society requires adolescents to adhere to its unique and discipline, the parents' home was perceived as a place that permitted
values and intensively integrate into their closed age group. This emotional and supportive expression (Richman, 2004). Kibbutz children
considered, the psychological patterns of young kibbutz children have learned to distinguish between the performance-oriented and
aroused broad research interest and have been examined in various mission-driven guidance they received from the kibbutz's educational
studies, most of which were conducted in the second half of the 20th establishment personnel and the unique emotional and personal treat-
century. Some of these studies suggested that moderate emotional diffi- ment he received from his parents. Regev (1976) claimed that kibbutz
culties characterize kibbutz children and youth (Aviezer et al., 2002; children were compelled to accustom themselves to two distinctly
Sharabany and Wiseman, 1993). Two different theoretical models have different worlds having entirely different emotional and social codes,
offered explanations for these emotional difficulties (Ebenstein et al., with this duality producing a split in the kibbutz member's reality and
2018), with each model suggesting a different prognosis for the upbringing.
emotional development of these kibbutz children in adulthood. In the
psychoanalytic model, the emotional difficulties observed in kibbutz (b) The centrality of the age group:
children are the product of the communal upbringing characteristic of
the kibbutz; this is an upbringing lacking in coherent and continuous The centrality of a child's age group in the kibbutz was enhanced by
attachment figures. This model assumes that these childhood difficulties the long hours the group spent together in the children's communal home
come together and form a permanent and continuous personality pattern and by the family's relatively minor role in their upbringing. The child
that will moderately characterize kibbutz children throughout their lives. was affiliated with only a single age group, and this group remained
An alternative explanation, the ecological model, suggests that young constant throughout the years of the child's upbringing, even when
kibbutz children's emotional difficulties are the ephemeral products of houses, caregivers, and teachers may have changed. Thus, this age
the kibbutz's social conditions. According to this explanation, when a group's centrality brought about an over-tendency toward social con-
young kibbutz member turns 18 (i.e., when he/she begin their manda- formity among its children (Ebenstein et al., 2018). For example, a study
tory national army service and leave the kibbutz education system), the analyzing young kibbutz children's self-report questionnaires (Tubin,
unique social conditions of the kibbutz become discontinued and, 1978) revealed lower levels of autonomy and separation from their peers
therefore, the emotional difficulties that come with the communal than did city children. Tubin suggested that this distinction can be
kibbutz upbringing are discontinued, as well. attributed to the relatively high co-dependency kibbutz children shared
Most of the emotional difficulties observed in young kibbutz children with their peers.
have yet to be examined in their adulthood. Indeed, the study of CSA
education in kibbutzim has been quite dormant and neglected in the new (c) Ideological Uniformity:
millennium, likely due to the cessation of CSA policy in kibbutzim from
the 1990s. Today, years later, we can examine whether adults raised in The family, the caregivers, the educational establishment, the school,
CSA conditions display unique emotional difficulties, decades after they and the kibbutz members created a multi-dimensional, comprehensive
graduated from their kibbutz upbringing. This is the aim of this study. and unified ideological paradigm (Lieblich, 2010). One goal of this
First, we present some core elements regarding CSA and kibbutz edu- paradigm was to impart kibbutz values, thus deterring children from
cation that appear pertinent to the emotional traits examined in this individual expression and encouraging them to develop in accordance
study. with the group's values (Gaunt and Bassi, 2012).

(d) Prioritizing the needs of the collective before the needs of the
1.1. The Kibbutz, Kibbutz education, and communal sleeping arrangements individual

Since its establishment, the kibbutz movement has strived to maintain Kibbutz education aspired to educate its children to prioritize the
a cooperative, egalitarian, exemplary society, which operates out of social, economic, and ideological needs of the kibbutz rather than the
mutual responsibility and solidarity among its members (Kibbutz Artzi individual's desires. Furthermore, as early as high school, kibbutz ado-
Regulations, 1973). As a communal society, the kibbutz was perceived by lescents were integrated into adult work frameworks and were assigned
its members as having supreme authority and responsibility for the roles with significant responsibility (Avrahami, 1998). The adolescents'

2
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

perception of their participation was strengthened by their awareness of (Pinquart et al., 2013; Fraley, 2002), with greater stability into adulthood
the kibbutz mission and of the high value attributed to kibbutz work. (Chopik et al., 2019). However, family conflict, marriage or divorce,
Taking an active role in advancing the kibbutz further facilitated the dramatic career changes, and other pivotal events throughout life may
kibbutz children's identification with the kibbutz's needs and values. undermine this stability, among adults.
Avrahami also explained that the kibbutz's prioritizing academic edu-
cation that would contribute directly to the kibbutz lifestyle (e.g., edu-
1.2.1. Research on the attachment patterns of Kibbutz children
cation, engineering, agriculture) constrained the individual's prospects to
Communal sleeping arrangements were discontinued in Kibbutzim in
think, aspire, and direct energies toward self-actualization.
the early 1990s, and studies concerning this practice were mostly con-
Initially, kibbutz educators sought to develop individualism, inno-
ducted prior to the century's turn. An early study showed that the per-
vation, freedom of thought, self-actualization, and creativity among
centage of kibbutz infants with secure attachments to their mothers
kibbutz children (Dror, 1995). However, the kibbutz also aimed to
(59%) was lower than the percentage of non-kibbutz infants having
transform kibbutz children into "ideological replicas" of the kibbutz's
secure attachments to their mothers (65–70%; Sagi et al., 1985). A more
founding generation to assure the continuity of the kibbutz view of
focused study (Sagi et al., 1994) compared kibbutzim having communal
utopian society (Lamdan, 2004). All of the noted elements left a potential
sleeping arrangements (CSA) with kibbutzim having familial sleeping
mark on the personality formation of kibbutz children and, in particular,
arrangements (FSA) and found a significant difference in the percentage
on their attachment characteristics and emotional intelligence.
of infants with secure attachments to their mothers: Fewer CSA kibbut-
zim's infants (48%) enjoyed secure attachments to their mothers than
1.2. Attachment theory those of FSA kibbutzim (80%). The percentage of FSA kibbutzim infants
with secure attachments was comparable to that of city-raised Israeli
Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1980) asserts that human infants are infants (Mayseless and Scher, 2000).
born with various behaviors intended for seeking closeness with their Another study (Sagi et al., 1997) examined the intergenerational
caregivers. These behaviors stem from an inborn psycho-biological sys- transfer of attachment patterns from mother to infant. Findings showed a
tem aimed at regulating stress and anxiety and protecting the individual comparable proportion of CSA kibbutzim mothers with secure attach-
from physical threats. The quality of this attachment system is dependent ments (to their mothers) and FSA kibbutzim mothers. However, the
on the consistent availability of an attachment figure (Fonagy and percentage of infants with secure attachments to their mothers was lower
Luyten, 2018), especially in infancy and early childhood. Good infant for CSA kibbutzim (40%) than for FSA kibbutzim (76%). The researchers
attachment was found to correlate significantly with numerous positive suggested that CSA might disrupt the intergenerational transfer of
personality traits throughout the lifespan. For example, higher infant attachment patterns and that the lack of the mother's availability at night
attachment quality was positively associated with lower rates of overshadows her sensitivity and availability to her infant during the day,
depression, neuroticism, and substance abuse in adulthood, as well as thus leading to insecure attachment. An additional study showed that the
with higher levels of well-being, ego strength, and better social func- level of motherly sensitivity in CSA kibbutzim was unrelated to their
tioning in adulthood (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2020). children's level of attachment security (Aviezer et al., 1999). The Aviezer
After Bowlby (1980) conceptualized and explained the difference et al. finding differed from reports in research on FSA kibbutzim and
between secure attachment and insecure attachment, Ainsworth (1967) those revealed in research internationally (Cassidy and Shaver, 1999),
expanded these terms and developed the categorization and measure- where a positive correlation was found between motherly sensitivity and
ment of attachment types in infancy using the Strange Situation Procedure. secure attachment. Aviezer et al.'s findings appear to strengthen the hy-
Ainsworth classified infant attachments styles as secure, insecure-anxious, pothesis that CSA kibbutz upbringing damage the quality of infants'
and insecure-avoidant. Later, a fourth attachment style was conceptual- attachment to their mothers.
ized termed insecure-disorganized (Granqvist et al., 2017). The percentage of secure attachments of infants to their fathers in CSA
A more updated conceptualization and measurement method of kibbutzim was found to be similar to that of other populations (Sagi et al.,
attachment styles categorizes attachment on two axes: anxiety and 1985), with kibbutz children showing no preference for either of the
avoidance (Mikulincer et al., 2003). The anxiety axis reflects the extent to parents. Sagi et al. also examined the attachment quality of 2-year-old
which the individual worries that their attachment figure will not come kibbutz infants to their mother, father, and their
to their aid in times of distress. The avoidance axis reflects the individ- kibbutz-non-parent-caregiver, three and a half years later. van Ijzen-
ual's desire to maintain emotional distance and eschew dependence on doorn et al. (1992) followed up on the same children at age 5, measuring
the attachment figure due to a lack of trust. Some relate to the avoidance their IQ and socio-emotional functioning through observations and
axis as comprised of two elements: dependency avoidance (i.e., an indi- questionnaires. The van Ijzendoorn et al. study found that the children's
vidual's desire to avoid dependence on another individual) and closeness level of secure attachment toward their non-parent caregiver at age 2 was
avoidance (i.e., an individual's desire to avoid intimacy with another the best predictor of empathy levels, IQ, social independence and social
individual). dominance at age 5. In contrast, attachment quality to the mother (in
Whereas assessment of attachment in infancy derives from behavioral infancy) did not predict these variables at age 5. Thus, according to van
observation, its measurement in adulthood is based on interviews or self- Ijzendoorn et al. (1992), these findings point to the importance of the
report questionnaires (Roisman et al., 2007). See Roisman et al. for a non-parent caregiver in the emotional world of the kibbutz child and the
more extensive discussion of the axis categorization and the Strange relatively weak importance of the emotional relationship kibbutz chil-
Situation procedure and for the various ways to conceptualize and dren have with their parents.
measure attachment styles. Aviezer and Sagi (1999) analyzed the emotional characteristics of
More recent views and findings suggest that relationships with a early adolescent kibbutz children, comparing their results with their
group can also function as an attachment relationship (Fonagy et al., scores from the Strange Situation procedure they underwent in infancy.
2017); the individual can use a group as a secure base and seek intimacy This study found that CSA kibbutz children that had displayed insecure
with the group members as a source of security, support, and comfort in attachments to their mothers during infancy, were characterized - in their
times of distress. adolescence - as being less emotionally mature and tended to express a
Longitudinal research examining attachment stability showed narrower range of emotions. The researchers emphasized the negative
inconclusive results (see Specht et al., 2011). In general, attachment style effects of CSA kibbutzim on their children's attachment patterns and
appears to be moderately stable from infancy to early adulthood other emotional characteristics.

3
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

1.3. Trait emotional intelligence social environment and peer group have significantly changed since their
childhood on the kibbutz (whether they remained in the kibbutz or
Trait Emotional Intelligence (trait EI) is a constellation of correlated moved to the city) and have affected their attachment patterns in some
emotional traits that capture a person's typical way of processing way. Since attachment patterns show moderate stability across the life-
emotional information and reacting in emotional situations (Petrides span (Fraley, 2002) and considering the partial difficulties with intimacy
et al., 2007). Trait EI is measured through self-report questionnaires and observed among kibbutz children (Sagi et al., 1994), we posited the
concerns individuals' perceptions of their emotional abilities, such as following hypothesis:
how effective they believe they are in understanding, regulating, and
H2. There will be an interaction between CSA-kibbutz-raised and non-
expressing emotions to adapt to their environment and maintain
kibbutz-raised adults and their attachment pattern in adulthood in the
well-being (Petrides et al., 2007).
subcategory of closeness avoidance. We argue that whereas the two
Research shows that trait EI is positively and strongly related to a
groups' rates of anxiety and avoidance will be comparable, the levels of
sense of life satisfaction and positive social connections (Petrides et al.,
closeness in adulthood will be lower among CSA-kibbutz-raised adults
2016). Trait EI has been found to be inversely related to various psy-
than among non-kibbutz adults.
chopathologies, such as depression, alexithymia, and anxiety among
adults, adolescents, and children (Sarrionandia and Mikolajczak, 2020;
2. Method
Kokkinos and Kipritsi, 2012). Trait EI has also been found to be a good
predictor of low rates of physical health issues (Mikolajczak et al., 2008),
2.1. Participants
higher marriage satisfaction, and more positive attachment styles
(Malouff et al., 2014). Physiologically, trait EI has been shown to be
We carried out a power analysis using GPower version 3.1 (Faul et al.,
related to a variety of positive neurological measures, such as cortisol
2007). We defined ANOVA tests with one independent variable having
secretion while coping with stressful situations (Mikolajczak et al.,
two levels (CSA-kibbutz-raised versus control) and six dependent vari-
2007), and a higher quantity of gray matter in the brain (Tan et al.,
ables (as described below). As we did not have preliminary data, we
2014).
adopted a conservative approach and defined our expected effects as
Trait EI has shown stability for periods of three years (Lewis et al.,
weak. Beta was defined at the 0.80 level. The results of the analysis
2017), and for 32 months (Parker et al., 2005) among Western college
indicated that a total sample of 1,370 was desirable. We decided to
students. A longitudinal study on Canadian children aged 10–18 showed
include a larger number of participants as we anticipated dropouts. A
trait EI stability from age 13 to 18. To the best of our knowledge, the
total of 1,744 respondents completed the questionnaire. Among the
stability of trait EI has yet to be studied beyond three years.
initial respondents, 481 aged 30 or younger, were discarded, and elim-
inating these participants yielded two groups of comparable age range.
1.3.1. Research on the Trait-EI of communally raised individuals
An additional 78 participants were discarded from the analysis since they
Trait EI of communally raised individuals (whether in Israeli
were kibbutz-raised but without CSA, thus not conforming to the inclu-
Kibbutzim or other communes worldwide) has not been studied to our
sion criteria. The final data analysis included 1,185 participants. Of the
knowledge. This lack of research is understandable since CSA practices in
total participants, 735 (526 women) were raised in a CSA kibbutz, and
Kibbutzim were discontinued in the early 1990s when the term trait EI
450 participants (368 women) were raised in a non-kibbutz familial
had yet to be conceptualized. Despite this lack of current research, some
environment.
relevant findings have been reported. Schulze and Roberts (2005)
We used Qualtrics online calculator to calculate the ideal sample size
described emotional openness and emotional expression as naturally
with an acceptable 4% margin of error to represent the CSA-kibbutz-
related to high trait EI levels. Past research conducted in the 1980s,
raised population (https://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management
before the cessation of CSA, found that kibbutz-raised adolescents
/research/determine-sample-size/). The population of individuals
expressed limited emotion in the Thematic Apperception Test (Biran,
raised in CSA kibbutzim born after 1909 as of 2008 is 73,000 (Israel's
1983), limited emotional expression (Arnon, 1980; Regev et al., 1980),
Central Bureau of Statistics, 2008). We again took a conservative
and lower general emotional openness (Biran, 1983; Bitan, 1978).
approach, presuming that 60,000 were still alive. Defining the popula-
Furthermore, emotional intimacy was found to be related to relatively
tion size at 60,000 with a 4% margin of error revealed that the ideal
high levels of trait EI (Malouff et al., 2014), and several studies in the
sample size would be 595. Thus, a sample size of 735 would comprise a
1980s found lower levels of intimacy among kibbutz children (Arnon,
representative sample of the CSA-kibbutz-raised population. The average
1980; Sharabany and Yariv, 1986). Other research on kibbutz-raised
age of study participants raised in a CSA kibbutz was 47.41 (SD ¼ 10.20,
adults found their intimacy levels comparable to those of city-raised
range ¼ 30–79); the average age of the non-kibbutz participants was
adults, whether in platonic relationships with partners of the same sex
41.00 (SD ¼ 9.13, range ¼ 30–71). All participants volunteered their
(Wiseman and Lieblich, 1991) or in romantic relationships with partners
participation in this study.
of the opposite sex . Other research shows lower levels of intimacy be-
tween fathers raised in CSA kibbutzim and their daughters, compared to
city-raised fathers (Sharabany and Yariv, 1986). 2.2. Materials

Trait EI. Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT;

1.4. The current study
Schutte et al., 1998) was used in this study to measure trait EI (see all
questionnaires in the Appendix). This questionnaire includes 33
1.4.1. Trait EI
statements relating to different aspects of EI. The SSEIT was chosen for
Based on previous findings showing lower levels of intimacy,
measuring trait EI because of its well-established validity, its
emotional expression, and self-disclosure among kibbutz children, we
well-validated Israeli-Hebrew version (nulla), and its moderate number
posed the following hypothesis:
of items. Popular alternative trait EI questionnaires were rejected for
H1. Adults raised in CSA kibbutzim will present lower levels of trait EI being overly long for the older research population.
than will non-kibbutz-raised adults. Participants were presented the 33 statements on a 5-point Likert-
type scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree),
1.4.2. Attachment and closeness with three items reverse-scored. The EI score is calculated as an average
For adults raised in CSA kibbutzim, many years have passed since of the participants' ratings, with higher scores indicating higher levels of
their childhood in the kibbutz education system, and it is clear that their EI. A non-verbal communication sub-scale was computed for each

4
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

participant from a simple average of several items regarding this specific 2.4. Statistical approach
trait. This subscale was formulated together with Schutte for this study.
Cronbach's alpha (α ¼ .90) and McDonald's omega (ω ¼ .90) were To examine the main hypotheses, we initially looked for differences
calculated for the SSEIT for the current sample. Cronbach's alpha (α ¼ between the two research groups––CSA kibbutz-raised adults and non-
.82) and McDonald's omega (ω ¼ 0.84) were calculated for the non- kibbutz-raised adults––concerning the study's main variables: trait EI,
verbal communication subscale for the current sample. closeness, and attachment. To do so, we ran ANCOVA analyses with age
The Revised Adult Attachment Scale (RAAS; Collins, 1996) was used to and gender as covariates. We selected these two covariates since, for
measure attachment characteristics. This questionnaire was chosen for its various dimensions of trait EI, women's scores tend to be higher than
closeness measure, as this aspect was of interest in this research. Other men's and because age correlates positively with other trait EI dimensions
widely used attachment questionnaires were not used because they lack a (Perez-Díaz et al., 2020; Tsaousis and Kazi, 2013). Next, to deepen our
closeness score. The validated Hebrew-Israeli version of the RAAS was understanding of the nature of the relations between CSA kibbutz up-
used (Mayseless et al., 1996). The 18-item RAAS includes statements bringing and EI, closeness, and attachment, we performed analyses of
relating to various characteristics of attachment. Participants rate their least significant difference (LSD). Using this method of analysis, we
responses on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (completely examined our hypotheses at different levels of the investigated person-
disagree) to 5 (completely agree). The RAAS yields four measures: (1) ality traits: dependency, anxiety, self-esteem, and avoidance. We also
anxious, which is calculated via a simple average of its six relevant tested our hypotheses at different age groupings. Thus, we examined
statements (Cronbach's Alpha ¼ .88, McDonald's omega ¼ .88); (2) interactions between our independent variable––CSA kibbutz-raised
avoidance, which is calculated via a simple average of its 12 relevant adults and non-kibbutz-raised adults––and the moderators: de-
statements (five of which are reverse-scored; Cronbach's Alpha ¼ .82, pendency, anxiety, self-esteem, avoidance, and age, on our dependent
McDonald's omega ¼ .82). Two additional sub-measures are: (1) close- variables: EI, closeness, and attachment.
ness, which measures to what extent the individual feels comfortable in We also decided to test our hypotheses in five equal-sized groups,
situations of closeness and intimacy (Cronbach's alpha ¼ .77, McDonald's subject to participants' scores in each of the five moderators so that each
omega ¼ .77); (2) dependency, which measures to what extent the indi- group comprised 237 participants. The sample was sufficiently large to
vidual feels comfortable in situations when dependent on others. Both allow an adequate number of participants in each of the five sub-
measures were calculated via a simple average of the relevant statements categories. This division into five subcategories relies on the statistical
(Cronbach's alpha ¼ .73, McDonald's omega ¼ .74). literature, suggesting this division for similar analyses (Aron and Aron,
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965) was used to 2002; Coolican, 2018). The rationale behind splitting the sample into five
measure self-esteem. This questionnaire (translated to Hebrew and sub-groups is that the various subcategories need to differ substantially
validated by Zack, 1976) includes 10 statements presented on a 5-point from each other; thus, limiting the subcategories to two or three may be
Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), insufficient. Moreover, each subcategory should still include a sufficient
with five statements reversed-scored. The self-esteem score was number of participants and provide simple and easy-to-understand
calculated by a simple average of the participant's ratings, with higher results.
scores reflecting higher self-esteem. This questionnaire's reliability was
calculated with Cronbach's alpha (α ¼ .91) and McDonald's omega (ω 3. Results
¼ .91).
Finally, participants were asked a single question for which they were The study findings will be reviewed in the following order:
asked to rate the quality of their kibbutz experience, presented on a 5-
point Likert-type scale. This study was approved by the ethics commit- 3.1 trait EI––general findings
tee (IRB) of the Ruppin Academic Center. The study's IRB approval 3.2 closeness and attachment––general findings
number is 16-01. 3.3 the influence of dependency, anxiety, self-esteem, and avoidance
on trait EI
3.4 influences of dependency, anxiety, self-esteem, and avoidance on
2.3. Procedure closeness
3.5 the perceived quality of the kibbutz experience
Participants responded to a message that we distributed on various 3.6 the influence of age on trait EI and closeness
Facebook groups or face-to-face. Many participants were drafted via
other participants (i.e., snowball technique), and others were drafted via
Facebook groups intended for kibbutz-raised adults. Each message
3.1. Emotional intelligence – general findings
included a Qualtrics link to the questionnaire, which each participant
anonymously completed. Participants were able to complete the ques-
Performing a one-way ANCOVA, in which age and gender were held
tionnaire on a computer, tablet, or smartphone. Some of the participants
as constants, trait EI of CSA kibbutz-raised adults (M ¼ 3.75, SD ¼ 0.41)
completed the questionnaire on an Apple iPod-Air supplied by the au-
was found, as hypothesized, to be lower than the trait EI of non-kibbutz-
thors for that purpose.
raised adults (M ¼ 3.83, SD ¼ 0.36), F(1,1181) ¼ 9.72, η2p ¼ 0.008, p < .01.
The questionnaire included an introduction, followed by the ques-
In a further one-way ANCOVA, with age and gender held as constants,
tionnaire items with no time limit. The introduction provided the
non-verbal emotional communication (a subcategory of trait EI) of
researcher's contact information (name, cellphone number, email
kibbutz-raised adults (M ¼ 3.44, SD ¼ 0.43) was found to be lower than
address) as well as an assurance of anonymity. The questionnaire also
non-verbal emotional communication among non-kibbutz-raised adults
included demographic questions regarding the participant's gender, age,
(M ¼ 3.59, SD ¼ 0.44), F(1,1181) ¼ 25.67, η2p ¼ 0.02, p < .001.
and a closed (yes/no) question regarding any childhood involvement
with kibbutz communal sleeping arrangements. Participants who re-
ported that they had experienced familial sleeping arrangements at their 3.2. Closeness and attachment – general findings
kibbutz were excluded from the research data. The measures were pre-
sented in the following order: SSEIT, RSE, and RAAS. The results were A one-way ANCOVA, holding age and gender as constants, revealed
gathered automatically via the Qualtrics system. that closeness levels of CSA kibbutz-raised adults (M ¼ 3.40, SD ¼ 0.67)

5
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

Table 1. Main effects, interactions and planned comparisons of dependency, anxiety, Kibbutz upbringing on trait EI and closeness.

Trait Emotional Intelligence Closeness

1 1 1
Effect Explanation Effect Size Sig. F df Effect Size Sig.1 F1 df1

η2 ηp 2 η2 ηp 2
Kibbutz upbringing Differences between kibbutz - 0.013 p < .001 14.81 1,1166 - 0.02 p < .001 24.3 1,1165
and non-kibbutz-raised adults
Dependency - 0.09 p < .001 28.78 4,1166 - 0.21 p < .001 78.54 4,1165
Dependency * Kibbutz - 0.013 p < .01 3.95 4,1166 - 0.007 ns 1.95 4,1165
Lowered EI of very low dependency level 0.06 - p < .001 - - 0.06 - p < .001
kibbutz-raised adults2 low dependency level 0.05 - p < .01 - - 0.05 - p < .01
moderate dependency level 0.02 - p < .01 - - - - ns
Kibbutz upbringing Differences between kibbutz - 0.006 p < .01 7.24 1,1166 - 0.01 p < .01 11.66 1,1165
and non-kibbutz-raised adults
Anxiety - 0.18 p < .001 62.19 4,1166 - 0.21 p < .001 79.43 4,1165
Anxiety * Kibbutz - 0.013 p < .01 3.82 4,1166 - 0.01 p < .05 2.76 4,1165
Lowered EI of kibbutz-raised adults2 very low 0.02- - p < .05 - - - - ns - -
anxiety level
low Anxiety level 0.06 - p < .01 - - - - ns - -
very high 0.036 - p < .01 - - 0.11 - p < .001 - -
anxiety level
1
In this section, a two-way ANCOVA analysis was performed, with gender and age held constant.
2
In this section, an LSD post-hoc analysis was performed, with gender and age held constant.

were lower than for non-kibbutz-raised adults (M ¼ 3.53, SD ¼ 0.60), For the anxiety variable, each participant was classified into one of
F(1,1173) ¼ 14.26, η2p ¼ 0.012, p < .001. five levels, determined by percentile range: very low level of anxiety (1–20
An additional one-way ANCOVA, holding age and gender as con- percentile), low level of anxiety (21–40 percentile), moderate anxiety
stants, revealed no significant difference between CSA kibbutz-raised (41–60 percentile), high level of anxiety (61–80 percentile), or very high
adults and non-kibbutz-raised adults in the attachment patterns of anx- level of anxiety (81–100 percentile). All participants were categorized for
iety, avoidance, and dependence. An analysis of the means and standard the dependency, avoidance, and self-esteem variables identically, by
deviations of these variables is presented in Table S–2 in the Appendix, percentile range.
and the Pearson correlations between these variables are presented in The research hypotheses were analyzed at all five levels of anxiety,
Table S–3 in the Appendix. avoidance, dependency, and self-esteem. Considering the overlap be-
Examining the Research Hypotheses at Different Levels of De- tween the attachment measures of closeness and dependency, the
pendency, Anxiety, Avoidance, and Self-Esteem: closeness levels of CSA kibbutz-raised adults were not analyzed by de-
The research hypotheses regarding lower levels of closeness and trait pendency level.
EI among CSA kibbutz-raised adults were examined through various sub- For all seven of the statistical analyses, to be presented below, a
divisions of the sample. The sample was divided by dependency, anxiety, two-way ANCOVA was first conducted to examine the association be-
and avoidance levels––three subcategories of attachment––and self- tween CSA kibbutz education and an additional variable (anxiety/de-
esteem levels. pendency/avoidance/self-esteem) with a dependent variable (trait EI/
closeness). A post-hoc analysis examined the possibility of low trait EI
and low closeness among CSA kibbutz-raised adults at all levels of the
additional variable. All post-hoc analyses were LSD analyses. Age and
gender were held as constants in all ANCOVA and LSD analyses.

3.3. The influence of dependency, anxiety, self-esteem, and avoidance

levels on trait EI

3.3.1. Trait EI differences by levels of avoidance

Main effects were found for CSA kibbutz upbringing and avoidance
level. An interaction effect between these variables in trait EI was also
found (see Table 1). Results of the post-hoc analysis are presented in
Figure 1:
As shown in Figure 1, a post-hoc analysis revealed that only among
participants with very high avoidance was the trait EI of kibbutz-raised
adults significantly lower than that of non-kibbutz adults, η2 ¼ 0.06, p
< .001.

3.3.2. Trait EI differences by levels of dependency

Main effects were found for CSA kibbutz upbringing and dependency
level, and an interaction effect between these variables for trait EI was
Figure 1. Differences in trait EI by levels of avoidance. Trait EI averages of CSA also found (see additional information in Table 1). A post-hoc analysis
kibbutz-raised adults and non-Kibbutz adults, by levels of avoidance. revealed a significant difference in trait EI between kibbutz and non-

6
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

kibbutz adults only among participants with low dependency η2 ¼ 0.05, p 3.4.3. Closeness at different levels of self-esteem
< .01 and very low dependency η2 ¼ 0.06, p < .001 (see Graph S–I in the Main effects were found for kibbutz education and self-esteem. An
Appendix). interaction effect between these two variables in closeness was also
found (see Table 1). a post-hoc analysis found that only among partici-
3.3.3. Trait EI differences by levels of anxiety pants with very low self-esteem, closeness levels of CSA kibbutz-raised
Main effects were found for CSA kibbutz upbringing and anxiety adults were lower than for non-kibbutz adults η2 ¼ 0.06, p < .001 (see
level. An interaction effect between these variables in trait EI was also Graph S–6 in the Appendix).
found (see Table 1). Post-hoc analysis found that CSA kibbutz-raised
adults with very low anxiety reported higher levels of trait EI than
3.5. The quality of the Kibbutz experience
non-kibbutz adults, albeit yielding a weak effect, η2 ¼ -0.02, p < .05.
Notably, a converse effect was found among participants with low anx-
Only CSA kibbutz-raised adults rated the quality of their childhood
iety and very high anxiety; CSA kibbutz-raised adults reported lower
kibbutz experience. To examine the possibility of a relationship between
levels of trait EI than did non-kibbutz adults. These effects were medium-
the kibbutz members' self-reports of this experience and the research
weak, η2 ¼ 0.06, p < .01 for low anxiety and η2 ¼ 0.036, p < .01 for very
variables, Spearman correlations were calculated to determine associa-
high anxiety. See Graph S–2 in the Appendix.
tions between the quality of the Kibbutz experience and the research
variables among CSA kibbutz-raised adults. Spearman rank tests indi-
3.3.4. Trait EI difference by levels of self-esteem
cated positive relations between kibbutz upbringing and trait EI (rs ¼ .08,
Main effects were found for kibbutz education and self-esteem,
p < .05), closeness (rs ¼ .11, p < .01), dependency (rs ¼ .18, p < .001),
along with an interaction effect between these variables on trait EI
avoidance (rs ¼ .16, p < .001), anxiety (rs ¼ .18, p < .001), self-esteem (rs
(see Table 2). Post-hoc analysis revealed that only among participants
¼ .20, p < .001), and age (rs ¼ .08, p < .04). Non-verbal communication
with very low self-esteem did CSA kibbutz-raised adults score signifi-
and kibbutz upbringing were found not to be associated (rs ¼ .03, p >
cantly lower on trait EI than non-kibbutz-raised adults. This effect was
.05).
of medium strength, η2 ¼ 0.07, p < .001 (see Graph S–3 in the
Appendix).
3.6. The influence of age on trait EI and closeness

3.4. The influence of dependency, anxiety, self-esteem, and avoidance Research participants were divided into four age groups: up to age 45,
levels on closeness 45–55, 56–65, and 66 and over. After examining the research hypotheses
by analyses of variance, LSD post-hoc analyses were conducted. The post-
3.4.1. Closeness at Different Levels of Dependency hoc analyses were used to examine the differences between CSA kibbutz-
Main effects were found for kibbutz upbringing and dependency raised adults and non-kibbutz adults for trait EI and closeness, separately
level, whereas an interaction effect between these two variables for for each age group. The findings from these analyses appear in Table 3.
closeness was not found (see Table 1). Post-hoc analysis found that a CSA kibbutz-raised adults at the age of 55 (or younger) reported lower
lower level of closeness was only found among CSA kibbutz-raised adults trait EI (age 0–45, p < .01; age 45–55, p < .05) and lower closeness levels
with very low dependency, η2 ¼ 0.06, p < .001, low dependency, η2 ¼ (age 0–45, p < .01; age 45–55, p < .05) than did same-age non-kibbutz
0.05, p < .001, and moderate dependency, η2 ¼ 0.02, p < .01 (see Graph adults. Notably, both effects were very small: trait EI (age 0–45, η2 ¼
S–4 in the Appendix). 0.011; age 45–55, η2 ¼ 0.014); closeness (age 0–45, η2 ¼ 0.013; age
45–55, η2 ¼ 0.042).

3.4.2. Closeness at different levels of anxiety 4. Discussion

Main effects were found for kibbutz education and anxiety level. An
interaction effect between these two variables on closeness was also The present study examined whether adults raised in kibbutzim with
found (see Table 1). Post-hoc analysis found that only among participants communal sleeping arrangements (CSA) would be characterized by
with very high anxiety, closeness levels were lower for CSA kibbutz- current difficulties in trait EI and closeness. The study's findings reveal a
raised adults than for non-kibbutz adults. This effect was of high- significant, though weak, decrease in trait EI and closeness levels among
medium strength, η2 ¼ 0.11, p < .001 (see Graph S–5 in the Appendix). CSA kibbutz-raised adults compared with non-kibbutz adults. This

Table 2. Main effects, interactions and planned comparisons of self-esteem, avoidance, Kibbutz upbringing on trait EI and closeness.

Trait Emotional Intelligence Closeness

Effect Explanation Effect Size Sig.1 F1 df1 Effect Size Sig.1 F1 df1

η2 ηp 2 η2 ηp 2
Kibbutz Upbringing Differences between kibbutz-raised and non-kibbutz-raised adults 0.01 p < .001 10.16 1,1166 - 0.012 p < .001 13.57 1,1165
Self-esteem - 0.23 p < .001 88.24 4,1166 - 0.12 p < .001 40.82 4,1165
Self-esteem * Kibbutz - 0.014 p < .01 4.11 4,1166 - 0.01 p < .05 2.78 4,1165
Lowered EI of kibbutz-raised adults2 very low 0.07 - p < .001 - - 0.06 - p < .001 - -
Self-esteem
Kibbutz Upbringing Differences between kibbutz and Non-kibbutz-raised adults - 0.006 p < .01 7.14 1,1166
Avoidance - 0.2 p < .001 72.34 4,1166
Avoidance * Kibbutz - 0.013 p < .01 3.91 4,1166
Lowered EI of kibbutz-raised adults2 very high 0.06 - p < .001 - -
Avoidance
1
In this section, a Two-way ANCOVA analysis was performed, with gender and age held constant.
2
In this section, an LSD post-hoc analysis was performed, with gender and age held constant.

7
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

Table 3. Differences in trait EI and closeness, between Kibbutz and non-Kibbutz adults, in various age groups.

Age group n Difference in Closeness3 Difference in Trait-EI3

Kibbutz Non-kibbutz η 2 Sig F df η2 Sig F df

1
All ages 735 450 0.012 p < .001 14.26 1,1173 0.008 p < .01 9.7 1,1181
age 45 and younger2 355 334 0.013 p < .01 - - 0.011 p < .01 - -
Ages 45–552 219 75 0.042 p < .05 - - 0.014 p < .05 - -
Ages 55–652 116 33 - ns - - - ns - -
Age 65 and older2 45 9 - ns - - - ns - -
1
A two-way ANCOVA analysis was performed with gender and age held constant.
2
An LSD post-hoc analysis was performed with gender held constant.
3
In this table, all differences describe a lower level of trait EI and closeness by CSA kibbutz-raised adults compared with non-kibbutz adults.

decrease supports the study hypotheses, though the weak effect size of in the kibbutz (Sharabany and Yariv, 1986) had a uniquely negative ef-
the difference constrains the validity of our claim that CSA kibbutz-raised fect on these vulnerable kibbutz children.
adults are characterized by lower levels of trait EI and closeness. Most Furthermore, any individual with low self-esteem would appear to
kibbutz-raised adults report trait EI and closeness levels comparable to need a socially supportive environment in order to better cope with
those of non-kibbutz adults, as well as moderate-to-high self-reported adversity. The CSA kibbutz-raised adults with very low self-esteem and
self-esteem and average-to-high attachment quality. high anxiety may also have been negatively influenced by their limited
The most sizable difference was revealed when trait EI and closeness social alternatives in childhood on the kibbutz. As noted, the kibbutz
were examined among kibbutz and non-kibbutz adults with poor offered a unified, monolithic, intense, unchanging peer group, with other
attachment patterns and low self-esteem. Among those in the 1–20th social alternatives unavailable, while city-raised children were offered
percentile group of attachment patterns and self-esteem, CSA kibbutz- more diverse social alternatives, with a variety of different children in
raised adults displayed significantly lower trait EI and closeness than each alternative (Gavron, 2000). Hence, city children with low
non-kibbutz adults in the same percentile group. In other words, kibbutz- self-esteem are likely to have been offered a variety of social arenas,
raised adults with very low self-esteem showed lower trait EI and providing more opportunities to find a social group to best fit their
closeness than did non-kibbutz adults with very low self-esteem. Also, emotional needs.
kibbutz-raised adults with very high anxiety and avoidance levels dis- These explanations (the monolithic social environment and the lack
played significantly lower trait EI levels and closeness than non-kibbutz of familial support) are in line with the present findings, conceptualiza-
adults with similar profiles. These distinctions were significant as well as tions, and theory regarding children's mental resilience (Carlton et al.,
sizable. 2006). The current findings regarding children's resilience show that
We will first address the findings regarding the entire sample of CSA children's ability to 'bounce back' and recover from life's adversities relies
kibbutz-raised adults and then address the findings relating to adults with on (a) the self, (b) familial support, and (c) support of the environment
low self-esteem and poor attachment. (Carlton et al., 2006; Masten, 2001). We suggest that CSA kibbutz-raised
children with low self-esteem were especially in need of family and
4.1. Possible explanations for the moderate levels of trait EI and closeness environmental support to compensate for their diminished self-efficacy
among most adults raised in CSA Kibbutzim to maintain resilience. We propose that kibbutz children with relatively
higher self-esteem and stronger ego strength managed to overcome these
Most adults raised in kibbutzim with communal sleeping arrange- potential impediments—the absence of familiar support and monolithic
ments (CSA) showed comparable trait EI and closeness levels, as did non- social environment––and to develop normative levels of trait EI and
kibbutz adults. These present results, relating to participants aged 40–70, intimacy.
are in line with previous research examining the intimacy levels of An alternative explanation relates to attachment theory and two sub-
younger kibbutz adults, aged 20–39 (Wiseman and Lieblich, 1989). strategies of avoidance: emotional avoidance (low closeness to attach-
These researchers suggested that CSA kibbutz-raised adults managed to ment figure) and physical avoidance (an aspiration to avoid physical
develop intimate interpersonal relationships and normative emotional dependence on the attachment figure; (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2020).
awareness once exposed to a variety of adult social domains external to Specifically, avoidance strategy could include a willingness to receive
the kibbutz (e.g., army service, university, work, romantic relationships). material support from the attachment figure (e.g., nursing, money, resi-
They suggested that these social frameworks offered abundant opportu- dence) alongside a lack of willingness to receive intimate emotional
nities for these young kibbutz-raised adults to develop qualities of in- support from the same figure. Such a relationship implies a physical sense
timacy and emotional awareness. These assertions are supported by the of dependence but lacks emotional closeness (Bion, 1962). In the current
current findings for most of the CSA kibbutz-raised adults. study, some kibbutz-raised adults with low self-esteem and high anxiety
did not report relatively lower dependency but did present a relatively
low closeness level. We suggest that these kibbutz children developed
4.2. Possible explanations for the low levels of trait EI and closeness among
emotional avoidance but did not develop physical avoidance. They might
some Kibbutz raise adults
have grown accustomed to physically working together, sharing toys and
food with their peers (Dror, 2002), but they maintained some emotional
Findings show that CSA kibbutz-raised adults who reported very low
distance and avoidance to protect themselves. These findings are
self-esteem and high anxiety also reported lower trait EI and less in-
consistent with studies concerning the coping strategies of children
timacy than city-raised adults with similar self-esteem and anxiety levels.
raised in the Soviet Bloc (Nesteruk and Marks, 2011; Saxonberg and
As trait EI is strongly associated with resilience (Schneider, Lyons and
Sirovatka, 2006), who tended to express emotional avoidance and
Khazon, 2013) and effective stress management (Mikolajczak and
decreased emotional disclosure. Soviet Bloc education shows some sim-
Luminet, 2008), we suggest that these low self-esteem CSA
ilarities––as well as major differences––when compared with the CSA
kibbutz-raised adults may be less resilient to emotional adversity than
kibbutz education: Both strived to instill socialist values of cooperation,
city children with similar characteristics. We suggest that the lack of
equality, and resource sharing. However, kibbutzim in Israel were
familial support, low parental availability, and low child-parent intimacy

8
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

organized in small, commune-like, agricultural villages located in a emotional difficulties are likely related to the tendency of individuals
capitalistic democratic regime, with frequent wars against adjacent with avoidant attachment to deny their emotional difficulties (Miku-
countries (Lieblich, 2010). In contrast, the Soviet Bloc's population was lincer and Shaver, 2007). The current study shows that whereas low
mostly organized in cities in a non-democratic, communist regime levels of trait EI and closeness are characteristic of collectively raised
(Nesteruk and Marks, 2011). adults with low self-esteem and high levels of anxiety and avoidance, low
levels of trait EI and closeness do not characterize the majority of
4.3. Non-verbal communication kibbutz-raised individuals.
How can we identify collectively raised adults with low levels of trait
Another key finding from this study was that CSA kibbutz-raised EI and closeness? Are there other factors that predict this decrease among
adults viewed themselves as having low non-verbal communication ca- these adults? Answers to these questions can expand our understanding
pacities (e.g., "It is difficult for me to understand the non-verbal meaning of additional factors related to low levels of trait EI, closeness, and non-
of others' behavior") when compared with non-kibbutz adults. The dif- verbal communication that might uniquely characterize adults raised in
ference between the two examined groups was of medium-weak strength. collective settings. We argue that answers to these questions will help
Past research indicated that kibbutz adolescents scored higher than therapists offer appropriate assistance to individuals raised in such set-
city adolescents in self-report, hypothetical moral dilemmas tests tings. It is also likely that therapeutic interventions for individuals raised
(Kohlberg, 1971; Hurvitz, 1979; Bar-Yam et al., 1980; Sharabany and in communal or collective settings can help them establish a more
Toren, 1982; Nadler et al., 1979). The combination of poor non-verbal advanced emotional awareness and cultivate their capacity for close re-
communication skills in adulthood (found in this study) and advanced lationships with others.
moral thinking during kibbutz childhood, can be explained by the
kibbutz education's thrust, particularly its aim to instill egalitarian and Declarations
universal values served by an intellectual-moral rationale. This expla-
nation suggests that a moral education with its various components could Author contribution statement
diminish the importance of non-verbal interpersonal signs, which tend to
be unique, intuitive, personalized, and less intellectual. Naturally, this R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg: Conceived and designed the experiments; Per-
conjecture requires further corroboration. formed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed
reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.
4.4. Study limitations
Funding statement
This study has some limitations. First, the kibbutz ecology is complex
and includes many components. The distinct educational views and This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies
practices of the three Israeli kibbutz movements––Kibbutz Artzi, the Ichud in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
HaKvutzot V'Hakibutzim, and Kibbutz HaMeuchad––were not examined in
this study, although these movements operated diverse and independent Data availability statement
educational systems. For the sake of clarity, we chose to study CSA
kibbutz-raised adults as a uniform and homogenous group in the current Data will be made available on request.
study, although it is likely that the differences in educational approaches
across the three movements influenced the kibbutz-raised participants in
Declaration of interests statement
various ways. Second, in the second half of the 20th century, significant
modifications were introduced to kibbutz principles and education pol-
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
icy. Changes in values and culture occured within the kibbutz movement
and in general Israeli society. The kibbutz educational establishment
began to appreciate the importance of the parent-child relationship Additional information
(specifically, of the mother-infant relationship), whereas Israeli society,
in general, began to constrain its collective elements and expand its Supplementary content related to this article has been published
individualist elements. Thus, the current study, which aggregated all online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05775.
kibbutz adult participants into a single group, did not consider inter-
generational differences between those educated before, during, and References
after the frequent modifications to the kibbutz educational agenda.
Ainsworth, M.D.S., 1967. Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and the Growth of Love. Johns
From a methodological perspective, this study did not collect certain Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
demographic data (e.g., marital status, children) that may have improved Arnon, A., 1980. Intimacy and Interpersonal Relationship: a Comparison between Kibbutz
our understanding of the different influences on kibbutz-raised adults of Children Raised in Communal Sleeping Arrangements and Kibbutz Children Raised in
Familial Sleeping Arrangements. University of Haifa [In Hebrew]. Unpublished
trait EI and closeness. master's thesis.
As some study participants were recruited through other participants Aron, A., Aron, E.N., 2002. Statistics for the behavioral and social sciences. Prentice Hall
(i.e., snowball technique), the authors lacked full control over who Press.
Aviezer, O., Sagi, A., 1999. The rise and fall of collective sleeping and its impact on the
completed the questionnaires. Furthermore, the non-verbal communi- relationships of kibbutz children and parents. In: Folling, W., Folling-Albers, M.
cation scale introduced in this study was created from items derived from (Eds.), The Transformation of Collective Education in the Kibbutz: the End of Utopia.
the SSEIT (Schutte et al., 1998) relying on data from this research, but , Frankfurt, Peter Lang, pp. 192–211.
Aviezer, O., Sagi, A., Joels, T., Ziv, Y., 1999. Emotional availability and attachment
without further investigating its content validity.
representations in kibbutz infants and their mothers. Dev. Psychol. 35 (3), 811.
Aviezer, O., Sagi, A., van Ijzendoorn, M., 2002. Balancing the family and the collective in
4.5. Child rearing in collective settings - future directions and research raising children: why communal sleeping in kibbutzim was predestined to end. Fam.
Process 41 (3), 435–454.
Avrahami, A., 1998. The Lexicon of the Kibbutz. Yad Tabenkin, Ef'al [In Hebrew].
Several researchers have described kibbutz-raised adults' daily Balaban, A., 2000. Shiva'a. Hakibbutz Hameuchad Press, Tel Aviv [In Hebrew].
occupational and social functioning as overtly normative (Ebenstein Bar-Yam, M., Kohlberg, L., Naame, A., 1980. Moral reasoning of students in different
et al., 2018), while this research shows some of them seems to have cultural, social, and educational settings. Am. J. Educ. 88 (3), 345–362.
Bion, W.R., 1962. Learning from Experience. Karnac, London.
lowered trait EI and closeness. Similar tendencies have been identified in Biran, D., 1983. The Emotional Experience and Verbal Expression of Emotion of City and
adults raised in socialist countries (Triandis, 2018). These elusive Kibbutz Adolescents. University of Haifa [In Hebrew]. Unpublished master's thesis.

9
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

Bitan, N., 1978. Openness – a Comparison between Kibbutz and City Adolescents. Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P.R., 2007. Attachment in Adulthood: Structure, Dynamics, and
University of Tel-Aviv [In Hebrew]. Unpublished master's thesis. Change. Guilford Press, New York.
Bowlby, J., 1980. Attachment and Loss – Vol. 3: Loss. Basic Books, New York. Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P.R., 2020. Applications of attachment theory and research.
Bylsma, L.M., Taylor-Clift, A., Rottenberg, J., 2011. Emotional reactivity to daily events in Applications of Social Psychology: How Social Psychology Can Contribute to the
major and minor depression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 120 (1), 155. Solution of Real-World Problems.
Carlton, B.S., Goebert, D.A., Miyamoto, R.H., Andrade, N.N., Hishinuma, E.S., Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P.R., Pereg, D., 2003. Attachment theory and affect regulation:
Makini Jr., G.K., et al., 2006. Resilience, family adversity and well-being among the dynamics, development, and cognitive consequences of attachment-related
Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian adolescents. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatr. 52 (4), 291–308. strategies. Motiv. Emot. 27 (2), 77–102.
Cassidy, J., Shaver, P.R. (Eds.), 1999. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Nadler, A., Romek, E., Shapira-Friedman, A., 1979. Giving in the kibbutz: pro-social
Clinical Applications. Guilford Press, New York. behavior of city and kibbutz children as affected by social responsibility and social
Chopik, W.J., Edelstein, R.S., Grimm, K.J., 2019. Longitudinal changes in attachment pressure. J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 10 (1), 57–72.
orientation over a 59-year period. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 116 (4), 598. Nesteruk, O., Marks, L.D., 2011. Parenting in immigration: experiences of mothers and
Cohen, S., 2013. States of Denial: Knowing about Atrocities and Suffering. John Wiley & fathers from Eastern Europe raising children in the United States. J. Comp. Fam. Stud.
Sons, Cambridge. 42 (6), 809–825.
Collins, N.L., 1996. Working models of attachment: implications for explanation, Parker, J.D., Saklofske, D.H., Wood, L.M., Eastabrook, J.M., Taylor, R.N., 2005. Stability
emotion, and behavior. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 71 (4), 810. and change in emotional intelligence: exploring the transition to young adulthood.
Coolican, H., 2018. Research methods and statistics in psychology. Routledge. J. Indiv. Differ. 26 (2), 100–106.
Dror, Y., 1995. Shifts and trends in the historical, social and educational study of the Perez-Díaz, P.A., Perazzo, M.F., Chiesi, F., Marunic, G., Granville-Garcia, A.F., Paiva, S.M.,
kibbutz [In Hebrew]. Catedra 77 (10), 161–172. Petrides, K.V., 2020. Invariance of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Construct across
Dror, Y., 2002. The Chronicles of the Kibbutz Education: from Practice to Theory. Populations and Sociodemographic Variables. Personality and Individual Differences,
Hakibbutz Hameuchad Press, Tel Aviv [In Hebrew]. p. 110038.
Ebenstein, A., Gould, E., Hazan, M., Simhon, A., 2018. The nature versus nurture debate Petrides, K.V., Pita, R., Kokkinaki, F., 2007. The location of trait emotional intelligence in
and the direct effect of parental influence: evidence from the Israeli kibbutz. In: personality factor space. Br. J. Psychol. 98 (2), 273–289.
Maurice Falk Institute for Economic Research in Israel. Discussion Paper Series, Petrides, K.V., Mikolajczak, M., Mavroveli, S., Sanchez-Ruiz, M.J., Furnham, A., Perez-
pp. 1–26, 3. Gonzalez, J.C., 2016. Developments in trait emotional intelligence research. Emot.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.G., Buchner, A., 2007. G* Power 3: a flexible statistical Rev. 8 (4), 335–341.
power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav. Pinquart, M., Feubner, C., Ahnert, L., 2013. Meta-analytic evidence for stability in
Res. Methods 39 (2), 175–191. attachments from infancy to early adulthood. Am. J. Bioeth. 15 (2), 189–218.
Fonagy, P., 2018. Attachment Theory and Psychoanalysis. Routledge, New York. Regev, E., 1976. The Emotional Moderation and Dispersion as a Result of Communal
Fonagy, P., Luyten, P., 2018. Attachment, mentalizing, and the self. In: Handbook of Kibbutz Education. University of Haifa [In Hebrew]. Unpublished master's thesis.
Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, p. 123. Regev, E., Beit-Hallahmi, B., Sharabany, R., 1980. Affective expression in kibbutz-
Fonagy, P., Campbell, C., Bateman, A., 2017. Mentalizing, attachment, and epistemic trust communal, kibbutz-familial, and city-raised children in Israel. Child Dev. 5, 232–237.
in group therapy. Int. J. Group Psychother. 67 (2), 176–201. Richman, C.L., 2004. Kibbutzim in constant transition. Psychol. Develop. Soc. 16 (2),
Fraley, R., 2002. Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: meta-analysis and 125–138.
dynamic modeling of developmental mechanisms. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 6 (2), Roisman, G.I., Holland, A., Fortuna, K., Fraley, R.C., Clausell, E., Clarke, A., 2007. The
123–151. Adult Attachment Interview and self-reports of attachment style: an empirical
Gaunt, R., Bassi, L., 2012. Modeling and compensatory processes underlying rapprochement. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 92 (4), 678.
involvement in child care among kibbutz-reared fathers. J. Fam. Issues 33 (6), Rosenberg, M., 1965. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton university press,
823–848. Princeton, NJ.
Gavron, D., 2000. The Kibbutz: Awakening from utopia. Rowman & Littlefield, London, Sagi, A., Lamb, M.E., Lewkowicz, K.S., Shoham, R., Dvir, R., Estes, D., 1985. Security of
England. infant-mother,-father, and-metapelet attachments among kibbutz-reared Israeli
Granqvist, P., Sroufe, L.A., Dozier, M., Hesse, E., Steele, M., van Ijzendoorn, M.,, et al., children. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 50, 257–275.
2017. Disorganized attachment in infancy: a review of the phenomenon and its Sagi, A., van Ijzendoorn, M.H., Aviezer, O., Donnell, F., Mayseless, O., 1994. Sleeping out
implications for clinicians and policymakers. Am. J. Bioeth. 19 (6), 534–558. of home in a kibbutz communal arrangement: it makes a difference for infant-mother
Hurvitz, L., 1979. The Influence of Child-Rearing Environments in Israel on 1st, 2nd and attachment. Child Dev. 65 (4), 992–1004.
3rd Graders Level of Resistance to Temptation and Stages of Moral Judgment. Sagi, A., van Ijzendoorn, M.H., Scharf, M., Joels, T., Koren-Karie, N., Aviezer, O., 1997.
University of southern California. Ecological constraints for intergenerational transmission of attachment. IJBD (Int. J.
Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, 2008. The Population of the Kibbutzim in Israel 1961- Behav. Dev.) 20 (2), 287–299.
2005. CBS print, Jerusalem. Sarrionandia, A., Mikolajczak, M., 2020. A meta-analysis of the possible behavioural and
Kibbutz Ha'artzi, 1973. The Statute of the Kibbutz Ha'aartzi Movement. Hakibbutz biological variables linking trait emotional intelligence to health. Health Psychol.
Ha'artzi press, Tel Aviv [In Hebrew]. Rev. 14 (2), 220–244.
Kohlberg, L., 1971. Stages of moral development. Moral Educ. 1, 23–92. Saxonberg, S., Sirovatka, T., 2006. Failing family policy in post-communist Central
Kokkinos, C.M., Kipritsi, E., 2012. The relationship between bullying, victimization, trait Europe. J. Comp. Pol. Anal. 8 (2), 185–202.
emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and empathy among preadolescents. Soc. Schneider, T.R., Lyons, J.B., Khazon, S., 2013. Emotional intelligence and resilience. Pers.
Psychol. Educ. 15 (1), 41–58. Indiv. Differ. 55 (8), 909–914.
Lamdan, A., 2004. Silence Outcry and Discourse: Three Generations of Mothers in Schulze, R., Roberts, R., 2005. Emotional Intelligence: an International Handbook.
Kibbutz. Yad Tabenkin, Ramat Ef'al. Cambridge, Hogrefe.
Lewis, S., McNulty, J., White, P., Lane, S., Mackay, S., 2017. Emotional intelligence Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J.M., Hall, L.E., Haggerty, D.J., Cooper, J.T., Golden, C.J.,
development in radiography curricula: results of an international longitudinal study. Dornheim, L., 1998. Development and validation of a measure of emotional
J. Med. Imag. Radiat. Sci. 32 (5), 73–86. intelligence. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 25 (2), 167–177.
Lieblich, A., 2010. A century of childhood, parenting, and family life in the kibbutz. Sharabany, R., Toren, Z., 1982. Socialization settings, parental discipline and children's
J. Israeli Hist. 29, 1–24. moral judgment. In: In International Symposium on Moral Education. University of
Malouff, J.M., Schutte, N.S., Thorsteinsson, E.B., 2014. Trait-emotional-intelligence and Fribourg, Switzerland.
romantic relationship satisfaction: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Fam. Ther. 42 (1), 53–66. Sharabany, R., Wiseman, H., 1993. Close relationships in adolescence: the case of the
Masten, A.S., 2001. Ordinary magic: resilience processes in development. Am. Psychol. kibbutz. J. Youth Adolesc. 22 (6), 671–695.
56, 227–238. Sharabany, R., Yariv, E., 1986. Intimacy with parents and best friend: comparison of
Mayseless, O., Scher, A., 2000. Mother's attachment concerns regarding spouse and adolescent girls in communal vs. familial sleeping arrangements in the kibbutz. In: In
infant's temperament as modulators of maternal separation anxiety. J. Child Psychol. the 44th Annual Convention of the International Council of Psychologists. Tel Aviv. .
Psychiatry) 41 (7), 917–925. Specht, J., Egloff, B., Schmukle, S.C., 2011. Stability and change of personality across the
Mayseless, O., Danieli, R., Sharabany, R., 1996. Adults' attachment patterns: coping with life course: the impact of age and major life events on mean-level and rank-order
separations. J. Youth Adolesc. 25 (5), 667–690. stability of the Big Five. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 101 (4), 862.
Meeks, T.W., Vahia, I.V., Lavretsky, H., Kulkarni, G., Jeste, D.V., 2011. A tune in "a minor" Spiro, M.E., 2004. Utopia and its discontents: the kibbutz and its historical vicissitudes.
can "b major": a review of epidemiology, illness course, and public health Am. Anthropol. 106 (3), 556–568.
implications of subthreshold depression in older adults. J. Affect. Disord. 129 (1-3), Tan, Y., Zhang, Q., Li, W., Wei, D., Qiao, L., Qiu, J., Liu, Y., et al., 2014. The correlation
126–142. between emotional intelligence and gray matter volume in university students. Brain
Mikolajczak, M., Luminet, O., 2008. Trait emotional intelligence and the cognitive Cognit. 91, 100–107.
appraisal of stressful events: an exploratory study. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 44 (7), Triandis, H.C., 2018. Individualism and Collectivism. Routledge, New York.
1445–1453. Tsaousis, I., Kazi, S., 2013. Factorial invariance and latent mean differences of scores on
Mikolajczak, M., Roy, E., Luminet, O., Fillee, C., de Timary, P., 2007. The moderating trait emotional intelligence across gender and age. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 54 (2),
impact of emotional intelligence on free cortisol responses to stress. 169–173.
Psychoneuroendocrinology 32 (8), 1000–1012. Tubin, S., 1978. The Influence of Socialization Patterns on the Distinctness of
Mikolajczak, M., Nelis, D., Hansenne, M., Quoidbach, J., 2008. If you can regulate Interpersonal Perception and Autonomy of Kibbutz Adolescents. University of Haifa
sadness, you can probably regulate shame: associations between trait emotional [in Hebrew]. Unpublished master's thesis.
intelligence, emotion regulation and coping efficiency across discrete emotions. Pers. van Ijzendoorn, M.H., Sagi, A., Lambermon, M.W., 1992. The multiple caretaker paradox
Indiv. Differ. 44 (6), 1356–1368. data from Holland and Israel. N. Dir. Child Adolesc. Dev. 1992 (57), 5–24.

10
R. Sidi, D. Aisenberg Shafran Heliyon 6 (2020) e05775

Weiss, Y., Shilkret, R., 2010. The importance of the peer group in the Israeli kibbutz for Zack, H., 1976. The Rosenberg Questionnaire – Hebrew Version. Zmora Bitan, Tel-Aviv
adult attachment style. Smith Coll. Stud. Soc. Work 80 (1), 2–19. (Hebrew).
Wiseman, H., Lieblich, A., 1989. Intimacy and loneliness in the transition to adulthood. Zeidner, M., Shani-Zinovich, I., Matthews, G., Roberts, R.D., 2005. Assessing emotional
In: Annual Meeting of the Israeli Psychological Association, Haifa. . intelligence in gifted and non-gifted high school students: outcomes depend on the
Wiseman, H., Lieblich, A., 1991. Individuation in a collective community. Adolesc. measure. Intelligence 33 (4), 369–391.
Psychiatr. 18, 156–179.

11