Oxford Science 9 Second Edition Victorian Curriculum

S C I E N C E
OXFORD
SCI
EN
CE
9
HEL EN S ILV E S T ER
S E C O N D E D I T I O N
V I C T O R I A N
C U R R I C U L U M
Licensed to Refaat Elamin, from Al-Taqwa College until 2023-01-01.
S C I E N C E
OXFORD
SCI
EN
CE
9
HEL EN S ILV E S T ER
2 N D E D I T I O N
V I C T O R I A N
C U R R I C U L U M
1
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Published in Australia by
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© Helen Silvester
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Second edition 2021
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OXFORD
Science toolkit
Scientists work collaboratively and individually to design
SCI
1 experiments. They control variables and use accurate
measurement techniques to collect data. They consider
ethics and safety. They analyse data, identify trends and
relationships, and reveal inconsistencies in results. They
analyse and evaluate their own and others’ investigations.
Ecosystems
All living things are dependent on each other and the
2
EN
environment around them. Ecosystems are communities of
organisms and their non-living surroundings. Matter and
energy flow through ecosystems.
Control and regulation

Multicellular organisms, such as humans,
3 have systems that respond to changes in
their environments. Receptors detect these
CE
changes and pass the information to other
parts of the organism.
Tectonic plates
4 Plate tectonics is a combination of two theories:
continental drift and sea-floor spreading. Plate
tectonics explains global patterns of geological
activity and the movement of the continents.
9
Matter
5 Matter is made of atoms. Atoms
are systems of protons, neutrons
and electrons. Radioactivity occurs
when the nucleus of an unstable atom decays.
Chemical reactions
6 Chemical reactions, including combustion and acid reactions,
are the rearrangement of atoms to form a new substance.
Through this process, mass is not created or destroyed.
Electricity
7 Electricity is a general term related to the presence
and flow of electric charge. Electric circuits can be
explained by the concepts of voltage and current.
Electromagnetism
8 Magnetic fields and movement are used to generate electricity.
9 Experiments
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Introducing Oxford Science 9 CHAPTER 3 5.5 Ions have more or less electrons...104
Victorian Curriculum....................vi CONTROL AND 5.6 Isotopes have more or less
neutrons............................................106
Victorian Curriculum: Science 9 REGULATION............... 47 5.7 Isotopes can release alpha,
scope and sequence.....................x beta or gamma radiation.................108
3.1 Receptors detect stimuli.................. 48
5.8 The half-life of isotopes can be
Acknowledgements...................xii 3.2 Nerve cells are called neurons........52 used to tell the time.........................110
3.3 The nervous system controls 5.9 Science as a human endeavour:
reflexes.............................................. 54 Radiation is used in medicine........... 112
CHAPTER 1 3.4 The central nervous system
Chapter 5 review....................................114
SCIENCE TOOLKIT��1 controls our body...............................56
3.5 Things can go wrong with the
1.1 Scientists can test manufacturers’ nervous system................................. 58
claims....................................................2
CHAPTER 6
3.6 The endocrine system causes
1.2 Scientists must be aware of long-lasting effects...........................60 CHEMICAL
experimental errors............................4
1.3 Scientists prepare Safety Data
3.7 Homeostasis regulates through REACTIONS..................117
negative feedback..............................62
Sheets...................................................8 6.1 Endothermic reactions absorb
3.8 Science as a human endeavour: energy and exothermic reactions
1.4 Scientists present their data Hormones are used in sport............... 66
accurately...........................................10 release energy............................... 118
3.9 Science as a human endeavour: 6.2 Acids have a low pH. Bases
1.5 Science as a human endeavour: Pathogens cause disease................ 68
Scientists investigate consumer have a high pH..................................120
3.10 The immune system protects our 6.3 Acids can neutralise bases.............122
products..............................................12
body in an organised way................... 70 6.4 Acids react with metals to
Chapter 1 review......................................14 3.11 Things can go wrong with the produce hydrogen and a salt..........124
immune system..................................72 6.5 Metals and non-metals react
CHAPTER 2 Chapter 3 review......................................74 with oxygen.......................................126
6.6 Science as a human endeavour:
ECOSYSTEMS�� 17 Fuels are essential to Australian
2.1 All living things are dependent on
CHAPTER 4 society...............................................128
each other and the environment TECTONIC PLATES......77 Chapter 6 review....................................130
around them.......................................18
4.1 Is the Earth shrinking or moving?....78
2.2 Relationships between organisms
may be beneficial or detrimental.....20
4.2 The Earth has a solid core............... 80 CHAPTER 7
2.3 Population size depends on abiotic
4.3 Boundaries between the tectonic
plates can be converging, ELECTRICITY�� 133
and biotic factors...............................24
diverging or transforming.................82 7.1 Electricity is the presence and
2.4 Introducing a new species flow of electric charges...................134
4.4 Tectonic plates can be
may disrupt the balance in an
constructive or destructive.............. 86 7.2 Electric current results from
ecosystem..............................................26
4.5 Science as a human endeavour: the movement of charges
2.5 Energy enters the ecosystem around a closed circuit....................136
What will the Earth look like
through photosynthesis....................30
in the future? .....................................90 7.3 Current can flow through series
2.6 Energy flows through an and parallel circuits.........................138
Chapter 4 review......................................92
ecosystem...........................................32
7.4 Voltage is the difference in energy
2.7 Matter is recycled in ecosystems.....36 between two parts of a circuit.
2.8 Natural events can disrupt an CHAPTER 5 Resistance makes it difficult for
ecosystem.......................................... 38
2.9 Human activity can disrupt an
MATTER.......................95 current to flow in a circuit...............140
7.5 Current and resistance in a circuit
ecosystem.......................................... 40 5.1 All matter is made up of atoms........96 can be altered.....................................142
2.10 Science as a human endeavour: 5.2 Atoms are made up of subatomic Chapter 7 review....................................144
Human management of particles..............................................98
ecosystems continues to change.....42 5.3 Atoms have mass.............................100
Chapter 2 review..................................... 44 5.4 Electrons are arranged in shells...102
iv OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

CO
CHAPTER 8
ELECTROMAGNETISM... 147
8.1 Wires carrying an electric current
generate a magnetic field...............148
8.2 Electricity and magnets are used
to produce movement......................150
NT
8.3 Magnetic fields and movement
are used to generate electricity.....152
8.4 Science as a human endeavour:
Electromagnetic fields are used
in technology and medicine............154
Chapter 8 review....................................156
CHAPTER 9
EXPERIMENTS.......... 159
STEAM projects��208
E
Glossary��216
Index�� 222
TS
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CONTENTS v
Oxford Science Victorian Curriculum has been developed to meet the requirements of the Victorian
INTRODUCING OXFORD SCIENCE 7–10
VICTORIAN CURRICULUM Curriculum: Science across Years 7–10. Taking a concept development approach, each double-page
spread of Oxford Science represents one concept, one topic and one lesson. This new edition
ensures students build science skills and cross-curriculum capabilities, paving a pathway for
science success at VCE.
The series offers a completely integrated suite of print and digital resources to meet your needs,
including:
> Student Book > Student obook pro > Teacher obook pro.
Key features > This Student Book combines complete curriculum coverage with clear
of this and engaging design.
> Each print Student Book comes with complete access to all the digital
Student Book resources available on Student obook pro.
Focus on concept development
6
Why do some chemicals CHAPTER
explode?
Chapter openers 6.1 Endothermic reactions absorb energy
» Explosives
The history of the development of explosives is
» Carbon footprints Reflect
exothermic reactions release energy and
Describe what is meant by the phrase ‘carbon
• Every chapter • Students are

fascinating. Identify the person who discovered them. footprint’. Identify the chemical reactions that
Describe when explosives were fi rst used and how contribute to an increase in carbon dioxide in the
they work. Identify the main chemicals used and the atmosphere. Identify the other gases that contribute to
different types of these chemicals. Explain the part
begins with a encouraged to self-

the enhanced greenhouse effect. Describe how carbon
Alfred Nobel played in the development of explosives. footprints are measured. Describe what is meant by
the phrase ‘carbon offset’.
clear learning 6.2 Acids have a low pH. Bases

have a high pH CHEMICAL Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 6 ‘Chemical reactions’. Once you’ve
assess their learning
pathway for REACTIONS against a set of
completed the chapter, use the table to reflect on your ability to complete each task.
I can do this. I cannot do this yet.
students. success criteria in the

Define and describe exothermic and endothermic reactions in terms Go back to Topic 6.1
of energy released or absorbed. ‘Endothermic reactions absorb
Provide examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions. energy and exothermic reactions
Explain that the energy stored in chemical bonds can be released release energy’
6.3 Acids can neutralise bases when bonds break. Page 118
Define alkalis, alkaline, indicator, litmus paper, universal indicator,

pH scale and neutral.
Provide examples of acids and bases.
Go back to Topic 6.2 ‘Acids have a
low pH. Bases have a high pH’
Page 120 Reflect tables at the
end of each chapter.
Explain the structure of the pH scale (7 is neutral, <7 is acidic, >7
is basic).
Describe key characteristics of neutralisation, acid–metal carbonate Go back to Topic 6.3 ‘Acids can
and bicarbonate reactions. neutralise bases’
If students do not feel

Explain how the oceans are becoming more acidic. Page 122
Acids react with metals to produce
6.4 hydrogen and a salt
Define corrosion.
Explain the characteristics of the reaction between an acid and
Go back to Topic 6.4 ‘Acids react
with metals to produce hydrogen
What if?
a metal. and a salt’
confident about their

Describe the processes in corrosion of metal. Page 124
Lemon juice Describe the key characteristics of a metal or non-metal reacting Go back to Topic 6.5 ‘Metals and
with oxygen and a combustion reaction. non-metals react with oxygen’
What you need:
learning, they are

Relate combustion reactions to exothermic reactions. Page 126
Universal indicator, lemon juice,
Describe the differences between hydrocarbons and alcohols in Go back to Topic 6.6 ‘Science as
test tube terms of their chemical composition. a human endeavour: Fuels are
essential to Australian society’
Metals and non-metals What to do: Provide examples of fuels used in Australia.
6.5
directed back to the
Page 128
react with oxygen 1 Pour a small amount of lemon juice
into a test tube.
2 Add 1 cm of universal indicator to
relevant topic.
the test tube. What colour did the
universal indicator become?
Check your Student obook pro for these Check your Teacher obook pro for these
What if? digital resources and more: digital resources and more:
» What if water was used instead
Science as a human endeavour: Fuels
6.6
of
essential to Australian society are lemon juice?
Compete in teams to test
Chapter quiz
Test your understanding Launch a quiz for your students on key concepts in this chapter.
» What if detergent was used? your knowledge. of this chapter with one of
three chapter quizzes.
06_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd
117
132 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
9/22/21 1:39 PM
06_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd 132 9/22/21 1:46 PM
Concept statements 7.4A: Using Ohm’s law to 7.4B: Understanding 7.4C: Investigating
• Every topic begins with a concept statement

find resistance resistor colour codes Ohm’s law
SKILLS LAB Go to page 199. SKILLS LAB Go to page 200. EXPERIMENT Go to page 201.
that summarises the key concept of the 7.4 Voltage is the difference in Resistance
The amount of current flowing in a circuit is
energy between two parts

determined by the resistance of the circuit. The resistance
topic in one sentence.

electrical resistance of a material is a measure a measure of how difficult
of how difficult it is for charged particles to it is for the charged
of a circuit. Resistance
particles in an electric
move through. Electrons collide with the atoms
circuit to move
in the wires and the various other components
of a circuit, and some of their electrical energy
makes it difficult for current

is converted or transformed into heat. Most
connecting wires are thick and made of good
conductors. This means they have very low Figure 3 Many types of resistor are available. The
to flow in a circuit
resistance of carbon resistors is indicated by the
resistance, so hardly any energy is lost by the V
coloured bands on their plastic case.
electrons. However, the wires in a toaster are
Key ideas
designed so that a lot of the electrons’ energy is
transformed into heat – so much that the wires Ohm’s law I R
glow red-hot and brown the toast.
In this Georg Ohm, a German physicist, discovered
topic, you • Voltage is a measure of the difference in electrical potential energy carried by Resistors are devices that are deliberately Figure 4 The Ohm’s law
the relationship between voltage, current and
will learn charged particles at different points in a circuit. placed in circuits to control or reduce the size triangle can be used to
that: resistance. Ohm found that the voltage drop
• Key ideas are summarised

• Voltage can be measured using a voltmeter or multimeter in parallel to the circuit. of the current. Resistance is measured by a remember the equations
across a fi xed-value resistor is always directly
multimeter in units called ohms (symbol Ω). for Ohm’s law. To find
• Resistance is a measure of how difficult it is for current to flow through part of proportional to the current through the resistor. resistance, cover the
the circuit. Worked example 7.4B shows how to calculate
This means that as the voltage goes down, the R – the other two letters
resistance.
current will also go down. This relationship is show you the formula to
for each topic in succinct

A potentiometer is another type of variable known as Ohm’s law and is written as: use. The V is over the I,
Voltage In a series circuit, the potential energy
contained by each electron must be divided
resistor with a dial that rotates. A light dimmer
V = IR
so R = V .
I
is a potentiometer, as is the temperature control
Each charged particle has energy as it moves in between the different loads. This means a 12 V on an oven.
dot points.
an electric circuit. This potential energy can be battery connected to two identical globes in
transformed into sound as it moves through a series may transfer 6 V of energy to each globe.
speaker, or into light and heat if it moves through If the two globes are connected in parallel, each Worked example 7.4B: Calculating resistance
a globe. This means the charged particle electron moving in a globe is able to transform If a 9 V battery produces 6 A of current, calculate the resistance of the circuit.
(electron) has different amounts of energy before all the 12 V into light and heat. Worked V
R= I
and after the speaker or globe. This difference in example 7.4A shows how to calculate voltage.
voltage energy is called potential difference or voltage. Solution
potential difference; the Voltage is measured by a voltmeter or a
difference in the electrical Worked example 7.4A: If V = 9 volts, and I = 6 amperes, then
multimeter in the unit volts (symbol V). To 9 volts
potential energy carried Calculating voltage R= = 1.5 ohms
measure the potential difference in a circuit,
by charged particles at 6 amperes
different points in a circuit
voltmeters are set in parallel across the two points If a 6 V battery is connected to two
Therefore, the resistance in the circuit is 1.5 ohms.
Margin glossary terms

in the circuit that you want to measure (Figure 2). lamps, calculate the voltage that can be
+ transformed in each lamp if they are
connected (a) in series, or (b) in parallel.
7.4 Check your learning
A Solution
Remember and understand 5 Calculate the change in voltage across
• Key terms are bolded in the body in blue

(a) If the lamps are connected in series, a 25 Ω resistor when a current of 50 mA
the electrons must divide the voltage 1 Define the term ‘voltage’.
(0.05 A) flows through it.
(potential energy) between the lamps. 2 Describe the voltage across two lamps
Figure 2 A voltmeter is when they are connected: 6 Calculate the value of a resistor that has
used to measure voltage Therefore, the voltage transformed in
a voltage drop of 8 V across it when a
text, with a glossary definition provided in

V in a circuit. each lamp will be 3 V. a in series b in parallel.
current of 0.4 A flows through it.
Batteries add energy to the charged 6 V ÷ 2 lamps = 3 V in each lamp Apply and analyse 7 Use Table 1 on page 200 to fi nd the
particles. The amount of energy added by the (b) If the lamps are connected in parallel, 3 Identify the three equations that can be value of a resistor that has three coloured
obtained by rearranging the Ohm’s law bands of:
the margin.
battery can be determined by connecting a the electrons will separate at the fork
voltmeter in parallel to the battery. In a 1.5 V in the wires and carry all the energy triangle. a red, white, black
battery, each unit of charge (electron) receives to each lamp. This means the voltage 4 Calculate the current flowing through b yellow, green, red
Figure 1 Each unit of
charge in this battery has 1.5 joules (symbol J) of energy as it passes (potential difference) transformed will a 44 Ω resistor when it has a voltage drop c brown, blue, orange.
1.5 joules of energy. through the battery. be 6 V in each lamp. of 11 V across it.
140 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 7 ELECTRICIT Y 141
07_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd 140-141 9/22/21 1:52 PM
Check your learning

• Each topic finishes with a set of ‘check your
Worked examples learning’ questions that are aligned to Bloom’s
• Students are provided with step- taxonomy. Questions are phrased using bolded
by-step worked examples for task words (also called command verbs), which
mathematical problems and state what is expected of a student and prepares
scientific concepts. them for studying VCAA science subjects.
vi OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Focus on science inquiry skills and capabilities
1.4 Scientists present their data

accurately
Median
The median is the middle value of
increasing order. For the previous

the data
after all the numbers have been placed
in
data, this
positive correlation. If one value increases
other decreases, then it has a negative
This can be shown on a graph (Figure
Correlation shows that there is a
as the
correlation.
3).
Perfect positive correlation
means: relationship between the two variables;

it does
not necessarily mean that one variable
In this 0.1, 3.5, 3.6, 4.0, 4.0, 4.1, 4.3 causes
topic, you • Outliers are values that are very the other to change. For example,
different from the main group of ↑ there is a
will learn
• Outliers can affect the mean (average) data. positive correlation between the number
Median of ice
that: of the overall results. creams sold and the number of shark
• The median (middle number of The median amount the seedlings attacks in High positive correlation
data when placed in increasing order) grew was Australia. This does not mean that
(most common result) are less affected and the mode 4.0 cm. If the outlier is removed, selling ice
by outliers. the median creams causes shark attacks. Instead,
• Positive correlation of data does growth is still 4.0 cm. So the median there is
not mean one event caused another value of another causative factor: hot weather.
event. the data is not affected as much by
outliers as
the mean/average is. Number of ice creams sold and
Science toolkit
number of shark attacks
Outliers from November to January
outlier
Occasionally the data that scientists
All seedlings except seedling 5 grew
between 3.5 and 4.3 cm. The average Mode 18
a data value that is outside collect (or mean) Low positive correlation
contains a value that is far away from growth of the seedlings (including The mode is the most common number 16
the normal range of all the the main seedling 5) in the sold
group of data. These values are called was 3.4 cm, as shown in Worked set of data. In our set of data, the ms
example 1.4. number 4.0
• The Science toolkit is

other results outliers 14 crea s
and may be due to inaccurate measurements This average is well below the growth occurs twice (seedlings 2 and 4). Ice ck
or of any of atta
experimental errors. the seedlings other than seedling This means the mode, or most common 12 rk
5. This shows Sha
For example, an outlier may occur how one outlier can cause a distorted amount the seedlings grew, was 4.0
when result for cm. If the 10
measuring the height of seedlings seedling growth. outlier was removed, the mode of
a standalone chapter
after 3 weeks the seedling 8
of growth (see Table 1). If the average is determined without growth would still be 4.0 cm. An
using outlier does
the height of seedling 5, the average not affect the mode value. 6
becomes No correlation
Table 1 Seedling growth 3.9 cm. This is a closer representation
of the
Correlation of data
4
Seedling number actual growth. However, is it fair
that explicitly teaches

Height (cm) to discard any
results that we don’t like? 2
1 3.6 When two sets of data are strongly
An outlier is only excluded if an explanation linked (as one
2 4.0 changes, the other changes by a similar November December
is given as to how the results have amount), January
3 been the data has a strong correlation. When Figure 2 There is a positive correlation
4.1 modified and the reason for doing both between
important Science
so. For values increase at the same rate, it is the number of ice creams sold and
4 4.0 example, the discussion might include called a the number of
the shark attacks.
5 0.1 statement that ‘Seedling 5 was excluded Low negative correlation
from
6 3.5 the analysis because a fungal infection
its growth.’
affected 1.4 Check your learning
inquiry skills and

7 4.3
Remember and understand
Worked example 1.4: 1 Explain why it is best to present
your data in table form. Table 2 Ice cream sales vs daily
capabilities.
Calculating the mean 2 Define the term ‘outlier’. Describe temperature
when an outlier
should be included in the results.
Determine the average (mean) of Temperature (°C)
the seedling heights shown in Table 3 Define the following terms. Sales ($) High negative correlation
1.
Solution a mean 14.2 215
b median 16.4 325
11.9 3.9A: Investigating pathogens 3.9B: Investigating germ theory
c mode CHALLENGE 185
Go to page 181. EXPERIMENT Go to page 182.
15.2 332
//SCIENCE AS Apply and analyse
18.5 406
4 Draw an appropriate graph for the
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR// data in Table 2. 22.1 522
3.9
a Describe any correlation between Perfect negative correlation
the daily 19.4
Pathogens cause disease

temperature and ice cream sales. 412
Cool Wait
25.1 614
b Explain the effect the daily temperature
Figure 1 How should you has on the 23.4
number of ice creams sold that day. 544
calculate the average As the seedling heights had two significant
figures and one decimal place, the c Explain what you would expect 18.1 421
growth of seedlings? have one decimal place. The average final answer must to happen to
seedling height is 3.4 cm (3.371 is ice cream sales if the daily temperature 22.6 heated
Broth 445 Flask left open Growth
closer to 3.4 than to 3.3).
increased
to 40°C. 17.2 408
10 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN Figure 3 Correlation
CURRICULUM of data
Infectious pathogens can disrupt the normal functioning of the
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS called pathogens. Germ theory was confi rmed
Open flask
by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.
01_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd body and cause disease. There are many types of pathogens, Wait
CHAPTER 1 SCIENCE TOOLKIT
11
10-11 Robert Koch went on to develop a set of
including bacteria, fungi, protozoans and viruses. Koch’s rules, known as Koch’s postulates, that provide
postulates are used to provide evidence that a pathogen evidence that a pathogen causes a disease.
causes a disease. Penicillin and other antibiotics can be used 1 The micro-organism or other pathogen is Broth heated Flask sealed 9/22/21
No growth 12:07 PM
Growth
present in all cases of the disease.
to kill bacteria, but not viruses or other pathogens. Figure 3 Louis Pasteur’s experiments found that micro-organisms in milk were killed by heat. This
2 The pathogen can be isolated from the process is called pasteurisation and is still in use today.
Develop your abilities

One of the first people in Western medicine to diseased host and grown in the laboratory.
Treatment with antibiotics killed the bacteria and discovered that the Penicillium mould
Science as a human
question the accepted idea of supernatural causes 3 The pathogen from a pure culture causes
the disease when inoculated into a healthy and cured his stomach ulcer. Barry Marshall was releasing a chemical that killed bacteria.
of disease was Hippocrates (460–377 BCE). He
susceptible laboratory animal. and Robin Warren were awarded the Nobel Australian scientist Howard Florey was then
pathogen concluded that something in the air, soil, water
Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2005. instrumental in developing penicillin into
• ‘Develop your abilities’

a microbe that can cause and food caused diseases in humans and animals. 4 The pathogen is re-isolated from the new
disease a form that could be mass-produced. Both
His work was followed up by Claudius Galen host and is shown to be the same as the
(131–201 CE), who was a doctor to the gladiators, originally inoculated pathogen.
Antibiotics scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in
endeavour
Before antibiotics were discovered, a single Physiology or Medicine for their work.
and used animal dissections to explore anatomy. Australian scientists Barry Marshall and
scratch from a thorn on a rose bush could Penicillin works by breaking down the cell
provide scaffolded
Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) was an Robin Warren followed these postulates when
become infected and kill a person. walls of bacteria. As human cells do not have a
Italian astronomer and doctor who was one of the they researched stomach ulcers in 1984.
In 1928, Alexander Fleming was trying cell wall, they are unaffected. This means that
first to suggest that disease could be transmitted Together they discovered that a bacterium
to grow bacteria in his laboratory. When he penicillin will kill the bacteria in your body but
from person to person via small, invisible (Helicobacter pylori ) was found in all patients
• ‘Science as a human
not kill your own body cells. Viruses do not
opportunities for
particles. He theorised that these particles could with stomach ulcers. Most doctors at the time returned from holidays he discovered that
some Petri dishes he had left open on the bench have cell walls. Instead, they have a protein coat
travel through the air, via contaminated clothing thought that no bacterium could survive in the
were growing a mould similar to that found on that surrounds and protects them. This means
or by direct contact with the sick person. It took acidic environment of the stomach. Marshall
bread. There were no bacteria growing near penicillin does not affect viruses, such as
200 years and the discovery of the microscope and Warren isolated the bacterium and injected
endeavour’ topics explore

influenza, coronaviruses or the common cold.
students to apply
to confirm his theories and to develop the ‘germ it into mice, causing the disease in the mice. the mould. Being a good scientist, Fleming Figure 4 Robin Warren
Unfortunately, many doctors still did not recognised that further investigation was Most viruses cannot be treated by any (left) and Barry Marshall
theory’ used today.
believe the research, so Barry Marshall ignored necessary. He performed some experiments readily available medicines. (right)
Germ theory states that many diseases are
laboratory safety and swallowed a culture of
real-world examples and

caused by the presence and actions of specific
their science
the bacteria, causing the disease in himself.
micro-organisms. These micro-organisms are
3.9 Develop your abilities
Figure 1 Some bacteria
a b
keep us healthy. Other Identifying assumptions we have cooked will be hot. Making 3 Identify the assumption that
case studies, allowing

bacteria are pathogens
understanding while
Scientists are always asking questions assumptions is not always a bad thing, other doctors had made about the
and interfere with the
and challenging what they know. as long as we are aware that we are cause of stomach ulcers.
natural functioning of our
body. Robin Warren and Barry Marshall making them. Asking questions is a 4 Identify one assumption that you
asked questions and challenged the way of identifying assumptions that have made in the past week.
students to apply science developing skills and

assumption that stomach ulcers are not true. 5 Describe the evidence you would
were caused by stress. Everyone 1 Identify the question that Robin need to convince yourself that
makes assumptions (accepting that Warren and Barry Marshall asked your assumption in question 4
something is true or certain without about stomach ulcers. was incorrect.
understanding. capabilities.
evidence) based on past experiences. 2 Identify how Warren and 6 Describe an invention or
It is a way of saving time and thinking Marshall used each of Koch’s behaviour you would change if
Figure 2 Most infections are caused by microscopic pathogens such as bacteria or viruses.
a Bacteria are very small cells that are able to reproduce by themselves. They can release toxins that affect space. We assume that the sun will postulates to fi nd the cause of your assumption in question 4
the normal functioning of our body. b Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and are unable to reproduce by rise in the morning, that the chair we stomach ulcers. was incorrect.
themselves. Instead, they invade the host’s cells and use the organelles to make new copies of themselves. sit on will not collapse and that food
This stops the host’s cells from functioning properly.
68 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 3 CONTROL AND REGULATION 69
Focus on practical work

Practical work appears at the 2.5A 2.5B
Photosynthesis role play Inputs and outputs of photosynthesis
CHALLENGE EXPERIMENT
This is a group activity.
Questions Aim
Results
7.4B Understanding resistor colour codes What you need To examine the role of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
back of the book

1 Explain why photosynthesis is described as a ‘synthesis’ Record all your observations in an appropriate table.
7.4C
> Balloons (6 black, 12 white, 18 red)
SKILLS L AB Investigating Ohm’s law reaction. Materials > Timer Discussion
Carbon resistors typically have four > Balloon pump 2 Describe the entry of energy and the final location of the
colour-coded bands > Bromothymol blue > Water
Look at the resistor in Figure 2. What > Torch energy in a food chain. 1 Identify why the bromothymol blue changed from blue to
on their case (Figure 1). These bands
are part of a code does its code mean? EXPERIMENT solution in a dropper > Elodea canadensis water
that allows you to work out their approximate 1 The tolerance band is gold, so Aim 3 ‘The energy from the Sun can be thought of as disordered yellow when you blew through the straw.
• All practical activities are

the resistor has 5 per cent plant
tolerance. The fourth band is the
value and
tolerance. What to doTo investigate the energy which becomes
5 Record ordered
your in in
results the form of glucose and
Table
bottle 2 Describe what would happen to the bromothymol blue if
tolerance band, which voltage drop across and the current 1. > 4 test tubes with rubber > Strong light source
indicates the amount that the resistance 2 The first band is blue, so it has flow
ATP.’ Table the carbon dioxide was removed from the water.
through
1 Work in groups of nine: one student has 6 black 1 Experiment results
relative accuracy of the resistor). Gold
may vary by (the a value of 6. a resistor, and to calculate an(carbon)
average value of the stoppers > Clean straws
3 Identify which test tube you would expect photosynthesis
3 The second band is red, so it has resistance.
balloons, four students have 3 white (hydrogen) balloons Explain what you think this sentence means (by writing it
means 5 per cent a value of 2. The number Resistor > 2 test-tube racks > Paperclip
Voltage (V)
organised in a chapter at the end

tolerance, silver means 10 per cent is now 62. each, three students have 6 red (oxygen) balloons each and in your own words). Current (mA) Volts ÷ amps to occur in. Justify your prediction (by defining
tolerance, and no fourth
band means 20 per cent tolerance.
The lower the percentage 4 The third band is also red, so this one studentMaterials
holds a torch. > 3 other resistors
> Measuring cylinder photosynthesis, identifying the organism responsible for
tolerance, the more accurate (or closer means 2 zeros need to be photosynthesis and deciding which test tube contains
to the true value) the added to the number. The number > 2–12 V
2 In 10–15 minutes, develop
power asupply with masking
creative and entertaining way tape
resistor is.
5 Resistor values are always coded
is now 6200.
to show the> process
Ammeter of photosynthesis. over their coloured Method the factors needed by the organism to carry out
of the book and signposted at

in ohms, so the value of photosynthesis).
this resistor is 6200 ohms or 6.2 kilo-ohms. > Voltmeter
3 Perform your bands
role play of the process of photosynthesis for 1 Add 2 drops of bromothymol blue solution to 15 mL of
> Connecting wires 4 Identify the test tubes in which you would expect no
the rest of> the10class.
Ω resistor 6 Repeat the experiment for the water in all test tubes.
other three resistors, without changes in colour to occur. Justify your prediction (by
reading their coloured bands. 2 Using the straw, blow into each test tube. The solutions
describing the reactants and products of photosynthesis,
the point of learning throughout

should change from blue to yellow. This indicates the
Method 7 Complete the results table for
each of the three masked identifying which reactant or product will cause a colour
resistors and calculate their resistance. presence of carbon dioxide from your breath in the water.
change and deciding which test tubes will not change).
1 Identify the 10 Ω resistor. It should 3 Label the test tubes A, B, C and D. Prepare them as
be colour-coded brown, 8 Remove the masking tape and 5 Compare your results with your predictions. Use evidence
black, black. determine the resistance explained in Table 1. Place test tubes A and B in one rack,
values from the coloured bands of from your results to justify your answer.
each chapter.
1st digit 2 Connect the circuit as shown in the resistors. and test tubes C and D in the other rack.
Figure 1. Use the DC 6 You may have observed bubbles forming around the Elodea
2nd digit terminals of the power supply and
start with the dial on 2 V. Results
Table 1 Test tube set-up leaves in test tube A. Identify this gas.
Multiplier 3 Switch on the power supply, take Include your results table.
the readings on the 7 Identify one variable that was difficult to control in this
ammeter and voltmeter, and switch Test tube Set-up
the power off again
straight away (so you don’t overheat
the resistor).
Discussion A Place the paperclip on the end of an Elodea plant experiment. Describe how you could control the variable
Tolerance to weigh it down, and place the plant into the test next time.
4 Change the dial on the power 1 From your results table, identify
supply to 4 V and repeat what the values in the last tube. Place the stopper on the test tube.
Figure 1 A resistor with colour-coded
bands
step 3. Then change the dial to 6 V
and repeat. column calculate.
Place the stopper on the test tube (with no
Conclusion
B
2 For the three masked resistors, Elodea). Describe the photosynthesis reaction and where it occurs.
To read the three other bands, put compare the accuracy of
the tolerance band on the the values you obtained to the values
right and start at the other end. The indicated by their C Place the stopper on the test tube (with no
first two bands form a two- coloured bands. Elodea).
Challenges, Skills labs and

digit number according to their colour
(see Table 1). The third 3 Use the formula below to calculate
band tells you how many zeros to put the difference (error) D Place the paperclip on the end of an Elodea plant
after the number. between the two values as a percentage to weigh it down, and place the plant into the test
of the marked
value. tube. Place the stopper on the test tube.
Table 1 Resistor colour codes
Colour 4 Expose test tubes A and B to sunlight or a bright light for
Value Figure 1 Modelling photosynthesis
Figure 2 Calculate the value of this % error = marked value – average calculated value 20 minutes. Record any colour change. Count any bubbles
Black resistor.
0 × 100
Experiments
marked value that may have formed on the Elodea plants.
Brown 1 Discussion 5 Place test tubes C and D in a closed (dark) cupboard
Red 2 4 Identify which value – the one
1 Define the electrical term ‘resistance’. obtained by reading the for 20 minutes. Record any colour changes and count
Orange 3 coloured bands or the one obtained
2 Explain why different resistors from your calculations any bubbles.
may need to be used in – provides the most useful measure
Yellow 4 different circuits. of a resistor’s
• These activities provide students

resistance. Justify your answer (by
Green 5 3 Explain what is meant by the term explaining how each
‘tolerance’. value is obtained, describing which
Blue 6 value is most relevant to
use in a circuit and deciding which
Violet value provides the most
7 useful measure).
with opportunities to use problem-

Grey 8
White 9 Figure 1 Circuit set-up
Conclusion
Describe what you know about Ohm’s
law.
solving and critical thinking, and 170 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTS 171
apply science inquiry skills. 200 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN

CURRICULUM

CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTS
09_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd
200-201 201
9/22/21 3:19 PM
Focus on STEAM Problem solving through

design thinking
Integrated How can we • Each STEAM project investigates a
[STEAM project 1]
HUMANITIES
use sustainable real-world problem that students

STEAM projects
In Geography this year, you will learn about food security around
the world and food production in Australia. You will investigate the
farming
factors that influence crop yield (such as soil moisture) and how food
are encouraged to problem solve

production can alter a biome. In Economics and Business, you will
study the agricultural resources (such as wheat) that form a large part of
practices so
• Take the hard work out of
Australia’s trade economy.
using design thinking.

To complete this task successfully, you will need to investigate the
that no one environmental constraints on agricultural production in Australia, such

as climate and distribution of water resources. You will also need to
cross-curricular learning with

Your task
goes hungry in
understand the extent to which agricultural innovations have overcome
Increase the growing capacity these constraints.
(productivity) of a 1 hectare
the future?
You will fi nd more information on this in Chapter 3 ‘Food security’,
engaging STEAM projects.

(100 m × 100 m) plot of land Chapter 2 ‘Biomes’ and Chapter 17 ‘Understanding the global economy’
by designing a vertical garden of Oxford Humanities 9 Victorian Curriculum.
that won’t damage the local
Full digital support

The United Nations ranks food shortages and environment.
Two fully integrated projects

hunger among the most serious issues affecting
humankind. It predicts that more than 840 MATHS
million people will be hungry by 2030. Even In Maths this year, you will build on your knowledge of measurement
Figure 1 Vertical farming allows people to grow more food in a
in a high-income country such as Australia, and geometry to determine areas and volumes of more complicated
are included at the end of • Each STEAM project is supported

smaller space.
5 per cent of the population are unable to access shapes. You will be introduced to Pythagoras’ Theorem and
enough nutritious food. The experience of trigonometry. You will also extend your skills in collecting, representing
having inadequate access to food, or having an and investigating data.
each book in the series, and by a wealth of digital resources,

inadequate supply of food, is known as food To complete this task successfully, you will need to perform
insecurity. Food insecurity is linked to poor calculations involving angles, lengths and areas of two-dimensional and
general health, higher rates of some cancers and three-dimensional shapes. You will need to apply your understanding of
higher mortality. scale factors to build a prototype of your designed product. To consider
are scaffolded and mapped including student booklets (to

Rapid climate change is increasing threats the situation at local, national and international scales, you will need
to Australia’s and the world’s food security. skills in dealing with ratios and proportions. You may also fi nd it helpful
Changes in the amount of rainfall, longer to use scientific notation for very large or very small numbers.
to the Science, Maths and scaffold students through the

droughts and an increase in the number of You will fi nd help for applying these maths skills in Chapter 6
extreme weather events are expected to disrupt ‘Measurement and geometry’, Chapter 7 ‘Pythagoras’ Theorem and
the amount and quality of food that Australia trigonometry’, and section 2E ‘Scientific notation’ of Oxford Maths 9
can produce. A hotter climate is expected to Victorian Curriculum.
Humanities curricula. The design-thinking process of

cause stress in livestock animals such as chickens,
sheep and cattle, and to increase the amount of
water needed for crop irrigation.
SCIENCE
same projects also feature each project), videos to support

Sustainable farming In Science this year, you will learn about the biotic and abiotic factors
that support and maintain ecosystems. You will consider the role of
Sustainable farming practices use methods Figure 2 Drought impacts Australia’s production of important
crops, such as wheat. different nutrients and sunlight on plants and the effects each of these
that balance the needs of all members of the
in the corresponding Oxford key concepts and skills, and

will have on the surrounding ecosystem.
community. This means that new and old • ecologically sound – if the local environment
To complete this task successfully, you will need to understand the
technologies are used to make sure that food is not supported, then the land will be unable
factors required to keep a system, such as a vertical garden, alive. You
production is: to support food production. Sustainable
may need to consider how these factors can be monitored and controlled
Humanities and Oxford implementation and assessment

• economically viable – if farmers cannot make farming also works to maintain the diversity
automatically. You will also need to be familiar with the scientific
enough money to survive, then the farming of the local wildlife.
method, and understand how to conduct a fair test.
practice is not sustainable Sustainable farming uses technology to
You will fi nd more information on this in Chapter 2 ‘Ecosystems’ of
• socially supportive – if the lifestyle of the increase the production of fresh, nutritious
Maths series to assist cross- advice for teachers.

Oxford Science 9 Victorian Curriculum.
farming community is not supported, then food while minimising the impact on the
people will not want to live in the area local environment.
208 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS STEAM PROJECT 209
curricular learning.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS INTRODUCING OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM vii

INTRODUCING OXFORD SCIENCE 7–10
VICTORIAN CURRICULUM
Key features
> Student obook pro is a completely digital product delivered via Oxford’s
of Student online learning platform, Oxford Digital.
obook pro > It offers a complete digital version of the Student Book with interactive
note-taking, highlighting and bookmarking functionality, allowing students
to revisit points of learning.
> A complete ePDF of the Student Book is also available for download for
offline use and read-aloud functionality.
Focus on eLearning
Complete digital version of the Student Book
• This digital version of the Student Book is true to
the print version, making it easy to navigate and
transition between print and digital.
Videos
• Videos are available
online to support
understanding of
concepts or key practical
activities.
Quizlet
• Integrated Quizlet sets,
including real-time online
quizzes with live leaderboards, Interactive quizzes
motivate students by providing • Each topic in the Student Book is accompanied by an
interactive games that can interactive assessment that can be used to consolidate
be played solo or as a class. concepts and skills.
Quizlet can be used for revision • These interactive quizzes are autocorrecting, with students
or as a topic is introduced to receiving instant feedback on achievement and progress.
keep students engaged. Students can also access all their online assessment results
to track their own progress and reflect on their learning.
> integrated Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary look up feature

> targeted instructional videos for key concepts, practicals and worked examples Benefits for
> interactive assessments to consolidate understanding students
> integrated Quizlet sets, including real-time online quizzes with live leaderboards
> access to their online assessment results to track their own progress.
viii OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Key features
> Teacher obook pro is a completely digital product delivered via Oxford Digital.
of Teacher > Each chapter and topic of the Student Book is accompanied by full teaching
obook pro support. Teaching programs are provided that clearly direct learning pathways
throughout each chapter, including ideas for differentiation and practical activities.
> Teachers can use their Teacher obook pro to share notes and easily assign
resources or assessments to students, including due dates and email notifications.
Focus on assessment and reporting

Complete teaching support
• Teaching support includes full lesson and
assessment planning, ensuring there is
more time to focus on students.
Curriculum and assessment

reports
• Teachers are provided with
clear and tangible evidence
of student learning progress
through curriculum and
assessment reports.
• Assessment reports directly
show how students are
performing in each online
interactive assessment,
providing instant feedback
for teachers about areas of
understanding.
• Curriculum reports
Additional resources summarise student
performance against
• Each chapter of the Student Book is
specific curriculum content
accompanied by additional worksheets
descriptors and curriculum
and learning resources to help students
codes.
progress.
> In addition to online assessment, teachers have access to editable class tests that are
provided at the conclusion of each chapter. These tests can be used as formative or Benefits for
summative assessment and can be edited to suit the class’s learning outcomes. teachers
> Teachers are provided with laboratory support through experiment answer guidance,
laboratory technician notes and risk assessments to ensure safe learning experiences.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS INTRODUCING OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM ix

VICTORIAN CURRICULUM:
SCIENCE 9 SCOPE AND SEQUENCE
LEVELS 9 AND 10 DESCRIPTION
In Levels 9 and 10, the curriculum focus is on explaining phenomena involving science and its applications. Students
consider both classic and contemporary science contexts to explain the operation of systems at a range of scales. At a
microscopic scale, they consider the atom as a system of protons, electrons and neutrons, and understand how this system
can change through nuclear decay. They learn that matter can be rearranged through chemical change and that these
changes play an important role in many systems. At a macroscopic scale, they explore ways in which the human body as a
system responds to its external environment, and investigate the interdependencies between biotic and abiotic components
of ecosystems. They develop a more sophisticated view of energy transfer by applying the concept of the conservation
of matter in a variety of contexts. They apply their understanding of energy and forces to global systems including
continental movement. Students explore the biological, chemical, geological and physical evidence for different theories,
including the theories of natural selection and the Big Bang theory. Atomic theory is used to understand relationships
within the periodic table of elements. Students understand that motion and forces are related by applying physical laws.
Relationships between aspects of the living, physical and chemical world are applied to systems on a local and global scale
enabling students to predict how changes will affect equilibrium within these systems.
LEVELS 9 AND 10 CONTENT DESCRIPTIONS

Science as a human endeavour
Chapter 3 Scientific understanding, including models and theories, are contestable and are refined over time
Chapter 4 through a process of review by the scientific community (VCSSU114)
Chapter 5
Year 10
Chapter 3 Advances in scientific understanding often rely on developments in technology and technological
Chapter 4 advances are often linked to scientific discoveries (VCSSU115)
Chapter 8
Year 10
Chapter 1 The values and needs of contemporary society can influence the focus of scientific research
Chapter 6 (VCSSU116)
Year 10
Biological sciences
Chapter 3 Multicellular organisms rely on coordinated and interdependent internal systems to respond to
changes to their environment (VCSSU117)
Chapter 3 An animal’s response to a stimulus is coordinated by its central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord); neurons transmit electrical impulses and are connected by synapses (VCSSU118)
Year 10 The transmission of heritable characteristics from one generation to the next involves DNA and genes
(VCSSU119)
Year 10 The theory of evolution by natural selection explains the diversity of living things and is supported by a
range of scientific evidence (VCSSU120)
Chapter 2 Ecosystems consist of communities of interdependent organisms and abiotic components of the
environment; matter and energy flow through these systems (VCSSU121)
x OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LEVELS 9 AND 10 CONTENT DESCRIPTIONS
Chemical sciences
Chapter 5 All matter is made of atoms which are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons; natural
radioactivity arises from the decay of nuclei in atoms (VCSSU122)
Year 10 The atomic structure and properties of elements are used to organise them in the periodic table
(VCSSU123)
Chapter 6 Chemical reactions involve rearranging atoms to form new substances; during a chemical reaction
mass is not created or destroyed (VCSSU124)
Chapter 6 Different types of chemical reactions are used to produce a range of products and can occur at
Year 10 different rates; chemical reactions may be represented by balanced chemical equations (VCSSU125)
Chapter 6 Chemical reactions, including combustion and the reactions of acids, are important in both non-living
Year 10 and living systems and involve energy transfer (VCSSU126)
Earth and space sciences
Chapter 4 The theory of plate tectonics explains global patterns of geological activity and continental movement
(VCSSU127)
Year 10 Global systems, including the carbon cycle, rely on interactions involving the atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere (VCSSU128)
Year 10 The Universe contains features including galaxies, stars and solar systems; the Big Bang theory can
be used to explain the origin of the Universe (VCSSU129)
Physical sciences
Chapter 7 Electric circuits can be designed for diverse purposes using different components; the operation of
circuits can be explained by the concepts of voltage and current (VCSSU130)
Chapter 8 The interaction of magnets can be explained by a field model; magnets are used in the generation of
electricity and the operation of motors (VCSSU131)
Year 10 Energy flow in Earth’s atmosphere can be explained by the processes of heat transfer (VCSSU132)
Year 10 The description and explanation of the motion of objects involves the interaction of forces and the
exchange of energy and can be described and predicted using the laws of physics (VCSSU133)
SCIENCE INQUIRY SKILLS
Questioning and predicting
Chapter 1 Formulate questions or hypotheses that can be investigated scientifically, including identification of
Chapter 9 independent, dependent and controlled variables (VCSIS134)
Year 10
Planning and conducting
Chapter 1 Independently plan, select and use appropriate investigation types, including fieldwork and laboratory
Chapter 9 experimentation, to collect reliable data, assess risk and address ethical issues associated with these
Year 10 investigation types (VCSIS135)
Chapter 1 Select and use appropriate equipment and technologies to systematically collect and record accurate
Chapter 9 and reliable data, and use repeat trials to improve accuracy, precision and reliability (VCSIS136)
Year 10
Recording and processing
Chapter 1 Construct and use a range of representations, including graphs, keys, models and formulas, to record
Chapter 9 and summarise data from students’ own investigations and secondary sources, to represent qualitative
Year 10 and quantitative patterns or relationships, and distinguish between discrete and continuous data
(VCSIS137)
Analysing and evaluating
Chapter 1 Analyse patterns and trends in data, including describing relationships between variables, identifying
Chapter 9 inconsistencies in data and sources of uncertainty, and drawing conclusions that are consistent with
Year 10 evidence (VCSIS138)
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS VICTORIAN CURRICULUM: SCIENCE 9 SCOPE AND SEQUENCE xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author and the publisher wish to thank fig 6, p.65 fig 9, Shutterstock, p.65 fig 8, Chapter 9: Shutterstock, p.164 fig 1,
the following reviewers: Professor Bradley Alamy/Rapt TV, p.66 fig 1, Shutterstock, Phil Yeomans/BNPS, p.165 fig 1, Getty,
Moggridge, James Kennedy, Paguiel p.66 fig 2, Getty/Mario Tatma, p.67 fig 2, p.167 fig 1, Gary K Smith, p.167 fig 1,
Meunier and Michelle Moore. Shutterstock, p.67 fig 4, Alamy/SPL, p.68 Shutterstock, p.169 fig 1, fig 2, p.173
fig 1, Cultura Creative, p.68 fig 2a, Image fig 1 (sun), Getty, p.173 fig 1 (grass),
They also wish to thank the following
Source, p.68 fig 2b, Getty/Tony Ashby, Shutterstock, p.173 fig 1 (grasshopper),
copyright holders for reproduction of their
p.69 fig 4, Alamy/Mark Kelly, p.73 fig 2, fig 1 (eagle), fig 1 (fungi), p.174 fig 1,
material.
Shutterstock, p.73 fig 3, Alamy/Mediscan, p.175 fig 1, Auscape, p.175 fig 2, Alamy/
Every effort has been made to trace the p.73 fig 4, Shutterstock, p.74 fig 1, fig 2, John warburton-Lee, p.175 fig 3, Science
original source of copyright material p.86 fig 2. Photo Library, p.175 fig 4, Getty Images,
contained in this book. The publisher will p.175 fig 5, Shutterstock, p.177 right
Chapter 4: Alamy/Suddeutsche Zeitung
be pleased to hear from copyright holders middle, fig 1, p.180 fig 1, p.181 fig 1, p.183
Photo, p.78 fig 1, Shutterstock, p.81 fig
to rectify any errors or omissions. fig 1, p.184 fig 1, p.186 top right, fig 1,
4, Alamy/Worldspec, p.83 fig 3, Cavan
p.187 fig 1, p.188 fig 1, p.189 fig 1, p.191
Chapter 1: Alamy/Martin Lee, p.2 fig 1, Images, p.83 fig 4, Getty, p.84 fig 8,
fig 1, p.192 fig 1, p.193 fig 1, p.196 fig 1,
NZ Herald, p.2 fig 2, Shutterstock, p.4 Shutterstock, p.85 fig 9, p.86 fig 1, Getty,
p.197 middle, fig 1, p.198 top right, top
fig 1, p.5 fig 4, fig 5, p.6 fig 7, fig 6, p.7 p.87 fig 3b, Getty/istock, p.88 fig 5a, p.88
right, fig 1, p.200 fig 1, p.202 fig 1, p.203
fig 8, p.12 fig 3 (right), fig 3 (left), fig 1, fig 5b, istock, p.88 fig 5c, Dreamstime/
fig 1, p.204 fig 1.
p.14 fig 1, Shutterstock, p.15 fig 2, Alamy/ Steveheap, p.88 fig 5d, Getty/istock, p.88
Science Photo Library, p.8 fig 2, p.9 fig 3, fig 5e, Shutterstock, p.88 fig 5f, Getty/ The Victorian Curriculum F–10 content
Shutterstock, p.9 fig 4, p.10 fig 1, p.12 David McNew, p.90 fig 1, AlamyArctic elements are © VCAA, reproduced by
fig 2, p.15 fig 3, p.16 fig 4. Images, p.90 fig 2, Alamy/Science Photo permission. Victorian Curriculum F–10
Library, p.93 fig 1. elements are accurate at the time of
Chapter 2: Alamy/Image professionals,
publication. The VCAA does not endorse
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or make any warranties regarding this
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Shutterstock, p.21 fig 1, fig 2, Alamy/Mike Alamy/Science History Images, p.102 fig 1,
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vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/HomePage.aspx).
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p.21 fig 6, SPL, p.22 fig 8, Getty, p.23 p.111 fig 2, fig 3, fig 4, p.112 fig 2, Getty, Every effort has been made to trace the
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SPL, p.30 fig 1, Shutterstock, p.31 fig 4,
p.121 fig 4, fig 2, fig 1, p.123 fig 2,
Getty, p.34 fig 3, Getty/istock, p.34 fig
fig 3 (top), fig 3 (bottom), Corbis, p.124
4, p.36 fig 1, Getty, p.37 fig 4, Alamy/
fig 1, Alamy/Photo Alto, p.125 fig 2,
Jason Edwards, p.38 fig 1, FairfaxPhotos,
Getty, p.126 fig 1, Shutterstock , p.125
p.39 fig 2, Shutterstock, p.39 fig 3, fig 4,
fig 4, p.126 fig 2, Unknown, p.127 fig 3,
fig 5, Agefotostock, p.39 fig 6, Alamy/
Shutterstock, p.127 fig 4, Alamy/Brazil
Bill Bachman, p.39 fig 7, Jason Edwards,
Photos, p.129 fig 3, Shutterstock, p.129
p.39 fig 8, Getty, p.40 fig 1, fig 2, Alamy/
fig 4, p.131 fig 4, fig 5, p.130 fig 1, fig 3,
Candy Apple Red Wildimages, p.40 fig 3,
fig 2. Shutterstock , p.128 fig 1.
Auscape, p.41 fig 4, Shutterstock, p.41
fig 5, p.43 fig 3(a), fig 3(b), Shutterstock, Chapter 7: Alamy/Science Photos,
p.45 fig 3, fig 4. p.135 fig 1, David R. Frazier, p.135 fig 2,
Shutterstock, p.136 fig 1, Shutterstock,
Chapter 3: Shutterstock p. 48 fig 2,
p.137 fig 5a, fig 5b, p.138 fig 2, p.139 fig 3,
Alamy/BSIP, p.48 fig 1, Shutterstock, p.49
p.140 fig 1, Alamy/Science Photos, p.141
fig 3, fig 6, p.50 fig 7, fig 9, Getty, p.51 fig
fig 3, Feng Yu, p.143 fig 5, Getty, p.142
12, Shutterstock, p.55 fig 3, fig 8, Alamy/
fig 1, istock, p.143 fig 7b, Shutterstock,
Scott Camazine, p.55 fig 4, Shutterstock,
p.143 fig 4, p.145 fig 4, p.145 fig 5, p.146
p.55 fig 5, Alamy/Anne-Marie Palmer,
fig 6.
p.55 fig 6, Shutterstock, p.55 fig 7, SPL,
p.58 fig 1, Getty/Adam Trafford, p.59 Chapter 8: Shutterstock p.149 fig 4,
fig 3, Shutterstock, p.61 fig 2, Getty/ Alamy/Science Photos, p.152 fig 1,
Tristan Fewings, p.62 fig 1, Alamy/Cultura Shutterstock, p.154 fig 1, p.155 fig 5,
Creative, p.62 fig 2, Shutterstock, p.64 p.157 fig 5.
xii OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

1
How do scientists CHAPTER
test claims?
1.1 Scientists can test manufacturers’ claims
1.2 Scientists must be aware

of experimental errors
SCIENCE
TOOLKIT
Scientists prepare
1.3 Safety Data Sheets
What if?
Staples
What you need:
Ten sheets of A4 paper, a stapler with
staples
Scientists present What to do:

1.4 their data accurately 1 Fold an A4 sheet of paper in two.
2 Staple the two halves of paper
together with the stapler.
3 Add another sheet of paper to the
folded paper so that there are
now three sheets over the top of
each other.
Science as a human 4 Staple all the sheets together with

the stapler.
endeavour: Scientists
1.5 investigate consumer
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the
stapler is unable to penetrate all the
products sheets of paper effectively.
What if?
» What if another stapler was used?
» What if another brand of staples
was used?
» What if different paper was used?

1.1 Scientists can test
manufacturers’ claims
In this • The scientific method involves forming a hypothesis, planning an experiment that
topic, you controls the variables, gathering data, analysing results, drawing a conclusion and
will learn communicating the results.
that:
• Consumer science is a branch of science that involves applying the scientific
method to the claims made by manufacturers.
No matter what you buy – toilet paper, a the misleading labelling and advertising. When
smartphone or a bottle of water – you are no response was received, they brought their
being a consumer. As a consumer you make case to a national consumer affairs program.
choices and you expect certain things from the After their case was broadcast, and after
products you buy. further testing of Ribena, the New Zealand
Commerce Commission brought 15 charges
Consumer science case against the manufacturer under the Fair
study Trading Act 1986 (NZ).
In 2004, two New Zealand science students, The scientific method at

work
Jenny Suo and Anna Devathasan, exposed
a startling fact about the fruit juice drink
Ribena while conducting research for their Jenny and Anna were sure of their results
school’s science fair. Jenny and Anna decided because they followed the scientific method.
Figure 1 Ribena was to compare the vitamin C content of different
found to contain less
vitamin C than its
fruit juice drinks to see if the manufacturer’s Hypothesis
competition, despite the claims on the labels were correct. The label
The scientific method involves developing a
manufacturer’s claims. on Ribena, which contains blackcurrant juice,
plan to test a hypothesis that can come from
implied that it had a much higher vitamin C
a ‘what if’ question. For Jenny and Anna, this
content than the other fruit juice drinks they
question was:
tested. It said: ‘The blackcurrants in Ribena
contain four times the vitamin C of oranges’. ‘What if the vitamin C content of Ribena
The students therefore predicted that Ribena was compared with other fruit juice drinks?’
would have four times the vitamin C content This then became a prediction using the
of orange fruit juice drinks. words ‘if’ and ‘then’:
Jenny and Anna then analysed the ‘If the vitamin C content of Ribena is
vitamin C content of Ribena and several compared with other fruit juice drinks, then
other fruit juice drinks, using the Ribena will have more vitamin C per millilitre.’
scientific method. They ensured that A hypothesis should also include the idea or
their tests were fair and objective. The theory on which the prediction is based. This is
only difference between the drinks done through the use of ‘because’:
during their tests was the brands. Jenny ‘If the vitamin C content of Ribena is
and Anna did three trials to ensure the compared with other fruit juice drinks, then
accuracy of their results. After each trial, Ribena will have more vitamin C per millilitre
they re-examined their data. because blackcurrants have a greater vitamin C
The students were surprised to find that content than other fruits.’
the vitamin C content of Ribena was far lower A hypothesis should be based on some
than most other brands. But because they underlying suspicion, prediction or idea that
Figure 2 Anna had followed the scientific method, they were is based on previous observations. It must
Devathasan and confident that their results were reliable. For this be very specific (operational) so that it can
Jenny Suo
reason, they contacted the manufacturer about be tested.

1.1: What if the absorbency
of different paper towels was
compared?
EXPERIMENT Go to page 163.
Variables results are averaged, the more likely it is that variable

the results are reliable. something that can affect
A hypothesis should be tested in an objective way. the outcome or results
The sample size refers to the number of
For example, for a fair comparison of the fruit of an experiment
subjects being tested or used in the experiment.
juice drinks, Jenny and Anna needed to design independent variable
The greater the sample size, the more reliable
an experiment that identified all the variables a variable (factor) that is
the results will be and the stronger the evidence
that would be operating. The variables in an changed in an experiment
available to support the conclusion.
experiment are the factors that will affect the dependent variable
results in some way. These could include the
volume of the fruit juice drinks tested, the age
Results a variable in an experiment
that may change as a
and temperature of the fruit juice drinks, and the The observations you make, or the data you result of changes to the
collect, during your experiment are written independent variable
quality of the chemicals used in the testing.
To test the hypothesis, all the variables down as the results. All observations should be sample size
what you actually see and not what you expect to the number of subjects
should be controlled except for the one being
see. Data can be organised into a table format being tested or used in an
tested. This is known as the independent
experiment
variable and in Jenny and Anna’s case it was and a graph to make it easier to understand.
correlated
the brand of the fruit juice drink being tested.
The variable being measured at the end of the Discussion when results in an
experiment show that
experiment is the dependent variable, such as Once all the results have been gathered, they independent and dependent
the amount of vitamin C in a fruit juice drink. need to be analysed for any patterns that show variables are related
if the independent variable and the dependent
Method variable changed in a similar way. If they did,
In this section, a scientist describes the this means the results are correlated.
materials and equipment they used, including
the concentrations and brands they tested. Conclusion
Diagrams are also useful to illustrate the steps A conclusion answers the initial question asked
taken. Remember to label all equipment in the about the experiment. It provides evidence that
diagram and to give the diagram a title. supports or refutes the hypothesis. Any further
The number of times you repeat an entire investigations that may need to be done are
experiment is referred to as repetition. The outlined in this section.
more times an experiment is repeated and the

Remember and understand Evaluate and create
1 Define the term ‘hypothesis’. 5 Evaluate the claim that ‘an increased sample size
2 Explain why an experiment should have a clear and makes an experiment more reliable’. Justify your
detailed method. answer by:
3 Describe how a hypothesis that is shown to be wrong • defining the terms ‘sample size’ and ‘reliable’
can still be useful. Justify your answer (by providing • explaining the effect of increasing the sample size
an example that matches your description). in an experiment
Apply and analyse • deciding whether increasing the sample size makes
an experiment more reliable.
4 Consider the following statement:
6 Often scientists have to present their findings to the
‘If participants in Group A use Brand A toothpaste for six
public in order to get action taken. Sometimes this is
weeks, then they will have whiter teeth than participants
difficult, so they need to be sure that their findings are
in Group B, who used Brand B toothpaste for six weeks.’
reliable. Explain how the scientific method ensures
a Identify what is missing from this statement to that the findings are reliable (by describing all the steps
make it a hypothesis. in the scientific method and identifying which steps
b Identify the independent and dependent variables improve the reliability of the results).
being tested.
c Identify one controlled variable in the experiment.
Explain why it is important for this variable to be
controlled.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 1 SCIENCE TOOLKIT 3

1.2 Scientists must be aware
of experimental errors
In this
topic, you • In scientific investigations, measurements can only show that a hypothesis is
will learn correct if the measurements are accurate.
that: • To achieve maximum accuracy, the measurement must be taken carefully, using
the most suitable measuring device.
• Each scientific device must have a scale appropriate to the accuracy that you require.
Choosing the right device Errors and accuracy

Choosing the right instrument is the first step in Choosing the right instrument is only part of a
making sure the measurements are close to the scientist’s job. It is very important to take care
accuracy expected true value (accurate). For example, with your measurements. The most common
how carefully, correctly if you needed to accurately measure the volume errors in measurement are reading errors,
and consistently data of a liquid, then you would use a burette or a parallax errors and zero errors.
has been measured or
measuring cylinder, but not a beaker. A burette A reading error can result when guesswork
processed; in science, how
has a more accurate scale than a measuring is involved when taking a reading. For example,
close a measured value is to
the true value
cylinder. Both are carefully checked during when a reading lies between the divisions on a
the manufacturing process; however, a burette scale, a guess of the actual reading can result in
reading error
an error that occurs when
has smaller units that can be controlled by the a reading error (Figure 2).
markings on a scale are not scientist. A beaker often has no scale.
read correctly
1 2
Figure 2 Guessing the reading between units of

measurement (for example, between 1.5 and 2)
can produce a reading error.
Figure 1 A burette is a laboratory instrument used

to accurately measure the volumes of liquids.

1.2: Avoiding errors and
improving accuracy
CHALLENGE Go to page 164.
parallax error
A parallax error occurs when the eye an error, or inaccurate
is not directly opposite the scale when the reading, that occurs as a
reading is being taken. You can avoid parallax result of reading a scale
errors by making sure that your eye is in the from an angle
correct position when taking the reading. For zero error
example, when reading the level of a liquid in an error that occurs when
a measuring cylinder, place the cylinder on the an instrument has not been
bench and line up your eye with the bottom of adjusted to zero before the
measurement is taken
the meniscus (Figure 3).
A zero error happens when an instrument
has not been correctly adjusted to zero or the
reading has not taken into account the weight of
the empty container. For example, scales must
be set to zero correctly before making a weight
Figure 4 Scales must be
measurement of substances. zeroed correctly before
To check the accuracy of scales, scientists using them.
use a special mass that is known to be exact.
When this is placed on the scale, the weight
Mathematical accuracy
shown by the scale is compared to the known When conducting a scientific investigation,
true mass. If they are the same, then the scale mathematical accuracy is very important. To
is accurate. avoid errors, not only must your equipment be
appropriate and precise, but your calculations
must also be correct. When taking a reading,
you should quote the maximum allowed
number of significant figures (the number significant figures
of digits). This can represent the accuracy of a the number of digits that
measurement or reading. contribute to the overall
Meniscus value of a number
When recording results, it is important
rounding off
to know the number of significant figures
reducing the number
the instrument allows. When adding or
of significant figures by
subtracting numbers, the final answer will be increasing or decreasing
based on the least number of decimal places. to the nearest significant
When multiplying or dividing numbers, the figure; for example, 7.6 cm
final answer can only be quoted correct to is rounded up to 8 cm,
Eye level the number of significant figures in the least 7.2 cm is rounded down
accurate result. For example, if one measuring to 7 cm
device measures 10.22 (four significant figures
and two decimal places) and a second device
Figure 3 To avoid parallax error, make sure measures 20.345 (five significant figures and
your eye is correctly lined up with the bottom of
three decimal places), averaging these results
the meniscus.
means adding the values. This means the final
answer should only have two figures after the
decimal point. This might require a rounding
off procedure. Worked example 1.2 (on page 6)
shows how to calculate significant figures.
Figure 5 The meniscus is the

curved surface of a liquid, as you
can see in these test tubes.

Worked example 1.2:
Significant figures
A student used two sets of scales to measure 0.44 g of sand and
0.696 g of water. Calculate the final mass when the sand was
mixed with the water. Give your answer to an appropriate number
of significant figures.
Solution
Add the mass of the sand and water together.
0.44 + 0.696 g = 1.136 g
As one number has only two decimal places, the final answer
must have two decimal places. The number (1.136) is closer to
1.14 than to 1.13, so 1.14 is more accurate.
Final mass of sand and water = 1.14 g Figure 6 Mixing
sand and water
Measurements and units

Scientists measure fundamental quantities, Although the SI unit for mass is the
such as mass, time and length, in a standard kilogram, this is not always the most suitable
unit that has been agreed upon by scientists unit to use. Some objects are too heavy or
around the world. The international system too light for this to be the most convenient
SI system of units, known as the SI system of units, is unit. The measurement would have too
an international system of based on the metric system. Table 1 shows many zeros in it. For example, a mass of
measurement based on the some SI units. Other measurements, such as 0.000 000 007 43 kg or 850 000 000 kg is
metric system, with units volume, are calculated from those basic units very inconvenient to write. Scientists and
such as kilogram, metre, mathematicians choose a unit that requires
and are called derived units.
kilometre
as few zeros as possible. They use a system of
derived units prefixes before the basic measurement unit,
units of measurement Table 1 SI units
shown in Table 2.
that are calculated using
Physical quantity SI unit Abbreviation
a combination of SI or symbol
(international system) base
Length metre m
units, e.g. cm 3 for volume
(base unit is cm), m 2 for Volume litre L
area (base unit is m) Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Thermodynamic kelvin K
temperature
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A
Figure 7 Scales are used to measure quantities

of materials used in experiments.

Table 2 Standard prefixes and meanings
Prefix Symbol Value Meaning
peta P 10 15
One quadrillion (one thousand million million)
tera T 1012 One trillion
giga G 10 9
One billion
mega M 10 6
One million
kilo k 103 One thousand
centi c 10 -2
One-hundredth
milli m 10-3 One-thousandth
micro µ 10 -6
One-millionth
nano n 10 -9
One-billionth
pico p 10-12 One-millionth of one million
Notice that when the number is larger

than the basic measurement, the symbol for
the prefix is a capital letter. When it is only a
fraction of the basic measurement, the symbol
for the prefix is a small letter (i.e. lower case).
For example, a megalitre, which is a million
litres, is written as ML, while a millilitre, which
is one-thousandth of a litre, is written as mL.
‘Kilo’ is an exception to this general rule. A
kilogram is 1000 grams and its symbol is kg. Figure 8 These dumb-bells weigh 3 kg each.

Remember and understand Apply and analyse
1 Identify three kinds of errors that can 5 Identify the number of significant figures
occur during an experiment. in each of the following measurements.
2 Describe how these errors can be a 45.22 mL
reduced to improve accuracy. b 9.0 s
3 Explain why scientists often repeat c 8000 L
experiments and then take an average d 3.005 m
of the results. 6 A student took the following
4 Identify the symbol for: measurements during an experiment:
a millionths of a gram 5.6 volts, 2.97 amperes, 3000 seconds.
b billions of litres If these three numbers were used in a
c thousandths of an ampere calculation, identify how many significant
d thousands of metres. figures should be stated in the final answer.
Justify your answer (by explaining how
you made your decision).

1.3 Scientists prepare
Safety Data Sheets
In this
topic, you • A Safety Data Sheet (SDS) contains information about a chemical, such as its
will learn various names, the dangers involved in its use and the precautions that should be
that: taken when handling the chemical.
• SDSs should be prepared for all the reactants used and the products produced
during science experiments.
SAFETY DATA SHEET

Sodium Chloride: Hazardous chemical
Anticipate, recognise and
MSDS name:
Section 1 - Chemical Product and Company Identification
Sodium Chloride
eliminate
Synonyms: Common salt; Halite; Rock salt; Saline; Salt; Sea salt; Table salt.
Company identification: Chemical company
Scientists work with many hazardous materials
Section 2 - Hazards Identification when completing experiments. As a result, they
Eye and skin: May cause eye irritation.
Ingestion: Ingestion of large amounts may cause gastrointestinal irritation.
need to be aware of anything that might affect
Ingestion of large amounts may cause nausea and vomiting, rigidity their health or safety in the laboratory. The
or convulsions.
Inhalation: May cause respiratory tract irritation. laboratory is a safe place, provided hazards are:
Section 3 - Handling and Storage > anticipated
Handling: Use with adequate ventilation. Minimise dust generation and accumulation.
Avoid contact with eyes, skin, and clothing. Keep container tightly closed. > recognised
Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible
substances. Store protected from moisture. > eliminated or controlled.
Section 4 - Exposure Controls, Personal Protection
Engineering controls: Good general ventilation should be used.
A Safety Data Sheet (SDS) provides
Personal protective equipment scientists and emergency personnel with
Eyes: Wear safety glasses with side shields.
Skin: Wear appropriate gloves to prevent skin exposure.
information on how to use a particular
Clothing: Wear appropriate protective clothing to minimise contact with skin. substance. An SDS also helps scientists
Section 5 - First Aid Measures
Eyes: Flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting
understand more about how the chemical
the upper and lower eyelids. Get medical aid. should be used during the experiment.
Skin: Flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least 15 minutes while
removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical aid if irritation
develops or persists. Wash clothing before reuse.
Ingestion: If victim is conscious and alert, give 2-4 cupsful water. Get medical aid.
Wash mouth out with water.
Inhalation: Remove from exposure to fresh air immediately. If breathing is difficult,
give oxygen. Get medical aid if cough or other symptoms appear.
Section 6 - Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical state: Solid
Appearance: Colourless or white
Odour: Odourless
Boiling point: 1413 deg C
Freezing/melting point: 801 deg C
Solubility: Soluble
Specific gravity/density: 2.165
Molecular formula: NaCl
Molecular weight: 58
Section 7 - Accidental Release Measures
Spills/leaks: Vacuum or sweep up material and place into a suitable disposal container.
Clean up spills immediately, observing precautions in the Protective
Equipment section. Avoid generating dusty conditions. Provide ventilation.
Section 8 - Fire Fighting Measures
General information: Water runoff can cause environmental damage. Collect water
used to fight fire. Wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent contact
with skin and eyes. Wear a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) to
prevent contact with thermal decomposition products. Substance is
noncombustible.
Figure 1 Example of an SDS from a manufacturer or certified provider
Figure 2 Emergency workers in sealed positive-

pressure protective suits communicating with
each other

Safety Data Sheets • What to do in the case of a spill (in the
laboratory or the environment)
The information on a Safety Data Sheet This includes first aid measures, any
includes the following: antidotes, symptoms that might result
> The various names of the chemical from exposure and if personal protective
This includes its chemical name and its equipment (PPE) is recommended for first
common generic name, its concentration aiders. Advice may be needed on how to
and structure. For example, DL-threo-2- cover drains to prevent the chemical making
(methylamino)-1-phenylpropan-1-ol is also its way into ground water.
called pseudoephedrine. • Fire-fighting measures
> The contact details of the manufacturer Some chemicals produce toxic fumes or are
> The hazard level of the chemical highly flammable. Other chemicals become
All chemicals should contain labels relating more dangerous if they are exposed to water.
to their particular dangers. This may Firefighters may need special equipment.
include their flammability, corrosive ability, • How to dispose of the chemical safely
toxicity and ability to cause long-term This section should include what disposal
damage, such as cancers. The risks can be containers should be used, the effects of
shown using descriptions or the symbols sewage disposal and the special precautions
shown in Figure 4. that may be needed to ensure the safety of
> Usage instructions and restrictions individuals and the environment.
Some chemicals may form a dust that can • How to transport the chemical
explode. For example, workers in flour mills Information should include any special
need to be especially aware of flour dust. precautions for transporting this chemical.
This section provides information about This may include the Hazchem code (the
how to safely handle and store the substance code provided by the government for each
to minimise the risks. class of chemical).
• Protective measures • An Australian telephone number of the
The SDS should contain information on the Office of Chemical Safety
eye and face protection needed, the type of • The date the SDS was last reviewed
gloves or skin protection required and the
possible need for masks.
• The physical and chemical properties
of the substance
Everyone in a laboratory should be able
to easily identify the chemical. The SDS
should include the colour, smell, pH,
flammability, solubility, melting and boiling
points of the chemical.
Figure 3 The hazards identified in the SDSs are

displayed by many industries, including the mining
industry.

Remember and understand 4 Describe the types of personal
1 Identify the meaning of the term ‘SDS’. protective equipment (PPE) you have in
your laboratory.
2 Explain why it is important to prepare
an SDS before starting an experiment. 5 Identify the phone number of the Office
of Chemical Safety in Victoria. Figure 4 Pictograms such
3 Explain why it is important to have all as these are often seen on
the different names of the chemical on the labels of chemicals,
the SDS. to communicate specific
hazards.

1.4 Scientists present their data
accurately
In this
topic, you • Outliers are values that are very different from the main group of data.
will learn • Outliers can affect the mean (average) of the overall results.
that:
• The median (middle number of data when placed in increasing order) and the mode
(most common result) are less affected by outliers.
• Positive correlation of data does not mean one event caused another event.
Outliers All seedlings except seedling 5 grew

between 3.5 and 4.3 cm. The average (or mean)
outlier Occasionally the data that scientists collect growth of the seedlings (including seedling 5)
a data value that is outside contains a value that is far away from the main was 3.4 cm, as shown in Worked example 1.4.
the normal range of all the group of data. These values are called outliers This average is well below the growth of any of
other results
and may be due to inaccurate measurements or the seedlings other than seedling 5. This shows
experimental errors. how one outlier can cause a distorted result for
For example, an outlier may occur when seedling growth.
measuring the height of seedlings after 3 weeks If the average is determined without using
of growth (see Table 1). the height of seedling 5, the average becomes
3.9 cm. This is a closer representation of the
Table 1 Seedling growth
actual growth. However, is it fair to discard any
Seedling number Height (cm) results that we don’t like?
1 3.6 An outlier is only excluded if an explanation
2 4.0 is given as to how the results have been
3 4.1 modified and the reason for doing so. For
4 4.0 example, the discussion might include the
statement that ‘Seedling 5 was excluded from
5 0.1
the analysis because a fungal infection affected
6 3.5
its growth.’
7 4.3
Worked example 1.4:

Calculating the mean
Determine the average (mean) of the seedling heights shown in Table 1.
Solution
Figure 1 How should you As the seedling heights had two significant figures and one decimal place, the final answer must
calculate the average
have one decimal place. The average seedling height is 3.4 cm (3.371 is closer to 3.4 than to 3.3).
growth of seedlings?

Median positive correlation. If one value increases as the
other decreases, then it has a negative correlation.
Perfect positive correlation
The median is the middle value of the data This can be shown on a graph (Figure 3).
after all the numbers have been placed in Correlation shows that there is a
increasing order. For the previous data, this relationship between the two variables; it does
means: not necessarily mean that one variable causes
0.1, 3.5, 3.6, 4.0, 4.0, 4.1, 4.3 the other to change. For example, there is a
↑ positive correlation between the number of ice
High positive correlation
Median creams sold and the number of shark attacks in
The median amount the seedlings grew was Australia. This does not mean that selling ice
4.0 cm. If the outlier is removed, the median creams causes shark attacks. Instead, there is
growth is still 4.0 cm. So the median value of another causative factor: hot weather.
the data is not affected as much by outliers as
Number of ice creams sold and number of shark attacks
the mean/average is. from November to January
Mode 18
Low positive correlation
16 ld
so
The mode is the most common number in the am
s
set of data. In our set of data, the number 4.0 14 cre ks
Ice tt ac
occurs twice (seedlings 2 and 4). ka
12 ar
Sh
This means the mode, or most common
10
amount the seedlings grew, was 4.0 cm. If the
outlier was removed, the mode of the seedling 8
growth would still be 4.0 cm. An outlier does No correlation
6
not affect the mode value.
4
Correlation of data 2
When two sets of data are strongly linked (as one
November December January
changes, the other changes by a similar amount),
the data has a strong correlation. When both Figure 2 There is a positive correlation between
the number of ice creams sold and the number of
values increase at the same rate, it is called a
shark attacks. Low negative correlation

1 Explain why it is best to present your data in table form. Table 2 Ice cream sales vs daily
temperature
2 Define the term ‘outlier’. Describe when an outlier
High negative correlation
should be included in the results. Temperature (°C) Sales ($)
3 Define the following terms. 14.2 215
a mean 16.4 325
b median 11.9 185
c mode 15.2 332
Apply and analyse 18.5 406
4 Draw an appropriate graph for the data in Table 2. 22.1 522

Perfect negative correlation
a Describe any correlation between the daily 19.4 412
temperature and ice cream sales. 25.1 614
b Explain the effect the daily temperature has on the 23.4 544
number of ice creams sold that day. 18.1 421
c Explain what you would expect to happen to 22.6 445
ice cream sales if the daily temperature increased 17.2 408
to 40°C. Figure 3 Correlation
of data

//SCIENCE AS
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR//
1.5 Scientists investigate

consumer products
Working in groups of two or three, design an experiment to
investigate an everyday consumer product. Your aim is to
practise using the scientific method. You will need to ensure
that you follow the scientific method.
Use the 'Develop your abilities' questions on the next page
to design an experiment that investigates consumer products.
Figure 2 More consumer products to investigate:

Figure 1 Investigating a consumer product: nail polish bottled water and bubblegum
Figure 3 Scientists can identify the similiarites and differences between products or substances.

Investigating a product > Is the method repeatable? (Will the same process
Choose a consumer product to investigate and discuss what produce the same results if it is repeated?)
you already know about the product. Identify any claims > Could someone else reproduce the experiment? (Are there
or slogans that may be tested. Then design a reproducible any steps that require more scientific information to be
experiment to investigate these claims or slogans, following supplied?)
the scientific method. > Have all the safety considerations been taken into
You will need to research the product thoroughly. This account?
may mean visiting a supermarket and comparing the prices > What changes could be made to improve the design?
and packaging of different brands, as well as searching the
Planning for errors
internet, journals, books and encyclopedias to identify the
science behind your product. Before you carry out your consumer science investigation,
you will need to think about reducing errors and improving
Ideas accuracy.
Here are some ideas for your investigation. > What variables will you need to control, to ensure a
> Do all brands of bubblegum make the same-sized bubble? fair test?
> Do all washing detergents produce the same amount of > How will you make sure your data is accurate and free
bubbles and clean the same number of dishes? of errors?
> How permanent are permanent markers? What solvents > What type of equipment will you be using? Is this the
(for example, water, alcohol, vinegar, detergent solution) most appropriate equipment?
will remove the ink? Do different brands or types of > How will you reduce parallax, reading and zero errors
markers produce the same result? in your data measurements?
> Do consumers prefer bleached white paper products or > What other factors could introduce errors into your
unbleached paper products? Why? investigation? How will you minimise these?
> Is laundry detergent as effective if you use less than the
recommended amount? What if you use more than the Presenting your results
recommended amount? Once you have completed your consumer science
> Is bottled water purer than tap water? How does distilled investigation, you will need to analyse your data
water compare with drinking water? appropriately.
> How does the pH of juice change with time? How does > Are there any outliers? Can you explain these?
temperature affect the rate of this chemical change? > What methods of data presentation will you use
> Do all hairsprays hold equally well? And equally long? and why?
Does the type of hair affect the results? > What method will you use to describe your results:
> Do all nail polishes dry at the same rate? mean, median or mode?
> Do some lipsticks stay on longer? > Are there any correlations between the sets of data in your
> How absorbent are nappies? results? Do they imply causation?
> Do all batteries have the same battery life? You will also need to complete a presentation about
your investigation. This could be done as a webpage, a
> How long can the life of cut flowers be prolonged?
slide presentation, an advertisement, a video, or an article
Evaluate for Choice magazine, comparing your findings with the
As a class, discuss each experiment design by answering manufacturers’ claims. Present your findings to the class.
the following questions.
> Will the experiment produce data that answers the
question?

REVIEW 1
Multiple choice questions 10 Compare (the similarities and differences between)
zero error and parallax error, by describing each type
1 Identify the most appropriate definition of ‘independent of error.
variable’.
11 Define the term ‘SI unit’.
A the variable that is measured
B the variable that is controlled 12 Identify the SI unit for the following:
C the variable that is deliberately changed by the scientist a time
D the variable that is measured at the end of the b mass
experiment c length.
2 Identify which of the following statements is correct. 13 Identify the meaning of the following prefixes for a
A Correlation means causation. quantity:
B Data is described in the method section of a scientific a mega
report. b micro
C Data is analysed in the results section of a scientific c kilo.
report. 14 Explain why scientists have developed an internationally
D A Safety Data Sheet should include the PPE to be agreed system of units.
used for a chemical.
3 Identify the graph that indicates no correlation between
Apply and analyse
the variables. 15 A consumer scientist wanted to test the effect of a lotion
A B for treating acne. They first tested the lotion on a group of
20 teenagers, all aged 15, but then they decided to conduct
more tests. So they then tested 100 teenagers, all aged 15.
a Identify whether this is an example of experimental
repetition or increasing the sample size.
b Identify which result (using 20 teenagers or
120 teenagers) is likely to lead to the most reliable
conclusion. Justify your answer (by comparing
D the reliability of the test with 20 teenagers to that of
C
120 teenagers and deciding which is more reliable).
16 A scientist was commissioned by a jeans manufacturer
to test various denims. The manufacturer wanted a
more durable fabric than the one they were currently
using. Describe how the scientist might test a fabric for
durability in a fair and objective way. Explain why this is
Short answer questions important.

4 Identify the main steps used when conducting an
experimental investigation by the scientific method.
5 Define the term ‘variable’.
6 Identify why consumer scientists are interested in what
can be observed and tested, rather than in the slogans and
claims of manufacturers.
7 Describe how scientists find out about the safety risks
involved in an experiment they are planning.
8 Suppose you are conducting a fair experiment in which
you have identified six variables. Explain how you can be
sure of the effect of one particular variable.
Figure 1 How might a scientist test the durability
9 Explain why beakers are not used to measure volumes. of different denims?

17 Identify the number of significant figures in each of the a Describe why the company may choose to use the
following measurements: phrases or a picture of a scientist.
a 65.301 g b Describe how a person viewing the advertisement
b 0.006 420 kg might be affected by the use of the phrases or pictures.
c 40 L. c Describe how a person would be affected if the
phrases/pictures were not used.
18 Calculate the mean, median and mode of the following
d Evaluate whether using the phrases/pictures
set of data:
disadvantages the person viewing the advertisement.
15, 13, 18, 16, 14, 17, 12, 14, 19 e Decide whether the phrases/pictures of scientists
19 A lipstick manufacturer claims that their brand of high- should be allowed in advertising.
gloss lipstick will stay on for at least 6 hours, even during
eating and drinking. Design an experiment based on Critical and creative thinking
the scientific method to test this claim. First state your 24 One source of information for consumers is Choice
hypothesis, and then identify the variables you will be magazine. The magazine reports the results of testing a
considering. Describe the measurements you will take variety of brands of consumer products.
and how you will ensure that they are accurate. a If a consumer scientist was reading a report on the
20 For the experiment you designed in question 19, safety of children’s pyjamas, describe the evidence
describe the results you would expect to obtain if your they might look for to see if the report was fair and
stated hypothesis was correct. objective.
b If the scientist concludes that the report is reliable,
describe how the public might be convinced to read
such reports before purchasing children’s pyjamas.
Research
25 Choose one of the following topics for a research project.
Some questions have been included to help you begin
your research. Present your findings in a format of your
choosing.
Figure 2 What results would be expected for the hypothesis » Bottled water
from question 19? Many people in Australia spend a lot of money on bottled
drinking water. Are they doing this because of the way
Evaluate the water is marketed, or are there scientifically supported
21 For the experiment you designed in question 19, health benefits in drinking bottled water rather than tap
evaluate the accuracy of the results that you may water? Is tap water unsafe to drink? Have there been any
measure and suggest what further investigation you could cases where water bottlers have been fraudulent in their
undertake to improve the reliability of your conclusions. claims about the water they are selling? Investigate this
issue. Find out what dentists and medical experts say
22 For the experiment you designed in question 19, about bottled water. Describe the scientific tests that are
assuming you found that the manufacturer’s claim performed to check that the
was correct, create a scientifically accurate slogan or claims are correct and that the
advertisement for the lipstick based on your findings. results that have been obtained
are valid. After researching and
Social and ethical thinking comparing a range of evidence,
23 Two phrases commonly used in advertising are ‘Scientists evaluate whether we should
have proved …’ and ‘Recommended by scientists’. These drink bottled water in Australia
are often accompanied by pictures of named scientists or use tap water. Describe any
who are paid to appear in the advertisement. Discuss limitations of your conclusions
the ethical implications of using these phrases or pictures (e.g. does it depend on where Figure 3 Why do people
of scientists, by completing the following: you live?). drink bottled water?

» Mobile phone safety » Artificial colourings and flavourings
Research is continuing into the safety of mobile phones, in foods
although most people in the Western world have one Some people claim that certain artificial colourings
or use one. You are an advisor to the Minister of and flavourings in foods can cause problems, such as
Communications and Technology. Produce a report, of hyperactivity in children. Use the internet
at least 10 points, detailing any research that has taken and other resources to investigate this
place into mobile phone safety. Make sure you include issue. Define the term ‘opposing evidence’.
the outcomes or conclusions reached in these studies. Identify whether the warnings are based on
anecdotal evidence or scientific evidence.
Discuss whether anecdotal evidence can be
of value to scientists.
Figure 4 Are artificial colourings and
flavourings in foods bad for us?
Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 1 ‘Science toolkit’. Once you’ve
completed this chapter, use the table to reflect on your ability to complete each task.
Explain the differences between variables, independent variable Go back to Topic 1.1 ʻScientists
and dependent variable in terms of what is controlled, changed can test manufacturers’ claimsʼ
or measured. Page 2
Relate reliability of results to sample size and repetition of the test.
Write a scientific report with all relevant sections.
Define reading error, parallax error, zero error, significant figures, Go back to Topic 1.2
rounding off, SI system and derived units. ʻScientists must be aware of
Explain the importance of minimising experimental error. experimental errorsʼ
Page 4
Describe the purpose of Safety Data Sheets and provide examples Go back to Topic 1.3 ʻScientists
of some of the types of information included on them. prepare Safety Data Sheets’
Page 8
Describe the differences between positive and negative correlation, Go back to Topic 1.4 ʻScientists
and high, low and no correlation. present their data accurately’
Explain how to deal with outliers in data. Page 10
Calculate the mean and mode of data.
Describe the factors involved in designing a valid experiment and Go back to Topic 1.5 ʻScience as
explain how to increase the reliability of results. a human endeavour: Scientists
Provide examples of common errors that should be minimised investigate consumer products’
or avoided. Page 12
Present data in an appropriate manner.
digital resources and more: digital resources and more:
Chapter quiz
Compete in teams to test Test your understanding Launch a quiz for your students on key concepts in this chapter.
your knowledge. of this chapter with one of

2
How do we balance our needs CHAPTER
with those of the environment?
All living things are dependent on each
2.1 other and the environment around them
Relationships between organisms

2.2 may be beneficial or detrimental
2.3
Population size
depends on abiotic ECOSYSTEMS
and biotic factors
Introducing a new species

2.4 may disrupt the balance in What if?
an ecosystem Yeast cultures
What you need:
Spatula, dried yeast, warm water, sugar,
Energy enters the ecosystem
2.5 through photosynthesis
test tube, ruler, thermometer, timer
What to do:
1 Add 1 spatula of dried yeast to warm
water in the test tube and leave
Energy flows through for 10–15 minutes before adding
2.6 an ecosystem 1 spatula of sugar.
2 Measure the temperature of the
water at the point of adding the sugar.
3 Measure the height of the yeast
Matter is recycled in
2.7 ecosystems
culture (an indication of the number
of yeast cells) from the base of the
test tube. This is the measurement
at t = 0 minutes.
4 Measure the height of the culture
Natural events can every minute for 15 minutes.
2.8 disrupt an ecosystem 5 Draw a graph of your results.
What if?
» What if hot water was added to the
culture? (Would the number of yeast
Human activity can disrupt
2.9 an ecosystem
cells increase faster?)
» What if ice-cold water was added to
the culture?
» What if twice as much sugar was
added?
Science as a human endeavour:
• What if no sugar was added?
2.10 Human management of ecosystems
continues to change
2.1 All living things are dependent
on each other and the
environment around them
In this
topic, you • An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (biotic) and their non-living
will learn surroundings (abiotic).
that: • Ecology is the study of the interrelationships of organisms with other organisms
and with their non-living environment.
The biosphere – a home for

Video 2.1 size depending on the amount of food, water and
What is an
shelter they provide. A population is a group
ecosystem?
our ecosystems of living organisms that are the same species,
biosphere The biosphere is the living world. It is where living in the same place at the same time. When
a layer around the Earth's all the plants, insects and animals live. The different populations interact with each other,
surface that supports life; biosphere includes any place on Earth where they are called a community. For example, a
consists of the atmosphere, population of humans can live in a town together.
life of any kind can exist. The biosphere can
hydrosphere and When all the plants in their gardens and their pets
be thought of as the intersection between the
lithosphere
atmosphere (gases), the hydrosphere (water) and are included, then it becomes a community.
ecosystem The habitat must supply all the needs of
the lithosphere (land). Because the biosphere
a community of living
is large, and its relationships are complex, we the organisms, such as food, water, warm
organisms (biotic) and
non-living (abiotic) factors normally study smaller components of the temperatures, oxygen and minerals. These
biosphere, called ecosystems. make up the non-living, abiotic conditions
biotic
of the habitat. If the abiotic conditions are
relating to the living
organisms in an ecosystem Ecosystems not appropriate for a population, then the
individuals in that population will move to a
abiotic Ecosystems vary in size. They can be as small
all the non-living
more suitable habitat or will die out.
as a puddle or as large as the Earth itself. Any
components of an
ecosystem; for example,
group of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
things interacting with each other in a self-
Benefits of an ecosystem
light, temperature, water
sustaining way is an ecosystem. Ecosystems are Humans depend on ecosystems for survival.
habitat
made up of habitats. A habitat is the place where The variety of organisms that are in the
the place where a
population of organisms live a population of organisms live. Habitats vary in community is important. If an ecosystem has
a large biodiversity (many different types of
population
organisms) then it is more likely to survive a
a group of individuals of
the same species living in major disruption, such as a natural or a human-
the same place at the same caused event. If the biodiversity is low, the
time removal or extinction of a single population
community can affect all the other organisms that depend
different populations living on that population for survival. For example,
in the same place at the the removal of flies might mean the spiders
same time starve, which would cause a decrease in their
population as well as the birds that eat both
spiders and flies. The fly larvae (maggots)
would also decrease, slowing the breakdown of
Figure 1 Wetlands such faeces and other waste, preventing plants from
as those in Kakadu obtaining the important nutrients they need.
National Park in the Biodiverse ecosystems provide these and
Northern Territory are an a number of other benefits to ensure our
example of an ecosystem.
continued existence.

2.1A: Making a biosphere 2.1B: Purification of water
CHALLENGE Go to page 165. EXPERIMENT Go to page 166.
Figure 2 Dolphins Figure 3 Pollination involves the transfer of pollen from

come to the the male parts of flowers to the female parts of other
surface of flowers of the same species. Animal pollinators, such
the water to as bees, small mammals or birds, visit the flowers
breathe in air for food such as nectar, and transfer pollen when
and release they visit other flowers. Pollen may also be carried
carbon by wind or water.
dioxide
through an
air hole.
Figure 4 Fungi are important

decomposers. These fungi
are feeding on a rotting log.
Plants and animals work Some organisms decompose

together to help maintain the organic matter
balance of gases in the air Some living organisms, called decomposers,
Plants and animals continuously cycle gases get the food they need by feeding on the dead.
among themselves, the soil and the air. For Decomposers (such as maggots) not only
example, during the day, plants take in carbon prevent dead organisms from piling up, but
dioxide from the air and release oxygen into the they also take the nutrients from the dead body
decomposer
air in a process called photosynthesis. All living to use when building their own bodies. The an organism that gains
things, including humans, use the oxygen in nutrients are then passed on to other organisms nutrients by breaking
cellular respiration and release carbon dioxide that eat the decomposer organisms. Also, the down dead organisms into
into the air. nutrients that pass through the decomposers as simpler nutrients
waste end up in the soil in simpler forms that
Figure 5 The forested water
Insects, birds and bats help plants can absorb into their roots. catchment areas around
pollinate plants Wetlands and forests clean
Melbourne are vital for keeping
its water supply clean.
Plants and animals interact in their search for
food. Bees and other insects, as well as some
water
birds and bats, transfer pollen from plant to If you poured dirty water through a filter, you
plant. Pollination (Figure 3) not only helps would expect cleaner water to come out. A
wild plants, but is also important for crops. similar thing happens in nature when water
Over 70 per cent of plant species worldwide, passes through a forest or wetland ecosystem. By
including fruits and vegetables, are pollinated slowing the flow of water, the plants and animals
by animals, insects or birds. in the ecosystem trap some of the pollutants and
sediments, leaving the water clean.

Remember and understand Apply and analyse • describing the role of bees in
1 Identify three systems that 5 Explain why Melbourne has such food production
interact to form a biosphere. good drinking water. Figure 5 may • describing the effect on food
2 Identify the scientific word for help you to answer this. production if the bee population
the non-living components of were to collapse or disappear
Evaluate and create • identifying three factors that
an ecosystem. Describe three
6 Imagine that someone came to you could cause the bee population
examples of these components.
and asked, ‘Why is the biodiversity to collapse
3 Contrast (the differences
of an environment so important?’
between) a population and a • deciding whether action is
Draft a reply, taking into account the
community. needed to maintain the bee
key concepts covered in this topic.
4 Describe two examples of the population.
7 Evaluate the importance of bees
benefits that ecosystems provide.
to our food supply, by:
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 2 ECOSYSTEMS 19

2.2 Relationships between
organisms may be
beneficial or detrimental
In this
topic, you • In a mutual relationship, both organisms benefit.
will learn • In a commensal relationship, one organism benefits and the other organism
that: is unaffected.
• In a parasitic relationship, one organism benefits and the other (host) organism
is harmed.
collaboration
a relationship between
In a community, all organisms interact
with each other. Individuals in a population
Relationships between
organisms of the same may need to collaborate and mate to ensure different species
species working together to
ensure their survival
the species survives. This may also cause
competition for food or shelter. Although some
Symbiosis
mating organisms do not affect other organisms in an Symbiosis is a close physical and long-term
the pairing of a male and relationship between two organisms of different
ecosystem, most organisms are part of a large
female of a species to
network of living things. These relationships species. Mutualism, commensalism and
produce offspring (babies)
may be beneficial or detrimental. Relationships parasitism are all examples of symbiosis.
competition
may be between organisms of the same or Mutualism is a relationship between two
a type of relationship
between organisms using different species. Sometimes two organisms organisms in which both organisms benefit.
the same limited resources from different species form a close relationship. Commensalism is a relationship in which
in an ecosystem This type of relationship is called symbiosis. one organism benefits and the other organism
symbiosis Symbiotic relationships include mutualism, is not affected. Commensalism is relatively rare
a close physical relationship commensalism and parasitism. in the natural world because it is unlikely that
between two organisms of an organism will not be affected in some way
different species
Relationships within a by a relationship with another organism.
species
mutualism Parasitism is a relationship in which one
a type of relationship organism (the parasite) lives in or on the body
between two organisms of There are three types of relationships between of another (the host). The parasite benefits but
different species in which organisms of the same species. the host is harmed.
both organisms benefit
> Collaboration occurs when organisms Some parasites have difficulty travelling
commensalism
cooperate with each other to ensure their between hosts. For example, malaria is a
a type of relationship
between two organisms of
survival. For example, ants leave a trail of single-celled organism (Plasmodium) that uses
different species, in which scent when they look for food, so that other mosquitoes to travel between humans. The
one organism benefits and ants can find the food too. mosquito acts as a disease vector – a living
the other is not affected > Mating between members of the same organism that can transmit infectious diseases
parasitism species produces offspring, thus ensuring between humans, or from animals to humans.
a relationship in which one the survival of the species. When the mosquito sucks blood from the
organism (parasite) lives > Competition occurs when organisms use host, it also ingests some of the parasite. The
in or on the body of the next time the mosquito feeds, it releases the
the same limited resource. For example,
other organism (host) and pathogen into a new host. This is how diseases
benefits while the host is
seedlings from the same species compete
with each other for light and space as such as malaria, Zika virus and dengue fever
harmed
they grow. are spread.
disease vector
a living organism that can
transmit infectious disease
between humans, or from
animals to humans

2.2: What if more seeds
were planted in a pot?
Figure 2
Mutualism
The anemone fish
Figure 1 Mutualism hides within the tentacles
A lichen is made up of the sea anemone, where
of an alga and a fungus, it is camouflaged from
although you cannot see the its predators. The sea
two organisms separately (except anemone is cleaned of Figure 3 Commensalism
under a microscope). The alga algae by the fish. Sometimes herbivorous animals
produces energy for both through such as cattle and water buffalo
photosynthesis, and the fungus flush insects out of the grass as
provides support and other they wander through. Birds
nutrients. such as cattle egrets feed
on the insects.
Figure 5
Parasitism
Ticks attach to the skin
of animals and slowly
drink their blood. Bacteria
from the digestive system
of the tick can infect Figure 6 Parasitism
the animal. Hookworms attach to the
inner lining of a human or
Figure 4 animal intestine, feeding on
Commensalism passing nutrients. If the host doesn’t
Certain plants rely on eat enough, the worm has been
passing animals to disperse known to burrow out of the intestines
their seeds. The seeds have and travel to other organs,
tiny hooks that attach to where significant damage
animal fur and will usually can be done.
fall some distance from
the parent plant.

Non-symbiotic relationships relationship. If all the prey are eaten, then the
predators will starve. A graph of predator–prey
Two non-symbiotic relationships are predator– numbers (Figure 7) shows a typical pattern.
prey relationships and competition.
predator Competition may also exist between
In a predator–prey relationship, one members of different species that share a
an animal that hunts and
feeds on another (prey) organism (the predator) eats another (the prey). resource such as food (Figure 8).
for food Therefore, one benefits and the other is harmed.
Inhibition is a particular type of
prey It is not symbiotic, because the relationship
competition that occurs when one organism
an animal that is hunted between the organisms is not long term and it
produces a chemical that directly inhibits or
and killed by another only happens when a predator is hungry. Predator
blocks the growth and development of another
(predator) for food species and their prey species have a balanced
(Figures 9 and 10).
Numbers of predators and prey
Prey
Predator
Time
Figure 7 A predator–prey graph. The scales aren’t shown but the prey numbers are mostly greater than
those of the predators. Notice that the increase and decrease in prey numbers usually comes before the
increase and decrease in predator numbers.
Periwinkle
Limpet
Figure 8 A black periwinkle (Nerita) competes for food with the limpet (Cellana) on a rock platform – both
species feed on algae growing on the rocks. The periwinkle moves faster but does not eat all the algae
in its path, so both can survive because the periwinkles usually leave some algae behind for the limpets.
However, when the periwinkles are removed, the limpet population increases.

Figure 9 Penicillium fungus mould (seen here growing on an orange) produces an Figure 10 The Lantana plant was introduced into
antibiotic called penicillin that inhibits the growth of many species of bacteria. Australia and has become a weed. It releases a
chemical into the soil that inhibits the growth of
native plant species.

Remember and understand Mistletoe can make its own food, but
1 Define symbiosis. the stems send suckers into the eucalypt
to obtain water and minerals. If too
2 Explain why a large plant that produces
much water and minerals are removed,
a lot of shade prevents smaller plants
the eucalypt can die. Identify the type
from growing.
of relationship that exists between the
Apply and analyse eucalypt and the mistletoe. Justify your
3 Describe an example of the following answer (by defining the relationship and
relationships. matching it to this example).
a predator–prey 6 Epiphytes are plants, such as ferns and
b mutualism some orchids, that grow high in the
c commensalism branches of other trees, especially
rainforest trees. The epiphytes obtain
d parasite–host
sufficient light to make their own food,
4 Contrast (the similarities and
collect water from the moist air and
differences between) a predator–prey
obtain minerals from the decaying leaf
relationship and parasitism.
litter that they catch at their leaf bases.
5 Some eucalyptus trees have mistletoe The tree is not affected by these plants.
plants living on them. Mistletoe has Identify the type of relationship that is
very similar leaves to eucalyptus leaves. described. Justify your answer.

2.3 Population size depends on
abiotic and biotic factors
In this
topic, you • All populations in an ecosystem are in dynamic equilibrium.
will learn • Populations can decrease due to deaths, emigration and natural disasters.
that:
• Populations can increase due to births and immigration.
The number of organisms in a population can

Video 2.3
Fieldwork be affected by many factors. Competition for
food within a species and between different
species can make it difficult for an organism to
survive. An increase in the number of predators Grass
emigration
when an organism leaves
will cause a population to decrease. A drought
an ecosystem or a bushfire can also have long-term effects on
a population.
migration
the movement of a single
organism or a population A dynamic balance Grasshopper
from one ecosystem to
All organisms live in a complex web of
another
interrelationships – with each other and with
their environment. In an ecosystem, balance
needs to be maintained so that all species can
exist at their optimum population size.
At its simplest, gains due to reproduction Frog Praying mantis
Births Immigration and immigration must balance the losses due to
death and emigration (leaving; Figure 1).
Consider the food web for an ecosystem
shown in Figure 2. If the number of frogs
decreased in this ecosystem, consequences
could include:
Lizard Bird
> an increase in grasshopper numbers, which
Population will cause a decrease in grass Figure 2 A food web for an ecosystem
size
> an initial increase in praying mantis Ecosystem balance is a type of dynamic
numbers because of more grasshoppers equilibrium. Although change may upset the
> a decrease in lizard numbers equilibrium, another equilibrium becomes
> birds eating praying mantises instead of frogs established. Often, it is not greatly different
and lizards from the original. Changes in ecosystems
> a consequent decrease in praying mantis occur naturally but they may be intensified by
numbers external factors such as floods and bushfires.
Emigration when Deaths Reproduction, death, migration, natural
> a further increase in grasshopper numbers
food source events (such as seasonal changes), disasters
declines and even more loss of grass. If this was
severe enough, the ecosystem would be at (floods, droughts, earthquakes) and human
Figure 1 The size of a risk, as it depends on a good supply of grass. intervention occur regularly.
galah population in a
The most likely outcome is that the bird
particular area depends
on the food available population would decrease, so all species would Population dynamics
and the number of births return to balance with reduced population sizes. Population dynamics is the study of changes
and deaths. A positive effect is that decreased bird numbers in population numbers within ecosystems. If
might enable the frog population to recover. scientists have an approximate idea of how

2.3: Bead and candy counting
many of each species are in a certain location, The number of animals in this second capture
they can make predictions and take certain that are marked are counted (M 2), as well as
precautions to conserve species. the total number caught in the second sample
Regular sampling provides information (N2). An estimate of the population is then
about increases and decreases in population obtained using the following formula:
numbers, and causes can be identified.
Total number of animals = N1 × N2 ÷ M 2
Counting organisms Worked example 2.3 shows how to use the
There are a number of ways to determine the formula to calculate population size.
size of a population. The simplest way would Capture–recapture is a suitable technique
be to count all the organisms, but in practice for estimating the population size of small Figure 3 Using a quadrat
this is rarely possible. It is easier to estimate Australian mammals, such as the marsupial
the total population by counting a sample from Antechinus (the common bush rat). Because
a helicopter, or by using quadrats or capture– most native Australian mammals are nocturnal,
recapture methods. For human populations, the traps may be set at night and checked the
a census is the usual method. next morning.
For plants and stationary animals,
quadrats (randomly selected square plots) quadrat
are marked in an ecosystem (Figure 3). The Worked example 2.3: a randomly selected square
organisms in each plot are counted, an average Calculating plot used to estimate the
is obtained and then (knowing the total area population size number of organisms
of the ecosystem) the estimated number of Scientists wanted to determine the size
organisms in the ecosystem is calculated. of a bilby population in a small reserve.
This method works well if a large number of They used the capture–recapture method
quadrats are used and the organisms are evenly to estimate the size of the population.
spread throughout the ecosystem. They captured and marked 9 bilbies on
For animals that are moving, capture– the first night and 8 bilbies (4 marked) one capture–recapture
recapture is a popular method. Animals are week later. a method of estimating the
captured in traps and marked with tags, number of organisms in an
Calculate the size of the bilby population.
correction fluid or permanent marker on ecosystem by capturing,
Solution marking and releasing a
their tails.
sample of the organisms
The number counted on the first capture N1 = 9 N2 = 8 M2 = 4
is N1. The animals are then released and it is Estimated number of bilbies = N1 × N2 ÷ M 2
assumed that they disperse evenly throughout =9×8÷4
the population. Another capture (recapture) = 18
is made one or two days (or nights) later.

Remember and understand Apply and analyse b Describe one way the students
1 Describe suitable methods 3 Students on a field trip with a could increase the accuracy of
for estimating the size of national park ranger set traps this experiment.
populations of: for a small nocturnal marsupial, Evaluate and create
a plants and stationary animals Antechinus stuartii, in a heathland 4 Evaluate whether growth in
b other animals. ecosystem. They captured 8 animals population size is always desirable
2 Describe the advantages on the first night and marked (by discussing the advantages
and disadvantages of each of white dots on their tails. Then they and disadvantages of continuous
the methods you described in released them. On the second night growth, and deciding whether the
question 1. they captured 10 animals, 4 of advantages are more important
which were marked. than the disadvantages).
a Calculate the estimated
population size of A. stuartii in
this ecosystem.

2.4 Introducing a new species
may disrupt the balance in
an ecosystem
In this
topic, you • An organism introduced into an ecosystem can consume the resources of other
will learn native organisms.
that: • An ecosystem needs to establish a new equilibrium after the introduction of a
new species.
• Biological control involves the deliberate introduction of an organism that will
control or decrease the population of a non-native plant or animal.
All ecosystems are in a precise balance that Rabbits breed very quickly. A single female
ensures enough food and resources to support rabbit can have up to 14 babies in each litter. If
the community of organisms. Introducing the average female rabbit produces one litter a
or removing a species from an environment month, and these new babies are able to breed
can disrupt this balance and have devastating within six months, the population can grow
effects on other populations in the ecosystem. rapidly (see Figure 2).
Introducing rabbits Rabbits for hunting

European rabbits were brought to Australia In 1859, farmer Thomas Austin received
on the First Fleet in 1788. The 250-day 24 wild rabbits from England, along with
journey ensured that the rabbits were well partridges, hares and sparrows, for hunting.
domesticated by the time they arrived here. These were released near Geelong. This time
The rabbit population around Sydney did not the rabbits were better equipped to survive.
grow very quickly. However, when the rabbits In England, the winters were very cold and
Figure 1 Rabbits have had
a devastating effect on were introduced into Tasmania, populations of these abiotic (non-living) conditions slowed
ecosystems in Australia. thousands quickly became established. the growth of rabbit populations there.
160 000
140 000
120 000
Number of rabbits
100 000
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
0
0 1 2 3 4
Year
Figure 2 The potential growth of a rabbit population over four years from a
single female rabbit (assuming unlimited food and no predators).

2.4: Rabbit and fox chasey
In Australia, the winters were much warmer

and the clearing of the scrubland created
large areas of farmed grasses for food. There
were also few predators of rabbits. Over
the next 40 years, the rabbits spread as far
as Queensland, Western Australia and the
Northern Territory.
Controlling the rabbit

population
By 1887, rabbits were causing so much damage
to the environment that the New South Wales
government offered a reward for any new
method to decrease the population. Rewards
were offered for each rabbit killed, and a rabbit-
proof fence across large sections of Western
Australia was trialled (Figure 3).
The increase in the rabbit population had
a large impact on the local ecosystems. The
rabbits competed with the local marsupials for
food and destroyed large sections of the habitat Figure 4 Rabbits bite tusks of grasses very close
with their burrows (Figure 4). Predators to the ground. Combined with digging extensive
of the rabbits (such as dingoes and eagles) burrows, this makes the soil more prone to erosion.
grew in numbers due to the increase in food.
populations on the island. However, when the
Unfortunately, these increased numbers of
cats were killed, the island rabbit population
predators also ate the local marsupials, causing
increased dramatically, destroying native plants
those populations to decline. All these factors
and affecting many other organisms that were
contributed to the permanent loss of several
native to the island. Scientists needed to find a
species of native plants and animals.
way to control the rabbits.
Figure 3 Completed in 1907, a rabbit-proof fence

was built between Cape Keraudren and Esperance
in Western Australia.
Macquarie Island rabbits

In 1985, scientists on Macquarie Island
(halfway between Australia and Antarctica)
devised a plan to eradicate the cats that had
Figure 5 a Before: This slope on Macquarie Island
been introduced to the island since the early had vegetation as recently as 2007. b After: The
nineteenth century. It was thought that this same slope a few years later – it has been ravaged
would increase the native burrowing bird by rabbits since cats were eradicated.
Biological control the disease. These rabbits survived and bred a
new population of rabbits that were immune
All efforts to control the rabbit population by to the disease. New viruses, such as the rabbit
physical means were unsuccessful. In 1938, calicivirus, have been tried, with similar
CSIRO scientists studied a way to control the results.
biological control disease using a living organism (biological Before a species is introduced as part of
a method of controlling a control). They tested a virus called Myxoma biological control of pests, scientists must
population by releasing a for its ability to cause disease in rabbits. This model the possible effects on populations
living organism (a parasite virus causes a disease with symptoms including
or consumer) into an that compete for the same food source or the
fever and swelling around the head of the predators that may prey on them. Scientists
ecosystem
rabbit. Death occurs within 14 days. Myxoma must effectively map the food web of the
disease
was eventually released in the wild and quickly ecosystem and how the balance between all
a disorder or condition
killed almost all the rabbits that caught the organisms in the community will be affected
that interrupts the normal
functioning of an organism infection. This increased Australia’s wool and by the introduction of the biological control
meat production within two years. However, a organism.
immune
small percentage of rabbits were unaffected by
able to fight an infection as
a result of prior exposure
Dingoes
Echidnas Kookaburras
Termites Kangaroos
Wombats
Frill-necked
Rabbits
lizards
Grasshoppers
Eucalyptus Wattle trees
trees
Grasses
Figure 6 Rabbits compete with grasshoppers, wombats, kangaroos and termites for grass.

1 Explain why rabbits are referred to as an 7 Evaluate the ethics of using biological
introduced animal in Australia. control of rabbits, by:
2 Identify two reasons why the rabbit • describing how Myxoma infection
population was able to increase so affects the health of a rabbit
quickly when introduced to Australia. • describing the effect a large
3 Define the term ‘biological control’. rabbit population has on a native
environment, including the native
Apply and analyse
plants and animals
4 Use the food web in Figure 6 to identify
• describing how a large rabbit
two populations that would increase as a
population affects our ability to grow
result of the introduction of rabbits.
food
5 Explain the effect a large rabbit
• deciding whether the life (and
population would have on the ecosystem
Myxoma-related death) of a rabbit is
in Figure 6.
more or less important than the effects
6 Explain why Myxoma is no longer you described above. (Does the end
effective in controlling rabbit justify the means?)
populations.
Figure 7 Plants are an important part of an ecoystem.

2.5A: Photosynthesis role play
2.5 Energy enters the ecosystem

through photosynthesis
In this
topic, you • Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis are the original source of energy in an
will learn ecosystem.
that: • Photosynthesis is the transfer of light energy from the Sun into chemical energy
in glucose.
• Carbon dioxide and water react in the presence of light energy to produce oxygen
Video 2.5A and glucose.
Photosynthesis
• Excess glucose is stored as starch.
Video 2.5B
What is
Ecosystems rely on the transfer of energy
from one part to another. The first source of
What is photosynthesis?
photosynthesis?
energy in most ecosystems is solar energy via Living things need energy to grow and repair,
photosynthesis. Animals cannot directly use to defend themselves, and to move around.
energy from the Sun. Even in caves and The energy in an ecosystem usually originates
other places where there is no light, the from the Sun. Plants, some algae and some
energy may be from dead plants and bacteria are able to transform this light energy
animals, which originally obtained into chemical energy through a process called
their energy from the Sun. An photosynthesis. In this process, water and
exception is chemosynthetic bacteria carbon dioxide are converted into glucose
on the ocean floor and in the craters (a sugar), oxygen and energy. The overall
of volcanoes – these bacteria trap the equation for photosynthesis is:
energy from chemicals and chemical
reactions occurring under the Earth’s carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen + water
crust. 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6 H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Figure 1
Photosynthesis occurs
inside chloroplasts. Outer membrane Stroma lamella
The image shows a
cross-section of two
chloroplasts, seen through Granum
an electron microscope. (stack of thylakoids)
photosynthesis
a chemical process used
by plants to make glucose
and oxygen from carbon
dioxide, sunlight and water
Lumen
(inside of thylakoids)
Inner membrane Thylakoids

Stroma (aqueous fluid)
Figure 2 The structure of a chloroplast

2.5B: Inputs and outputs of 2.5C: Effect of carbon dioxide
photosynthesis on starch production
EXPERIMENT Go to page 171. EXPERIMENT Go to page 172.
Where does photosynthesis chlorophyll
happen?
a green pigment in
chloroplasts that absorbs
On average, a plant leaf has tens of thousands of solar energy, which is used
cells. A single cell contains 40–50 chloroplasts, by plants in photosynthesis
which contain the green pigment chlorophyll. stomata
Chlorophyll captures the Sun’s light energy and small holes in a plant leaf
Stoma surrounded by guard cells
uses it in the formation of glucose.
that control their opening
Plants do not breathe the same way we and closing; singular ‘stoma’
do. Instead, they take in the carbon dioxide Guard cells
starch
needed for photosynthesis through microscopic a complex form of sugar
pores called stomata (singular ‘stoma’) in that is found in certain
the leaves (Figure 3). The water needed for foods (e.g. bread, potato
photosynthesis enters through the roots and Figure 3 Guard cells open and close the stomata and rice)
travels to the leaves, where the glucose is made of a plant.
in the chloroplasts.
Figure 4 Starch can be stored
Factors that affect in roots and tubers of plants.
During the night there is no
photosynthesis sunlight for photosynthesis,
but plants still need energy
Many factors can affect the rate of to stay alive. Plants break
photosynthesis. If there is not enough light, down starch into
photosynthesis cannot occur. This can be a glucose so that
problem for young plants trying to grow on the they can survive
floor of a rainforest. The taller plants compete at night.
with them for light. Water is also needed for
photosynthesis. In the desert, the lack of rain
can restrict the amount of photosynthesis, and
therefore the amount of glucose produced.
What happens to the glucose?

Plants are sugar factories, making millions of
glucose molecules during daylight hours. Plants
require a constant supply of glucose for energy 2.5 Check your learning
to grow and to repair damage. In daylight, more
glucose is made than can be used directly by Remember and understand
the plant, so excess glucose is stored in the form 1 Identify where the process of photosynthesis occurs in a plant.
of starch and other carbohydrates in the roots, 2 Identify the chemicals that are used in the photosynthesis reaction.
stems or leaves of the plant. Some plants store 3 Describe how the chemicals needed for photosynthesis enter a
starch in underground storage organs, such as plant.
roots and tubers (for example, potatoes, carrots
and parsnips all store starch in this way). Apply and analyse
4 Draw a flow diagram summarising the inputs and outputs of
photosynthesis.
5 Identify two plant foods that we eat because they are sources of
starch.
Evaluate and create
6 ‘Photosynthesis is the most important metabolic process on Earth.’
Evaluate the above statement by:
• describing why photosynthesis is important in an ecosystem
• describing what would happen if photosynthesis was not able to
occur
• deciding whether the statement is correct.
Figure 5 Plants use energy from the Sun to grow
and repair.
2.6 Energy flows through
an ecosystem
In this
topic, you • The energy in glucose is used for movement, growth and repair of an organism.
will learn • The energy in glucose molecules must be converted to ATP in a process called
that: cellular respiration.
• Only 10 per cent of the energy is passed on to the next level in a food chain.
Video 2.6A • Waste energy in the form of heat is produced.
Ecosystem energy
transfer
Living systems continuously take in energy energy that is consumed, only 10 per cent is
Video 2.6B from the Sun. When one organism eats another, available to eventually be passed from one
Cellular respiration it takes the energy that was stored in the organism to the next in a food chain (Figure 1).
equation food’s cells and tissues. Of this stored energy, This means the energy in an ecosystem needs
90 per cent is transformed into movement, to be constantly replaced (by plants capturing
or the growth and repair of the animal’s own sunlight), as most of it is released as unusable
cells. This transformation of energy produces heat energy. Worked example 2.6 shows how to
a by-product: heat energy. Of all the stored calculate energy in an ecosystem.
Top
consumer
1 unit of energy Heat
Secondary
consumers
10 units of energy Heat
Primary
consumers
Heat
100 units of energy
Producers
1000 units of energy

Heat
33 300 energy units Sun
Figure 1 The movement of energy along a food chain can be represented by an energy pyramid. The size
of each trophic level represents the amount of energy being passed on to the next level in the food chain.

2.6: Food for thought
Energy for work

Energy transformations are an essential part
of the metabolic processes (chemical reactions
that keep cells working) that keep an organism
alive. We can describe these processes as the
‘work’ of living organisms. Some of the types
of ‘work’ performed by living organisms are
shown in Table 1.
Table 1 The ‘work’ of living organisms
Type of work Examples

Building compounds All organisms use energy to build and replicate molecules so they can manage
metabolic processes, grow and pass information on to offspring.
Communication inside Energy is needed for communication within and between cells.
an organism Electrical energy and chemical energy are used when nerves transmit information
throughout the body.
Physical movement Energy is supplied for physical movement, such as movement of leg or arm Figure 2 Energy
muscles, and involuntary movement, such as contraction of the heart. transformations are vital
In plants, energy is used for movement towards sunlight. to keep plants growing.
Transport Energy is required to move nutrients and wastes throughout an organism’s body.
Electrical potential energy is needed to transport materials into and out of cells.
Worked example 2.6:

Calculating energy in an
ecosystem
If 2000 energy units (joules) were eaten by the grasshopper
in Figure 1:
a calculate the number of joules available to be used by a
frog that ate the grasshopper
b identify how the remaining energy was used.
Solution
a Only 10% of the energy in an organism is passed on to the next level of the food chain.
Energy passed on to the frog = 10% of 2000 joules
10
= × 2000
100
= 200 joules
The frog would receive 200 joules of the
2000 joules eaten by the grasshopper.
b The remaining 1800 joules would have been
used by the grasshopper for moving, growing
and repairing damage to its body. The chemical
reactions in these processes produce the heat
energy that is released into the environment.

What is cellular A closer look at cellular
respiration? respiration
Whenever we burn a fuel, such as wood or oil, The energy stored in the chemical bonds of
we release the energy that has been chemically glucose (C6H12O6) is transferred into ATP
stored in the molecules. This energy in the during cellular respiration. The general
fuel molecules is organised, or ordered, equation for cellular respiration is:
because it is tied to the molecule. Burning
Reactants Products
requires oxygen and is a rapid process,
releasing the energy as heat energy. Carbon glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
dioxide and water are also produced. C 6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H 2O + 36ATP
Cellular respiration is similar to burning.
Glucose is the molecule that our body uses for The breakdown of glucose to carbon
fuel. Each cell uses oxygen to ‘burn’ glucose dioxide and water occurs in two major steps.
and convert the energy into ATP (adenosine 1 Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and
triphosphate). ATP is much easier for our produces 2 ATP molecules and pyruvate.
bodies to use for energy. Fats and proteins 2 Aerobic respiration occurs in the
can also be converted into ATP in cellular mitochondria in aerobic conditions (when
respiration. oxygen is present). It produces 34 ATP
Oxygen is used during cellular respiration, molecules.
and carbon dioxide and water are waste When we exercise, our muscle cells can
products. Because oxygen is needed for this run out of oxygen for aerobic respiration. The
aerobic respiration process, it is often called aerobic respiration. cells switch to producing energy anaerobically
the second step in the The process occurs in the mitochondria of (without oxygen) and lactic acid is produced
breakdown of glucose to all plant and animal cells. as a waste product. This does not produce as
carbon dioxide and water;
occurs in the mitochondria
much ATP energy as aerobic respiration, which
when oxygen is present is why our muscles feel weaker. In yeast cells,
and produces 34 ATP anaerobic respiration (known as fermentation)
molecules produces alcohol and carbon dioxide.
mitochondrion
an organelle of a cell, where
energy is produced (plural:
mitochondria)
glycolysis
the first part of cell Figure 3 An ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecule.
respiration in which ATP is the energy currency of organisms.
glucose is broken down to
produce energy
Figure 5 When we exercise, cells produce energy

Figure 4 The fermentation of yeast produces without oxygen, which is why our muscles feel
carbon dioxide, which makes bread rise. weaker.

Photosynthesis and respiration moves the energy out of glucose and into ATP,
which can then be used by cells. Many of the
Photosynthesis and respiration are effectively molecules in the two reactions are the same,
the opposite of each other. Photosynthesis traps but they are part of different pathways. Glucose
light energy from the Sun, converting it into is a product of photosynthesis, whereas it is a
the chemical energy of glucose. Respiration reactant in respiration.
Light energy
ECOSYSTEM
Photosynthesis
in chloroplasts
CO2 + H2O Organic
+ O2
molecules
Cellular respiration
in mitochondria
ATP is the energy

source for most
cellular activities
Movement and heat energy

Figure 6 Unlike matter, which is recycled in an
ecosystem, energy flows in one direction only, entering
as sunlight and leaving as movement and heat.

1 Explain why plants undergo aerobic 5 Compare (the similarities and
respiration. differences between) cellular respiration
2 Explain why cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
is constantly occurring in cells (by 6 If a plant converts 50 joules of energy in
identifying the key product of the photosynthesis, calculate the amount
reaction and what the organism uses this of energy a herbivore will obtain when it
molecule for). eats the plant.
3 Identify the two main steps of
respiration.
4 Identify the location of cellular
respiration in cells.

2.7 Matter is recycled in
ecosystems
In this
topic, you • Matter cannot be created or destroyed, which means it must be recycled.
will learn • The carbon cycle describes how carbon atoms cycle through an ecosystem.
that:
Cycles of matter Scientists will often follow particular molecules

or atoms as they cycle through the environment, to
Matter (made up of atoms) cannot be created establish the health of the ecosystem.
or destroyed. This means matter must be
recycled. The cycling of matter from the
atmosphere or the Earth’s crust and back
Water cycle
again is called a biogeochemical cycle (bio The global water cycle is driven by heat from
means ‘living’; geo means ‘earth’). Plants the Sun. Three major processes driven by
absorb simple molecules such as carbon solar heat are precipitation (rain, snow, sleet),
dioxide, water and minerals, and convert them evaporation and transpiration from plants.
into sugars by photosynthesis. Animals eating These processes continuously move water
the plants use the sugars and other molecules. between land, oceans and the atmosphere. On
When plants and animals die, the molecules land, the amount of precipitation is greater than
in the matter are rearranged by decomposers the amount of evaporation/transpiration, and the
Figure 1 Logging of
to obtain energy. Decomposers are essential excess water feeds lakes, rivers and groundwater,
rainforests can affect
precipitation. to the cycles of matter – they break down the all of which flow back into the sea.
molecules in dead organisms and convert Humans can alter the water cycle. For
matter them into simple molecules that can be reused example, cutting down rainforests changes
anything that has space by plants. the amount of water vapour in the air (due to
and volume; matter is made transpiration), which alters precipitation.
up of atoms
precipitation Water stored in
the process in which the atmosphere
water vapour in the upper Condensation
atmosphere becomes liquid
Precipitation
water in the form of rain,
snow or sleet and falls to
Sublimation
Water stored
the ground in ice and snow
evaporation
a change in state from Snow melt
liquid to gas; also a runoff to
technique used to separate Evaporation streams
Interception
dissolved solids from water Transpiration loss
transpiration
the process of water Water stored Surface Fresh water stored in
evaporating from plant
in the oceans run-off rivers, lakes, streams
and ponds
leaves; causes water to
move up through the plant
from the roots Infiltration
Groundwater
discharge
Groundwater stored
beneath the Earth’s surface
Figure 2 The water cycle

CO2 released Figure 3 The carbon cycle
into atmosphere
by respiration and
From decomposition
volcanoes
Respiration,
Burning burning, Oxygen
Carbon dioxide decay given off
dissolved in
rainwater Photosynthesis
Released in daylight
from soil
Respiration
Ocean absorbs CO2

as carbonic acid Carbon
Igneous rocks eroded compounds
to sedimentary in plants
rock
Marine animals Hard water New fossil beds
Coal Limestone Limestone

Carbon compounds
in animals Petroleum
Water is not available equally in all such as forests and woodlands in tropical
ecosystems. Water that has evaporated from and subtropical areas, as well as savannah Figure 4 A termite mound
an ocean may later fall as rain on a forest grasslands, termites have a major role in the in the savannah of northern
thousands of kilometres away. Australia is an decomposition and recycling of carbon. Australia
example of this situation: some areas may be Termites are social insects and live in nests.
in drought and others may have floods, and You may have seen termite mounds in drier enhanced greenhouse
organisms in ecosystems in both areas may be effect
parts of Australia (Figure 4). Micro-organisms
an increase in carbon
affected by disruption of the water cycle. in the guts of termites break down the cellulose
dioxide and other heat-
of plant material such as grasses, plants and
Carbon cycle wood. Scientists have estimated that termites
capturing gases in the
atmosphere, resulting
Carbon atoms are found as carbon dioxide recycle up to 20 per cent of the carbon in in increased warming of
in the air and in compounds such as sugars, ecosystems such as savannah grasslands. the Earth
proteins and lipids (such as fats) in the bodies
of living organisms. Globally, the return of 2.7 Check your learning
carbon dioxide to the air by respiration is
balanced by its removal in photosynthesis. Remember and understand Apply and analyse
Other ways of returning carbon dioxide to the 1 Define the chemical term 6 ‘You are eating the same atoms
air include the burning of fossil fuels, bushfires ‘matter’. that were in dinosaur poo!’
and the decomposition of dead matter. The Evaluate the accuracy of
2 Describe how matter
natural balance of this cycle is disturbed by this statement (by describing
moves through an
excess burning, which contributes to the how matter moves through
ecosystem.
enhanced greenhouse effect (see Topic 2.9). an ecosystem, describing how
3 Explain what is meant by
Termites recycle carbon the term ‘carbon cycle’. the atoms in dinosaur poo will
change over time and deciding
4 Describe three ways carbon
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose, a complex whether the statement is
dioxide can be released into
molecule that is insoluble in water and does correct).
the environment.
not break down easily. Fungi are able to break 7 Contrast (the differences
5 Describe two ways carbon
down cellulose and play a major role in the between) the flow of energy
dioxide can be removed from
decomposition of wood, but they require a in an ecosystem and the flow
the atmosphere.
moist environment, such as can be found of matter in an ecosystem.
in a rainforest. In drier areas of Australia,

2.8 Natural events can disrupt
an ecosystem
In this
topic, you • The size of a population will increase and decrease as a result of many natural events.
will learn • The limitation of resources, presence of predators, migration and emigration will
that: all affect population numbers.
• Natural disasters such as drought, floods and bushfires will cause changes
throughout the ecosystem.
• Some plants and animals have adapted to cope with bushfire.
Limiting resources Natural disasters

As the size of a population reaches its maximum Australia has a widely fluctuating environment.
carrying capacity carrying capacity (ability of the environment Years of drought have been mixed with
the maximum number of to support it), some of its resources, such as torrential rains and flooding. When extreme
organisms in a population food, space and shelter, will become limited. natural change affects humans, we call these
that can be sustained by This means some organisms will not have access changes natural disasters.
an ecosystem
to these resources and will either die or emigrate
(leave). When this occurs, the population will Impacts of floods and droughts
stabilise (reach its maximum size). Once the
Floods are an overflow of water onto dry land,
population decreases, there will be enough
which has an immediate effect on the growth
resources for those remaining. The population
of plants and the germination of seeds. This is
will remain in balance, or equilibrium.
particularly noticeable after a drought, during
which plants have managed to survive and seeds
Seasonal changes have remained dormant. Marine ecosystems do
When the weather becomes colder, many not benefit from floods on land. Run-off brings
animals migrate to warmer areas. As a result, sediment, pesticides and fertilisers into the
their populations decrease in one environment marine ecosystem, causing some algal species to
and increase in another. During the breeding dominate the environment.
season, usually spring, the numbers of animals Floods can be a hazard for some animal life.
increases. Flowering plants are pollinated Small mammals often escape to higher ground.
and form seeds that spread throughout the Snakes are flushed out of their cover, as
environment, and later germinate. As the witnessed in the 2011 Queensland floods, and
population increases, so does competition can be a potential danger to humans. Aquatic
for resources. Some of these resources animals benefit enormously from floods. Fish
can become limiting factors (factors that can breed in water bodies such as lakes. Water
can affect the survival of an organism). birds then have an abundance of fish, insects
As a result of this competition, some and waterweeds as sources of food, and they
members of the population survive and can breed in great numbers, temporarily
others die, allowing the population to changing the balance in populations.
maintain its balance. Droughts pose an even greater challenge
than floods. During a drought, animals
Figure 1 Short-tailed shearwaters leave their migrate elsewhere and manage to survive until
burrows on Montague Island on the southern coast conditions have improved. Some populations
of New South Wales and fly to feeding grounds in the
‘hang on’ during drought, but other ecosystems
area of the Bering Sea (between Russia and Alaska) during
the northern hemisphere summer. They return to breed in
are severely affected. For example, extremely
late September. dry topsoil was blown from central Australia

2.8: Natural disasters in
Australia
Figure 5 Lack of foliage means

a lack of food and shelter for
animals.
Figure 2 Flooding in Figure 3 Drought poses a great Figure 4 The bushfires across
Queensland in 2011 threat to life. Australia in 2020 devastated epicormic bud
entire communities and put a small growth beneath the
wildlife at risk. bark of a plant that allows
regeneration after a fire
to Melbourne and Sydney in recent years. This Most Eucalyptus species have epicormic lignotuber
erosion removed essential nutrients for many buds and lignotubers. While some plants are a small growth in the
plants, animals and agricultural ecosystems. well adapted, other species of plants do not root of a plant that allows
survive. This can result in the permanent loss regeneration after a fire
Impacts of bushfires on (extinction) of the species.
ecosystems Like plants, some animal populations in fire- Figure 6 Native Australian
trees have thick bark to
prone areas are tolerant of fire. These species
Bushfires destroy both plant and animal life. protect them from fire.
can sense fire and escape to other areas or into
Many native Australian plants are adapted underground burrows. The most vulnerable
for fire resistance and tolerance, and may are small invertebrates and insects at the larval
actually rely on fires to complete their life stage. Even if they survive the fire, many
cycles. For example, wattle seeds will only open animals will need to migrate away from the
when exposed to heat and moisture. These environment. The change in the vegetation and
adaptations include: the soil conditions alters their food supply and
> thick bark that insulates and protects the sheltering options. The loss of shelter increases
growing and transporting tissue inside the the risk of predation in some cases. Animals may
trunk (stem; see Figure 6) not return to the area for a long time.
> epicormic buds beneath the bark that can
regenerate the branches when the fire has
Figure 7 Epicormic buds beneath bark
passed (Figure 7)
can regenerate branches after fire.
> lignotubers within the roots that can grow
into new shoots after fire (Figure 8).

1 Define the term ‘carrying capacity’. 5 Identify one long-term effect on plants
2 Identify two animals (not birds) that of a:
migrate due to changing seasons. a drought
3 Describe one way an animal might b bushfire
survive a bushfire. c flood.
4 Describe two ways a plant may have 6 In relation to resources in an ecosystem,
adapted to surviving a bushfire. describe what the term ‘limiting’ Figure 8 Lignotubers
means. Contrast (the differences within roots grow into
between) ‘limiting’ and ‘limited’. new shoots after fire.

2.9 Human activity can disrupt
an ecosystem
In this
topic, you • Humans compete with other organisms for resources.
will learn • Water is an essential resource for all organisms.
that:
• Human-generated pollution can affect the survival of other organisms.
Video 2.9 • Humans are responsible for the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Ask a scientist – Dr
Dewi Kirono (climate
scientist) Humans can have a significant short-term or
long-term impact on the well-being and survival
Pollution
of other species. We compete with plants and Human activity has introduced many unwanted
animals for resources. We change the ecosystem chemicals into ecosystems. Some chemicals can
by removing vegetation, increasing erosion of cause sickness and/or death of certain species
topsoil and causing global warming. and, in some cases, can result in the collapse
of entire food webs. Many industries now have
Competition for resources much more restrictive rules about the chemicals
that can be released into the environment.
In 2021 the world’s human population was
approximately 7.8 billion and it is predicted to
rise to about 9.9 billion by 2050. This will cause
an increased demand for food, which means
more pressure on the natural resources of the
land and sea. These resources may be needed by
Figure 1 Numbers of other species. For example, when water is used to
Murray cod, and other irrigate farms that produce food in the Murray
native fish, have decreased River Basin, this means there is less water for the
significantly due to Figure 3 Phosphates in detergents and fertilisers
ecosystems downstream. As a result, the river red used on agricultural land wash into oceans,
irrigation. Some fish have
now been declared rare or gum forests that surround the Murray are placed lakes, river and other water bodies. This leads to
endangered. under extreme stress during droughts. eutrophication – an increase in organisms that
The lack of water flow has also resulted in the reduce oxygen levels in the water, harming other
organisms.
build-up of dirt and silt along the banks of the
Enhanced greenhouse effect

waterways, preventing further flow of fresh
water that is needed by plants and animals
downstream. The Earth is surrounded by a thick layer of
Humans are also responsible for gases called the atmosphere. When the Sun
the permanent removal of trees and shines on the Earth, the ground heats up, which
plants from bushland. Before European in turn heats the gases in the atmosphere. This
settlement, fallen trees were used as food heat keeps the Earth warm, just like a glass
or shelter by local animals. Removal greenhouse keeps plants warm even in the
of these trees makes these animals depths of winter. Some gas molecules (carbon
vulnerable to predators and the extremes dioxide, water and methane) are especially
of weather. It also removes important effective at trapping the heat in this process,
matter from the ecosystem, limiting the which is called the greenhouse effect.
recycling of matter, which is important to the Increasing numbers of humans, increasing
health of the environment. wealth and more sophisticated technology
have resulted in large quantities of fossil fuels
Figure 2 Since James Cook sailed into Botany Bay near Sydney in 1770,
this ecosystem has become urban because of the many infrastructure
being used for transport, industry, agriculture
changes that have taken place. and electricity. When fossil fuels are burnt,
they produce large amounts of carbon dioxide,

2.9: Field trip
increasing the amount of heat that is trapped Table 1 Some of the main effects of climate change
in the atmosphere. This enhanced greenhouse on ecosystems
effect is causing global temperatures to increase. Change Effect
Changes in distribution Extinction of some
Ecological effects of and abundance of organisms if they cannot
species – migration of adapt to new climatic
climate change species north or south, conditions
to higher levels or more
Although many humans welcome the thought
suitable locations,
of warmer weather, small increases in average due to increasing
temperatures can have devastating effects on temperatures hibernation
climate systems (the average temperature, a state of inactivity of an
Changes in the Increased weeds and organism, usually as a
wind, sunshine, humidity and rain that occurs number of different other invasive species
result of low environmental
in an area – see Table 1). In mountainous types of organisms in (i.e. pests)
temperature
areas, plants and animals that need cooler ecosystems (e.g. due to
moist environments to survive are losing their species competition for
resources or invasion of
habitats as the snowline retreats higher up the
weeds/pests)
slopes. One such animal is the mountain pygmy
Changes in metabolic Changes in life-cycle
possum (Figure 4), which needs a snow depth
processes (e.g. events (e.g. breeding,
of at least 1 m to provide enough insulation for cellular respiration, migration)
hibernation. Less snow means the cycle of photosynthesis, growth
hibernation and breeding is disrupted. This will and tissue composition)
make it difficult for the possum to breed, and Ocean acidification due Increased coral
could result in it becoming extinct. to carbon dioxide being bleaching and
converted to carbonic destruction of
acid in the ocean and/or changes
to coral reefs
Changes in river flows, A lack of water,
sediment formation and causing extinction and
nutrient cycles increased toxic algal
blooms due to floods
Drying of ecosystems Decrease in coastal
mountain rainforests Figure 5 Increased
carbon dioxide levels in
the atmosphere cause the
ocean to become acidic.
As a result, the polyps
Figure 4 The mountain pygmy possum is listed as in the coral die, causing
an endangered species. bleaching.

Remember and understand 5 The green sea turtle lays its eggs they can eat human food scraps
1 Describe two ways humans in the warm sands of northern and any bird seeds left out by
compete with plants and animals Australia. If the sand is at 29ºC, humans. They also hunt smaller
for resources. half the turtles will develop into birds and drive them out of an
males and the other half will be area. Evaluate the impact of
2 Describe the greenhouse effect.
females. Below 27ºC, most of the humans on the bird population
Apply and analyse turtles will be male. Above 31ºC, in cities (by describing how
3 Contrast (the differences most of the turtles will be female. the currawongs are affected
between) the greenhouse effect Describe the effect that global by human populations, and
and the enhanced greenhouse warming will have on the green how other birds are affected by
effect. sea turtle population. human populations, and deciding
whether the overall human
4 Describe two ways your local Evaluate and create
ecosystem will be affected by the impact on all birds is positive or
6 Currawongs are native birds that negative).
enhanced greenhouse effect.
thrive in towns and cities because

//SCIENCE AS
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR//
2.10 Human management

of ecosystems
continues to change
Different communities have different views on how to consider land management to be based on
shared ownership and custodianship with a deep
manage their local ecosystems. The ability to see an respect for the land. As Indigenous Person of the
ecosystem from another’s perspective can be useful. Year 1999, Bob Randall said, ‘We do not own
the land. The land owns us’.
Historical use of Cool burning,
ecosystems firestick and
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
have over 60 000 years of connection and cultural burning
understanding of their diverse landscapes. There is increasing recognition and interest
They believe they have been on this in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
continent from the Dreaming (day one) peoples’ use of ‘cool burning’ to control fuel
and time immemorial. The ‘out of Africa’ loads and suppress out-of-control bushfires
model is always changing, especially with while reducing the emission of greenhouse
new archaeological discoveries and genetics gases. This is important, with Australia
updating their arrival to Australia and their predicted to become hotter and drier under
movement through South-East Asia, before climate change and the increase of catastrophic
arriving in northern Australia. bushfires, as this knowledge can play a part in
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander managing the landscape. The advancement of
peoples used (and still use) fire as a tool to shape knowledge and teachings by Aboriginal and
the landscape while altering plant life cycles and Torres Strait Islander fire practitioners has
animal adaptations to manage resources. They the idea that the right fire can only have effect
are farmers who respect the land because it through reading country. The Aboriginal and
provides them with the resources for life – food, Torres Strait Islander ancestors never burnt
water, shelter and medicine. every ecosystem, otherwise this would decrease
As the original inhabitants of the land, ecosystem biodiversity and resources while
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples releasing carbon into the atmosphere.
were aware of the seasonal nature and life cycles Early in spring and sometimes at night, with
of plants and animals in the ecosystems around low wind, the grasses are not as dry. Any fires
them. They were prepared to move to areas burn slowly and are put out by the heavy night-
where plant and animal foods were available at time dew. This means small fires can be lit to
a particular time or season, or when resources reduce the grasses that form the undergrowth
were drying up. Instead of considering the land under treetops or canopies. If small patches of
to be owned by a person or group of people, to undergrowth are burnt, the nutrient matter is
be cleared and used according to their needs, recycled back into the soil without destroying
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples all the food available.
This cool burning process has been used by
for thousands of years, and many plants,
such as the grass tree (Xanthorrhoea sp.), have
Figure 1 Cool burning promotes new evolved to flower only when the base of the tree
plant growth. has been burnt by fire.

11 000 $14
Volume of water applied to a
Volume of water applied to irrigated
Gross value of irrigated agricultural

irrigated agriculture (left axis)
10 000 $13
production (billion)
agriculture (GL)
9000 $12
8000 $11
7000 $10
Gross value of irrigated
agricultural production
6000 $9
(right axis)
5000 $8
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Figure 2 Modern farming involves using water more wisely.
b
If cool burning is repeated each year, the spread over larger areas. Some scientists predict
slow limited burning reduces the release of that droughts may also become increasingly
greenhouse gases (especially methane and frequent in all areas of Australia. This will
nitrous oxide) and the carbon remains trapped have an impact on the types of crops that
in the unburnt large trees and bushes. can grow in many areas.
In 2010, Australia’s chief scientist
Modern needs made some recommendations to enable
As the population of Australia has increased, us to maintain the food production
so too has the need for food. This need must be needed to feed Australia and the rest of
balanced with maintaining the biodiversity of the world while minimising the effect on the
the unique Australian ecosystem. ecosystem.
In Australia, we currently have plenty > Coordinate programs that maintain current
of food, thanks to a strong agricultural food production levels.
community. Irrigation of large areas ensures > Research methods and crops that would be Figure 3 Scientists are
that the crops are able to survive. As shown in able to cope with drought conditions. developing ways to use
Figure 2, Australian farmers have become more > Develop methods that allow more efficient water more efficiently.
effective in their use of water, protecting this a Traditional irrigation
use of water and nutrients in agricultural
b Modern micro-
important resource for future generations. areas. irrigation system
In 2018, tropical Cyclone Debbie hit the > Encourage more scientists and engineers to
coast of Queensland, causing major property work in agriculture.
damage, power outages and millions of dollars This means that agriculture is looking
of damage to Australia’s sugar-cane industry. to science and technology to help maintain
Global warming is expected to cause storms of a balance between food production and
this magnitude to become more frequent and biodiversity of the environment.

Evaluating farming practices 2 ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples manipulate
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples use the the environment to their advantage without changing it
seasons for specific purposes. These observations include significantly.’
when flowers are blooming, which pollinating insects are Evaluate this statement by:
active and when animals are mating. They match these to • describing how the Aboriginal and Torres Strait
the positions of the stars and constellations so that they can Islander peoples manipulate the local environment
predict the events of the following year. • describing the long-term effect of these
1 Identify the name of the local Aboriginal and Torres manipulations on the local environment
Strait Islander peoples in your area. Research the diverse • deciding whether these long-term effects are
farming practices used by these peoples, including burning, significant.
tilling, planting, irrigating, cropping, storing and trading.

REVIEW 2
Multiple choice questions 13 Describe two adaptations that enable Australian plants to
survive fire.
1 A relationship between two organisms that benefits both
is called: 14 The floods in north-western Victoria in 2011 caused
A mutualism enormous destruction and some deaths. Explain two ways
B parasitism these floods affected the local ecosystems.
C abiotic
Apply and analyse
D communalism.
15 Analyse the marine Antarctic food web in Figure 1.
2 Dr Jaxa wants to investigate the number of plants in an
a Describe the relationship between:
ecosystem. What would be the best method of doing this?
i orca whales and fur seals
A Dr Jaxa could count each individual plant type in
the whole ecosystem. ii Emperor penguins and fur seals.
B Dr Jaxa could set up a capture–recapture. b If overfishing rapidly decreases deep-sea fish numbers,
identify the pressures this could place on the:
C Dr Jaxa could use a quadrat.
i fur seal population
D It is not possible.
ii humpback whale population.
3 The water cycle involves the processes of:
A decomposition and
precipitation
B precipitation, evaporation Orca whale
Fur
and transpiration Humpback seal
Emperor
C aerobic respiration whale penguin
and transpiration
D evaporation and Deep-sea fish
Squid
photosynthesis.
Krill
Short answer questions Phytoplankton
Remember and understand Figure 1 A marine Antarctic food web
4 Identify two ways to define ‘ecosystem’. 16 Seed banks are an important way of preserving plant
species that are at risk of decreasing populations or
5 Compare (the similarities and differences between)
extinction. It involves storing collections of seeds from
mutualism, parasitism and commensalism.
all areas of the world. Explain how a seed bank could
6 Describe the process of photosynthesis. contribute to sustainable ecosystems and to biodiversity.
7 Identify the products of photosynthesis that are essential 17 Limpets graze on algae on a rock platform. The large
for cellular respiration. limpet, Lottia, is found in a territory containing micro-
algae; the smaller species, Acmea, is found on the edge of
8 Explain, using examples, how competition can occur
this territory (Figure 2).
between members of the same species and members of
different species. a Identify one possible hypothesis (reason) for this
situation.
9 If only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred along
b Describe an experiment you might set up to test
a food chain (like the one in Figure 1 on page 32),
whether your hypothesis is correct.
describe what happens to the rest of the energy.
10 Cellular respiration in your cells provides the energy
for all your metabolic processes. Identify four cellular Lottia Rock platform
processes that require energy from respiration. Acmea
11 Describe one example of how humans, especially since

European settlement, have changed ecosystems because Ocean
of an introduced species in Australia.
12 Describe the abiotic conditions in Australian ecosystems
that limit populations of living organisms. Figure 2 Lottia and Acmea on a rock platform

18 Observe your school ground or your home garden Critical and creative thinking
for one week. Keep a journal, listing any examples of
23 Draw a concept map showing how photosynthesis and
interrelationships between organisms. Describe the
respiration are connected. Include the following terms
biodiversity of your environment. (plus any others you think are appropriate): glucose,
energy, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ATP, water.
Evaluate
24 Imagine it is your job to find out whether soil is
19 Create a food web using the organisms that you identified ‘consumed’ as plants grow. Design an investigation to
in Question 18. test this idea. Describe how you will determine whether
a Identify one population that affects multiple other the plant(s) have actually ‘consumed’ the soil. Identify
species. the evidence that you will need to collect. Identify three
variables that you will need to control and describe how
b Describe one abiotic factor that could cause this
you will control these variables.
population to decrease.
c Describe what would happen to the other species if 25 Scientific understanding of the relationship between
the initial population was decreased. plants and animals in an ecosystem is an important area of
scientific research. Ecologists are scientists who specialise
20 The Australian population was fairly stable until European in this area of research. Find out what an ecologist does.
colonisation in 1788. In the past century, it has increased Write a paragraph that describes the highlights of
almost fivefold. Evaluate the effect of population increase working as an ecologist and some of the disadvantages.
on your local ecosystem (by describing the diversity of
plants and animals in the local ecosystem before European Research
settlement, describing the diversity in the local ecosystem
now, and deciding whether this change is positive or 26 Choose one of the following topics for a research project.
Some questions have been included to help you begin
negative for the biodiversity of organisms).
your research. Present your report in a format of your
21 Identify the conditions that cause an animal or plant own choosing.
species to be classified as endangered. Describe two
examples of endangered species in Australia. Evaluate
whether measures to protect them are adequate (by
» Biological control
describing the measures being taken to protect the Australian native plants and animals have adapted
species, describing the effect these measures are having to life on an isolated continent over millions of years.
Since European settlement, native animals have had to
on the environment, and deciding whether the measures
compete with a range of introduced animals for food,
are adequate).
habitat and shelter. Rapid changes in land usage, such
as increased crop-growing areas, have also affected
Social and ethical thinking our soils and waterways. Research the meaning of the
22 a Compare the following research characteristics of the term ‘biological control’. Find some more Australian
Mary River turtle and the northern quoll: examples of successful and not-so-successful examples
of biological control.
i the amount of information on the Wikipedia page
of each animal
ii the number of resources listed at the end of the
Wikipedia pages » Frozen Ark Project
iii the attractiveness or cuteness of each animal. In the Bible story of the floods, Noah protected and
conserved animals by building an ark. The Frozen Ark
b Identify which animal you would be most likely to
Project is a modern-day project named after this story.
donate money towards, to protect its environment.
What is the Frozen Ark Project? What are its goals?
Justify your decision (by describing which factors you How is it working towards achieving these goals?
considered when you made your decision).
» Carbon capture and storage

One measure that has been proposed to decrease
the amount of carbon dioxide being added to the
atmosphere is to capture and store carbon dioxide.
What does carbon capture and storage mean? How will
it work? Explain some of the options being considered
for storing carbon dioxide.
Figure 3 Mary River turtle Figure 4 Northern quoll

Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 2 ‘Ecosystems’. Once you’ve
I can do this I cannot do this yet.
Define biosphere, ecosystem, biotic, abiotic, habitat, population Go back to Topic 2.1 ʻAll living things
and community. are dependent on each other and the
Describe an ecosystem as the interaction between the abiotic environment around them’
conditions and the biotic community. Page 18
Define collaboration, mating, competition, symbiosis, mutualism, Go back to Topic 2.2 ʻRelationships
commensalism and parasitism. between organisms may be beneficial
Explain the relationship between predator and prey numbers or detrimental’
over time. Page 20
Identify the main factors that increase and decrease population size. Go back to Topic 2.3 ʻPopulation size
Identify suitable species to use quadrat and capture–recapture depends on abiotic and biotic factors’
sampling methods with. Page 24
Define biological control, disease and immune. Go back to Topic 2.4 ʻIntroducing a
Describe the effects rabbits have on Australian ecosystems. new species may disrupt the balance
in an ecosystem’
Page 26
Explain the processes involved in photosynthesis. Go back to Topic 2.5 ʻEnergy enters the
Relate the structure of the chloroplast to its function. ecosystem through photosynthesis’
Page 30
Explain that energy is passed through ecosystems through food Go back to Topic 2.6 ʻEnergy flows
chains in the form of glucose. through an ecosystem’
Relate photosynthesis and respiration in terms of reactants and Page 32
products, but recognise that they are not reversible versions of
each other.
Explain the main processes involved in the water and carbon cycles. Go back to Topic 2.7 ʻMatter is
Relate the water and carbon cycle to the cycling of matter through recycled in ecosystems’
ecosystems. Page 36
Describe some of the adaptations some Australian plants have Go back to Topic 2.8 ʻNatural events
to fire. can disrupt an ecosystem’
Provide examples of natural events that can disrupt an ecosystem. Page 38
Describe the enhanced greenhouse effect and its causes. Go back to Topic 2.9 ʻHuman activity
Provide examples of human activity that disrupts ecosystems. can disrupt an ecosystem’
Page 40
Compare the historical uses of ecosystems with modern practices. Go back to Topic 2.10 ʻScience
as a human endeavour: Human
management of ecosystems continues
to change’
Page 42
Chapter quiz

3
How does your body CHAPTER
respond to change?
3.1 Receptors detect stimuli
3.2 Nerve cells are called neurons
The nervous system

3.3 controls reflexes
The central nervous

CONTROL
AND
3.4 system controls our body
REGULATION
Things can go wrong with
3.5 the nervous system
The endocrine system causes

3.6 long-lasting effects
What if?
Exploring your senses
Homeostasis regulates through negative
3.7
What you need:
feedback Blindfolds
What to do:
1 With a partner, explore how the
Science as a human endeavour:
3.8 Hormones are used in sport
senses of touch, hearing and smell
can be used to navigate around a
room without the use of sight.
2 Ensure all small or potentially
Science as a human hazardous obstacles are removed
3.9 endeavour: Pathogens from around the room. Decide

with your partner the path that the
cause disease blindfolded student is required to
take around the room.
3 Take turns being blindfolded and
The immune system protects navigating the room, with your
3.10 our body in an organised way
partner walking with you to ensure
your safe navigation and providing
assistance if needed.
What if?
Things can go wrong with the
3.11 immune system
» What if you wore earmuffs as well
as the blindfold?
» What if you blocked your nose?
» What if you were barefoot?
3.1 Receptors detect stimuli
In this
topic, you
will learn
• Your body has receptors that detect changes (stimuli) in the environment.
• The five main types of external receptors detect light, sound, chemicals in the air
that: and in your mouth, and touch.
Your body responds to changes in its

Video 3.1
How taste works environment. Receptors detect these changes
and pass the information to other parts of the
body. A stimulus is any information that your
Interactive 3.1
body receives that might cause it to respond.
The human ear
Responding to change
Within our bodies, we regularly respond
to changes without being aware of a
stimulus stimulus and response. What makes
any information that the you aware that you’re hungry or
body receives that causes thirsty? Something in your body is
it to respond
communicating with your brain to
receptor tell you to find food or water. A similar
a structure that detects process occurs when you feel tired or have a
a stimulus or change in headache. What is the source of these stimuli?
the normal functioning
Other examples of stimuli are less obvious.
of the body
We are surrounded by bacteria, viruses and
fungi. Although many of them are too small
to see, our bodies are constantly monitoring
their numbers and fighting off harmful
micro-organisms. Figure 2 We often respond to hot weather by
Your body is an amazing combination of drinking more.
cells, tissues, organs and systems, all working
together. Each plays a part in detecting stimuli
and passing on the information to other parts The sense organs
of the body. The structures that receive stimuli Our body can detect five main signals: light
are called receptors. (sight), sound (hearing), chemicals in the air
Figure 1 The human (smell) and in our mouth (taste), and touch.
papillomavirus (seen
These are external senses because they tell us
here under a microscope)
stimulates an immune about the world outside our body. The sense
response in the organs – the eyes, ears, tongue, nose and skin
human body. – are highly specialised to receive stimuli from
the environment.
Sight
Sight tells us more about the world than any
other sense. The pupils change size to control
how much light enters the eye. The different
types of photoreceptor cells at the back of the
eye transform the light into nerve signals for the
brain. It is not only your eyes that allow you to

3.1: Testing your senses
The lens focuses

incoming light. Photoreceptor
cells in the retina
change light into
nerve signals.
The cornea
bends
incoming
light.
Nerve impulses
travel through
the optic nerve
to the brain.
The iris controls

the amount of
Figure 3 A crocodile’s eye has an elliptical (oval-
light entering the
shaped) pupil, which helps to protect its sensitive
eye.
retina from the bright light of day.
Figure 4 Photoreceptors in the human eye transform light into nerve signals.
see, but also your brain! The information from
your eyes is transferred to your brain, which
then tells you what you are seeing.
Hearing
The strumming of a guitar causes the
particles in the air to vibrate. This in turn Figure 5 The large ears of
some bats help them use
causes your eardrum to vibrate. The vibrations
sound waves to locate
are transferred along the bones of the middle their prey.
ear – the smallest bones in your body – and
converted into nerve impulses. The brain then
interprets the information, telling you what you
are hearing.
Nerve impulses travel

through the auditory
nerve to the brain.
Sounds enter the ear
through the ear canal.
Eardrum
The cochlea contains fluid that moves due

Vibrations passing through to vibrations coming from the middle ear.
the middle ear are changed to This motion becomes an electrical signal
nerve impulses. that is passed to nerve cells.
Figure 6 The human ear transfers vibrations to the middle ear. These vibrations become nerve impulses.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 3 CONTROL AND REGUL ATION 49

Taste Smell
Your tongue is covered in thousands of tiny Like taste, our perception of smell depends
taste buds. You can see this in a mirror. on chemical receptors. The receptors in our
Taste buds contain special receptor cells that nostrils detect chemicals in the air and then
react to chemicals in foods. These chemical send messages to the brain, which interprets
receptors can recognise basic kinds of taste the messages and tells us what we are smelling.
molecules, such as sweet, salty, sour, bitter and Smell is closely linked to taste. If this seems
umami (savoury). When you eat or drink, the strange, think about the last time you had a
information from the taste receptor cells is sent bad cold and a blocked nose. Did it affect your
to your brain through nerves. It is the mix of ability to taste? A lot of what people think is
chemical molecules that your brain detects as taste is actually smell.
the flavours you are tasting.
Non-taster tongue Supertaster tongue

Figure 7 A dog uses its tongue
for many things, including
taste and temperature control.
Panting moves cool air over
the tongue and lungs, allowing
moisture to evaporate and
thus cooling the body.
Papillae
Figure 8 The tongue is covered in bumps, called papillae, which contain tastebuds that enable us to taste.
A supertaster has many more papillae than average, and a non-taster has fewer.
Mucus provided by
nasal sinuses helps to Smell receptors above nasal cavity
trap bacteria and stimulate olfactory bulb, which
small particles. sends messages to brain.
Air moves through

nasal cavity to back
of throat.
Air travels to
Figure 9 Elephants use Air enters nose trachea and
their trunks for a wide through nostrils. into lungs.
range of smelling tasks,
such as sensing danger. Figure 10 Smell receptors in human nostrils detect chemicals and send messages to the brain.

Touch
While the other four senses are in specific
locations, touch is felt all over the body,
through the skin. The inner layer of skin,
called the dermis, contains many nerve endings
that can detect heat, cold, pressure and pain.
Information is collected by the different
receptors and sent to the brain for processing Figure 11 The skin of a
and reaction. human fingertip has about
100 touch receptors.
Hair
Sweat pore
Epidermis
Papillae
Capillaries near Dermis

surface of skin
Subcutaneous
fat layer
Sweat gland
Hair root Blood vessels
Figure 12 A cross-section of human skin

Remember and understand 6 ‘A person has more than five senses.’
1 Define the term ‘stimulus’. Evaluate this statement by:
2 Stimuli can be changes in our immediate environment • describing the five senses that are being referred to
or changes within our bodies. Describe two examples • describing what happens to your balance when you
of each. spin around quickly (sense of balance)
3 Identify the five major sense organs. • describing how your body reacts when you are sick
(sensing bacteria)
Apply and analyse
• deciding whether the statement is correct.
4 Describe two situations in which each sense organ
would need to respond.
5 Compare (similarities and differences between) the
way you detect smell and the way you detect taste.

3.2 Nerve cells are called
neurons
In this
topic, you • Neurons are cells in our body that enable messages to be passed quickly.
will learn • A change is detected by the receptor and an electrical message is passed along the
that: neuron to the synaptic terminal.
• Chemical neurotransmitters pass the message across the gap to the next neuron.
• The myelin sheath protects parts of the neuron and increases the speed of
messages being sent.
Nerves Dendrites are nerve endings that branch

out of the cell body. These highly sensitive, thin
neuron The basic unit of the nervous system is the branches receive information from the synaptic
a nerve cell nerve cell, or neuron. Scientists believe that terminal of other neurons, allowing nerve
cell body we may have up to 100 billion neurons in our impulses to be transmitted.
the main part of a cell bodies, connected in paths called nerves.
that contains the nucleus/
Neurons have many highly specialised
genetic material
features. Each neuron has a large cell body that
axon
connects to a long thin axon (Figure 1). An
the part of a neuron (nerve
axon carries nerve impulses away from the cell
cell) that carries an electrical
message away from the cell body. The axons connecting your spinal cord to
body to the synapse your foot can be up to 1 m long. 1 Electrical
myelin sheath At the end of the axon are small bulbs, called impulse passes
a fatty layer that covers the synaptic terminals. Each synaptic terminal along neuron
axon of a nerve cell releases information into the synapse (Figure 2).
dendrite The next neuron receives these messages from
2 Neurotransmitters
the part of a neuron (nerve the synapse via its dendrites. stimulated
cell) that receives a message Nerves work just like electrical wires and
and sends it to the cell body require insulation in the same way. The axons
are covered by a fatty layer called the myelin
sheath. The myelin sheath helps to speed up
a nerve impulse along an axon by controlling
its path. People with multiple sclerosis have
damaged myelin sheaths. This means that the Neurotransmitters
nerve impulse is disrupted, blocked or unable cross the synapse
to move along the length of the axon. A person
with multiple sclerosis can therefore have
difficulties with movement.
Cell body (soma) Myelin sheath

Nucleus
Direction of
impulse
Axon
Dendrites Synaptic terminal Figure 2 Electrical messages are converted to

(axon terminal) chemical messages (neurotransmitters), which
Figure 1 A typical neuron cross the gap in the synapse.

3.2: Pipe cleaner neurons
Dendrites bring information Interneuron Axon terminal

to the cell body and axons take Axon
information away from the cell Neurilemma
body. Information from one Myelin sheath
neuron flows to another neuron
across a synapse. The synapse is
a small gap separating neurons.
When the message reaches the Cell body Schwann
end of the axon, chemicals called Dendrites cell nucleus Node of Ranvier
neurotransmitters are released
from the synaptic terminal and Sensory Neuron
Schwann
travel across the gap in the synapse
cell nucleus Cell body
to the dendrite of the next neuron.
In this way, electrical messages are
passed around the body. Neurilemma
There are three specialised Myelin sheath Sense
types of neuron, all with Axon organ
different jobs. Dendrites
> Sensory neurons (or afferent Node of Ranvier
neurons) are sensitive to
various stimuli, collecting Motor Neuron
information from either the Cell body
body’s internal environment Myelin sheath Node of Ranvier
or the outside world. Sensory Neurilemma
neurons send the information
they have collected to the
Effector
central nervous system
for processing. Axon
> Interneurons (or connector Schwann
cell nucleus
neurons) link sensory and Dendrites
Skeletal muscle
motor neurons, as well
as other interneurons. Figure 3 In these examples of an interneuron, a sensory neuron
Interneurons are the most and a motor neuron, you can see how they are structured
synapse
common neuron in your differently to send and receive different messages.
a small gap between
central nervous system two neurons that
(brain and spinal cord). > Motor neurons (or efferent neurons) carry messages must be crossed by
They only make connections from the central nervous system to muscle cells neurotransmitters
with other neurons. throughout the body, which then carry out the response. neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger

that crosses the synapse
between the axon of one
neuron and the dendrite of
Remember and understand 4 Describe the role of the myelin sheath. another neuron
1 With a partner, create a way to remember Apply and analyse sensory neuron
the difference between sensory neurons, 5 Use a diagram to explain the problem a nerve cell that carries a
motor neurons and interneurons. Be creative! that may result from damage to the myelin
message from a receptor to
Share your memory trick with the class. the central nervous system
sheath.
2 Describe the features of a neuron that enable interneuron
6 Compare (the similarities and differences
it to pass messages on to other neurons. a nerve cell that links sensory
between) sensory neurons and motor and motor neurons; also
3 Describe where you will find sensory neurons. known as a connector neuron
neurons that detect: 7 Contrast (the differences between) motor neuron
a smell b taste sensory neurons and interneurons. a nerve cell that carries a
c sound d touch message from the central
e light. nervous system to a
muscle cell

3.3 The nervous system
controls reflexes
In this
topic, you • Receptors in the nervous system detect a stimulus and pass it on to control centres.
will learn • The control centres initiate a message to the effectors, which causes a response.
that:
• Reflexes are special pathways that allow a response to occur before the brain has
time to think.
Video 3.3 Stimulus–response model Reflexes

Microscope skills
Stimuli can be in many different forms. A If you have ever accidentally touched something
stimulus may be pressure or heat on the very hot, you will remember how quickly you
skin, a puff of air or strong light in your snatched your hand away. In fact, it would have
eye. The stimulus is detected by receptors been so quick that you didn’t even have time to
and the message gets sent to the spinal cord think about it – it was automatic.
reflex and the brain via sensory neurons. The A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary
an involuntary movement spinal cord and brain are the control centre and nearly instantaneous movement in response
in response to a stimulus of the nervous system. Interneurons in this to a stimulus.
control centre pass the message on to other During a reflex action, the sensory neuron
interneurons as your brain thinks about carries the message from the receptor to the
how you should respond to the stimulus. spinal cord. The interneuron then sends two
Stimulus
Eventually, you make a decision and the messages at the same time: one to the brain and
motor neurons pass the message on to the the other to the muscles via the motor neuron.
muscles. In this case, the muscles are This means the muscle is moving at the same
called the effectors, as they are the cells time as the brain gets the message (e.g. that
Receptor that cause the body to respond. This simple the object is hot). This makes reflexes even
pathway is called the stimulus–response faster than usual responses. Most reflexes help
Via sensory model (Figure 1). us in survival situations. Can you think of the
neuron
advantages of these reflexes?
Control centre
Sensory neuron Interneuron
Motor
neuron
Effector
Sensory Spinal cord

Via motor
neuron receptors
Response
Figure 1 The stimulus–
response model
Figure 2 A reflex action ensures that your hand pulls away from the flame very quickly, even before you
feel the pain.

3.3B: How fast is the nervous
3.3A: Testing reflexes system?
CHALLENGE Go to page 177. CHALLENGE Go to page 178.
Figure 3 Grasp reflex. When an Figure 4 Sneezing reflex. When Figure 5 Startle reflex. When a
object is placed on a baby’s palm, their small particles land on receptors in the newborn baby is startled, they will fling
fingers curl over and grasp it. back of your nose, the muscles in your their arms out wide and grab anything
diaphragm force air out rapidly. they touch.
Figure 6 Plantar reflex. When a Figure 7 Patellar (knee-jerk) reflex.

blunt object (such as the blunt end of When a small section below the
a pencil) is moved along the underside kneecap (the tendon that connects the
of the foot, the toes usually curl muscle to the bone) is stimulated with a
downwards. quick, firm tap, the foot will kick out.

Figure 8 Quick reflexes!
Remember and understand 4 Explain the advantage of a baby having
1 Define the following terms. the startle reflex.
a stimulus 5 If a person has a damaged upper spinal
cord, they may not be able to feel their
b receptor
toes. Analyse whether this will affect
c effector
their knee-jerk reflex (by describing how
d response a person ‘feels’ their toes, describing
2 Describe the stimulus–response model the role of the spinal cord in a knee-jerk
of regulation. reflex and determining whether damage
Apply and analyse to the upper spinal cord will affect the
messaging in a knee-jerk reflex).
3 Explain why the brain is not involved in
a reflex action.

3.4 The central nervous system
controls our body
In this
topic, you > Humans are constantly receiving stimuli from their environment through the
will learn peripheral nervous system.
that: > Neurons use electrical messages that are passed along to neurons in the brain and
spinal cord that make up your central nervous system.
Video 3.4
The core of the
nervous system
Central nervous system
Cerebrum
central nervous system
Cerebellum The central nervous system is the control
the brain and spinal cord centre of the body. All incoming messages
Brain stem
from your environment and your responses
Spinal cord
to them are processed through your central
nervous system. The two main parts of the
central nervous system are the brain and the
spinal cord.
Thoracic nerves
Brain
The brain is the processing centre of the
body and is mainly concerned with your
Lumbar nerves survival. It is a soft, heavy organ
surrounded by a tough skull. The
Sacral nerves interneurons in the brain gather information
about what is going on inside and outside the
body. It then compares the information to
events that have occurred previously, before
making decisions about things such as internal
changes and movements. The brain is also
home to your memories, personality and
thought processes.
Lobes of the brain

The cerebrum, or outer section of the brain, is
divided into four lobes or sections. These lobes
have specific functions.
> The frontal lobe is at the front of the brain.
Its functions include emotions, reasoning,
movement and problem-solving.
> The parietal lobe manages the perception
of senses, including taste, pain, pressure,
temperature and touch.
> The temporal lobe is in the region near your
ears. It deals with the recognition of sounds
and smells.
> The occipital lobe is at the back of the brain.
Figure 1 The nervous system of the body is made up of the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system. It is responsible for the various aspects
of vision.

3.4: Sheep brain dissection
SKILLS LAB Go to page 179.
Figure 2 The The thalamus processes and

cerebrum (the carries messages for sensory
large pink area) information, such as information
Parietal lobe
is divided into sent from the ears, nose, eyes and
four lobes, each skin, to the cortex.
with a specific
function.
The cerebellum is
important in the
Cerebrum fine control of
Peripheral nervous system
Frontal lobe
movement, balance
and coordination.
The peripheral nervous system is a large
system made up of all the nerves outside the
central nervous system. The peripheral nervous
system carries information to and from the
central nervous system to the rest of the body,
such as the limbs and organs.
The peripheral nervous system is divided
into two parts. Occipital lobe
> The somatic nervous system controls
voluntary skeletal muscle movements,
such as waving or reaching out to take
an object.
> The autonomic nervous system controls The brain stem sits mostly inside the
involuntary actions, which happen without brain. At its base it becomes the spinal
our conscious control. This includes cord. The brain stem is made up of
heartbeat, digestion, respiration, salivation The medulla is the bottom three major parts – the medulla, the
part of the brain stem and pons and the midbrain. The pons
and perspiration. The autonomic nervous
controls automatic assists in some automatic functions,
system maintains your body’s internal such as breathing, and also controls
functions, such as
environment (homeostasis). sleep and arousal. The midbrain
respiration (breathing) and
The autonomic nervous system also has digestive system activities. contains areas that receive and
two parts: the sympathetic division and the process sensory information, such as
parasympathetic division. These two divisions movement and vision.
often have opposite effects. For example, the
Figure 3 Structure of the human brain. The fourth lobe of the cerebrum, the
parasympathetic division slows down the heart
temporal lobe (not shown here), is near the ears.
rate, whereas the sympathetic division speeds
up the heart rate. The systems work together to
maintain a balance in the body.
peripheral nervous
3.4 Check your learning system
all the neurons (nerve cells)
Remember and understand 4 Describe how the peripheral nervous that function outside the
1 Identify the two parts of the body that system and the central nervous system brain and spinal cord
make up the central nervous system. work together. Use an example to somatic nervous system
illustrate your answer. the part of the nervous system
2 Describe the role or function of the
5 Explain why, if you slipped and hit the that controls the muscles
peripheral nervous system. attached to the skeletal system
back of your head, everything might go
Apply and analyse black. autonomic nervous system
3 Draw a scientific diagram of the brain the part of the nervous
6 Contrast (the differences between)
system that controls
that shows the four lobes. In each of the the somatic nervous system and the
involuntary actions such
lobes: autonomic nervous system. as heartbeat, breathing
a write the functions that are carried out 7 Describe the possible effect on and digestion
in that lobe behaviour that would occur if a
b draw something to remind you of the person had damage to the frontal lobe
functions carried out in that lobe. of their brain.

3.5 Things can go wrong with
the nervous system
In this
topic, you • A slipped disc can press on the nerves in the spinal cord.
will learn • When the myelin sheath is damaged in multiple sclerosis, the movement of the
that: body can be affected.
• Motor neurone disease affects messages being passed to the muscles.
• Alzheimer’s disease is caused by progressive damage to neuron functioning.
The nervous system plays a very important role called a disc, which is filled with a thick fluid,
in coordinating and regulating your body. Things or gel, and allows the vertebrae to move. If a
that can go wrong with the nervous system include disc becomes weak and puts pressure on the
the spinal cord being damaged (paraplegia), nerves entering or leaving the spinal cord, this
things pressing on the nerves in the spinal cord will cause pain or numbness along the nerve.
(slipped disc), the myelin sheath in neurons being Treatment usually involves pain relief, along
damaged (multiple sclerosis), the motor neurons with exercises that strengthen the muscles in
failing (motor neurone disease) and damage to the the back. Occasionally, surgery is required to
neurons in the brain (Alzheimer’s disease). remove the damaged part of the disc.
Spinal damage Multiple sclerosis

Spinal injury is a major type of injury in The myelin sheath plays a very important role
Australia, especially in young men. These in ensuring the electrical message passes along
injuries commonly result from motor vehicle the axon of a neuron. If the myelin sheath is
accidents, everyday falls and sports. damaged, the electric signal can be lost, like a
When the spinal cord is damaged, the broken wire in an electric circuit. Your immune
messages from the neurons below the level of system usually fights and kills bacteria and viral
injury can no longer travel to the brain. This infections. In multiple sclerosis, the immune
Ruptured means the individual cannot receive messages system mistakenly recognises myelin sheath
discs from the sensors in this part of the body. It also cells as dangerous, and attacks and destroys
means the messages from the brain cannot reach them. This means messages to and from the
past the injury. How much of the body is able to senses (including the eyes, skin and bladder)
Spinal nerve move after a spinal injury depends on where the and the muscles become lost. Muscles can
injury is in the spinal cord. If it is high up, most become weak, and the sufferer can feel dizzy or
Ruptured disc
pressing on of the body is ‘cut off’ from the brain; if it is tired, or have difficulty seeing properly. Most
spinal nerve lower down, then the upper body and arms may commonly, the symptoms appear for a short
Lumbar be able to work as they normally would. time, before disappearing completely, and then
vertebrae People with severe damage to the upper returning later on. This is called a relapsing–
Normal part of the spinal cord have quadriplegia – they remitting cycle.
healthy are unable to use their arms or legs. If the
disc injury is very high, they may even have trouble Motor neurone disease
breathing on their own. People with severe
Figure 1 The vertebrae in your In motor neurone disease (also known as
damage below the arms have paraplegia – they
spine are separated from each amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS), the
other by fluid-filled discs. are still able to use their arms but not their legs.
neurons that send messages to the muscles
Rupturing of a disc can put
pressure on the spinal nerves. Slipped disc become weak and eventually lose function. As
the muscles grow weaker, they can cramp and
Top: X-ray of spine, showing
two ruptured discs. Bottom: Your backbone consists of 26 bones, or become stiff. This usually starts in the muscles
A ruptured disc presses on the vertebrae, that surround the nerves of your in the legs and arms, before progressing to the
spinal nerve, causing pain. spinal cord. Between each vertebra is a sac face and chest. This can affect the person’s

Dendrites ability to talk and, eventually, to breathe.
Neurons in the brain are also affected by this
Neuron
disease. Scientists do not know what causes the
Cell body motor neurons to lose function. Research in
this area is continuing.
Alzheimer’s disease
Nucleus
Myelin sheath Alzheimer’s disease is caused by progressive

damage to the neurons in the brain. This
Synapses gradually affects memory, and the ability Figure 3 AFL legend Neale
to reason or plan and carry out everyday Daniher was diagnosed with
Nucleus
activities. Problems with short-term memory motor neurone disease (MND)
Axon
mean that the sufferer cannot remember in 2013. Daniher’s diagnosis
what happened a few hours ago, or what they has increased awareness and
Myelin fundraising for MND.
are meant to be doing that day. The disease
also has wider impacts. Sufferers can forget
Normal nerve
where they are and how to get home. This
makes life very confusing for them and they
Damaged myelin can become upset very easily. Symptoms
can vary from day to day, depending on
tiredness or stress. The cause of Alzheimer’s
disease is not known. Research suggests
that plaques develop around neurons in the
Damaged nerve brain, making it hard for them to transmit
messages. Chemical changes in the neurons
Figure 2 The myelin sheath surrounds the axon and
helps electrical messages to move along the nerve. may be caused by genetic, environmental and
In multiple sclerosis, damage to the myelin sheath health factors.
prevents the nerves from passing on messages.
a Cerebral b Extreme shrinkage

cortex of cerebral cortex Severely
enlarged
ventricles
Extreme shrinkage Figure 4 Damage to the neurons

Hippocampus Entorhinal of hippocampus in Alzheimer’s disease can cause
cortex the brain to shrink. a Normal brain
Cross-section of Cross-section of b Brain of a person with Alzheimer’s
normal brain Alzheimer’s brain disease

Remember and understand 5 Identify another name for motor neurone
1 Identify the name of the individual bones disease. Describe the role motor neurons
that make up the spine. usually play in a healthy nervous system.
2 Contrast quadriplegia and paraplegia. Apply and analyse
3 Describe the role of a disc in the spinal 6 Think about where you were and what
column. you were doing one hour ago. Describe
4 Explain why the destruction of the how you would be affected if you could
myelin sheath causes symptoms in not remember this.
multiple sclerosis.

3.6 The endocrine system
causes long-lasting effects
In this
topic, you • The endocrine system uses chemical messengers called hormones to maintain
will learn control and to regulate growth.
that: • Hormones travel through the bloodstream to receptors or target cells.
• The effects of hormones often last longer than the effects of the nervous system.
Video 3.6
The endocrine system is a collection of
glands that secrete (release) hormones.
Fight, flight or freeze?
The endocrine
system The hormones are secreted directly into the If you are ever in a dangerous or frightening
bloodstream and then travel around the body situation, you may experience a ‘fight, flight or
endocrine system through the blood. Some cells in the body freeze’ response. You break out in a cold sweat,
a collection of glands that have receptors that match the hormone, like your heart beats wildly, everything around you
make and release hormones a lock to a key. These cells are called target seems to slow down and your senses bombard
hormone cells. It only takes one hormone ‘key’ to cause you with information.
a chemical messenger a change in the target cell ‘lock’. Most of these symptoms are triggered by
that travels through blood the release of the hormone adrenalin (also
The glands and organs of the endocrine
vessels to target cells called epinephrine). Adrenalin is constantly
system are spread throughout the body (see
target cell Table 1 and Figure 1). produced by the adrenal glands in small doses.
a cell that has a receptor that
matches a specific hormone
Table 1 Some organs and hormones of the endocrine system
Organ Hormone Target tissue Main effects
Hypothalamus Wide range of Pituitary gland Sends messages from nervous system to the
neurohormones pituitary gland to control functions such as
body temperature, hunger, thirst and sleep
patterns
Ovaries Progesterone Uterus Thickens wall of uterus to prepare for
pregnancy
Oestrogen Body cells Development of female sexual characteristics;
aspects of pregnancy and foetal development
Testes Testosterone Male reproductive Development and control of male sexual
system, body cells characteristics; production of sperm
Pancreas Insulin Liver, most cells Lowers blood glucose level
Glucagon Liver Raises blood glucose level
Pituitary gland Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid Changes the rate of thyroxine release from the
hormone thyroid
Antidiuretic Kidneys Reduces the amount of water reabsorbed
hormone from the kidneys
Pituitary growth Bones, muscles Stimulates muscle growth; controls the size of
hormone bones
Thyroid gland Thyroxine Body cells Affects rate of metabolism, and physical and
mental development
Parathyroid Parathyroid Blood Regulates the amount of calcium in the blood
glands hormone
Adrenal glands Adrenalin Body cells Increases body metabolism in ‘fight or flight’
response
Pineal gland Melatonin Skin cells Involved in daily biological rhythms

3.6: Glands and organs of the
endocrine system
The adrenal glands are located above the

kidneys. The usual function of this hormone Pineal gland
is to stimulate the heart rate and enlarge blood Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
vessels. However, when you are in danger,
adrenalin takes on another role. It floods your Thyroid gland
system, causing an increase in the strength
and rate of the heartbeat, raising your blood Thymus
pressure and speeding up the conversion of
glycogen into glucose, which provides energy
to the muscles. In this way, adrenalin prepares Adrenal gland Pancreas
your body for the extra effort required should Kidney
you need to defend yourself (fight), run away
(flight) or hide (freeze).
Panic attacks
Sometimes the ‘fight, flight or freeze’ response
can be triggered without any obvious reason.
This means adrenalin can flood the body,
causing the heart to pound, breathing to
become fast and shallow, and a flood of sensory
information to stimulate the brain. When this Ovaries Testes
occurs, lights appear brighter, sounds are louder
FEMALE MALE
and smells stronger. These sensory messages can
become jumbled as the brain struggles to make
sense of all the information. This combination
of endocrine and nervous system responses is
called a panic attack. These symptoms are not
life threatening and will eventually disappear.
Support from friends and family can help.
Figure 1 The human endocrine system
Figure 2 Adrenalin is responsible for the 'fight,

flight or freeze' response in mammals and can
help them to survive.

1 Identify the name of the system in your 5 Compare (the similarities and
body that is responsible for hormones. differences between) a hormonal response
2 Describe what is meant by the phrase and a nervous response. Describe one
‘fight, flight or freeze’ and how it relates advantage for each system.
to hormones. 6 Explain why telling someone to ‘calm
3 Describe the symptoms of a panic attack. down’ during a panic attack will not stop
4 Explain why the endocrine system is their symptoms. (HINT: Are they able to
referred to as a communications system. control their hormones?)

3.7 Homeostasis regulates
through negative feedback
In this
topic, you • The body needs to detect and correct changes in its levels of nutrients, water and
will learn temperature to stay healthy.
that: • The process of regulating the internal conditions of the body is called homeostasis.
• Negative feedback occurs when the body responds in a way that removes the
initial stimulus.
Scientists have not yet discovered another

planet that humans could inhabit. Humans can
Homeostasis
only survive in very specific environments. Our To maintain homeostasis, your body uses a
bodies have particular requirements, including mechanism that is similar to a thermostat in a
the right amount of food and water, oxygen and heater. When temperature receptors on your
carbon dioxide. If you were lost in a desert or skin and in the hypothalamus of your brain
in freezing temperatures, your body would try detect cooling down (stimulus), a message gets
to maintain a temperature of about 37°C at all sent to a variety of effectors around your body.
times, to keep all cells working efficiently. This Effectors are glands or muscles that cause a
‘business as usual’ approach of responding change in the way your body functions. This
to stimuli to maintain a stable state is called may include muscles to make you shiver (to
homeostasis homeostasis. warm up) or blood vessels to redirect the flow
the process by which the of warm blood to the important organs in your
body detects and responds body (heart, liver and brain).
to stimuli to ensure a stable If the temperature receptors detect that
internal state is maintained
you are too hot (stimulus), then the effectors
include your sweat glands and blood vessels.
Figure 1 Homeostasis is your body’s ability to

regulate and maintain a stable condition (balance)
inside your body, regardless of changes to the Figure 2 When your body is stimulated by heat,
external environment. homeostasis ensures you cool down by sweating.

3.7: Experiencing homeostasis
Your body responds by sending more blood,

which is carrying heat, to your skin, where
Pineal gland
sweat is evaporating, carrying away the heat Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
and cooling you down. This a negative
feedback mechanism – the effectors respond
Thyroid gland
and, as a result, remove the stimulus. If you are
too hot, then your body tries to cool you down.
Thymus
If you are too cold, then your body works to
warm you up.
Hormones at work Adrenal gland Pancreas

Kidney
The rate of hormone production and secretion
is often regulated by a negative feedback
mechanism. If a stimulus is received that indicates
something in the body is happening ‘too much’, Figure 4 The pancreas is the endocrine organ responsible for the
the body has receptors to detect it. The body regulation of blood glucose levels.
responds by producing a hormone to remove the
then receptors in the pancreas detect it. They negative feedback
stimulus and return the body to normal.
then release a hormone called insulin into the mechanism
a regulatory loop in which
Blood glucose blood. Insulin travels throughout the body
the stimulus causes a
to insulin receptors on the target muscle and
As you eat, food gets broken down into smaller response that acts in the
liver cells. These cells then act as effectors opposite direction to
nutrients. All carbohydrates get broken down and remove glucose from the blood. This whatever is being regulated
into simple sugars, including glucose. These causes the blood glucose to decrease, removing
glucose molecules travel through your blood the original stimulus. This is an example of
and provide energy for cellular respiration (the negative feedback.
reaction of glucose with oxygen to produce
If blood glucose levels are too low, your
carbon dioxide, water and ATP). Too much
body will use negative feedback to restore levels
glucose in the blood is not healthy, because
to a homeostatic state. Low glucose levels are
it causes water to be lost from cells through
detected by receptors in the pancreas (stimulus).
osmosis. Your body tries to control the amount
This time, the hormone glucagon is released into
of glucose in your blood. If the concentration
the blood. Receptors for glucagon are also found
of glucose in your blood is too high (stimulus),
on the effector cells in the liver and muscles.
Glucagon binding to the receptors causes the
Pancreas receptors muscle and liver cells to release stored glucose
respond and release insulin into the blood (response), increasing the amount
of blood glucose once again.
Glucose increases
Liver changes glucose
to glycogen
Blood sugar level
Healthy
glucose
level
Glucose decreases
Liver releases its
glycogen store as glucose 1 hour 2 hours
Pancreas receptors Time after eating
respond
Figure 5 After you eat, your blood glucose levels
and release glucagon
increase. The body’s response is to release insulin,
Figure 3 The pancreas and the liver work together which causes the muscle and liver effectors to
to maintain healthy glucose levels in the body. remove the glucose and restore homeostasis.

Figure 6 Water controls
the chemical reactions
Water regulation around your body until it reaches target effector
cells in your kidney. The ADH binds to the
that occur in cells. You may have noticed that when you drink lot of receptors on the effector cells, causing them
water, you need to visit the bathroom in the next to reabsorb extra water from your urine. This
hour. Your body uses homeostasis to control the makes your urine more concentrated or darker
balance of water in your body. Water is needed in colour. The extra water that was reabsorbed
to control all the chemical reactions that occur in goes back into the blood, keeping the blood
the cells. If there is too much or too little water, volume high. This is a form of negative
these chemical reactions will be affected and the feedback, as the response (reabsorbing water
cells can become damaged. from the urine and returning it to the blood)
The water balance in your body is tightly results in a decrease of the stimulus (improving
controlled by the hypothalamus in your brain. water levels in the blood).
If it has been a hot day, or you have been doing Drinking a lot of water causes the blood
physical exercise and sweating, then your body volume to increase. This is also detected by
may have lost a lot of water. Receptors in the receptors in the hypothalamus. This time
hypothalamus of the brain detect changes in the message to the pituitary gland is ‘STOP
fluid levels in your blood and send a message to producing ADH’. The lack of ADH is detected
the pituitary gland at the base of your brain. by the effector cells in the kidney, and they stop
The pituitary gland releases a chemical reabsorbing water from the urine. This means
messenger called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) the urine has more water in it, and it becomes
into your blood. This hormone travels all very clear and diluted.
Water content Water content

of the blood of the blood
LOW HIGH
Too much salt Too much

or sweating water drunk
Water content
Brain Brain
of the blood normal
produces produces
more less
ADH ADH
High volume of water Low volume of water

reabsorbed by kidney reabsorbed by kidney
Urine output Urine output

LOW HIGH
(small volume of (large volume of

concentrated urine) diluted urine)
Figure 7 Water regulation in the human body

Oxygen and carbon dioxide making you feel
puffed. The message
homeostasis also goes to the heart
Have you ever wondered why you become to make it beat faster.
puffed when running a race? Oxygen and This makes the blood
carbon dioxide in the blood are under strict move faster, carrying
homeostatic control. You need the oxygen for the carbon dioxide to
cellular respiration in a cell. Carbon dioxide is the lungs where it can
the waste product of this reaction. be removed by breathing
out. These two responses act
Sprinting during a race causes the muscle
as negative feedback, removing
cells in your legs to use a lot of glucose and
the stimulus of high levels of carbon
oxygen and to produce a lot of carbon dioxide.
dioxide in the blood. Figure 8 After a race, you
The muscle cells release the carbon dioxide
Meditation often involves sitting or lying may be puffed.
into the blood, where it forms carbonic acid.
This is not good for your body. The acid down and relaxing. This means the level of
content of the blood is measured by receptors cellular respiration in muscles is low. Little
in the medulla in the brain stem. If the level oxygen is used and little carbon dioxide is
is too high from excess carbon dioxide, a produced. As a result, the levels of carbon
message is sent through the nervous system dioxide in the blood decrease. The receptors
to the muscles that control your breathing. in the medulla once again detect the change
This causes the diaphragm to move faster, from the homeostatic state and signal the
increasing the rate of your breathing and heart to slow its beat and the lungs to slow
their breathing.

1 Define the term ‘homeostasis’. 7 In type 1 diabetes, cells in the pancreas
2 Describe how your body responds to are unable to produce insulin. Predict
cold weather. what effect this would have on blood
3 Describe how your blood sugar level glucose levels. Research how people with
changes when you eat. type 1 diabetes ensure that their blood
4 Describe how your body responds to low glucose levels remain at the homeostatic
blood sugar levels. level.
8 Describe how and why your body
Apply and analyse responds to the following:
5 Identify the stimulus, location a drinking a bottle of water
of receptors, effectors and response to b swimming 15 m under water
high body temperature.
c swimming in the ocean on a cold day.
6 If a negative feedback loop reduces the
effect of a hormone, describe what a
positive feedback loop should do.
Figure 9 When you meditate,

the carbon dioxide levels in
your body decrease.

//SCIENCE AS
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR//
3.8 Hormones are used

in sport
Erythropoietin is a hormone normally produced by the erythropoietin is produced by the kidneys.
The erythropoietin travels through the blood
kidneys to increase the number of red blood cells in the to receptors in the bone marrow. The effector
body. Athletes can use this version of a negative feedback bone marrow cells then produce more red
mechanism naturally or artificially to increase their blood cells to replace those lost.
performance on the sporting field. Exercising at a high altitude stimulates the
body to react as though there are not enough
Many athletes and sporting clubs spend red blood cells to carry oxygen to the muscles.
months training high in the mountains to help Erythropoietin is produced, causing the bone
their performance in competitions. The air marrow to make extra red blood cells. It takes
in the mountains is much thinner. Although about three weeks for the extra cells to become
it is still 21 per cent oxygen, it is harder for a noticeable. When the athlete returns to sea level
person to fill their lungs as the particles in the to compete, the red blood cells remain active
air are spread out further. As a result, when a for up to a month. This means the athlete’s
person first arrives at high altitude, their body blood is more efficient at carrying oxygen
struggles to get enough oxygen. This can make to muscles, making the athlete less likely to
the person feel tired, as they are unable to burn become fatigued (tired). Training at a high
the glucose in aerobic cellular respiration. altitude uses the negative feedback mechanism
to the athlete’s advantage.
Negative feedback Some athletes bypass high-altitude training
and inject erythropoietin directly into their
in action blood. This is called blood doping. However,
The body normally produces just enough red the amounts of hormone introduced into the
blood cells to carry oxygen around the body. blood are not controlled. This can cause an
When red blood cells die, a hormone called over-production of red blood cells, which
strains the heart. The athlete is at risk of a
heart attack or a stroke.
Figure 2 Erythropoietin increases the production

Figure 1 Training at a high altitude can increase an athlete’s performance. of red blood cells.

Drug testing Medical uses of
Erythropoietin was first synthesised in the erythropoietin
laboratory in the 1990s. Unfortunately, it was
Erythropoietin is produced in the kidneys. Any
10 years before drug testing could distinguish
disease that affects kidney function will also
the artificial hormone from naturally
affect the production of erythropoietin. As a
occurring erythropoietin. In 2002, at the
result, a person with kidney disease will also
Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City,
have low levels of red blood cells. This is called
United States, the first athlete was identified
anaemia. Symptoms of anaemia are a pale
as having a version of erythropoietin in their
appearance and feeling tired when exercising.
urine and blood.
Regular injections of erythropoietin will
increase the production of red blood cells and
improve the person’s health.
Figure 3 In 2013, Lance Armstrong admitted to Figure 4 Anaemia can make you feel tired when exercising.
injecting erythropoietin to help him win world
cycling events.

Evaluating the ethics in sports should be allowed and which should be
Sport competition prides itself on fairness banned. In each situation, justify your
for all competitors. There are many ways decision (by describing how the athlete would
to improve an athlete’s chances of winning be advantaged, describing the potential
a competition, including training, special dangers to the athlete, describing whether
diets, shaving body hair and wearing special all athletes would have equal access, and
clothing that reduces air resistance. Some deciding whether the situation could be
athletes undergo surgery to improve their described as cheating).
ability to compete. This can include a golfer 1 An athlete takes a dietary supplement that
having laser eye surgery. A runner who has maximises their performance.
asthma is allowed to use a Ventolin inhaler, 2 A swimmer wears an expensive swimsuit
but other athletes are not permitted to use that minimises water resistance.
hormones to speed their recovery from an 3 An athlete has genetically modified muscles.
injury.
4 An athlete takes hormones that increase
Evaluate the ethics of cheating in sports
recovery after injury by increasing
by deciding which of the following situations
muscle mass.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 3 CONTROL AND REGULATION 67

//SCIENCE AS
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR//
3.9 Pathogens cause disease
Infectious pathogens can disrupt the normal functioning of the called pathogens. Germ theory was confirmed
by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.
body and cause disease. There are many types of pathogens,
Robert Koch went on to develop a set of
including bacteria, fungi, protozoans and viruses. Koch’s rules, known as Koch’s postulates, that provide
postulates are used to provide evidence that a pathogen evidence that a pathogen causes a disease.
causes a disease. Penicillin and other antibiotics can be used 1 The micro-organism or other pathogen is
present in all cases of the disease.
to kill bacteria, but not viruses or other pathogens.
2 The pathogen can be isolated from the
One of the first people in Western medicine to diseased host and grown in the laboratory.
question the accepted idea of supernatural causes 3 The pathogen from a pure culture causes
of disease was Hippocrates (460–377 bce). He the disease when inoculated into a healthy
pathogen concluded that something in the air, soil, water susceptible laboratory animal.
a microbe that can cause and food caused diseases in humans and animals. 4 The pathogen is re-isolated from the new
disease His work was followed up by Claudius Galen host and is shown to be the same as the
(131–201 ce), who was a doctor to the gladiators, originally inoculated pathogen.
and used animal dissections to explore anatomy. Australian scientists Barry Marshall and
Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) was an Robin Warren followed these postulates when
Italian astronomer and doctor who was one of the they researched stomach ulcers in 1984.
first to suggest that disease could be transmitted Together they discovered that a bacterium
from person to person via small, invisible (Helicobacter pylori) was found in all patients
particles. He theorised that these particles could with stomach ulcers. Most doctors at the time
travel through the air, via contaminated clothing thought that no bacterium could survive in the
or by direct contact with the sick person. It took acidic environment of the stomach. Marshall
200 years and the discovery of the microscope and Warren isolated the bacterium and injected
to confirm his theories and to develop the ‘germ it into mice, causing the disease in the mice.
theory’ used today. Unfortunately, many doctors still did not
Germ theory states that many diseases are believe the research, so Barry Marshall ignored
caused by the presence and actions of specific laboratory safety and swallowed a culture of
micro-organisms. These micro-organisms are the bacteria, causing the disease in himself.
Figure 1 Some bacteria

keep us healthy. Other
a b
bacteria are pathogens
and interfere with the
natural functioning of our
body.
Figure 2 Most infections are caused by microscopic pathogens such as bacteria or viruses.
a Bacteria are very small cells that are able to reproduce by themselves. They can release toxins that affect
the normal functioning of our body. b Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and are unable to reproduce by
themselves. Instead, they invade the host’s cells and use the organelles to make new copies of themselves.
This stops the host’s cells from functioning properly.

3.9A: Investigating pathogens 3.9B: Investigating germ theory
Cool Wait
Broth heated Flask left open Growth
Open flask
Wait
Broth heated Flask sealed No growth Growth

Figure 3 Louis Pasteur’s experiments found that micro-organisms in milk were killed by heat. This
process is called pasteurisation and is still in use today.
Treatment with antibiotics killed the bacteria and discovered that the Penicillium mould
and cured his stomach ulcer. Barry Marshall was releasing a chemical that killed bacteria.
and Robin Warren were awarded the Nobel Australian scientist Howard Florey was then
Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2005. instrumental in developing penicillin into
a form that could be mass-produced. Both
Antibiotics scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Before antibiotics were discovered, a single Physiology or Medicine for their work.
scratch from a thorn on a rose bush could Penicillin works by breaking down the cell
become infected and kill a person. walls of bacteria. As human cells do not have a
In 1928, Alexander Fleming was trying cell wall, they are unaffected. This means that
to grow bacteria in his laboratory. When he penicillin will kill the bacteria in your body but
returned from holidays he discovered that not kill your own body cells. Viruses do not
some Petri dishes he had left open on the bench have cell walls. Instead, they have a protein coat
were growing a mould similar to that found on that surrounds and protects them. This means
bread. There were no bacteria growing near penicillin does not affect viruses, such as
the mould. Being a good scientist, Fleming influenza, coronaviruses or the common cold.
Figure 4 Robin Warren
recognised that further investigation was Most viruses cannot be treated by any (left) and Barry Marshall
necessary. He performed some experiments readily available medicines. (right)

Identifying assumptions we have cooked will be hot. Making 3 Identify the assumption that
Scientists are always asking questions assumptions is not always a bad thing, other doctors had made about the
and challenging what they know. as long as we are aware that we are cause of stomach ulcers.
Robin Warren and Barry Marshall making them. Asking questions is a 4 Identify one assumption that you
asked questions and challenged the way of identifying assumptions that have made in the past week.
assumption that stomach ulcers are not true. 5 Describe the evidence you would
were caused by stress. Everyone 1 Identify the question that Robin need to convince yourself that
makes assumptions (accepting that Warren and Barry Marshall asked your assumption in question 4
something is true or certain without about stomach ulcers. was incorrect.
evidence) based on past experiences. 2 Identify how Warren and 6 Describe an invention or
It is a way of saving time and thinking Marshall used each of Koch’s behaviour you would change if
space. We assume that the sun will postulates to find the cause of your assumption in question 4
rise in the morning, that the chair we stomach ulcers. was incorrect.
sit on will not collapse and that food

3.10 The immune system
protects our body in an
organised way
In this
topic, you • The immune system acts to physically prevent pathogens entering your body.
will learn • Pathogens that enter the body are identified and destroyed by the immune system.
that:
immune system
a system of organs and
The role of your immune system is to protect
you against foreign invaders by physically
Second line of defence
structures that protect an stopping them from entering your body, and Viruses, unlike bacteria, contain a protective
organism against disease to identify and attack them if they do manage coating that allows them to more easily slip
white blood cell to enter. Your immune system has three lines through the first line of defence. If a pathogen
an immune system cell that of defence against pathogens, each with a gets inside your body, the body tries to remove
destroys pathogens it in one of two ways.
different role.
phagocyte First, a general ‘seek and destroy’ approach
an immune system cell that
surrounds, absorbs and First line of defence occurs regardless of the type of pathogen. This
is called a general or non-specific immune
destroys pathogens The first line of defence is to stop pathogens response. The key parts of the non-specific
from getting inside your body (Figure 1). It immune response are:
consists of the skin and mucous membranes.
> blood clotting – to stop additional infection
through skin damage
Tears wash > inflammation – to increase the number of
Eyes, ears, nose, mouth pathogens
and genitals are usually blood cells reaching an infected area
out of the eyes.
exposed to the air and/or > fever – some pathogens cannot survive at
environment, so pathogens Ear wax captures
high temperatures, so heating up the body is
can enter. Mucous pathogens trying
to enter through one way to destroy them.
membranes are thin
skin-like linings of these the ears. Second, white blood cells are produced by the
entry points. Chemical body to destroy pathogens. Inflammation increases
barriers here assist in the amount of blood reaching the infected area, so
defence. Slimy mucus can more white blood cells are able to attack the
capture and kill some pathogen. The white blood cells may also release
bacteria. chemical messengers that increase the amount of
fluid in the infected area, causing swelling.
Skin is thick, waterproof There are different types of white blood
and difficult to damage. cells. Each type has its own role but they all
Oils and sweat help work together. Phagocytes (Greek for ‘cells
protect the skin. In dry that eat’) are part of the non-specific immune
conditions, bacteria are response. They surround and absorb pathogens,
damaged and destroyed destroying them in a process called phagocytosis
by the salt and
(Figure 2).
antimicrobial chemicals
in these secretions. Urine is slightly
acidic, which
makes it harder
Third line of defence
for bacteria to Any pathogens that survive the non-specific
grow. secondary response are targeted according to
their type. This is called a specific immune
Figure 1 The skin and mucous membranes are the first line of defence against
response.
pathogens.

3.10: Modelling infection and
vaccination
Pathogen binds
here. Region
a Pathogen is
binds
specific
here. to theis
Region
pathogen
specific to the
Bacteria pathogen
Phagocyte ‘recognises’ Phagocyte ingests bacteria Phagocyte digests bacteria
the bacteria by ‘flowing’ around them using enzymes
Figure 2 The process of phagocytosis
The specific immune response has two placenta from the mother. Antibodies are also
forms of attack. B cells produce special passed to babies through breast milk.
molecules called antibodies. These antibodies Another way to acquire immunity is by
fit exactly onto a specific part of the pathogen ingestion or injection with specific small parts b Antibody
Antigen
(Figure 3). Each antibody will fit only one of the pathogen. This is called vaccination, or Antibody
Antigen
section of the pathogen. This causes the inoculation. A vaccine can be made up of:
pathogens to become locked together and stops > the dead pathogen
them invading. > a living but non-virulent (weakened) form
T cells then recognise the same specific of the pathogen
pathogen and attack and kill it. B and T cells > parts of the broken-up pathogen
may take up to a week to recognise and destroy
> genetic material from a viral pathogen.
a pathogen. This is why recovering from an Pathogen
Through vaccination, a person makes
illness takes time.
antibodies and memory cells that will recognise Figure 3 aPathogen
Each antibody
Both B and T cells keep some memory has a region that is
the pathogen in the future, which usually leads
cells alive, just in case the pathogen tries to specific to a particular
to immunity. Vaccinations are often given as a pathogen. b Antibodies
invade again. This means the pathogen will be
preventive measure. For instance, the influenza cause pathogens to
attacked and killed before it can cause damage a
vaccine is recommended for people over 65 years clump together.
second time. Your body will be protected from
of age because complications from influenza can
reinfection in the future. You are now immune.
be life-threatening in older people. Vaccination
Unborn babies obtain some natural
can also be given when there is an urgent need to B cell
immunity by receiving antibodies through the
provide immunity, such as preventing Covid-19. an immune system cell
For example, the modified genetic material that produces antibodies in
from the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus can be used response to pathogens
for vaccination. This means a person will have antibody
antibodies and T cells already activated in their a molecule produced by
body to prevent the virus from causing damage B cells that binds to a
and Covid-19 symptoms. specific pathogen
A virus is Antibodies Exposure to T cell
killed or are made by the active Figure 4 A person can become protected or immune an immune system cell
weakened, the person virus results actively through vaccination, or passively by that recognises and kills
and given to but there in a fast antibody antibodies being passed on to them in breast milk pathogens
the person. is no illness. response. from their mother when they are a baby.
memory cell
an immune system cell
3.10 Check your learning produced in response to
an infection; retains the
Remember and understand 5 Compare the different types of vaccines. memory of how to fight the
1 Describe the body’s major first line of 6 Describe how a vaccine prevents a pathogen
defence. person from ‘catching’ a disease. immune
7 Newborn babies cannot be vaccinated able to fight an infection as
2 Describe one other way the body can
against whooping cough until they are a result of prior exposure
prevent pathogens from entering.
2 months old. The antibodies in breast vaccination
3 Describe in your own words how the
milk are not enough to protect them from an injection of an inactive
non-specific immune response works. or artificial pathogen that
this deadly disease. Explain why it is
Apply and analyse important for everyone who comes into
results in the individual
becoming immune to a
4 Compare (the similarities and contact with the baby to be vaccinated particular disease
differences between) the second and third against whooping cough.
levels of defence.

3.11 Things can go wrong with
the immune system
In this
topic, you • Allergies result from an overactive immune system.
will learn • Autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis are caused
that: by the immune system attacking the rest of the body.
• HIV is a virus that specifically attacks T cells, resulting in acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS).
The immune system coordinates attacks on attacking it. Inflammation occurs, resulting
pathogens that are trying to disrupt the body. in an increased amount of blood reaching the
The coordination of all the cells and chemical area. Fluid leaks out of the blood vessels and
molecules is very complex, and can easily be the area becomes red and swollen. This also
disrupted. contributes to a runny nose and watering eyes,
as your body tries to flush out the pollen.
allergy
an overreaction by the
Hay fever and other Phagocytes also invade the area in an
immune system in response allergies attempt to destroy the pollen. If you have been
exposed to the pollen before, then your body
to pollen, dust or other
Allergies result when your immune system will already have antibodies that speed up this
non-pathogens
mistakes a harmless substance as dangerous. reaction. In extreme cases, the person’s throat
anaphylaxis
This means the body overreacts. A common will swell shut, making it difficult to breathe.
a life-threatening
overreaction by the example is plant pollen, mainly from grass but The large amount of fluid leaking from the
immune system to a also from trees, which can cause hay fever. blood vessels can also cause the blood vessels
normally harmless When the pollen gets in your eyes or nose, to collapse. This life-threatening response is
substance your second and third lines of defence start called anaphylaxis.
4 Once in contact
with your eyes and
3 Hot summer days nose, pollen causes
1 One tree can
with no breeze allow irritation, sneezing
produce millions
pollen to build up. and itching
of pollen spores.
(inflammation).
2 Grass pollen
is the most common
cause of hay fever.
Figure 1 How hay fever happens

Type 1 diabetes is also caused by an type 1 diabetes
autoimmune reaction against the cells in the an autoimmune disease
pancreas that produce insulin. As a result of in which the immune
system attacks the insulin-
attack by B cell antibodies and T cells, these
producing cells in the
pancreatic cells are destroyed. This means the
pancreas
person is unable to control their own blood
rheumatoid arthritis
glucose levels and instead must test their
an autoimmune disease in
glucose levels regularly and inject artificial which the immune system
insulin when it is needed. attacks the joints of the body
HIV causes AIDS

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Figure 2 Epipens deliver adrenalin to people
infects a special type of T cells in the immune
suffering anaphylactic shock.
system. This makes the whole immune system
ineffective. A person with HIV has a weakened
Autoimmune diseases immune system. This causes them to develop
a range of infections that a normal immune
Autoimmune diseases are a group of diseases
system would be able to destroy easily. For
that result from your body’s immune system
example, simple fungal infections, viral eye
identifying healthy parts of your own body
infections and diarrhoea (loose bowel motions)
as a pathogen. Rheumatoid arthritis is
can make a person infected with HIV very sick.
an autoimmune disease in which the body
Collectively these symptoms are called acquired
produces B and T cells that attack the joints
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
of the body. B cells produce antibodies, and
T cells try to destroy the synovial membrane
that lines the joint. This causes the joint to
swell with fluid, which causes heat and pain for
the sufferer.
Figure 3 Inflammation causes the joints of

rheumatoid arthritis sufferers to swell and Figure 4 If the immune system is ineffective, opportunistic pathogens such as
become painful. yeast can grow out of control.

1 Explain why hay fever causes a runny 4 Explain why people with type 1 diabetes
nose and watery eyes. are unable to produce their own insulin.
2 Explain why hay fever is always worse the 5 Contrast HIV and AIDS.
second time you are exposed to pollen. 6 Explain why eating even a small quantity
3 Explain why a person with rheumatoid of peanuts can cause death in some
arthritis has swollen finger joints. people.

REVIEW 3
Multiple choice questions Apply and analyse
1 Identify which of the following is the stimulus. 14 Use an example to explain how a negative feedback
A a target cell that has a receptor mechanism works.
B a hormone released into the bloodstream 15 Complete this sentence by inserting the missing words.
C a change in the environment that disrupts A person with diabetes has a problem with the hormone
homeostasis ___________, which is secreted by the ___________.
D a response by the body that restores the homeostatic 16 When a person drinks a litre of water, their body produces
balance extra urine. Use the concept of homeostasis to explain why.
2 Which of the following cells produce antibodies?
A B cells
B phagocytes
C T cells
D viruses
3 Select which of the following is not a pathogen.
A fungi
B bacteria
C adrenalin
D yeast Figure 1 Drinking water after exercising is an
important part of homeostasis.
Short answer questions
17 Transmission of pathogens can cause mass outbreaks of
Remember and understand a disease and affect large numbers of people. Examples
are Covid-19, HIV, the SARS virus, swine flu, and the
4 Define the following terms: outbreak of cholera in Zimbabwe. Choose one disease and
a stimulus explain how it can spread so quickly. Describe what can
b homeostasis be done to prevent the spread of such diseases.
c pathogen. 18 Explain how the endocrine system assists your body to
5 Describe three ways the human body can receive a ‘respond to the world’. Explain why your body also needs
stimulus from the environment. a nervous sytem.
6 Identify two glands in humans that produce hormones. Evaluate

7 Explain why the nervous system and the endocrine 19 Explain why holding your nose might help you to
system are both described as communication systems. swallow something that tastes awful.
8 Describe how hormones are transported in the body. 20 Predatory animals have their eyes on the front of their
9 Describe three major features of the body’s first line of face, while their prey generally have eyes on the sides
defence. of their heads. Explain the advantage for predators in
having eyes on the front of their face.
10 Describe an example of an infectious disease.
11 Describe how an antibody is used by the body to prevent
a pathogen from spreading around the body.
12 Explain why it is important to have certain vaccinations
before travelling overseas. Identify two examples of
diseases you may need to be vaccinated against.
13 Explain how the immune system’s third line of defence
remembers pathogens in case you are exposed to the
pathogen a second time.
Figure 2 Jaguars prey on deer, reptiles and fish.

21 In Canada in 2006, a woman fought off a polar bear with 31 Alcohol blocks the production of ADH. Use critical
her bare hands when it attacked her son. She literally thinking to predict the effect this will have on urine
wrestled the bear and won! Explain why this reaction volume.
could be attributed to the hormone adrenalin.
32 Construct a table that distinguishes between the
22 Compare viruses, bacteria and protozoa, which are all different lines of defence.
pathogens.
33 Louis Pasteur found that heat could kill micro-organisms
23 Given that people have usually caught a cold before, in milk. This discovery is still in use today. Investigate
explain why we continue to catch colds. the use of heat in killing pathogens.
24 Your body is constantly monitoring and controlling the a Identify two reliable sources.
numbers of pathogens in and on it. Describe what you b Summarise one use of heat.
can do to assist your body in controlling pathogens.
25 The hygiene hypothesis suggests that childhood exposure Research
to microbes and certain infections helps the immune 34 Choose one of the following topics for a research project.
system develop. As a result of potentially being too A few guiding questions have been provided, but you
hygienic, developed countries continue to see a rise in should add more questions that you wish to investigate.
autoimmune conditions such as asthma and anaphylaxis. Present your report in a format of your own choosing.
Investigate these conditions, and outline the role of the
body’s own immune response in causing the symptoms.
26 Describe in your owns words how the non-specific » Stem cells for spinal injury
immune response works.
Nerve cells do not easily regenerate and so, to date, it
has not been possible to repair damage to the spinal
Social and ethical thinking
cord. Scientists have been researching the use of stem
27 Babies can be vaccinated against a wide range of diseases cells in the treatment of spinal cord injury. Identify the
in the first months and years of their lives. They are not old different types of stem cells. Describe how stem cells
enough to choose to be vaccinated, so the decision is made are used. Describe the advances that have been made
by their parents or guardians. Find out which vaccinations in this field of research. Describe one of the issues that
are available and present the arguments for and against have affected such research.
giving them to babies.
28 A person with Alzheimer’s disease can often forget what
has happened in the past 30 minutes. An example of this is
forgetting they have already eaten their lunch. This means
» Type 2 diabetes
the person can become very frustrated and upset if they The incidence of type 2 diabetes is increasing. Compare
think they are being refused food. Their carers may explain type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Identify the factors that
(many times) that the person has already eaten, but this can contribute to the cause of type 2 diabetes. Describe the
upset the person more, as they think they are being lied to. complications that can result from diabetes. Describe
Other carers may lie to the person and say that lunch will what you can do to prevent type 2 diabetes.
ready in five minutes. This settles the person, who will often
forget about eating in that time. Identify which approach
you would use. Justify your decision by describing the
factors you considered when making your decision. » Artificial skin
Investigate the work of Australian scientists Dr Fiona
Critical and creative thinking Wood and Dr Marie Stoner on skin regeneration,
29 Draw a cartoon strip with at least five squares, illustrating including spray-on skin. Explain why their area of
a person receiving a stimulus and then responding. research is so important. Explain how this research is
related to the increase in bushfires that is expected to
30 Create a visual presentation on the role of the different occur with global warming.
types of white blood cells in attacking pathogens.

Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 3 ‘Control and regulation’. Once
you’ve completed this chapter, use the table to reflect on your ability to complete each task.
Identify the five senses and the receptors associated with each type Go back to Topic 3.1 ʻReceptors detect
of stimulus. stimuliʼ
Relate the structures of the sense organs to the types of stimulus Page 48
they receive.
Describe the passage of information through a neuron, across the Go back to Topic 3.2 ʻNerve cells are
synapse and to the next cell. called neuronsʼ
Explain how sensory, motor and interneurons communicate Page 52
information around the body.
Describe the stimulus–response model. Go back to Topic 3.3 ʻThe nervous system
Relate reflex action with potentially life-saving actions. controls reflexesʼ
Page 54
Describe the roles of the central nervous system, peripheral nervous Go back to Topic 3.4 ʻThe central nervous

system, somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. system controls our bodyʼ
List the lobes of the brain and describe their main functions. Page 56
Provide examples of diseases and problems affecting the Go back to Topic 3.5 ʻThings can go wrong

nervous system. with the nervous systemʼ
Relate the importance of myelin sheath to motor neurone disease. Page 58
Describe the fight, flight or freeze response. Go back to Topic 3.6 ʻThe endocrine
system causes long-lasting effectsʼ
Page 60
Describe the advantage of homeostasis. Go back to Topic 3.7 ʻHomeostasis

Explain how hormones regulate blood glucose. regulates through negative feedbackʼ
Page 62
Describe the function of erythropoietin and how athletes may use it Go back to Topic 3.8 ʻScience as a human
to improve their performance in sporting events. endeavour: Hormones are used in sportʼ
Page 66
Provide examples of pathogens. Go back to Topic 3.9 ʻScience as a

Relate scientific discoveries to the development of the ‘germ theory’. human endeavour: Pathogens cause
diseaseʼ
Page 68
Describe some of the body’s first-line defence mechanisms against Go back to Topic 3.10 ʻThe immune system
infection. protects our body in an organised wayʼ
Compare naturally acquired immunity with vaccinations. Page 70
Describe the immune response during an allergic reaction. Go back to Topic 3.11 ʻThings can go
Describe the common symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis and wrong with the immune systemʼ
type 1 diabetes. Page 72
Describe the cause of HIV and relate it to the development of AIDS.
Chapter quiz

4
Why does the Earth move? CHAPTER
4.1 Is the Earth shrinking or moving?
TECTONIC
4.2
PLATES
The Earth has a solid core
Boundaries between the tectonic

4.3 plates can be converging,
diverging or transforming What if?
Clay plates
What you need:
Modelling clay
What to do:
1 Divide the clay into two equal
Tectonic plates can be portions.
4.4 constructive or destructive 2 Flatten out each portion to
approximately 1 cm thick.
3 Gently slide the portions towards
each other.
What if?
» What if one portion slides over
the other?
» What if the two clay portions are
Science as a human endeavour: jammed together?
4.5 What will the Earth look » What if the two portions are
like in the future? moved apart?

4.1 Is the Earth shrinking
or moving?
In this
topic, you • Plate tectonics is a combination of two theories: continental drift and sea-floor spreading.
will learn • Continental drift describes how the continents are continually moving.
that:
• The theory of sea-floor spreading proposes that the middle of the ocean is
spreading apart, moving very slowly in opposite directions.
Video 4.1
Why do Earth's
plates move?
Many theories have tried to explain why there oceanic crust. He supported his claims with
are earthquakes, mountains and deep-sea the evidence of coastline fit, similar fossils,
trenches over the surface of the Earth. One of rocks and landforms created by glaciers in
the first theories was that the Earth was cooling now widely separated continents, and the
down and therefore shrinking, causing ‘wrinkles’ reconstruction of old climate zones.
to form on the surface. Like all theories, this idea
was testable and was eventually changed and Tectonic plate movement
refined as new evidence became available.
We now know that it is not just the continents
Continental drift
that are moving. The large moving areas
include both the continental and oceanic crusts.
Figure 1 Alfred Wegener One form of evidence is the similarities in Geologists call these moving areas tectonic
pioneered the theory
shape between the coastlines of Africa and plates. ‘Tectonic’ means ‘building’, so tectonic
of continental drift in
his book The Origin of South America. They seem to fit together like plates are the ‘building blocks’ of the Earth.
Continents and Oceans. a jigsaw puzzle. In the early twentieth century, The movement of the plates explains the
German meteorologist Alfred Wegener put this existence of landforms such as continental
idea and other evidence into a book in which shelves (flat areas under shallow water
continental drift he outlined the theory of continental drift. between the beach and the ocean) and deep
the continuous movement He proposed that the continents once all fitted trenches in the ocean floor. It also explains how
of the continents over time together in a giant continent known as Pangaea. earthquakes and volcanoes are distributed,
continental shelf Wegener proposed that Pangaea was a and the very young age of parts of the sea
a flat area under shallow supercontinent that existed 220 million years floor. Plate tectonics is an example of how
ocean water at the edge of a ago. When it started to break up, the continents a scientific hypothesis can be suggested,
continent slowly drifted apart as they moved through the discounted, modified and then revived.
plate tectonics
the theory that the surface
of the Earth consists of
pieces, known as plates,
that are continually moving
Africa
India
Fossils of the fern
Glossopteris, found
in all the southern
continents, show that
Figure 2 Given that the South America Australia
they were once joined.
fossil fern Glossopteris
cannot walk, swim or
fly, how can its isolated
occurrence in so many Antarctica
different parts of the world
be explained?

4.1A: Reconstructing Pangaea 4.1B: Milo convection currents
Sea-floor spreading
The idea of sea-floor spreading was proposed sea-floor spreading
by US geologist Harry Hess. His evidence came the theory that the middle
from the discovery of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, of the ocean is spreading
a continuous mountain range in the middle of apart, forming new
oceanic crust
the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 3). Hess’s original
hypothesis was that the liquid mantle of melted
rock (magma) under the tectonic plates is
moving, creating convection currents. This Ridge
movement
moving mantle deep inside the Earth causes the
tectonic plates to spread and move apart.
If convection currents occur within the
Earth’s mantle, then rising hot magma pushes
up, creating a ridge crest. It is pushed to one
side by more rising magma, and the ridge splits
and moves apart. As it is pushed away, the
Ridge
surrounding rocks are under a lot of pressure,
causing a rift zone and shallow earthquakes.
Mid-Atlantic
A rift zone is an area where the lithosphere is
being pulled apart (Figure 4). As the mantle
rock moves away from the magma and ridge
crest, it carries the sea floor with it, like a
piggyback ride. The liquid magma rock cools,
becomes denser and eventually sinks back into
the mantle. Figure 3 The Mid-Atlantic Ridge provided evidence
of sea-floor spreading.
Continental crust Spreading ridge Oceanic crust sinks

Oceanic crust below continental crust
Mantle
Figure 4 Tectonic plate movement. The rift zone is the circled area.

Remember and understand 5 Describe how the rift zone forms at the top of a
1 Examine a world map. Apart from Africa and South mid-ocean ridge.
America, identify the other regions of the world that Apply and analyse
look as if they could fit closely together. 6 Contrast continental drift and sea-floor spreading.
2 Define the term ‘mantle’. 7 Considering the evidence that Wegener presented
3 Describe how convection currents move in the mantle. in support of continental drift, explain why many
4 Define the term ‘tectonic plate’. scientists at the time may have rejected the idea.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 4 TECTONIC PL ATES 79

4.2 The Earth has a solid core
In this
• The Earth is made up of several layers.
topic, you • We live on the crust (or lithosphere).
will learn • Under the crust is the molten rock that makes up the mantle.
that:
• The core has two layers: the outer core of liquid iron and nickel, and the inner solid core.
What is the Earth made of? Crust

crust Although the Earth is described as a solid The crust (or lithosphere) is the outer layer
the lithosphere, or outer planet, it began as a ball of molten materials. (7–50 km thick) of the Earth. It is a thin, brittle
layer of the Earth outer coating, like the shell of an egg. It is made
Scientists believe the Earth and other planets
mantle are the result of an explosion billions of years up of rocks and minerals, and approximately
the layer of molten rock 70 per cent of it is covered by oceans. The
ago. According to this theory, the Earth began
beneath the Earth’s crust
as a molten fragment from this explosion. The crust is not smooth: it has hills, mountains,
Earth’s surface has continued to slowly change valleys, oceans and deserts. It is thickest under
and is still changing – many rocks have worn the continents and thinnest under the oceans
down to form soil and sand, mountains and (Figure 2). Compared to the rest of the Earth’s
valleys have formed, and the land and oceans layers, the crust is very thin.
have changed shape. Some of this change is
caused by weathering and erosion at the surface. Oceanic crust
Other changes are due to the movement of the
molten rocks from deeper down, which in places
push their way up to the surface and also move
sections of the Earth’s crust.
If you could journey deep inside the Earth,
you would find that it is made of several layers
(Figure 1).
Crust Continental
Mantle crust
Figure 2 The oceanic crust is thinner beneath the

Outer core ocean than beneath the continents.
Inner core Mantle

The mantle is below the crust. It is about
2800 km thick. Temperatures near the crust
are about 500°C and at the bottom of the
mantle reach 3000°C. Although the bottom
of the mantle is solid, nearer the top the rock
slowly moves. The top part of the mantle is
more like modelling clay than solid rock. It is
the source of volcanoes and earthquakes.
Figure 1 Layers of the Earth

4.2B: Modelling the parts
4.2A: Cooling and layers of the Earth
EXPERIMENT Go to page 185. CHALLENGE Go to page 186.
Figure 4 The Himalayan

Figure 3 Colliding plates cause the Earth’s surface to buckle. Mountains have been
pushed up by pressure
Core other. The plate on top buckles under pressure, from beneath the Earth.
pushing the land upwards (Figure 3). For
The core is the centre of the Earth. It consists example, the Indo-Australian Plate is sinking core
of the outer core and the inner core. The outer under the Eurasian Plate. This has caused the
the centre of the Earth
core is made mainly of metals, not rock; the Eurasian Plate to buckle, pushing up the world’s tectonic plate
main metal is iron, possibly with some nickel. highest mountain range, the Himalayas. a large layer of solid
It is very hot and liquid, with temperatures rock that covers part
Convection currents
ranging from 4000°C to 6000°C. The heat of the surface of the
comes from nuclear reactions, and some of Earth; movement of
tectonic plates can cause
the heat is left over from when the Earth was In liquids and gases, thermal energy can
earthquakes
formed. The outer core gives the Earth its move by convection. Tiny currents, called
convection currents, carry the thermal magma
north and south poles and magnetic field.
semiliquid rock beneath
The temperature of the inner core is almost energy. It is the convection currents in the
the Earth’s surface
10 000°C, but it does not melt or boil because of magma that cause the tectonic plates to
convection
the force of the rest of the Earth pushing down move. The mantle closest to the Earth’s
the transfer of thermal
on it. Of course, no geologist has ever seen the core gains thermal energy. This means the
energy by the movement of
core. Even the deepest mines only penetrate a molecules in the magma move faster. Because molecules in air or liquid
few kilometres of the Earth’s crust. they move faster, they take up more space from one place to another
and become less dense. As a result, the heated convection current
The moving crust magma near the core begins to rise to the the current or flow of air or
surface, leaving room for cooler magma to liquid that results from the
The crust is broken into a number of pieces, take its place. The heated magma cools as transfer of thermal energy
called tectonic plates. These plates float on it reaches the Earth’s crust. As it cools, it is by convection
the semiliquid magma at the top of the mantle. pushed to one side as more heated magma
The speed of movement is similar to that of arrives. This causes the tectonic plates that
fingernail growth: between 1 cm and 10 cm per form the crust to move. Cool magma is more
year. Sometimes the tectonic plates crash into compact and dense, and so it sinks, following
one another, causing one plate to slide under the the convection cycle.

Remember and understand (by comparing the approximate thickness
1 Identify the layer of the Earth that of the Earth’s crust at two extremes –
contains tectonic plates. the Andes and Victoria – and deciding
whether the statement is likely to be
2 If the Earth’s radius is about 6370 km, use
correct).
the information about the crust and the
mantle to calculate the thickness of the 5 Examine Figure 3. Evaluate whether
Earth’s core. this diagram could be used to model
the formation of the Andes Mountains
Apply and analyse (by describing how the Andes are
3 Describe the forces that cause the formed, comparing this to the diagram
movement of the tectonic plates. and deciding whether it is an accurate
4 ‘The Earth’s crust is the same thickness representation).
everywhere.’ Evaluate this statement

4.3 Boundaries between the
tectonic plates can be
converging, diverging
or transforming
In this
topic, you • At transforming boundaries, tectonic plates slide past one another.
will learn • At converging boundaries, plates come together, forming mountains or subducting.
that:
• At diverging boundaries, tectonic plates move apart.
Video 4.3
What happens when
Earth's plates move? Plate tectonics explain a wide range of features boundary (Figure 2). A fault is a fracture in
of the Earth. These features, once studied rock where movement has occurred.
transforming boundary separately, can now be unified by a single The two plates involved in a transforming
the boundary between two concept: plate behaviour at plate boundaries. boundary can become jammed over a period
tectonic plates that are There are three general types of plate boundaries, of time until the pressure builds up and the
sliding past each other
based on the direction of plate movement. plates slip. This slipping causes earthquakes,
fault
such as the large earthquake that destroyed
a fracture in rock where the
tectonic plates have moved Transforming boundaries San Francisco in 1906, where the rock of the
transform fault slipped by up to 5 m.
ocean trench One plate can slide past another along a single
Plate material is not created or destroyed:
a deep ditch under the fault line. This is called a transforming
ocean along a tectonic plate the plates just slide against each other.
boundary
LEGEND
Ring of fire
Figure 1 The ring of fire is an area around the Pacific Ocean where a large number of volcanoes are found. This provides hints of
a tectonic boundary.

4.3: Modelling plates
Ocean-to-continent
collision
When oceanic crust collides
with continental crust, the denser
oceanic landform is subducted or
pushed downwards into the mantle.
The top crust is pushed upwards and
creates a line of mountains along the
crumpled edge (Figure 5). It can also create
volcanoes as heat rises up through cracks in the Figure 4 The San Andreas
crust. An ocean trench may form at the line of Fault, which runs along
the western coast of
plate contact.
California, USA
Figure 2 Transforming boundary: one plate slides
against another
Active volcano High mountain range
late
tal p
Ocean trench nen
C onti
late
an ic p Subduction zone
Oce
Figure 5 Ocean-to-continent collision causes subduction, and creates

mountains, volcanoes and ocean trenches.
subduction
the movement of one
tectonic plate under
Continent-to-continent collision another tectonic plate
When two continental plates collide, they have converging boundary
similar densities, so no subduction takes place. the boundary between two
tectonic plates that are
Figure 3 Satellite image of the Southern Alps, Instead, the edges of the two plates crumple
New Zealand. The Alpine Fault, a transforming moving together
and fold into high mountain ranges (Figure 6).
boundary, runs along the western edge of the
snowline on the South Island. High plateau often
forced upwards
Converging boundaries
At converging plate boundaries, two plates move High mountain range
towards each other. There are generally three types
of converging boundaries, depending on the plates
ne
involved. If one plate is denser (the particles are ion zo
Collis
more tightly packed together), it will sink beneath
the other plate. This is known as subduction. e
plat Continental plate
Mountain ranges, volcanoes and trenches can all
nental
be formed by converging boundaries. C onti
Many of the world’s major landforms are
formed by the collision of plates at converging
boundaries. Figure 6 Continent-to-continent collision creates high mountain ranges.

Ocean-to-ocean collision
When two oceanic plates collide, the older,
denser crust subducts below the newer crust,
creating a deep ocean trench. The subduction
also creates a line of undersea volcanoes that
may reach above the ocean surface as an island
arc (Figure 7).
Arc of volcanic islands

Deep ocean trench
late
Line of undersea
an ic p
volcanoes Oce
Figure 7 Ocean-to-ocean late

an ic p
collision causes subduction Oce Subduction zone
and creates a trench and a line of
undersea volcanoes.
Diverging boundaries probably due to diverging plate boundaries.

Hot rising mantle rock from deep within the
diverging boundary Diverging boundaries are plate boundaries Earth might be the first step in a continent
the boundary between two that are moving apart. They form different breaking apart. As the mantle rock rises,
tectonic plates that are features than those of converging and the continental crust is lifted and thins out.
moving apart
transforming boundaries. These spreading Cracks form and large slabs of rock sink into
rift valley boundaries can occur in the middle of the the Earth, forming a rift valley like those
a deep valley that forms as ocean or in the middle of land. The breaking
a result of tectonic plates
found in East Africa.
up of the supercontinent Pangaea was
moving apart on land
mid-ocean ridge
a series of underwater
mountains that form as
a result of tectonic plates
moving apart and allowing
magma to rise to the
surface
Figure 8 The East African rift valleys may represent the initial stages of the breaking up of a continent.

Making oceans
As the divergence process continues, the 1
continental crust separates and a narrow sea Upwarping
or lake may form. The Red Sea between the Continental crust
Arabian and African Plates is thought to be a
Lithosphere
diverging boundary at this stage of development
(Figure 9). Eventually, oceans are formed and a
mid-ocean ridge is created (Figure 10).
Mid-ocean ridges are very wide, up to
2
4000 km. Sea-floor spreading occurs at a rate
of only 5 cm per year, but none of the ocean Rift valley
floor is dated as older than 180 million years.
Linear sea
Arabian Plate
Mid-ocean ridge Continental
crust
Rift
4
Red Sea
Oceanic crust
African Plate
Figure 9 The Red Sea has formed as the African Figure 10 How diverging boundaries form oceans
and Arabian Plates have diverged.

Remember and understand 6 Explain how diverging boundaries
1 Describe the type of plate movement can produce earthquakes and volcanic
that happens at a transforming boundary. activity.
2 Describe what causes the continental 7 Transforming boundaries are
crust to spread and break at a diverging sometimes called strike–slip fault
boundary. zones. Explain why both names are
appropriate.
3 Use Figure 1 to describe where the
major mid-ocean ridges are located. Apply and analyse
4 Use Figure 1 to describe where the 8 Use the location of the tectonic plates
diverging plate boundaries are located. in Figure 1 to describe the location of
5 Identify the factor that determines which volcanoes. Compare these to the location
plate subducts at a converging boundary. of earthquakes.

4.4 Tectonic plates can be
constructive or destructive
In this
topic, you • Movement of tectonic plates can cause destructive earthquakes or tsunamis.
will learn • Molten mantle can escape from volcanoes and become lava.
that:
• Lava can form new islands.
The boundaries between the tectonic scale. The earthquake was centred 140 km off
plates create a lot of pressure as the coast and sent a 10 m high wall of water
they try to move against each towards coastal towns and cities. The tsunami
other. This pressure can be wave also travelled away from Japan, right
released suddenly in the across the Pacific Ocean, and was experienced
form of an earthquake, as far away as North and South America, the
which in turn can form Pacific Islands and even in northern Australia
a tsunami. as a small wave.
Japan is the most seismically active
Earthquakes country in the world because it lies near the
can cause boundaries of three tectonic plates: the Pacific,

Eurasian and Philippine Plates. The force of a
tsunamis tsunami can be enormous, enough to demolish
buildings, and lift cars and even small ships.
Undersea earthquakes can
move the sea floor and push
up the water to form a wave Volcanoes causing tsunamis
known as a tsunami (Figure 3). Volcanoes pose great danger to those who live
An earthquake in northern Japan near them. The volcanic eruption of Krakatoa,
Figure 1 The San in 2011 was magnitude 9.0 on the Richter Indonesia, in 1883 caused a tsunami that raced
Francisco earthquake in
1906 destroyed much of
the city.
tsunami
a series of large waves that
result from an underwater
earthquake
Figure 2 Volcanic
eruptions can cause
tsunamis.

4.4: Volcanic bubbles
a
Tsunami wave
spreads
Subduction
Upper oceanic plate

Jammed region slips,
causing an earthquake
Figure 3 a How an earthquake causes a tsunami b The aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami in
northern Japan in 2011
across the ocean and crashed onto nearby

islands, killing 36 000 people. The blast was
Hawaiian Islands
heard 5000 km away and ash rose 80 km into The Hawaiian Islands are in the centre of the
the atmosphere. Pacific Plate (see Figure 1, page 82). Hawaii is
Volcanic eruptions spew lava and ash onto not near a mid-ocean ridge, yet it has frequent
the surrounding land. When this material is volcanic activity. Most geologists believe this
broken down by the action of wind and water, volcanic activity is caused by the movement
and mixed with organic material from plants of the Pacific Plate over a ‘hot spot’ beneath
and animals, it forms some of the richest soil the plate. This is where a plume of hot magma
in the world. So, in spite of the dangers, people from the mantle comes up through a thin area
continue to live near volcanoes because of the in the crust and creates a volcano. In the case
fertile soil they provide. of the Hawaiian Islands, the hot spot formed

an undersea volcano (Figure 4). Over time, the
Pacific Plate Kauai volcano grows until it pokes above the ocean
(oldest) surface and creates an island. As the plate moves
over the hot spot, other islands are formed over
Oahu millions of years and an island ‘chain’ is created.
The centre of a plate usually lacks
Maui earthquakes, volcanoes or folded mountain
ranges because it is a long way from a plate
boundary, although these landforms are still
possible in areas of weakness or thinning. The
Hawaii theory of plate tectonics and what happens
Direction of plate (youngest) at the plate boundaries corresponds with the
movement distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes
9–10 cm per year Magma around the world. Consider Australia’s location
plume and the limited number of earthquakes and
Crust
extinct volcanoes on our continent.
Mantle
Figure 4 How the Hawaiian Islands were formed.
(Only the largest islands are shown.) Hot spots
Hot spot result from magma pushing through the thin crust
of the Earth.
a b c
d e f
Figure 5 Evidence of volcanic activity on the Hawaiian islands: a rocks that appear to flow into the sea formed from old lava flows,
b mountains rising out of the sea, c and d volcanic rock formations, e steam rising from craters and f lava flowing from active vents

Earthquakes in Australia However, there are still over 300 magnitude
3.0 or greater earthquakes in Australia every year.
Unlike New Zealand, Australia is located in Our plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, is moving
the centre of the Indo-Australian Plate. It north towards the Eurasian, Philippine and Pacific
is thought that the plate formed when two Plates. This creates stress within our plate, and
smaller plates fused, 43 million years ago. release of this stress creates earthquakes.
Although we think of tectonic plates as being One of Australia’s worst earthquakes was
fixed, two large earthquakes (measuring 8.6 of magnitude 5.6 and struck near the city of
and 8.2 on the Richter scale) beneath the Newcastle in New South Wales on 28 December
Indian Ocean in 2012 suggest that these two 1989. It killed 13 people and injured 160. Larger
plates may be breaking apart again. The earthquakes have occurred in Australia, but the
age of the tectonic plate on which Australia damage depends on how close they are to the
is located, and Australia’s central position surface and to large cities. A huge earthquake
on the plate, have both resulted in minimal in the outback is unlikely to cause large loss of
earthquake activities. human life.
Darwin
Cairns
Broome
Tropic of Cap
ricorn
Alice Springs
Brisbane
Perth Sydney
Adelaide
Canberra
0 400 800 km
Melbourne
LEGEND
Major earthquake Earthquake Tsunami
since 2000 (magnitude) risk risk
5.0 to 5.9 High High
4.0 to 4.9 Moderate Moderate Figure 6 Australia:
3.0 to 3.9 Low Low Hobart earthquake and
tsunami risk

Remember and understand 4 Explain how the movement of tectonic plates can
1 Describe two ways the movement of plate tectonics can be constructive.
be destructive. 5 Explain why there are few large earthquakes
2 Describe a tsunami. in Australia.
3 Describe where most earthquakes occur. Explain why Apply and analyse
earthquakes occur in these regions. 6 Use the concept of sea-floor spreading to explain
why the soil in Australia is considered old.

//SCIENCE AS
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR//
4.5 What will the Earth look

like in the future?
Plate tectonics is an ongoing process that will have a major
effect on the shape of Earth’s continents over the next
50 million years and beyond. If the motion of the continents
continues at the same rate as today, portions of California will
separate from the rest of North America, the Mediterranean
Sea and Italy’s ‘boot’ will disappear, Australia will move north
and become linked to the rest of Asia, and mainland Africa
will separate from East Africa and a new sea will form.
A future Earth Figure 2 A global positioning satellite base station

The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the
Earth’s continents are moving at the rate of a proposed, geologists have worked hard to discover
few centimetres each year. This is expected what it reveals about the Earth’s past. The
to continue, and so the plates will take up new supercontinent of Pangaea was the result.
positions. Forecasting future continental motion In the 1970s, US geologist Robert Dietz
is a popular field in geology and draws on new proposed that, 10 million years from now, Los
insights, theories, measurements and technologies. Angeles will be moving north and passing San
Geologists can measure changes in the Francisco. For his predictions, he focused on the
continents’ positions with great precision, San Andreas Fault in California. Some modelling
using global positioning satellites (GPS) and predicts that Africa will continue drifting
small base stations in remote areas of the north, joining up with Europe and eliminating
planet (Figure 2). Base stations are carefully the Mediterranean Sea, replacing it with the
selected to represent known locations and act as Mediterranean Mountains. The continents of
calibrators for GPS systems. North and South America may continue to move
At present, the continents of North and South across the Pacific Ocean until they begin to
America are moving west from Africa and Europe merge with Asia. This new supercontinent might
(Figure 3). Researchers have used computers to be known as Amasia (Figure 4).
model how this plate movement will continue in US geologist Christopher Scotese and his
the future. Since the theory of plate tectonics was colleagues have mapped out the predicted
positions of the continents several hundred
million years in the future, as part of the
Paleomap Project. According to their
predictions, in 250 million years North
America will collide with Africa, while South
America will join with South Africa. The result
will be the formation of a new supercontinent,
Pangaea Ultima, encircling the old Indian
Ocean (Figure 5). The massive Pacific Ocean
will stretch halfway around the planet.
The formation of another supercontinent
Figure 1 Scientists produce maps and animations will dramatically affect the environment. The
that help to explain the Earth’s geology to many collision of plates will result in mountain forming,
people. changing climate patterns, decreasing global

Figure 3 The present-day
movement of the world’s
tectonic plates
Eurasian Plate
North American
Plate
African Plate
Pacific Plate
Nazca
Plate
South American Indo-Australian
Plate Plate
Antarctic Plate
temperatures and increasing atmospheric oxygen. activity. Rift valleys will form, causing the
These changes will have significant effects on supercontinent to split up once more.
organisms as massive extinctions occur and Scientists believe that, in the next few
different organisms emerge. The supercontinent decades, progress in geology is likely to reveal
will insulate the Earth’s mantle, concentrating more about the Earth’s inner workings, making
the flow of heat and resulting in more volcanic plate forecasting easier.
Amasia + 250 million years
Africa
Eurasia
North
PACIFIC OCEAN America
South
America
Australia
Antarctica
Figure 4 Amasia is a possible supercontinent modelled by geologists. Figure 5 Pangaea Ultima: the world in 250 million years,
according to predictions by Scotese

Evaluating the Christopher Scotese model 3 Describe how this movement will affect the position of
All scientists make predictions and hypotheses that North America in 250 million years.
can be evaluated to determine their truth or viability. 4 Compare your conclusion to that of Scotese’s model.
This requires criteria to be developed and applied, to 5 Contrast the amount of data used in your conclusion
test the limitations of the model and determine whether and the amount of data that would have been available
modifications are needed. to Scotese.
Answer the following questions to critically evaluate 6 Identify three questions you could ask Scotese and his
the quality of Christopher Scotese’s model. colleagues, to clarify their conclusions.
1 Identify the direction the Indo-Australian plate is 7 Identify one form of evidence or data that would cause
moving in Figure 3. you to disagree with the model proposed by Scotese and
2 Identify the direction the North American plate is his colleagues.
moving in Figure 3.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 4 TECTONIC PLATES 91

REVIEW 4
Multiple choice questions 6 Describe Pangaea and what happened to it.
7 Identify the evidence that Alfred Wegener used to support
1 Identify which two of the following have led to our
his theory of continental drift.
understanding of plate tectonics.
A continental drift 8 Describe what provides the force for moving the tectonic
B subduction plates over the surface of the Earth.
C sea-floor spreading 9 Describe the cause of major volcanic eruptions and
D magnetometers earthquakes.
2 Identify the type of plate collision where subduction is 10 If Australia moves north to collide with Indonesia and
most likely to occur. Malaysia, describe the geographical features that will form
A continent to mantle and how our climate will change.
B continent to continent
Apply and analyse
C ocean to ocean
D ocean to continent 11 Most earthquakes occur at plate boundaries. Explain how
an earthquake can occur in the middle of a plate.
3 What type of natural disaster can be caused by an
undersea earthquake? 12 Explain why continental crusts cannot be subducted.
A hurricane 13 Explain how sea-floor spreading accounts for the young
B volcanic eruption age of the sea floor.
C tsunami 14 The Himalayas formed when India collided with the
D bushfire Eurasian Plate. Mount Everest, the highest mountain on the
Earth, is 8848.86 m high and continues to be uplifted at a
Short answer questions rate of about 1 cm per year. Assuming there is no erosion,
calculate the height of Mount Everest in 1 million years if
Remember and understand it maintains its current rate of increase.
4 Match the following terms with their definitions. 15 Examine Figure 1, which shows a topographic image of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Explain how this provides evidence
Term Definition of sea-floor spreading.
Mantle Central part of the Earth
Crust Layer of hot, semi-molten rock below the
crust
Oceanic crust Theor y that states that the continents
move through oceanic crust
Continental Theor y that states that large plates of the
crust Earth’s crust gradually move
Plate tectonics Less dense crust containing continents
Tectonic plate Hot liquid rock that comes up from the
mantle
Continental drift Thin, semi-rigid outer layer of the Earth
Convection Large area that may include continent and
current sea floor
Magma Dense crust under the sea floor
Core Movement of liquids or gases caused by
the rising of hot material
5 Define the following terms:

a subduction b rift valley
c transform fault d diverging boundary
e converging boundary f ocean trench
g mid-ocean ridge h sea-floor spreading.
Figure 1 The Mid-Atlantic Ridge

16 If part of the Pacific Plate is moving at a rate of 10 cm per Critical and creative thinking
year, calculate how far it would move in:
a 100 years 20 Create a poster or multimedia presentation about a
famous earthquake or volcanic eruption. Describe
b 10 000 years
the facts of the earthquake or volcanic eruption and
c 1 million years.
what plate movement caused it, along with the social,
17 Explain why modern GPS systems are useful for environmental and economic impacts and the subsequent
predicting future plate movements. recovery process.
21 The Mariana Trench is located where the Pacific Plate is
Evaluate
subducting under the Mariana Plate. Its average depth is
18 Once there was one supercontinent called Pangaea. Initially 11 km below the surface of the water. Surprisingly, ocean
it split into two. One part, Laurasia, moved north while the explorers have found life at the bottom of the Mariana
other, Gondwanaland, moved south. Laurasia gave rise to Trench. Research the organisms that live so deep and
Europe, Asia and North America. Gondwanaland gave rise how they survive.
to Africa, South America, Australia, India and Antarctica.
22 Imagine you could travel into the future, to a time when
Evaluate the climate changes each continent faced as it
your local environment is drastically different from how it is
drifted to its current position, and explain why, today, many
today. Base your imagined scenario on the plate movements
plants and animals share physical similarities with those that
described in the text. Write a travel brochure for a future
originally inhabited the Gondwanaland subcontinents.
tourist destination or journey on this new Earth.
19 In 2009 there was a series of small earth tremors in the
Research
Italian city of L’Aquila. Six scientists (three seismologists, 23 Choose one of the following topics to research. Some
a vulcanologist and two seismic engineers) provided advice questions have been included to get you started.
to the city that an ongoing series of small- and medium- Present your findings in a format of your own choosing,
sized tremors did not necessarily mean a large earthquake giving careful thought to the information you are
was going to occur. As a result, the citizens did not take communicating and your likely audience.
precautions, and many were living indoors on the night
the 5.9 magnitude earthquake hit. The scientists were
charged with manslaughter for the deaths of 308 people, » Subduction zones
because they had failed to predict the earthquake. Their The subduction of one plate under another is well
initial conviction was eventually overturned. Evaluate the understood by scientists today, but how this process
fairness of this trial by: begins is not. Explain what geologists mean by
• describing how the local townspeople would have subduction. Identify which plates are involved in
reacted if the scientists had warned of the impending subduction. Describe what happens to the plates
earthquake during subduction. Describe the geological features
• describing how the local townspeople would have that are associated with subduction zones.
reacted if the scientists had not offered any advice
• describing the accuracy of earthquake predictions
• deciding whether the scientists should have offered » The Earth’s crust
any advice to the townspeople.
The lithosphere and the asthenosphere are different
internal layers of the Earth. Define the term
‘lithosphere’. Describe the asthenosphere. Describe
how the two ‘spheres’ interact. Identify and describe
other ‘spheres’ of the Earth. Explain how they interact
with the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.
Figure 2 The earthquake that struck L’Aquila in 2009

was one of the deadliest in Italy.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 4 TECTONIC PLATES 93

» Convection currents » Magnetic striping
Although the theory of convection currents in the Magnetic striping was considered by some to be
Earth’s mantle is the most widely accepted theory about the final proof of plate tectonics. Explain magnetic
what drives plate movement, there are several other striping. Identify where it exists. Describe how it is
theories. Describe one other theory that explains the linked to sea-floor spreading. Explain what it tells us
movement of tectonic plates. Describe the evidence that about the age of rocks and Earth’s history.
supports the theory. Identify who proposed the theory.
Critically analyse this theory to explain why it is less
accepted than the theory of convection currents.
Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 4 ‘Tectonic plates’. Once you’ve
Define continental drift, continental shelves, sea-floor spreading Go back to Topic 4.1 ʻIs the Earth
and plate tectonics. shrinking or moving?ʼ
Describe evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics. Page 78
Explain the process of sea-floor spreading.
Define crust, mantle, core, tectonic plates and magma. Go back to Topic 4.2 ʻThe Earth has a
Describe the layered structure of Earth and explain why the crust solid coreʼ
floats on the magma. Page 80
Describe the interactions between plates that occur at Go back to Topic 4.3 ʻBoundaries
transforming, converging and diverging boundaries. between the tectonic plates can be
Relate each of the types of boundaries with characteristic land converging, diverging or transformingʼ
formations. Page 82
Describe how the Hawaiian Islands may have formed from a Go back to Topic 4.4 ʻTectonic plates
hotspot. can be constructive or destructiveʼ
Provide examples of natural events that occur because of plate Page 86
interactions.
Relate constructive and destructive boundaries with diverging
and converging boundaries.
Describe the directions of and likely collisions between the main Go back to Topic 4.5 ʻScience as a
continental plates. human endeavour: What will the Earth
Provide examples of technologies that are used to observe and look like in the future?ʼ
predict plate tectonics. Page 90
Chapter quiz

5
Is radiation good or bad? CHAPTER
5.1 All matter is made up of atoms
Atoms are made up of

5.2 subatomic particles
MATTER
5.3 Atoms have mass
5.4 Electrons are arranged in shells
What if?
Aluminum atoms
5.5 Ions have more or less electrons What you need:
Strip of aluminium foil, scissors,
microscope
What to do:
5.6 Isotopes have more or less neutrons 1 Each piece of aluminium foil
contains atoms of aluminium. Use
the scissors to cut your piece of
aluminium in half.
2 Cut one of the pieces in half again.
3 Repeat step 2 until your piece of
Isotopes can release alpha,
5.7 beta or gamma radiation
aluminium is too small to cut.
4 Examine the piece of aluminium
using the microscope.
What if?
The half-life of isotopes can » What if you were able to continue to

5.8 be used to tell the time cut the piece of aluminium until just
one atom remained? (Could you see
it under the microscope?)
» W
hat if you could see inside the
Science as a human endeavour: aluminium atom? (What would
5.9 Radiation is used in medicine you see?)

5.1 All matter is made up
of atoms
In this
topic, you • All matter is made up of atoms.
will learn • Scientists refine models over time.
that:
Although we cannot see atoms, there is much English scientist John Dalton was fascinated
evidence that this basic form of matter exists. by this research and in 1810 he stated:
In around 450 bce, the Greek philosopher
Matter, though divisible in an extreme
Democritus said:
degree, is nevertheless not infinitely
By convention there is colour, by divisible. That is, there must be some point
convention sweetness, by convention beyond which we cannot go in the division
bitterness, but in reality there are atoms of matter ... I have chosen the word ‘atom’
and the void. to signify these ultimate particles.
Democritus was a natural philosopher. He Dalton was one of the first scientists to
did not carry out experiments, but proposed consider the link between elements and atoms.
hypotheses based on thought and reasoning. He was the originator of what is now called the
atomic theory Over the next 1500 years, scientists tried many atomic theory.
the theory that all matter is experiments to detect these invisible particles
made up of atoms
Dalton’s atomic theory
that make up all life on Earth.
By the 1780s, French chemist Antoine
Lavoisier was convinced that matter could not One of the pieces of evidence that Dalton
be created or destroyed. Like many scientists published was the weights of atoms compared
of the time, he was interested in the study of to that of the lightest atom, hydrogen. He
mixtures in ‘invisible’ air. He burned hydrogen assigned weights to atoms such as oxygen,
with oxygen and found that water was carbon and nitrogen, using the results
produced, confirming that water is a molecule, of chemical analysis carried out by other
H 2O, rather than a single atom. chemists on compounds such as ammonia
(NH 3), water (H 2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2).
Evidence such as this led Dalton
to propose the law of simple multiple
proportions. It means that when elements
combine, they combine in simple ratios
(see Figures 2 to 5). For example:
> 2:1 in water – two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom bond to form one water
molecule (H2O)
> 1:4 in methane – one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms bond to form one methane
molecule (CH4)
> 2:3 in aluminium oxide – two aluminium
atoms bond with three oxygen atoms to form
a molecule (Al2O3).
This might seem obvious to us, but only
because of Dalton’s atomic theory. This theory
Figure 1 Antoine Lavoisier measured the gave scientists a way to explain the evidence
composition of chemical compounds. about atoms.

5.1: What is the ratio of atoms in
a compound?
O Evidence supports
O
atomic theory
Figure 2 An oxygen molecule is made up of two
A scientific theory is written to explain existing
oxygen atoms.
evidence and observations. A good theory
supported by a range of evidence can be used
H H to make testable predictions. Ever since Dalton
O first proposed his atomic theory, it has been
used to make predictions, and evidence that
was not available in Dalton’s time supports
Figure 3 A water molecule is made up of one
his theory.
oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.
> Elements can join together to form
compounds.
> Water always contains twice as much
O C O hydrogen as oxygen.
> When chemicals react with each other, the
total mass of the chemicals does not change.
Figure 4 Carbon dioxide is made up of one carbon > Pure oxygen has the same properties
atom and two oxygen atoms. wherever it is found on the Earth or even
in space.
H > Gases, some of which are invisible, have
mass and different gases have different Figure 6 An ammonia
masses. molecule
C > Modern scanning tunnelling microscopes
H H produce images of surfaces that look
‘bumpy’.
H
> Under a microscope, tiny particles of pollen
Figure 5 Methane is made up of one carbon atom in water move in strange ways as if bumping
and four hydrogen atoms. into invisible objects.

1 Compare (the similarities and 5 Explain why it is important that
differences between) a philosopher such scientists record the methods used in
as Democritus and a scientist such as their experiments.
John Dalton. 6 It wasn’t until around 1906 that many
2 Scientists use ‘chemical formulas’ to other scientists finally became convinced
represent different types of molecules. that Dalton’s ideas were correct and
For example, Al2O3 is the chemical that atoms really existed. Explain why
formula for aluminium oxide. Identify many scientists initially doubted his
the chemical formulas for each of the hypothesis.
following substances: 7 Choose two of the forms of evidence
a carbon dioxide given on this page and explain how they
b ammonia could be used as evidence of the existence
c methane. of atoms.
3 The chemical formula of water is H2O.
Explain what the ‘2’ in the formula means.
4 Draw and label a carbon dioxide
molecule.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 5 MATTER 97

5.2 Atoms are made up of
subatomic particles
In this • The Rutherford model of atoms suggests that an atom has a central nucleus
topic, you containing positively charged protons, and neutrons with no charge.
will learn
• Negatively charged electrons travel around the space outside the atom’s nucleus.
that:
• Atoms have no overall charge.
subatomic particles
particles that are smaller
Discovering more Rutherford’s experiments
than atoms about atoms on atoms
electron Ernest Rutherford was born in New Zealand in
A century after Dalton proposed his theory, in
a negatively charged
the early twentieth century, the physicist Joseph 1871. His experiments changed the way people
particle in the nucleus of
John Thomson discovered that atoms were thought about the inside of the atom. In 1911, he
an atom
actually divisible and were made up of even supervised Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden,
Thomson plum pudding
smaller subatomic particles (particles that are who carried out what is known as the ‘gold foil’
model
an early model of the smaller than atoms). His experiments showed experiment (Figure 2). They set up a very thin
atom in which the that inside the atom are far smaller, negatively layer of gold foil and fired a stream of alpha
positively charged nucleus charged particles, which we now call electrons. particles at it. Alpha particles are very small,
has negatively charged He also showed that an atom contains positively charged radioactive particles that
electrons scattered through positively charged material, although it was contain energy. Detectors were set up around
it, like a plum pudding the gold foil to record the path of the radioactive
not yet clear what this material was. From this
discovery, and knowing that oppositely charged particles. This would identify whether the
– objects attract each other and move towards particles had gone straight through the foil or
– each other, Thomson suggested that the atom had been deflected (made to change course)
–
is like a plum pudding, in which the positively by the gold atoms in the sheet of gold foil. If
– –
charged material is the ‘cake’ and the electrons the plum pudding model was correct (that the
– –
are the fruit. The positive and negative charges positive and negative charges were distributed
– – are mixed uniformly througout the atom in uniformly throughout the atom), then the alpha
– what was called the Thomson plum pudding particles should shoot straight through the
model of the atom (Figure 1). neutral (no charge) gold foil by passing through
Figure 1 Thomson’s plum the gaps between the gold atoms (Figure 3).
pudding model of the atom Two aspects of the results surprised the
scientists. The first evidence was that, while
Gold foil
most of the alpha particles did pass straight
through the gold foil, some alpha particles were
deflected in different directions (Figure 4).
Even more surprising was the second piece of
evidence. A small number of the alpha particles
bounced straight back in the direction that they
had come from.
Figure 3 If the ‘plum pudding’

Slit model of the atom were
correct, it would be expected 10
Detecting screen
that most of the alpha
-particle emitter particles would move through
Figure 2 Rutherford’s gold foil experiment. Note the gold with only minimal
the large deflection of some particles. deflection.
Figure 4 The gold foil experiment showed that
some alpha particles were deflected.

5.2A: How can you tell what 5.2B: Rutherford model of
is inside? the atom
Rutherford concluded that, instead of being > The mass of the atom is almost entirely due
nucleus
like a plum pudding, a gold atom must contain to the mass of the protons and neutrons in the centre of an atom,
a lot of space, with a small positive charge in the the nucleus; electrons have very little mass containing protons
centre that deflected the positive alpha particles. in comparison. (positive charge) and
With his gold foil experiment, Rutherford had > Electrons move around in the space outside neutrons (no charge)
discovered a small, positively charged nucleus in the nucleus. proton
the centre of the gold atoms. Huge parts of atoms are empty space. a positively charged
subatomic particle in the
If you expanded one atom to the size of
Rutherford’s model of the Melbourne Cricket Ground, the nucleus
nucleus of an atom
the atom
neutron
of that atom would be no bigger than a
a neutral (no charge)
pinhead.
subatomic particle in the
Rutherford’s model has been supported by An important thing to know is that, nucleus of an atom
further research on the structure of the atom. overall, an atom has no electrical charge. In
The current accepted model of an atom is other words, there is always the same number
as follows. of positive protons as negative electrons in
> The nucleus of an atom is made up of any atom.
protons and neutrons.
> Protons carry a positive electric charge.
> Neutrons are neutral – they have mass but
no electric charge.
> Electrons have a negative electric charge.
Nucleus
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Electron shell
Figure 5 A two-dimensional model of an atom of
the element lithium. Figure 6 Imagine the size of a pinhead compared to the Melbourne Cricket Ground.

Remember and understand 4 Name and describe three types of
1 Use the evidence described to explain particles we now know are inside an atom.
why Rutherford concluded that: Evaluate and create
a an atom contains a lot of space 5 Working with a partner, create a three-
b there is a central area of positive charge. dimensional model of an atom from
2 Describe Thomson’s plum pudding modelling clay or other suitable materials.
model of the atom. Make sure you label all parts correctly
3 Describe the most important new and state which model of the atom you are
understanding of the structure of the representing.
atom that Rutherford inferred from his
experiment with alpha particles.

5.3 Atoms have mass
In this
topic, you
will learn
• The mass of an atom is made up of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
• Because atoms are so small, their mass is measured using a relative mass scale.
that: • Atoms are given their names according to the number of protons in their nucleus.
–
Size is relative nucleus. Because atoms are always neutral (no
overall charge), the number of electrons in
A gold atom might seem heavy if you compare an atom is always the same as the number of
– +
+ it to a helium atom. But if you compare it to protons (the atomic number). Figures 1 and 2
+
–
an elephant, an atom is extremely small! To show examples of two common atoms.
measure something by comparing it with
something else is called relative measurement. Atomic number = number of protons
neutron Relative scales are often helpful when
+ proton
objects or events are being compared. Relative
– electron
scales are used when it is more important to Protons determine names
know the differences between objects and
Lithium There are many ways to group the different types
events than the actual measurement (size,
Number of protons = 3 of atoms. As the mass of an atom is too small to
mass, time). The following conversation uses
Atomic number = 3 be easily measured, and some atoms have similar
Number of neutrons = 4
relative measurements.
properties, scientists use the number of protons
Mass number = 7
Number of electrons = 3 ‘Mum, Chloe’s been in the shower twice to give an atom its name. An atom with 8 protons
as long as I was.’ is always called oxygen, while an atom with 19
Figure 1 A lithium atom, protons is always called potassium.
‘I know, but you used three times as
with mass number 7
much shampoo.’
and atomic number 3
Being able to compare the masses of
Representing atoms
different atoms is important when investigating When it is important to show the number of
the behaviour of different atoms and elements. particles within each atom, the method of
It is not so helpful to know the actual mass of representation shown in Figure 3 can be used.
atoms, partly because the mass is so small. The elements can be presented in a periodic
– – table (Figure 4). In a periodic table, the
–
Mass number
elements are arranged according to the number
+
+
+ +
of protons in their atoms. The vertical columns,
– + –
+ +
+ On the relative atomic scale, the mass of a called groups, consist of elements that behave in
proton is given a value of 1. Neutrons have similar chemical ways. The horizontal rows are
–
– –
almost the same mass as protons, so they called periods.
also have mass of 1 on this scale. Therefore,
Oxygen the mass of an atom (its mass number) Mass number
Number of protons = 8 (total number of protons Symbol of
can be worked out by counting how many
Atomic number = 8 and neutrons) element
Number of neutrons = 8
protons and neutrons there are in the nucleus.
Remember that electrons aren’t included in
A
Mass number = 16
Number of electrons = 8 the mass number, because they are so light in
Figure 2 An oxygen
atom, with mass number
16 and atomic number 8
comparison to the particles in the nucleus.
For example, a helium atom that contains
two protons and two neutrons has a relative
Z
X
mass of 4. A carbon atom that contains six
protons and six neutrons has a relative mass of Atomic number
mass number
a number that represents
12. The total number of protons and neutrons (total number of
the total number of protons in an atom is also called the mass number. protons)
and neutrons in the centre Atoms are given different names according Figure 3 The conventional representation
of an atom to the number of protons they have in the of an element

1 Group 18
6 Atomic number
1 2
C Chemical symbol
1 H 12.01 Atomic mass He
1.01 Carbon Name of element 4.00
Hydrogen Helium
2 13 14 15 16 17
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Sodium Magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.95 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.95 55.85 58.93 58.70 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 97.00 101.07 102.91 106.40 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
57
6 Cs Ba to Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 71 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 209.00 210.00 222.00
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
89
7 Fr Ra to Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og periodic table
223.00 226.03 103 267.00 270.00 269.00 270.00 270.00 278.00 281.00 281.00 285.00 286.00 289.00 290.00 289.00 294.00 294.00
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson a table in which elements
Metals are listed in order of
their atomic number, and
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 grouped according to
Rare earth elements La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
similar properties
Lanthanoid series 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.4 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
group
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 a vertical list of elements in
Actinoid series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr the periodic table that have
227.03 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.00 243.00 247.00 247.00 251.00 252.00 257.00 258.00 259.00 260.00
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
characteristics in common
METALS NON-METALS OTHER period
alkali metal actinide diatomic non-metals metalloids (in chemistry) a horizontal
alkaline earth metal transition metals polyatomic non-metals unknown chemical properties list of elements in
lanthanide post-transition metals noble gases
the periodic table
Figure 4 A periodic table of the elements

Remember and understand 2 Identify the subatomic particle that is not in the
1 Table 1 shows the numbers of subatomic particles in a nucleus of the atom.
range of atoms. 3 Identify the element that is located in period 3, group
a Complete the table. 15 of the periodic table.
Table 1 Atoms and subatomic particles Apply and analyse

Atom name Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
4 Imagine that the elements do not have names and are
and symbol number number protons neutrons electrons identified only by their atomic numbers. Describe the
20 40 20 20 20
possible complications this would cause.
Calcium
(Ca) 5 The atomic number of a nitrogen atom is 7 and the
Fluorine (F) 9 19 9 mass number is 14. Calculate the number of electrons
in this neutral atom.
Sodium (Na) 11 11 12
6 Identify the atom that has twice as many protons as an
Argon (Ar) 40 18
oxygen atom.
Sulfur (S) 16 16
Evaluate and create
b Explain how you were able to calculate the number 7 Investigate what uranium-235 atoms are used for, and
of neutrons in the argon atom. how many protons and neutrons are inside the nucleus
c Explain how you were able to work out the atomic of the atom.
number and the mass number of the sulfur atom.

5.4 Electrons are arranged
in shells
In this • The Bohr model describes how, within an atom, the electrons move in specific
topic, you areas of space called electron shells.
will learn
• Each shell can contain a limited number of electrons.
that:
• When an electron gains energy, it moves to an outer shell of higher energy. When the
Interactive 5.4 electron moves back to a lower-energy shell, the excess energy is given off as light.
Electron • The number of electrons in the outer shell is called its valency.
configuration
Arranging electrons shell can accommodate up to 18 electrons.

You will only have to consider the first 20
After Rutherford had refined his model of the elements (up to calcium) in terms of electron
atom, another scientist, Niels Bohr, concluded configuration.
that the electrons in the atom do not behave The electronic configurations of oxygen
exactly like the planets around the Sun, but and calcium are compared in Figure 2.
move about the nucleus in circular orbits that These electronic configurations are often
are at certain distances from the nucleus. The represented by shell diagrams that show the
more energy the electrons have, the further their electron shells as circles. The electrons are
orbit is from the nucleus. These sets of orbits shown in pairs. The outermost occupied shell
Figure 1 Niels Bohr are known as electron shells. There is a limit of uncharged atoms is known as the valence
proposed the idea of to the number of electrons that can be in any of shell. The number of electrons in the valence
electron shells. the shells. This special arrangement of electrons shell of an atom determines the chemical
electron shell around an atom is called the Bohr model. properties of the element, and affects how the
a defined area of space Bohr also stated that the electrons of an atom will bond with other atoms.
in which electrons move atom are normally located as close to the nucleus
around an atom's nucleus as possible, because this is a lower-energy state
a
Bohr model and is more stable. Therefore, electrons fill the
a model of the atom in shells closest to the nucleus first.
which electrons orbit
The arrangement of electrons in an atom
the nucleus in a series
is called its electron configuration. Shells
of defined orbits known
as shells closest to the nucleus are smaller and therefore
hold fewer electrons than larger shells on 2, 6
electron configuration
a numerical way of showing the outside of the atom. Table 1 shows the Oxygen
the number of electrons in maximum number of electrons each shell can
contain. For the first 20 elements, the third
each electron shell around b
a particular atomic nucleus shell can only hold eight electrons. For atoms
with atomic numbers greater than 20, the third
Table 1 Electron configurations for electron shells

of an atom
Electron shell Maximum number of electrons

in shell
First 2
Second 8 2, 8, 8, 2
Third Up to calcium: 8
Calcium
Above calcium: 18
Figure 2 The electron configurations for a oxygen,
Fourth 32
period 2, group 16; and b calcium, period 4, group 2

5.4: Flame tests
In Topic 5.3 you examined how the periodic Evidence for electron shells shell diagram
a diagram that shows the
table is arranged into groups (columns) and
periods (rows). This arrangement is determined Many substances give off coloured light number of electrons in
by the electronic configuration, and therefore when a small sample is introduced into a each electron shell around
flame. This light can be seen through a a particular atomic nucleus
the chemical properties of the element. The
group number tells you the number of electrons spectroscope – an instrument that breaks the valence shell
light up into a pattern of coloured lines. This the outermost electron
in the valence shell. For example, atoms in
pattern is known as an emission spectrum shell in an atom
group 1 have one electron in their outer shell. that contains electrons
Atoms in group 17 have seven electrons in (Figure 4) and is unique for each element.
Bohr explained this by saying that a particular emission spectrum
their outer shell. This can be seen in Figure 3. the pattern of wavelengths
The periods of the periodic table indicate the atom is given energy in a flame. The electrons
(or frequencies) that
number of electron shells that are occupied. absorb the exact amount needed to jump from
appear as coloured lines in
For example, oxygen is in period 2, group 16. their normal shell to one further out from the a spectroscope; it is unique
This means it has two electron shells, with six nucleus. He described the electrons as being to each element
electrons in the outer valence shell (as you saw in excited. Because this higher energy state is
Figure 2). unstable, the electrons then jump back to
their normal levels almost instantly. The extra
energy that the electrons no longer need is
Number of valence electrons released as light energy. The wavelength of
1 8 the light (and therefore its colour) represents
2 3 4 5 6 7 the energy difference between each electron
shell. This unique combination of colours
(or spectrum) is linked to a particular type
of atom (element) with its unique number of
electrons arranged in shells. This spectrum is
therefore like the ‘fingerprint’ of that element.
Figure 3 The valence electrons This is how flame tests work.
Figure 4 The emission
spectrum of hydrogen

Remember and understand 4 Complete Table 2.
1 In the Bohr model of the atom, identify the maximum Table 2 Atomic number and electron configuration of some
number of electrons that the second electron shell can elements
contain. Element Atomic number Electron configuration
2 Explain why the second shell can contain more Helium
electrons than the first shell.
Carbon 6
Apply and analyse Neon 2,8
3 A potassium atom contains 19 protons. 1
a Identify the number of electrons in a potassium Magnesium
atom. Explain how you determined your answer. 17

b Draw the electron configuration of a potassium atom
2,8,3
according to the Bohr model.
c Use the periodic table to identify the number of 5 Robert Bunsen (1811–1899) was a German chemist
electrons in the valence shell of a potassium atom. who investigated the coloured flames given off by heated
d Explain how the electrons in potassium atoms can elements. From the results of the flame tests you did
be made to jump into the fifth electron shell. in Experiment 5.4, identify the atom that caused the
yellow colour Bunsen saw when he was heating glass.
6 Identify the element that is in period 3, group 1. Draw
its electron configuration.

5.5 Ions have more or less
electrons
In this • Electrons have a negative charge.
topic, you
• When an atom loses electrons, it forms a cation (positve charge).
will learn
that: • When an atom gains electrons, it forms an anion (negative charge).
Atoms and ions For example, an atom that originally had

two electrons in its valence shell, such as
Atoms are neutral. This means that the amount magnesium, would lose both these electrons to
of negative charge within the atom is always achieve a full outer shell – it is easier to lose two
the same as the amount of positive charge. This electrons than to gain six.
is because the number of protons (positive) is An atom with seven electrons in its outer
always the same as the number of electrons shell, such as chlorine, would gain one
(negative). However, if electrons are lost or electron to complete this outer shell with eight
gained from the outside of the atom, there will electrons – it is easier to gain one electron than
no longer be the same number of protons and to lose seven.
electrons, and the atom becomes an ion. The
ion
an atom that is charged
process of forming ions is called ionisation.
Calculating ion charge
Ionisation can happen when atoms come
because it has an unequal
together to form chemical bonds. It can also When an ion is formed, the number of protons
number of electrons and in the atom stays the same, because protons
happen when atoms are exposed to radiation.
protons are located in the nucleus and are not affected
When ions are formed, it is the electrons in
the outer electron shell (the valence shell) by changes occurring on the outside of the
that are affected. Normally when ions are atom. When electrons are gained or lost, an
formed, the resulting ion has a full outer shell imbalance is formed between the number of
of electrons. This is because a full outer shell positive charges and the number of negative
of electrons is a very stable arrangement. For charges.
example, the first three shells of a chloride Electrons are negatively charged, so
ion are stable, with 2, 8 and 8 electrons when an atom gains an extra electron, the
respectively (Figure 1). charge on the whole atom becomes negative.
Loses 2 electrons
Magnesium atom Magnesium ion

Mg 2, 8, 2 Mg2+ (2, 8)2+
Gains 1 electron
Chlorine atom Chloride ion

Cl 2, 8, 7 Cl– (2, 8, 8)–
Figure 1 How magnesium and chloride ions are formed

If two electrons are gained, then there is an electrons. One electron lost means there is anion
overall charge of negative two. A negatively effectively one extra proton. A positively a negatively charged ion
charged ion is called an anion. charged ion is called a cation. formed when an atom gains
electrons
If an electron is lost from an atom, the Table 1 contains some examples of anions
cation
resulting ion will have a charge of positive and cations.
a positively charged ion
one because there are more protons than
that results from an atom
losing electrons
e–
+
Na Cl Na+ Cl–
Figure 2 A sodium atom loses an electron to become a positively charged cation. Chlorine gains an
electron to become a negatively charged anion. In this way, salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is formed.
Table 1 Examples of positive and negative ions
Name and Electron Electron Metal or Change Charge of ion Name and Figure 3 To remember
symbol of configuration configuration non-metal? formula of the difference between
atom of atom of ion ion cations and anions, think
Oxygen (O) 2,6 2,8 Non-metal Gained 2 –2 Oxide (O2–) of a positive CATion.
electrons
Chlorine (Cl) 2,8,7 2,8,8 Non-metal Gained 1 –1 Chloride (Cl–)
electron
Sodium (Na) 2,8,1 2,8 Metal Lost 1 +1 Sodium (Na+)
electron
Calcium (Ca) 2,8,8,2 2,8,8 Metal Lost 2 +2 Calcium
electrons (Ca2+)
Figure 4 Atoms have

5.5 Check your learning a positively charged
nucleus orbited by
Remember and understand Evaluate and create negatively charged
electrons.
1 Define the term ‘cation’. 5 Explain why the elements neon (atomic
2 Use an example from the periodic table to number 10) and argon (atomic number
explain how an anion is formed. 18) do not normally form ions.
6 Explain the relationship between the
Apply and analyse
groups in the periodic table and the ions
3 Describe the patterns you observe in
that are formed.
Table 1 for each of the following:
a names of the negative ions
b electron configurations of the ions
c differences between the metals and
non-metals.
4 Use the groups in the periodic table to
identify the charges on the following ions:
a potassium (atomic number 19)
b aluminium (atomic number 13)
c nitride (produced from nitrogen atoms
with atomic number 7).

5.6 Isotopes have more or
less neutrons
In this • An isotope is a different form of the same element with fewer neutrons in the
topic, you nucleus of the atom.
will learn
• The periodic table lists the relative atomic mass of an atom, which represents the
that:
average mass of all the isotopes of that atom.
Atomic mass and isotopes

six protons in their nucleus, so their atomic
The periodic table lists the atomic masses
number is 6. In the periodic table of the
of the elements. These masses are not whole
elements (Figure 1), you can see that the
numbers and are not the same as the mass
elements are listed in order of their atomic
numbers of the atoms (although they are close).
number. However, although all the atoms of
They are a more accurate way of comparing the
one particular element have the same number
masses of the atoms of different elements. But
of protons, they may have different numbers
why are many of them not whole numbers? We
of neutrons.
certainly cannot have part of a proton or part of
a neutron in an atom. Electrons do have some
mass, but not enough to make much difference
Isotopes
to the overall mass of the atom. So where do Neutrons help to make the nucleus more
these atomic masses come from? stable. For most elements, the number of
Generally, not all the atoms within an neutrons in the atoms can vary. For example,
element have the same mass. This is because most carbon atoms have six neutrons in their
they are not identical. Why is this? What nucleus but some have seven or eight. The
do they have in common and what is different forms of the atoms of an element that
different? have different numbers of neutrons are called
isotope
All the atoms of an element have the same isotopes.
an atom of a particular Remember, the number of protons in an
number of protons – their atomic number.
element that has more
The atomic number is used to identify the element never changes. If there is a different
or fewer neutrons in its
element. For example, all carbon atoms have number of protons, it is a different element.
nucleus than another atom
of the same element
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
44.95 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.95 55.85 58.93 58.70 63.55 65.39
Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.4 107.87 112.41
Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
57
to Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
71 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59
Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury
104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
89
to
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
103
(205) 105 (271) (272) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285)
Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium
Figure 1 Some atomic numbers and atomic masses in the periodic table

5.6: Calculating relative atomic
mass
Carbon-12 is the most common form of relative atomic mass of the element. For relative atomic mass
carbon atom in the natural world. Of all the example, almost all carbon atoms exist as the average mass of an
natural carbon on the Earth, only 1.1 per cent the carbon-12 isotope and only a very small element, including the
mass and prevalence of its
is carbon-13 atoms (6 protons and 7 neutrons), proportion is present as the two heavier isotopes.
different isotopes
and an even smaller quantity is carbon-14 Therefore, the relative atomic mass is only just
atoms (6 protons and 8 neutrons). above 12. The relative atomic masses of the
Like most elements, carbon has more elements are usually shown in the periodic table,
than one naturally occurring isotope correct to one or two decimal places. Be careful
(Figure 2). In these cases, chemists use the not to confuse atomic masses in the periodic
average mass of the isotopes of the element for table (which are decimals) with their atomic
calculations. This average mass is termed the numbers (which are always integers).
6 protons 6 protons 6 protons

6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons
Figure 3 Marie Curie was

one of the first scientists
to study isotopes, some of
which are radioactive.
14 Her notebook is still
Carbon-12: 6C
12 13
Carbon-13: 6C Carbon-14: 6C radioactive over 100
years later.
Figure 2 The three isotopes of carbon

Remember and understand 6 Identify which of the atoms below are isotopes of the
1 Define the term ‘isotope’. same element. Also identify the name and symbol of
the element.
2 Explain the meaning of ‘mass number’ and how this
name arose. Use an example to assist your explanation. Option 1: 5 protons, 5 neutrons
3 Explain why the atomic number of an element is Option 2: 5 protons, 6 neutrons
always a whole number but the relative atomic mass of Option 3: 6 protons, 6 neutrons
an element is often not a whole number. Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse 7 A student wrote that all the atoms of an element
4 Use your knowledge of isotopes and a copy of the are identical. Evaluate whether this is correct (by
periodic table to complete Table 1. defining the terms ‘atom’ and ‘element’, comparing the
isotopes of carbon, and deciding whether the isotopes
5 One atom has 5 protons and the other has 6 protons. are identical).
Is this an example of a pair of isotopes? Justify your
answer (by providing your reasons).
Table 1 Isotope details
Isotope symbol Isotope name Atomic number of Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons
element in uncharged atom
238
92 U

Oxygen-16
10 20
36 29
30 34

5.7 Isotopes can release alpha,
beta or gamma radiation
In this • Some isotopes are unstable and may decay.
topic, you • Radioactive decay produces alpha, beta and/or gamma radiation.
will learn
that: • The half-life of an isotope is the time it takes for half the remaining unstable
isotopes to decay.
radioactive decay
the conversion of a
Isotopes and radioactive Beta particles are produced when a
neutron in the nucleus decays into a proton and
radioactive isotope into decay an electron. The electron is the beta particle
its stable form, releasing that leaves the atom. An example of beta decay
energy in the form of In Topic 5.6, you learned about isotopes.
Hydrogen, for instance, has three isotopes: is the decay of carbon-14 to nitrogen-14:
radiation
hydrogen-1 (1H), hydrogen-2 (1H) and
1 2
radionuclide
hydrogen-3 (1H).
3 C →
14
6
14
7 N + b
a radioactive isotope
alpha particle While the number of neutrons can vary,
The beta particle has very little mass, so the
a radioactive particle having too many or too few neutrons results in
mass of the new nucleus formed is very similar
containing two protons an unstable nucleus that decays radioactively.
to the original carbon-14 nucleus. As the beta
and two neutrons; can be In the first 20 elements, stable nuclei have a
stopped by a piece of paper particle is released, a neutron in effect becomes
similar number of neutrons and protons.
a proton, so the atomic number of the resulting
beta particle This process of decay causes the emission
a radioactive particle nucleus increases by one.
of radiation and is known as radioactive
(high-speed electron Gamma rays are high-energy
decay. Hydrogen-1 and hydrogen-2 are stable,
or positron) with little electromagnetic rays, similar to X-rays, that
but hydrogen-3 is unstable and breaks down.
mass; can be stopped by are emitted after alpha particle or beta particle
aluminium or tin foil Therefore, hydrogen-3 is a radioactive isotope
emission when the nucleus is still excited.
and is called a radionuclide. Radionuclides
gamma rays An example is when cobalt-60 decays to
high-energy
occur naturally but they can also be
manufactured in a nuclear reactor. form nickel-60:
electromagnetic rays
released as a part of
Types of nuclear radiation Co →
60 60
radioactive decay; can be 27 N + b + g
28
stopped by lead
Alpha (a), beta (b) and gamma (g) radiation
all originate from an unstable nucleus. An Alpha
alpha particle is identical to a helium
nucleus. It contains two protons and two Beta
neutrons. Americium-241, which is commonly
used in smoke detectors, is an example of Gamma
an alpha particle emitter. Its nucleus decays
to neptunium-237, which is a more stable
isotope.
The decay of americium-241 to
neptunium-237 can be shown in a nuclear
equation: Paper Thin Thick
plates plate of
241 made of lead,
Am→ 237
95
4
93 Np + 2 a wood, iron,
aluminium, other
Figure 1 Smoke detectors In a nuclear equation, the mass numbers etc. metals
contain a radioactive on each side of the arrow add to the same
source, usually Figure 2 The relative penetrative power of alpha, beta
value. In this case, they both add to 241. This and gamma radiation. Alpha particles are stopped
americium-241.
demonstrates that the total mass of the particles by paper. Beta particles are stopped by aluminium
before and after the decay is the same. foil. Gamma rays can only be stopped by lead.

5.7: Modelling radioactive decay
Strontium-90 (% of original mass)

100
Cobalt-60 is an artificially produced to the time taken for the radioactivity to

radioisotope that is used in medical radiotherapy, drop to half of its original value. 75
sterilisation of medical equipment and When the radioactivity reaches one-

irradiation of food. Because gamma radiation is half of its original level, one half-life has 50
an electromagnetic wave (rather than particles, passed. When it reaches one-quarter
such as alpha and beta radiation), it is highly of its original level, two half-lives have 25
penetrating and can cause cell damage deep passed, and the pattern continues. A
within the body if exposure levels are high. graph of radioactive decay against time 0
gives a characteristic shape called an 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Radioactive half-life exponential decay curve (Figure 3).

Time (years)
Worked example 5.7 shows how to Figure 3 A radioactive

Radioactive decay is a random process, so
calculate the half-life of a radioactive element. decay curve for
we cannot predict which radioactive nuclei strontium-90, which has
in a sample will decay at any given moment. Table 1 Half-lives of important medical radionuclides a half-life of 28.8 years
However, the rate of radioactive decay follows
a pattern. As a radioactive sample decays, less Radionuclide Half-life
and less of the original radioactive atoms are Bismuth-213 46 minutes
left and more of the alternative stable atoms Technetium-99m 6 hours
are formed. This means the radioactivity level Lutetium-177 6.7 days
drops. The half-life of a radioactive material half-life
Iodine-131 8 days
is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei the time it takes the
Chromium-51 28 days radioactivity in a substance
in a sample to decay into the stable atoms (see
examples in Table 1). This is also equivalent Strontium-89 50 days to decrease by half
Worked example 5.7: Calculating half-life

Strontium-90 is a radioactive element that has a half-life b To calculate the number of years it would take 1000 g
of 28.8 years. If 1000 g of strontium-90 was purchased in to decay to 125 g, the number of half-lives needs to be
2020, calculate: determined.
a the amount of strontium-90 left after 1 half-life Starting strontium-90 mass (0 years) = 1000 g
b the number of years it would take for the strontium-90 1 half-life (28.8 years) = 500 g
to decay to 125 g. 2 half-lives (57.6 years) = 250 g
Solution 3 half-lives (86.4 years) = 125 g
a After 1 half-life, half of the 1000 g would have decayed. Therefore, the time for 1000 g of strontium-90 to decay
Remaining strontium-90 = 12 × 1000 g to 125 g = 86.4 years
= 500 g

Remember and understand a iodine-131 Apply and analyse
1 Explain the meaning of each of b cobalt-60 4 At 3:00 pm, 80 000 atoms of
the following terms. c technetium-99 a radionuclide were sitting on
a isotope d fluorine-18 the bench. At 3:10 pm, after
b radioactive decay 3 A number of the elements have 10 minutes of radioactive decay,
c radionuclide radioactive isotopes. In each case, there were only 5000 of the
it is the nucleus of the atom that is original atoms left. (The others
d half-life
unstable. Describe how you could had decayed into a more stable
2 Write the conventional
protect yourself from each of the isotope.) Calculate the half-life.
representation of an isotope for
following types of radiation. Evaluate and create
each of the following in the form
A a alpha radiation
Z X. You may need to use the 5 Investigate one radioactive isotope
periodic table to determine the b beta radiation that is used in medicine. State the
atomic number of the elements. c gamma radiation symbol for the isotope and its uses.

5.8 The half-life of isotopes can
be used to tell the time
In this • Background radiation exists all around us, from radioactive material and in the
topic, you form of cosmic rays from the Sun and space.
will learn • The rate at which a radioactive material decays can be used to determine how long
that: the material has been outside a living organism.
Carbon dating Plants absorb this carbon-14 when they

photosynthesise and the carbon-14 then
Whether a nucleus is stable depends on the enters the food chain. Therefore, all living
number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus. organisms, including humans, contain a
There is no easy formula that can be used to certain amount of radioactive carbon-14 while
predict the stability of individual atomic nuclei, they’re alive. However, when an organism
but some nuclei, such as carbon-12 nuclei, with dies and stops eating new carbon-14, the
six protons and six neutrons, are very stable. carbon-14 in its body begins to decrease at
However, carbon-14, with eight neutrons in its a reliable rate, with a half-life of 5730 years.
nucleus, is less stable and will decay over time, We can measure the amount of carbon-14 to
giving out radiation to form a different atom. determine the age of many old artefacts up
It’s very slightly radioactive, but safe. to 50 000 years old, including cave paintings
Carbon-14 is being formed all the time as and ancient scrolls. This method is called
carbon dating cosmic rays enter Earth’s upper atmosphere. carbon dating.
a method of estimating the
age of organic material, by
comparing the amount of
carbon-14 in the material
with the amount in the
atmosphere, knowing the
rate at which carbon-14
decays over time
Figure 1 A Geiger counter is used to detect radiation.

Carbon dating is the most common way of
dating ancient artefacts, and plant and animal
material. It was used to measure the age of
the Shroud of Turin (Figure 2), a linen cloth
believed by many to have been used to wrap
the body of Jesus Christ after his crucifixion.
Carbon dating indicated that the Shroud of
Turin was not as old as claimed.
The decay of radioactive isotopes is often
very slow. For example, 10 g of carbon-14
today would take 5730 years until half of it
had decayed. The remaining 5 g would take
another 5730 years to reduce to 2.5 g, and Figure 2 Carbon dating of the Shroud of Turin
another 5730 to reduce to 1.25 g. Unless indicated that it was less than 2000 years old.
the amount of carbon is measured over an
extremely long period, it might seem that no
change is occurring. Only sensitive equipment What makes radioactive decay special is that it
can detect the radiation being released during is a random process. It is impossible to predict
the decay process. how long a particular atom will take to decay,
Some other radioactive atoms decay giving out radiation as it does so. With billions
incredibly quickly. For example, half of a of atoms in any one sample, the overall rate
sample of the isotope lithium-8 decays in less of decay can be predicted. Think about a
than 1 second. Uranium-235 takes a very long glass of water evaporating. It is impossible to
time to decay: it would take 700 million years predict when one particular water molecule
to reduce to half of the original amount. will escape from the liquid, but overall it can
In science, there are many situations where be predicted how long the water will take to
change takes place over a range of time scales. evaporate.
Figure 3 Carbon dating

5.8 Check your learning can be used to work out
the age of an object.
Remember and understand b Explain why this method dated the
1 Explain why carbon-12 atoms are more shroud to a range of years rather than a
stable than carbon-14 atoms. single year.
2 Explain why an isotope that decays 5 Carbon dating can be used to determine
very quickly would be considered more the age of objects less than 50 000 years old.
dangerous than an isotope that decays a Explain why carbon dating cannot
slowly. be used to determine the age of older
3 Describe one way you might absorb new objects (by calculating the number of
carbon-14 atoms into your body. half-lives that will have passed, and
describing whether the remaining
Apply and analyse carbon-14 could be detected).
4 In 1988, carbon dating indicated that the b Identify another radioactive isotope
Shroud of Turin was in fact created in the with a longer half-life that could be
Middle Ages (between 1260 and 1390). used to date objects that are older than
a Explain how carbon dating is used to 50 000 years.
determine the age of an object.
Figure 4 How can we determine

the age of objects that might be
older than 50 000 years?

//SCIENCE AS
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR//
5.9 Radiation is used in

medicine
The radiation produced by isotopes can damage the cells RADIATION AND MEDICINE
in our body, or it can be used to identify and cure diseases. Despite the damage that can be caused by
radiation, it has many uses in medicine. The
Nuclear medicine is a diagnostic imaging method often
most common medical application is the use of
used in X-ray departments in hospitals or clinics. X-rays to identify damaged or broken bones.
Less common is the injection of a radioactive
Effects of isotope into a patient. The radiation accumulates
at the site of a cancer or other damaged tissue,
radiation and is detected by special monitors.
The main reason that radiation can be harmful
is that it can cause atoms in other substances
to become ions. The emitted alpha and beta
particles have enough mass and/or energy to
remove electrons from the outside of atoms,
which changes the properties of the atoms.
This process also causes the release of reactive
particles, called free radicals. If this occurs
in our bodies, these free radicals can go on
to damage other important molecules in the
body. If DNA is damaged, this can have serious
effects, because DNA is the molecule that
contains instructions for other biochemical
processes. It is also a molecule that can Figure 2 X-rays use radiation to make images of
reproduce itself, so the effect of one damaged the bones in the body.
DNA molecule can be multiplied thousands or
Radiation therapy uses the ability of
even millions of times as copies of the affected
radioactive isotopes to kill off cancer cells.
DNA are created. Many cancers linked to
Cancer cells are normal cells that have had
radiation start in this way.
their DNA slightly changed. This change is
not enough to kill the cancer cell. Instead, it
allows the cancer cell to grow very quickly.
Radiotherapy uses radioactive isotopes to
cause more damage to the cancer cells. Most
commonly, the radioactive particles released by
the isotope are directed at the site of the cancer.
Radiation Eventually, when the cancer cells are damaged
enough, they die (a process called apoptosis).
CAREERS IN RADIATION
A nuclear medicine technologist uses medical
imaging to help radiologists diagnose illnesses.
Before the first patient arrives, the technologist
must measure the amount of radioactivity
delivered to the department. The isotope, in
Figure 1 Radiation can damage the structure of liquid form, is drawn up into the required
DNA molecules. amounts and added to ‘cold’ kits so that the

day’s scans can be performed. A cold kit is a performed to diagnose cancer, investigate the
vial containing a particular chemical agent extent of arthritis, screen for fractures that do
that, once introduced into the human body, not show on a plain X-ray, or look at infection
will travel to a particular organ. Each test uses of bone.
a particular compound, which travels to a In other cases, the blood is of interest.
known organ of the body based on its chemical The blood of a patient can be ‘labelled’ –
composition and the way it is introduced into mixed with a small amount of radionuclide.
the body. This is used to locate the site of an internal
Most people referred to nuclear medicine bleed. Once the bleed has been located,
departments require bone scans. These may be surgeons can operate knowing exactly where
to begin finding the haemorrhaging vessel
so that it may be sealed to prevent further
blood loss.
The nuclear medicine
technologist typically performs a
number of these tests each day,
looking at a variety of pathologies.
Nuclear medicine technologists
must be familiar with many
organs in the body, in order to
know whether the images obtained
appear normal or abnormal. There
is also the opportunity to learn
about the various treatments for
different conditions patients can
have. Although a nuclear medicine
technologist may learn to interpret
images and determine what
pathology a person has, they are
are not qualified to make a formal
diagnosis. They must present the
images to the radiologist, who
Figure 4 Radioactive dye injected into
makes the diagnosis. Nuclear
the blood shows blood flow in the blood
medicine technologists have a vessels.
Figure 3 A technetium-99m bisphosphonate bone close working relationship with
scan shows up abnormalities within bones. radiologists, surgeons and nurses.

Asking questions 1 Write three questions that you could ask yourself or
In critical thinking, you are encouraged to ask many someone else about the radiation discussed in this
questions. However, it can sometimes be difficult to think chapter. They could be questions that identify any
of the right questions to ask. The best questions will have assumptions or biases that are held about radiation or
the following characteristics. cancer treatment.
• Specific questions are useful to ask yourself, to help 2 Write three open questions that you could ask a nuclear
identify assumptions that you or someone else may be medicine technologist about radiation or cancer
making. For example: ‘How do I know this?’, ‘What is treatment.
the evidence that supports this?’, ‘Who wrote this?’ and If you have access to a nuclear medicine technologist, ask
‘Why did they write this?’. them the questions you wrote in question 2. Alternatively,
• Open questions are best when they are directed at ask someone in your class to answer the questions you
someone else. An open question does not have a yes wrote in question 1. A good question will make them think
or no answer. Instead, it encourages the person to critically before they provide an answer.
explain their response. For example: ‘How do you feel
about …?’, ‘Where do you think this idea came from?’
and ‘What makes you say that?’.

REVIEW 5
Multiple choice questions 13 Explain what is meant when a substance is described as
radioactive.
1 The nucleus of an atom is:
A made of protons and neutrons Apply and analyse
B made of electrons and neutrons 14 Explain why molecules of water are impossible to see,
C made of protons and electrons even with a powerful microscope.
D always negatively charged. 15 238
92 U is an isotope of uranium that is used in nuclear
2 Rows of the periodic table are called: reactors. In an uncharged atom, calculate how many:
A groups a protons are present
B periods b neutrons are present
C valences c electrons are present.
D electron configurations. 16 Only 0.7 per cent of the uranium atoms in naturally
3 Use the periodic table on page 101 to identify the correct occurring uranium exist as uranium-235. The other
statement about calcium. isotopes present are uranium-234 (0.01 per cent) and
uranium-238 (99.3 per cent). Identify the symbols for
A It is in period 2.
the other two uranium isotopes.
B It has an atomic number of 20 and a mass of 40.08 .
C Its electron configuration is 2,8,6,2.
D It has six electron shells.

4 Describe what the ‘2’ in the chemical formula CO2
represents.
5 Describe where each of the following particles is found
in an atom, and identify its charge as positive, negative or
neutral.
a proton
b neutron
c electron Figure 1 Uranium-238 has a relative atomic mass of 92.
6 Complete the following sentence.
‘When an atom is uncharged, the number of protons and 17 According to the Bohr model of the atom, the electronic
the number of electrons present are _________.’ configuration of the uncharged atoms of a particular
7 Explain why the mass numbers of isotopes are whole element is 2,8,8.
numbers but the relative masses of most atoms are not a Calculate the atomic number of the element.
whole numbers. b Identify the element.
8 Explain how the electrons are arranged, in the Bohr c Describe the electron configuration of the next
model of an atom. element on the periodic table. Justify your answer
9 Compare a cation and an anion. (by explaining how you made your decision).
10 Define ‘half-life’. 18 Sketch a radioactive decay curve for a substance that
11 Titanium is element 22 in the periodic table. It has five starts with an activity of 1600 counts per minute and has
naturally occurring isotopes. Compare (the similarities a half-life of 2 hours.
and differences between) the isotopes of titanium. 19 If a radioactive substance decays from 400 counts per
12 Describe a beta particle. Identify its symbol, minute to 50 counts per minute in 9 hours, calculate its
including the atomic and mass numbers in the correct half-life.
positions.

Evaluate Research
20 Tellurium is element number 52. It has a relative atomic 28 Choose one of the following topics for a research project.
mass of 127.6. The next element, iodine, has a relative Some questions have been included to help you begin
atomic mass of 126.9. your research. Present your report in a format of your
a Identify the symbols for the isotopes of own choosing.
tellurium-127 and iodine-127.
b Explain why the atoms of these two elements can » Targeted alpha therapy
have the same mass number.
Targeted alpha therapy (TAT) is a new therapy for
21 Scientists have had to infer what the inside of an atom the control of some cancers. Describe how this form
is like from indirect evidence, in the same way that of therapy works. Describe the types of cancer that are
astronomers have worked out the temperature and treated by this method. Describe how widespread its
composition of stars. Describe the advantages and use is. Identify the risks associated with this form of
disadvantages of using indirect evidence to develop radiotherapy and how are they reduced.
theories in science.
22 Contrast a scientist and a natural philosopher.
23 Describe how the Bohr model gives us much more » Henri Becquerel
information than Dalton’s early theory of the atom. Henri Becquerel shared a
Nobel Prize with Marie
Curie and her husband,
24 Radiation can be used as a form of treatment to kill Pierre, for their work in
cancerous cells. However, this treatment can also damage discovering radioactivity.
cells in other parts of the body, causing side effects such Describe his contribution
as nausea, hair loss and fatigue. Describe what is meant to this important work.
by the expression ‘The end justifies the means’. Identify the scientific
units that are named
Critical and creative thinking after him.
25 A primary school student who was learning about
solids, liquids and gases was told by her teacher that Figure 2 Henri Becquerel
everything around her is made of particles that she
cannot see. Her response was that this is silly, because
if you can’t see it, it can’t be there. Identify three » CERN
critical thinking questions that the student may want to The European Organization for Nuclear Research
ask her teacher. (CERN) is based on the border of France and
26 Create a poster that shows the different models of the Switzerland. It has been responsible for developing
atom, from the original theory that it was a solid particle, scientists’ understanding of atoms. Identify the countries
as proposed by English chemist John Dalton, to the Bohr that collaborate in this project. Describe the types of
model. Use the internet to find images of the scientists scientists who work at CERN. Describe the work that is
involved and their models. Place copies of these onto your occurring at CERN. Describe the Large Hadron Collider.
poster. Investigate the year in which each model was
proposed and include a timeline.
27 Use your understanding of atoms and elements to
describe reasons for the following.
a Carbon dioxide is a heavier gas than oxygen.
b Hydrogen and oxygen can be produced from water.
c The relative atomic mass of argon (atomic number 18)
is higher than the relative atomic mass of potassium
(atomic number 19).
d Beta particles can be stopped by a few millimetres
of aluminium foil, but gamma rays will pass through
aluminium foil.
Figure 3 Part of the Large Hadron Collider

Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 5 ‘Matter’. Once you’ve completed
the chapter, use the table to reflect on your ability to complete each task.

Define atomic theory and describe evidence that supports atomic Go back to Topic 5.1 ‘All matter is
theory. made up of atoms’
Explain why theories such as atomic theory develop over time. Page 96
Define electrons, Thomson plum pudding model, nucleus, protons Go back to Topic 5.2 ‘Atoms are made
and neutrons. up of subatomic particles’
Describe the Rutherford model of an atom. Page 98
Go back to Topic 5.3 ‘Atoms have

Describe how the elements are ordered on the periodic table.
mass’
Explain the difference between atomic number and mass number.
Page 100
Describe the Bohr model of an atom. Go back to Topic 5.4 ‘Electrons are

Explain why electron shells are filled from the inside out. arranged in shells’
Draw shell diagrams for the first 20 elements of the periodic table. Page 102
Define ion, anion and cation. Go back to Topic 5.5 ‘Ions have more
Relate the number of electrons in the valence shell to whether the or less electrons’
atom will become an anion or a cation. Page 104
Define isotope and relative atomic mass. Go back to Topic 5.6 ‘Isotopes have
Describe the structure of an isotope compared to an atom. more or less neutrons’
Explain how the relative mass of an element is calculated. Page 106
Define radioactive decay, radionuclide, alpha radiation, beta radiation Go back to Topic 5.7 ‘Isotopes can
and gamma radiation. release alpha, beta or gamma
Describe the relationship between a half-life and the number of radiation’
atoms of a substance. Page 108
Describe how the half-life of a radioisotope can be used to determine Go back to Topic 5.8 ‘The half-life of
how old something is and explain how carbon dating works. isotopes can be used to tell the time’
Page 110
Describe the effects of radiation on the human body. Go back to Topic 5.9 ‘Science as a
Provide examples of the use of radiation in medicine. human endeavour: Radiation is used
in medicine’
Page 112
Chapter quiz

6
Why do some chemicals CHAPTER
explode?
6.1 Endothermic reactions absorb energy and

exothermic reactions release energy
6.2 Acids have a low pH. Bases

have a high pH CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
6.3 Acids can neutralise bases
Acids react with metals to produce

6.4 hydrogen and a salt
What if?
Lemon juice
What you need:
Universal indicator, lemon juice,
test tube
What to do:
Metals and non-metals
6.5 react with oxygen
1 Pour a small amount of lemon juice
into a test tube.
2 Add 1 cm of universal indicator to
the test tube. What colour did the
universal indicator become?
What if?
» What if water was used instead of
Science as a human endeavour: Fuels are lemon juice?
6.6 essential to Australian society » What if detergent was used?

6.1 Endothermic reactions
absorb energy and
exothermic reactions
release energy
In this
topic, you • Energy is required to break up reactants and can be ‘stored’ in products.
will learn • Exothermic chemical reactions release energy in the form of heat and light.
that:
• Endothermic reactions take energy from their surroundings to manufacture
the products.
When atoms form chemical bonds with each as the friction of a match striking the matchbox,
Video 6.1
Endothermic and other to form molecules, energy is released. or a match lighting a fire. Once those bonds
exothermic reactions Chemical bonds can be broken by adding are broken, the atoms will start to rearrange
more energy (e.g. heat). Stable molecules, such themselves to form the new product.
as water, require a large amount of energy to
break the chemical bonds between the atoms. Exothermic reactions
Unstable molecules, such as hydrogen peroxide
exothermic reaction In an exothermic reaction (exo means ‘to
(hair bleach), require very little energy to break
a chemical reaction that give out’; thermic means ‘heat’), the product
releases energy in the form
the chemical bonds between the atoms.
molecules are more stable than the reactant
of heat or light You may have noticed that a test tube or molecules. This means the atoms go from a
beaker sometimes feels warmer or cooler when high-energy reactant molecule to a low-energy
the starting reactants rearrange their atoms to product molecule (Figure 1a). The extra energy
become the product molecules. This is because, from an exothermic reaction is released, usually
in a chemical reaction, either chemical energy is as heat, light or both. An exothermic reaction
converted to heat energy (so the test tube feels can be as fast as a match burning or as slow as
hot) or heat energy is converted to chemical the rusting of iron.
energy (so the test tube feels cold).
Endothermic reactions
Energy changes in reactions The opposite of an exothermic reaction is
endothermic reaction Before a chemical reaction can occur, energy is an endothermic reaction. Endothermic
a chemical reaction that first needed to break the chemical bonds between reactions occur when low-energy molecules
absorbs energy in the form the atoms in the reactant. This energy usually react to produce high-energy molecules.
of heat comes from the surrounding environment, such If the reactant molecules gain energy from
Figure 1 a In an a Exothermic
Exothermic
reaction
reaction b Endothermic
Endothermic
reaction
reaction
exothermic reaction,
energy is released and Reactants
Reactants Products
Products
the products have less
stored energy than
Stored energy
Stored energy
Stored energy
Stored energy
Energy
Energy
released
released Energy
Energy
absorbed
absorbed
the reactants. b In an
endothermic reaction,
energy is absorbed from Products
Products Reactants
Reactants
the surroundings and
the products have more
stored energy than the
reactants.
Time
Time
of reaction
of reaction Time
Time
of reaction
of reaction

6.1: Energy changes
their surroundings (e.g. from the Sun, from Cold packs reduce the swelling and pain
a Bunsen flame or thermal energy from the caused by injuries. Instant cold packs usually
surrounding environment) then the atoms can contain ammonium nitrate, which undergoes
form new higher-energy molecules (Figure 1b). an endothermic reaction when the inner bag is
An example of this is photosynthesis. The broken. This causes the salt to dissolve in water,
atoms in water and carbon dioxide gain energy removing heat energy from the water and using
from the Sun to form the high-energy glucose it to make ammonium nitrate solution, which
molecule. As the atoms gain energy from their is a high-energy molecule. This cools the water
environment, the surrounding molecules can and makes the bag feel cold.
lose thermal (kinetic) energy and become cooler.
Using energy changes

A familiar example of processes that involve
energy changes is the use of heat and cold
packs. Heat packs are used for treating sore
muscles. They work by dilating (widening)
the blood vessels and allowing the soft tissues
to relax. One type of instant heat pack uses
a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate. solution
This means it contains more sodium acetate a mixture of a solute
than would normally dissolve at a particular dissolved in a solvent
temperature. Bending the pack is enough to
cause the sodium acetate to form crystals. This
is an exothermic reaction as the crystals are
lower-energy molecules than the solution. The Figure 2 Athletes use instant cold packs to reduce
extra energy is released as heat. swelling and pain.

1 Identify the following as either 5 Explain the changes to the thermal
exothermic or endothermic processes. kinetic energy of surrounding molecules
Justify your answers (by identifying during an exothermic reaction.
the key factors and comparing them 6 The energy changes of a chemical
to the definition of exothermic or reaction are shown in Figure 3. From this
endothermic). graph, identify whether the reaction is
a a candle burning an endothermic or exothermic reaction.
b ice changing to water Justify your answer.
c a cake baking
Reactants
2 Identify three examples of exothermic
chemical reactions.
Stored energy
3 Complete the following sentences.

During an exothermic reaction, the
temperature of the surroundings
Products
. The chemical energy of
the products is than the
energy of the reactants. An example of
Time of reaction
an endothermic reaction is .
Figure 3 Energy change in a chemical reaction
4 Explain how the reaction in an instant
heat pack can be used to help an athlete.
Figure 4 When gas burns in
a Bunsen burner, energy is
released as heat and light.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 6 CHEMICAL REACTIONS 119

6.2 Acids have a low pH. Bases
have a high pH
In this
topic, you • Acids taste sour and contain at least one hydrogen ion.
will learn • Bases taste bitter and feel soapy to touch.
that:
• A base that dissolves in water is called an alkali.
• A pH scale is used to describe the strength of an acid (less than 7) or a base (more
than 7).
• An indicator is used to determine the pH of a solution.
Acids in drain cleaner. Calcium hydroxide is used to

make plaster and mortar.
Acids are commonly found around us. Unripe
fruits taste sour because of the presence of Table 1 Examples of common acids and bases
alkali acid. Weak acids in fruit include citric acid in
ACIDS
a base that dissolves in oranges and lemons, tartaric acid in grapes,
water Strong Weak
malic acid in green apples and oxalic acid in
alkaline solution rhubarb. Vitamin C is ascorbic acid. Sour milk Hydrochloric acid, HCl Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
a solution that consists of Nitric acid, HNO3 Carbonic acid, H2CO3
and yoghurt contain lactic acid. Vinegar is
a base dissolved in water
acetic acid. Lemonade contains carbonic acid. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
indicator
Acids are a group of chemical compounds, all BASES
a substance that changes
colour in the presence of
with similar properties. As well as tasting sour, Strong Weak
acids produce a prickling or burning sensation
an acid or a base Sodium hydroxide, NaOH Ammonia, NH3
if they touch your skin. All acids contain at least
litmus paper Potassium hydroxide, Sodium carbonate,
one hydrogen atom that can be released as an ion
a paper containing an KOH Na2CO3
indicator that turns red and they react with many metals.
Barium hydroxide, Calcium carbonate,
when exposed to an acid and Acids can be strong or weak (see Table 1). Ba(OH)2 CaCO3
blue when exposed to a base Strong acids are dangerous because they can
How to tell if a substance is

universal indicator burn through objects. Weak acids are safer, and
a solution that is used to we can eat and drink some of them. Acids also
determine the pH (amount
of acid or base) of a solution
act as a preservative by preventing the growth an acid or a base
of microorganisms.
It is possible to identify acids and bases by taste,
Bases
touch and smell, but it is often not safe to do so.
A safer alternative is to use an indicator.
Bases are the ‘chemical opposite’ of acids. An indicator is a substance that changes
They are bitter to taste and feel slippery or colour in the presence of an acid or a base.
soapy to touch. Bases that dissolve in water are Some of these substances are found in plants.
called alkalis, and solutions that are formed by In the laboratory, scientists use litmus
these soluble bases are described as alkaline paper and universal indicator. Litmus paper
solutions. is the most common indicator for quickly
Bases have many uses. They react with fats testing whether a substance is an acid or a base.
and oils to produce soaps. Some bases, such as Litmus paper turns red in acidic solutions and
ammonia solution, are used in cleaning agents. blue in basic solutions. Universal indicator is
Figure 1 Sodium One very effective base is household cloudy a mixture of different indicators and is more
hydroxide, a base, is ammonia. Sodium hydroxide is used in the accurate because it indicates the strength of the
used to make soap. manufacture of soap and paper. It is also used acidic or basic solution that it is testing.

6.2B: What if plants were used
6.2A: Testing with pH paper to create an indicator?
Strong and weak acids pH scale

(strength) The pH scale describes the relative acidity or pH scale
alkalinity of a solution (Figure 2). All acids a scale that represents the
There are two types of acids. There are strong
have a pH less than 7. The pH of an acid acidity or alkalinity of a
acids (such as hydrochloric acid) and weak solution; pH < 7 indicates
acids (such as ascorbic acid). Strong acids depends on the strength and concentration
an acid, pH > 7 indicates
donate their hydrogen ion more easily, which of the acid. A strong, concentrated acid may
a base, pH 7 indicates a
makes them more acidic than weak acids. have a pH of less than 1. A weak, dilute acid neutral solution
may have a pH between 6 and 7. If a solution
neutral
Concentrated and dilute acids is neutral – that is, it is neither an acid nor a
having a pH of 7, so neither
base – it has a pH of 7. Pure water has a pH of
(concentration) 7 because it is neutral.
an acid nor a base; an
example is water
Concentrated acids have a large number of acid Bases have pH values greater than 7. Strong
molecules per litre of solution. Dilute acids bases, such as caustic soda (sodium hydroxide),
have a smaller number of acid molecules per can form solutions with a pH of up to 14.
litre of solution. Strength and concentration of
an acid are not the same.
pH is important when
cooking. Foods that pH is important pH is important in
are more acidic tend in the environment a range of cleaning
to keep better products
Hydrochloric
acid Water Baking soda Ammonia Caustic soda
Lemon Apple Banana
Figure 3 Many cleaning

products are alkaline
solutions.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Increasing acidity Neutral Increasing alkalinity
Stomach Vinegar Tomato Milk Blood Small Soap

intestine
Figure 4 Some vegetables,

such as red cabbage,
pH is important in our bodies can be used to make
Figure 2 The pH scale pH indicators.

Remember and understand 7 Contrast a strong acid and a concentrated acid.
1 Identify three properties of acids. Evaluate and create
2 Identify three properties of bases. 8 Investigate other types of indicators and their pH
3 Identify one substance that has a pH of 7. ranges. Based on your research, decide what kind
4 Define the term ‘indicator’ as it is used in chemistry. of indicator would be suitable for testing each of the
5 Describe the colour of litmus paper in a solution of: following items and predict their pH.
a an acid b a base. a lemon juice
b black coffee
Apply and analyse
c vinegar
6 Contrast (the differences between) the pH of an acid
d ammonia
and a base.

6.3 Acids can neutralise bases
In this
topic, you • In a neutralisation reaction, acids and bases react to produce water and a salt.
will learn • If the base contains carbonate, then carbon dioxide is also produced.
that:
• The increasing level of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere is forming carbonic
acid in the oceans.
Reactions of acids citrates, and sulfuric acid will produce salts

called sulfates.
All acids have certain reactions in common. When hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium
A general reaction is a word equation that hydroxide, the salt sodium chloride (which is
summarises the reaction, without naming a common table salt) and water are produced.
particular acid. General reactions help you The word equation is:
to learn the common reactions of acids. You
can also use them to predict the products of a hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide →
reaction if you know the reactants being used. sodium chloride + water
Acids reacting with bases

When an acid and a base react, they neutralise Acids reacting with metal
salt each other to form a substance called a salt. carbonates or bicarbonates
a compound that contains This is not necessarily the salt you will find on
a metal cation and a
When an acidic solution reacts with a metal
your dinner table. A chemical salt is a substance
non-metal anion carbonate or bicarbonate, it produces a salt,
that contains a metal cation (positive ion) and
carbon dioxide and water. The general reaction is:
neutralisation a non-metal anion (negative ion) in a repeating
a reaction in which an lattice arrangement. Water is also produced in
acid and a base combine metal carbonate + acid →
this reaction. This type of reaction is called a
to produce a metal salt salt + carbon dioxide + water
neutralisation reaction:
and water
For example, citric acid (C6H8O7 ) reacts
acid + base → salt + water with sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) to
produce carbon dioxide. This reaction is used
Different acids and bases will produce
in sherbet and causes the fizzy sensation in
different salts in neutralisation reactions. For
your mouth when you eat it.
example, citric acid will produce salts called
Acidic oceans and coral

carbonates
Rising carbon dioxide levels in the Earth’s
atmosphere have caused the oceans to become
acidic. Our oceans are a major carbon ‘sink’,
absorbing much of the carbon dioxide (CO2) in
the atmosphere. Since the Industrial Revolution
(beginning in the eighteenth century), people
have been burning fossil fuels in large amounts
(e.g. for electricity production, manufacturing
and transportation), which has increased the
level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by
47 per cent. This extra carbon dioxide has been
Figure 1 The fizzy sensation when you eat sherbet
is caused by citric acid reacting with sodium dissolving into the ocean and forming carbonic
bicarbonate in your mouth to produce carbon acid, making it more difficult for coral reefs
dioxide gas. to survive.

6.3A: Neutralisation reactions 6.3B: Making sherbet
EXPERIMENT Go to page 194. CHALLENGE Go to page 194.
Coral reef ecosystems are a bit like ability of molluscs (such as sea snails) and
rainforests: they are home to a huge diversity crustaceans (such as lobsters), to produce
of species. Coral reefs also help protect protective shells, which are also made of
coastlines from erosion. But coral reefs around calcium carbonate. A lower pH of ocean water
the world are now struggling. One problem is also affects many species of marine organisms
that the coral itself is built from a base called that reproduce by ejecting sperm and eggs.
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which is most If the number of successfully fertilised eggs
stable when the water is pH 8.0 to 8.5. When decreases and some of these species die out,
fossil fuels are burned, carbon dioxide is this will affect the entire food chain and
released into the atmosphere, and some then therefore the diversity of species that can
dissolves in the ocean and causes the ocean’s survive. The Bering Sea near Alaska has the
pH to decrease very slightly. This affects the lowest pH of any ocean in the world: pH 7.7.
Figure 3 Species that live

in coral reefs are affected
by the acidity of the ocean
currents.
Figure 2 Coral reefs are made of the weak base calcium carbonate, which dissolves in acid.

Remember and understand 5 Identify the chemical word equations
1 Identify the two products of a for two of the reactions you have
neutralisation reaction between an acid investigated.
and a base. Evaluate and create
2 Identify the gas that is produced when 6 Explain how the acidity of the oceans
an acid and a carbonate react. would be affected if carbon dioxide levels
3 Explain the major cause of the in the atmosphere stopped increasing
increasing acidity of the oceans. and became stable. Justify your answer
(by describing how the current levels
Apply and analyse
of carbon dioxide affect the oceans and
4 Identify how the pH of the ocean
describing the long-term consequences if
changes as the amount of carbonic acid
carbon dioxide levels are maintained at
increases.
this level).
Figure 4 Bleached coral

6.4 Acids react with metals to
produce hydrogen and a salt
In this
topic, you • Acids can react with metals to produce hydrogen and a salt.
will learn • Acid rain can affect metal objects, marble statues and limestone buildings.
that:
Chemical reactions are happening all the time. As rainwater condenses from water vapour
Video 6.4A
Acid rain They affect living and non-living systems and in the air and falls, it can dissolve carbon dioxide
involve all sorts of substances. Understanding from the atmosphere. A product of this reaction
these chemical reactions allows us to control is a weak acid, called carbonic acid (H2CO3). As
Video 6.4B
Acid lakes
some of them, start others, or use them to our a result, rainwater isn’t pure water: it’s a dilute
advantage. weak acid with a pH of 5 or 6.
Vehicles, factories and volcanoes all give
Acids reacting with metals off pollutants that enter the atmosphere.
These pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2)
When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which may also
gas is produced, as well as a salt. The general
dissolve to produce much stronger acids such as
reaction is:
sulfuric acid (H 2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)
in rain. The result is acid rain. Acid rain can
metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
have a pH as low as 3. Acid rain damages
many types of stone, plastic and metal. It also
Some metals, such as magnesium, react
changes the pH of soil, which can kill the plants
rapidly with acids. Magnesium reacts with
that live there.
hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium chloride
and hydrogen gas. The word equation is: Acid rain is corrosive to building
materials, marble and limestone (Figure 1).
magnesium + hydrochloric acid →
magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Other metals, such as lead, need to be

heated before they react with acids, such as
hydrochloric acid.
Metal etching
The reaction between metals and acids is used
in many industries. One example is the use
decorative metal for jewellery, belt buckles or
artwork. A design is drawn on the metalwork
and a protective resin is applied to the area.
When the remaining areas are exposed to a
strong acid, a reaction occurs that causes the
metal to become a salt. The protected areas do
not react, allowing the design to appear.
Undesirable acid–base
reactions
One problem caused by carbon dioxide and
certain other gases in the atmosphere is acid rain. Figure 1 Acid rain damage on a limestone statue

6.4: What if a metal was
protected from an acid?
Many buildings have metal components

that are corroded by acid rain (Figure 2).
Vulnerable metals include bronze, copper,
nickel, zinc and certain types of steel.
Scientists have determined that acid rain
with a pH of 3.5 can also corrode mild steel,
galvanised steel and some stainless steel.
This interaction between a metal and its
environment is called corrosion. corrosion
The stronger the acid, the more quickly it is the gradual destruction
of materials by a chemical
able to cause damage to the metal (Figure 3).
reaction with their
One way to protect statues and bridges is to environment
cover the exposed areas with a protective resin,
such as the one used in metal etching. This acts
as a barrier between the acid and the metal,
preventing a reaction from occurring.
Figure 2 Acid rain damage on a roller door
100
90
80
% Corrosion (rust)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
pH
Figure 3 Corrosion at different pH levels, in the same time period

Remember and understand 6 Explain how you could protect the
1 Identify the products of the reaction metal numbers on the front fence of your
between an acid and a metal. house from corrosion.
2 Identify the equation for hydrochloric Evaluate and create
acid reacting with magnesium metal. 7 Design an A4 poster that educates people
3 Define the term ‘corrosion’. about acid rain and how they can protect
4 Identify the acid that is formed in water their property from its effects. Consider
when levels of carbon dioxide in the air how you will communicate your points
increase. clearly to help people understand.
Apply and analyse
5 Explain why acid rain with a lower
pH can cause more damage on a metal
bridge than acid rain with a higher pH.
Figure 4 Industrial pollution contributes to acid rain.

6.5 Metals and non-metals
react with oxygen
In this
topic, you • When metals react with oxygen, metal oxides are produced.
will learn • When non-metals react with oxygen, non-metal oxides are produced.
that:
• Combustion (or burning) occurs when a fuel (containing carbon and hydrogen)
reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and a large amount of heat
very quickly.
Reactions involving oxygen For less reactive metals, such as iron, the
chemical reaction still produces heat, but it is
Oxygen is an element that is key to our survival. slow. When an iron object is left out in air and
We rely on oxygen to provide us with energy moisture, the iron molecules in contact with the
through cellular respiration (see Chapter 2). oxygen become oxidised and form iron oxide.
Oxygen makes up 21 per cent of our atmosphere This is the flaky, red-brown rust that forms on
and it is a key component in many exothermic the surface of objects.
chemical reactions.
iron + oxygen → iron oxide
Metals reacting with oxygen
When a metal element reacts with oxygen, a The problem with rust is that it is porous.
metal oxide metal oxide is formed: Liquid water can penetrate through the rust
a molecule containing a to the metal below, as can oxygen. This allows
metal and oxygen metal + oxygen → metal oxide the chemical reaction to continue and the
metal oxide can continue to form, often unseen
Some metals are more reactive than others. beneath the surface.
When these metals react with oxygen, they
produce a lot of heat in an exothermic reaction.
For example, if magnesium metal is briefly
exposed to a flame or is heated, it will react
with the oxygen in the air, producing a brilliant
white light (Figure 1). Never watch this reaction
directly, because the light can damage your eyes.
Figure 2 Oxidation of iron forms iron oxide, or rust.
Non-metals reacting with

oxygen
Some non-metal elements react with oxygen,
which is also a non-metal. The result is
Figure 1 Burning magnesium produces a generally a molecular compound. Consider the
dangerously bright white light. following reactions:
The word equation for this reaction is:
hydrogen + oxygen → water
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

6.5: Combustion and candles
Both reactions give out a lot of heat energy. When the oxygen supply is more limited,
The first reaction can cause explosions and the for example when a candle burns in a poorly
second is what happens when coal burns. The ventilated space, less heat energy is released and
products of these reactions are described as poisonous carbon monoxide gas is produced.
non-metal oxides. Carbon monoxide can be deadly: it replaces the non-metal oxide
oxygen in our blood, which can kill. the product of a reaction
Combustion reactions between a non-metal and
hydrocarbon fuel + limited oxygen → oxygen
When you see something burn, you are
carbon monoxide (poisonous) + water vapour
witnessing a substance reacting with oxygen
+ some energy
in a chemical reaction. The amount of energy
released in this exothermic reaction can be huge.
It is in the form of heat energy and light energy –
which we see as a flame – and sometimes sound
energy as well. The products of these reactions
are always carbon dioxide and water.
What happens when fuels

burn?
In science, a fuel is a substance that will fuel
undergo a chemical reaction in which a large a substance that undergoes
amount of chemical energy is produced at a a chemical reaction
fast but controllable rate. It is an exothermic Figure 3 Burning coal produces carbon dioxide. producing large amounts
of energy
reaction. We use fuels such as the methane in
natural gas to produce heat and/or electricity,
and fossil fuels to run engines and motors.
When a fuel reacts in the presence of
oxygen, it is called a combustion reaction. combustion reaction
These reactions produce carbon dioxide an exothermic reaction
and water. between a fuel and oxygen
that produces heat, carbon
Hydrocarbons are very common fuels
dioxide and water
that only contain the elements hydrogen and
hydrocarbon
carbon. When hydrocarbons burn in unlimited
a molecule that contains
air, carbon dioxide and water are produced.
only carbon and hydrogen
Petrol, diesel and LPG are all hydrocarbons. atoms
hydrocarbon fuel + oxygen → carbon dioxide + Figure 4 Oxygen is involved in combustion

water vapour + lots of energy reactions.

Remember and understand 7 The fuels used in cars, trucks and buses are generally
1 Identify the two elements that are in hydrocarbons. liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), petrol or diesel. These
fuels are mainly hydrocarbons. Explain why scientists
2 Identify the products of a combustion reaction.
are warning that excessive use of these vehicles is
3 Identify the products of a combustion reaction where
contributing to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
oxygen is limited.
Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse
8 Consider your response to question 7 and use the
4 Explain why the presence of rust suggests that a metal
internet to identify one argument for and one argument
object is weakened.
against the use of petrol cars in Australia. Evaluate
5 Explain why we do not notice the heat produced when each argument (consider the reasoning and evidence
an iron object rusts. behind them).
6 When carbon dioxide reacts with water, the product is
carbonic acid. Write a word equation for this reaction.

//SCIENCE AS
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR//
6.6 Fuels are essential to

Australian society
The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels has become an ETHANOL AS A BIOFUEL
essential part of Australian society. However, our reliance In Australia, drivers can purchase a fuel called
on fuels has consequences. Increasingly, scientists E10, which contains up to 10 per cent ethanol.
Ethanol is a type of alcohol that contains
are developing technology to improve the efficiency of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and has the
combustion and reduce its effect on our environment. formula C2H5OH. The formula is written in
this way to show how the atoms are bonded.
Look at Figure 2 and see if you can work out
How do we use the system used for writing the formula. In
this diagram, the atoms are represented by
fuels? the chemical symbols, and the lines represent
Fuels are the substances we use to produce chemical bonds.
heat and/or electricity, and to run engines and
motors. When choosing a fuel for a particular H H
—
use, cost, safety and efficiency are considered.
Fuels can also be chosen according to the H C C O H
—
amount of pollution they release compared to
H H
the amount of energy they can produce.
Figure 2 The chemical structure of ethanol. The
In most applications, the reactions used
letters represent the elements carbon, hydrogen
are combustion reactions. Power stations, and oxygen. The lines represent bonds between the
generators, engines and motors are designed atoms, keeping them together as one molecule.
so that the combustion of fuels is controlled.
Examples of fuels we typically use in vehicles, Ethanol blends are being increasingly used
aircraft and generators are petrol, diesel and for road vehicles in many countries.
kerosene. Why are these alcohols suitable for use in
If you have a gas stove and a gas hot water this way? One reason is that ethanol mixes well
service, then the fuel you are using is natural with petrol and burns well in engines. The
gas, which is mainly methane. Coal and natural equation for the combustion of ethanol is:
gas are fuels that are mainly used in power
stations. Australia has huge supplies of brown ethanol + oxygen →
coal and a good supply of natural gas. carbon dioxide + water + energy
Figure 1 Coal is used as a Another reason is that ethanol burns more

fuel in Australia. ‘cleanly’ than petrol because ethanol contains
an oxygen atom. By ‘bringing’ its own oxygen,
ethanol ensures oxygen is always in plentiful
supply.
Ethanol is seen as a more sustainable fuel,
because it can be produced by fermenting plant
material, such as corn, sugar beet or even wheat
stubble. Mixing ethanol into petrol (to make
E10 fuel) will help decrease the rate at which we
consume the hydrocarbon oils obtained from
crude oil, which is a non-renewable resource.

Petrol is called a fossil fuel because it is
made from crude oil, which is produced when
dead plants and animals are compressed
underground without oxygen for millions of
years. Alcohols such as ethanol are biofuels
because they come from plant material that
has been grown recently. While biofuels are
renewable, which is a good thing, they also
compete with food crops for land and water,
which pushes up the price of food and worsens
hunger in very poor parts of the world.
DISADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS
A 2016 report by Oxfam suggests that making
use of biofuels compulsory could not only cause
more problems for the environment, but it
could also increase poverty.
The biggest difficulty is that land is needed
to produce the biofuels crops. This would result
in further clearing of natural forests, but these
forests help remove carbon dioxide from the Figure 3 Large areas of Amazonian rainforest are being cleared to grow
atmosphere. Although the growth of biofuel soybeans for biofuel.
crops will temporarily absorb carbon dioxide
as the plants grow, their combustion will
ultimately release the carbon dioxide back into
the atmosphere.
Also, the use of agricultural land to grow
biofuel crops will prevent the use of that land
for food production. This will limit food
production and drive up the cost of food,
contributing to food insecurity, hunger and
inflation, which will hit poor people hardest.
Figure 4 Sugar cane can be fermented to produce biofuel.

Evaluating ethics there is an overall benefit or harm to the majority of
The study of ethics can be approached in many ways. In an people or the planet).
approach known as consequentialism, the outcome is used A deontology approach to ethics uses a set of moral rules
to judge whether an action is good or bad. An action that to decide whether a decision is good or bad. For example,
brings more advantages than disadvantages is considered a moral rule may be that clearing of rainforests is bad, or
good, while an outcome that produces more overall harm is that increasing poverty is bad. The outcome of the decision
considered bad. is not considered as important as whether the decision is
1 Describe the different people affected by the morally good or bad.
production and use of biofuels. 4 Identify two moral rules that could be considered
2 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of good.
producing and using biofuels for each of these people. 5 Apply these rules to the production of biodiesel.
3 Use a consequentialism approach to evaluate the ethics
of using biofuel in your family car (by deciding whether

REVIEW 6
Multiple choice questions 10 In an exothermic reaction, the products contain less stored
energy than the reactants. Describe what has happened to
1 An endothermic reaction can be best explained as: the remaining energy during the reaction.
A a reaction that releases energy
11 Define the term ‘corrosion’.
B a reaction that absorbs energy
12 Identify the name and the formula of two gases that
C a slow reaction
contribute to the formation of acid rain.
D a fast reaction.
13 Describe how a metal gate could be protected from
2 Which of the following is an acid?
corrosion.
A water
B a substance with pH 1
C a substance with pH 7
D a substance with pH 14
3 The products of a combustion reaction are:
A water vapour and a salt
B water vapour, salt and carbon dioxide
C water vapour and carbon dioxide
D water vapour and a metal salt.

Figure 2 Metal can corrode quickly in coastal areas.
14 Identify the number of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and
4 Describe the characteristics of an acid. oxygen in a molecule of ethanol (CH3CH2OH).
5 Identify two acids and two bases. 15 Identify the products when methane burns in an excess
6 Identify each of the following statements as either true supply of oxygen.
or false. 16 Define the term ‘biofuel’.
a Reactants are the substances made in chemical
reactions.
b All neutralising reactions produce CO2.
c Bushfires are endothermic reactions.
d Sour lollies contain a base.
e Sulfur dioxide will dissolve in water to form an
alkali.
7 Write a word equation for the reaction between citric
acid and sodium bicarbonate.
8 Write a word equation for the reaction between citric
acid and sodium metal.
Figure 3 Biofuels can be used to power cars.
9 Many lollies are deliberately made sour. Describe
whether a weak acid or a weak base would be added to
the lollies in order to achieve this taste. Apply and analyse
17 Consider the following equation:
potassium hydroxide + sulfuric acid →
potassium sulfate + water
a Identify the reactants and the products in this reaction.

b Identify the type of reaction.
c Describe what you could add to the reaction mixture to
show that all the acid has been used up in the reaction.
Figure 1 What makes these lollies sour?

18 Two clear chemicals have lost their labels. You know that Social and ethical thinking
one is an acid and the other is a base. Explain how you
could correctly identify each chemical. 24 The UK government has pledged to ban the sale of
new petrol and diesel cars by 2030, as have many other
19 Consider two changes that occur as the following countries in Europe. Use a consequentialism approach to
chemicals interact with each other: discuss the ethics of banning the sale of petrol and diesel
a iron filings in vinegar vehicles in Australia by the year 2030.
b carbon dioxide dissolves in water (containing
universal indicator) to form a solution of carbonic Critical thinking
acid (H 2CO3).
25 Carry out a PNI (‘positive’, ‘negative’, ‘interesting’)
For each of the situations above, describe the reaction in analysis on the effect of acids on our lives.
terms of:
i the expected observations 26 Imagine all the chemical interactions and changes that
occur during the baking of a loaf of bread in an oven
ii a word equation.
fuelled by LPG gas. Describe, in less than 100 words,
Evaluate the chemical changes that occur in this process. Include
the exothermic processes that produce the heat for the
20 Identify the process that occurs in instant cold packs as oven and the endothermic processes within the food itself.
a chemical or physical change. Justify your answer (by
comparing chemical and physical changes, describing the
changes that occur in an instant cold pack, and deciding
Research
whether the cold pack change matches the chemical or 27 Choose one of the following topics for a research project.
physical change). Some questions have been included to help you begin
your research. Present your report in a format of your
own choosing.
» Phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid has a wide variety of uses, including
fertiliser, rust remover and food additive. It is even an
ingredient of cola drinks. Describe how it is produced
and more about its uses.
Figure 4 Do instant cold packs undergo chemical or

physical change?
21 A student told another student that they should never drink

orange juice, because it contains acid. Evaluate this claim
(by defining the term ‘acid’, identifying whether any of
the components in orange juice is an acid, and deciding
whether the student is correct).
Figure 5 Phosphoric acid is used to produce many products,
22 Maia was asked to give an example of an endothermic such as this fertiliser.
reaction. She said that a candle burning was an endothermic
reaction, because she had to use heat energy from a burning
match to light the candle. Evaluate this claim. » pH of blood
If the pH of our blood is loo low or too high, we can
23 Create a poster on the effects of increased CO2 levels in
become seriously ill. Identify the name given to the
the environment. Include any relevant diagrams or images.
medical conditions in which the pH of blood becomes
too low or too high, and describe the effects of these
conditions.

» Explosives » Carbon footprints
The history of the development of explosives is Describe what is meant by the phrase ‘carbon
fascinating. Identify the person who discovered them. footprint’. Identify the chemical reactions that
Describe when explosives were first used and how contribute to an increase in carbon dioxide in the
they work. Identify the main chemicals used and the atmosphere. Identify the other gases that contribute to
different types of these chemicals. Explain the part the enhanced greenhouse effect. Describe how carbon
Alfred Nobel played in the development of explosives. footprints are measured. Describe what is meant by
the phrase ‘carbon offset’.
Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 6 ‘Chemical reactions’. Once you’ve
Define and describe exothermic and endothermic reactions in terms Go back to Topic 6.1
of energy released or absorbed. ‘Endothermic reactions absorb
Provide examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions. energy and exothermic reactions
Explain that the energy stored in chemical bonds can be released release energy’
when bonds break. Page 118
Define alkalis, alkaline, indicator, litmus paper, universal indicator, Go back to Topic 6.2 ‘Acids have a
pH scale and neutral. low pH. Bases have a high pH’
Provide examples of acids and bases. Page 120
Explain the structure of the pH scale (7 is neutral, <7 is acidic, >7
is basic).
Describe key characteristics of neutralisation, acid–metal carbonate Go back to Topic 6.3 ‘Acids can
and bicarbonate reactions. neutralise bases’
Explain how the oceans are becoming more acidic. Page 122
Define corrosion. Go back to Topic 6.4 ‘Acids react

Explain the characteristics of the reaction between an acid and with metals to produce hydrogen
a metal. and a salt’
Describe the processes in corrosion of metal. Page 124
Describe the key characteristics of a metal or non-metal reacting Go back to Topic 6.5 ‘Metals and
with oxygen and a combustion reaction. non-metals react with oxygen’
Relate combustion reactions to exothermic reactions. Page 126
Describe the differences between hydrocarbons and alcohols in Go back to Topic 6.6 ‘Science as
terms of their chemical composition. a human endeavour: Fuels are
Provide examples of fuels used in Australia. essential to Australian society’
Page 128
Chapter quiz

7
How does electricity CHAPTER
light a lamp?
Electricity is the presence and flow of
7.1 electric charges
7.2
Electric current results
from the movement of
ELECTRICITY
charges around a
closed circuit
Current can flow through

7.3 series and parallel circuits
Voltage is the difference in energy

between two parts of a circuit.
7.4 Resistance makes it difficult for
current to flow in a circuit What if?
Water magic
What you need:
Wool cloth, plastic rod, puffed rice
What to do:
1 Rub the plastic rod with the
wool and then place it near
the puffed rice.
Current and resistance in a
7.5 circuit can be altered
What if?
» What if you placed the rod near a
thin stream of water from a tap?
» What if you placed the rod near
small pieces of paper?

7.1 Electricity is the presence
and flow of electric charges
In this • Electrostatic charges occur when electrical charges are unable to move.
topic, you
• A closed circuit occurs when the positive and negative charges can be separated
will learn
that: and reunited.
• A conductor allows the charges to flow easily.
• An insulator restricts the movement of the charges.
‘Electricity’ is a general term related to the

presence and flow of charged particles. An
electric charge can be either positive or negative.
It is produced by subatomic particles (parts of
atoms) such as electrons, which carry a negative
charge, or protons, which carry a positive charge.
Electrostatic charge
Objects are normally uncharged – their
atoms usually have equal numbers of protons Figure 1 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
and electrons. But when two objects are other and become charged. If the charges build
rubbed together, some of the electrons may up enough, a large spark (lightning) will move
be transferred from one object to the other. between the charges in the clouds or towards
This causes the object with fewer electrons to the neutral ground (charged particles and
become positively charged and the one with neutral objects are attracted to each other).
extra electrons to become negatively charged.
van de Graaff generator The van de Graaff generator is a machine
a machine that produces an You can also see this with friction – for
that produces an electrostatic charge by rubbing
electrostatic charge example, if you rub a balloon against a woollen
a belt (Figure 2). It is used to accelerate particles
jumper, take off synthetic clothing or walk
electrostatic charge in X-ray machines, food sterilisers and process
an electrical charge that is across synthetic carpet. In all these cases, the
machines, and in nuclear physics demonstrations.
trapped in an object such positive or negative electric charge stays on the
Electrical energy and

as a balloon charged object without moving. This is called
electrical energy an electrostatic charge. When the charges
energy associated with on an object are the same (both positive or circuits
electric charge, either both negative), then they are described as
When electric charges become separated, they
stationary (static) or ‘like charges’. If the charges are different
moving (current) have electrical energy. This means they are
(one positive and one negative), then they are
in a state of excitement, and the positive and
dry cell described as ‘unlike charges’.
an object, such as a
negative charges try to get back together again.
Important rules to learn about electrostatics: If a closed circuit is provided, the electrons will
torch battery, that uses
> Like charges repel. move along the wire to the positive charges
a chemical reaction to
produce electrical energy > Unlike charges attract. and, as they do so, the electrical energy may
wet cell > Charged objects attract neutral objects. transform into some other forms of energy,
an object, such as a When charged objects are close to each such as light or thermal energy.
car battery, that uses other, the small negative electrons are attracted However, it is difficult to continually rub
a chemical reaction to to the positively charged object (unlike charges things together to separate charges and give them
produce electrical energy
attract). If these two objects are brought close electrical energy. A dry cell (e.g. a torch battery)
enough, the electrons will try to jump across or a wet cell (e.g. a car battery) uses a chemical
the gap as a spark. This is what happens when reaction to continually separate charges and
the air particles in a cloud rub against each produce current electricity through wires.

7.1A: Demonstrating 7.1B: Separating charges with
electrostatics a van de Graaff generator
energy (such as a light globe, motor or heater).

An example of the movement of electrical
energy in a simple circuit is shown in Figure 3.
Electrical conductors and

insulators
An electrical conductor is a material through electrical conductor
which charged particles are able to move. An a material through which
charged particles are able
electrical insulator is a material that does
to move
not allow the movement of charged particles.
Most wires are made of copper (a metal) with electrical insulator
a material that does not
a plastic coating around the outside. Copper
allow the movement of
is an electrical conductor – electrons are able
charged particles
to move through it easily. However, plastic is
insulator
an electrical insulator. The wire is coated in
a substance that prevents
plastic to prevent the charge being ‘lost’ to the the movement of thermal
surroundings as it passes through the wire. or electrical energy
Some substances are better insulators or semiconductor
better conductors than others. It depends on a material that conducts
how easily the substance allows electrons to electricity more than an
move through it – that is, it offers less or more insulator and less than a
resistance to the movement of charges. Air conductor; its conductivity
is a good resistor, as it is difficult for charged can be changed by adding
other substances to it
particles to move freely through it.
Some substances, such as germanium and electric circuit
a closed pathway that
silicon, are insulators in their pure form but
conducts electrons in the
Figure 2 In a van de Graaff generator, electrostatic become conductors if they are combined with
form of electrical energy
charge is produced when a belt rubs between a small amount of another substance. These
rollers. This spreads the charge over the metal materials are called semiconductors.
dome, which is then transferred to the person
Within a single silicon chip, very thin
touching it. The person’s hair follicles become
charged, making them repel each other. This
layers of silicon can be combined with other
makes the hair stand up. substances to make that layer a conductor.
Complex microcircuits used in computing are
A closed conducting pathway is called made in this way.
an electric circuit. As electrically charged
particles move around an electric circuit, they 7.1 Check your learning
carry energy from the energy source (such as
a battery) to the device that transforms the Remember and understand
1 Identify the charge on the following particles:
Battery a protons
b electrons.
2 Describe how objects can become electrostatically charged.
3 Describe an electric circuit.
Light 4 Identify the three parts of the electrical circuit shown in Figure 3.
globe 5 Explain the purpose of a battery in a circuit.
Apply and analyse
6 Contrast a conductor and an insulator.
Wires
7 Describe how a semiconductor works.
8 If living organisms are good conductors and air is a good resistor,
Figure 3 A simple circuit: electric charges explain why it is important not to stand outside in open land
move from the battery through the wires to during a lightning storm.
the light globe.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 7 ELECTRICIT Y 135

7.2 Electric current results from
the movement of charges
around a closed circuit
In this
topic, you • An electric circuit contains an energy source (a battery), a pathway (usually wires)
will learn and a load.
that: • Current can be unidirectional (direct current or DC) or constantly reversing
direction (alternating current or AC).
Interactive 7.2
Symbols used in • Current (measured in amperes) is a measure of the number of electrons that pass
circuit diagrams a point each second.
• The pathway of the charges can be represented by a circuit diagram.
Video 7.2A
Building a circuit
Electric circuits
Video 7.2B The pathway travelled by electrical energy Globe
Using an ammeter is called an electric circuit. Electric circuits
and voltmeter
must have an energy source, wires to carry the
charges, and a ‘load’, which is any device that
converts the electrical energy into heat, light or
kinetic energy. Many devices have ‘gaps’ called
switches to control the flow of electricity in a
circuit.
Moving charges Direction of

An electric current results from the current
movement of negatively charged electrons in 9 V battery
an electric circuit. The electrons move, or are
conducted, from the negative terminal of the
energy source to the positive terminal. For Figure 2 Conventional current in an electric
Figure 1 A switch in an
electrical device such
historical reasons, the direction of the current circuit
as this lamp creates is given as the flow of positive charge from
a ‘gap’ in the electric
Circuit diagrams
the positive terminal of the energy source to
circuit to stop the flow the negative terminal. This imaginary flow of
of electricity. positive charge is referred to as a conventional Circuits are represented by circuit diagrams.
electric current current (Figure 2). There are two types Each component of a circuit is represented by
the flow of electrical charge of current used in electrical circuits. In an a symbol (Figure 3). The circuit illustrated
through a circuit alternating current (AC), the flow of electrons in Figure 4a includes a globe, a battery,
circuit diagram reverses direction 50 times every second, connecting wires, a switch and a meter, such
a diagrammatic way to in Australia. This type of current is used as an ammeter, to measure the electric current.
represent an electric circuit in electrical power points. In direct current This circuit is represented in a circuit diagram
positive terminal (DC), the electrons flow in one direction only. in Figure 4b. Connecting wires are usually
the point in the circuit This current is found in battery-powered shown as straight lines, and when they meet
where electrons flow into circuits. at junctions they are often (but not always)
negative terminal shown joined at right angles. The longer line on
the point in the circuit the battery represents the positive terminal
where electrons flow and the shorter line represents the negative
out from

7.2A: Making a simple
torch circuit 7.2B: Connecting circuits
Light globe Switch Connecting wire
V M
Voltmeter Electric motor Battery
Ammeter Resistor Electric bell

Figure 3 Some symbols used in circuit diagrams
terminal. These terminals are where the a b

wires are connected. When drawing a circuit Light globe Ammeter
diagram, you should use a ruler and a pencil. A +
All lines should be connected, to indicate that
there are no breaks in the circuit. A break in
the circuit means the current is not flowing.
a
Measuring electric current
+
Electric current, or the flow of charge, is Switch

Battery
measured by counting the number of electrons
that go past a point in the circuit in 1 second.
a
The unit of measurement for current is b
amperes (symbol A). An ampere isAmmeter
a large b
Light globe
unit of current, so smaller units such as the
A +
milliampere (1000 mA = 1 A) are often used.
Traditionally an ammeter (Figure 5a) was used
to measure the current passing a particular
point in an electric circuit. The ammeter must
be connected into the circuit so that the current +
flows through it. More recently, a multimeter
Figure 5 a An ammeter or
Switch
(Figure 5b) is used to measure many different Figure 4 a A simple circuit b A circuit diagram b a multimeter is used to
Battery
aspects of a circuit, including the current. of the simple circuit measure electric current.

1 Identify and describe the role of each of the main 7 Identify which of the globes in Figure 6 will transform
parts of a circuit. electrical energy into light energy.
2 Identify the subatomic particle that moves in an
electric circuit.
3 Describe how you could stop the charged particles
flowing in a circuit.
4 Contrast AC and DC.
5 Identify the direction of:
a conventional current
b electrons in a circuit.
6 Describe how an ammeter or multimeter must be A B C D
connected, to measure the current in a circuit. Figure 6 Which globe will work?

7.3 Current can flow through
series and parallel circuits
In this
topic, you • In a series circuit, the loads are connected one after the other, and the current is
will learn the same throughout the circuit.
that: • In a parallel circuit, the loads are parallel to each other, and the current is shared
between them.
• A short circuit occurs when the electrical energy can move through an easier path
with less resistance.
Types of circuit current is always the same at all points in a

series circuit.
When two or more globes are connected in However, if two globes are connected in
parallel a circuit, two different types of connection parallel, the current splits. This means when
a way of connecting loads are possible. In a series circuit, the globes the electrons reach the point where the wire
(e.g. lights) in an electric are connected one after the other so that the splits, they will travel along one path or the
circuit so they are all current goes through one globe and then other. Part of the current passes through each
connected to the battery through the next (Figure 1a). In + a parallel
– globe, and the currents join together again
separately; they are in circuit, the circuit has two or more branches +after passing
– through the globes. This means
parallel to each other and the current splits between the branches the currents going through each globe must be
(Figure 1b) and comes back together added together to determine the total amount
afterwards. of current coming from the battery.
a + –
In a series circuit, a break at any point in the
circuit (e.g. from a switch) affects all the globes
+ –
in the circuit. In a parallel circuit, a break in
one of the branches of the circuit affects only
the current (and globe) in that branch.
In a household, lights and appliances are
+ –
connected in parallel, so that:
b + –
> some appliances can be on while others are
off (achieved by inserting switches)
> if one appliance fails, the others will still
work.
Figure 1 a In a series circuit, the current is the same

everywhere in the circuit. b In a parallel circuit, the
sum of the current going through globe A and globe B
is equal to the total current from the battery.
series
describes an electric
Comparing series and
circuit that is arranged parallel circuits
with the loads (e.g. lights) Figure 2 Traditionally, party lights were a series
connected in a row, so the If two globes are connected in a circuit in circuit. This meant that when one light broke, all
electrical energy passes series, then all the current (the electrons) the lights went out. Now, most modern party lights
through one load at a time passes through both globes. This means the are arranged in a parallel circuit.

7.3A: Making series and 7.3B: Short-circuiting an
parallel circuits electric current
Batteries in series and in

Worked example 7.3:
parallel Calculating currents
Batteries may be connected in series or in If the current leaving a battery is 6 A,
parallel, in a similar way to globes. When calculate the current travelling through
batteries are connected in series, each electron two identical lamps if they are connected
picks up a certain amount of energy as it passes (a) in series, or (b) in parallel.
through the first battery and then an additional
amount as it passes through the second battery. Solution Figure 3 A sudden
This arrangement allows electrons to be given (a) If the lamps are connected in series, all increase in current will
larger amounts of energy. For instance, a the electrons flow through each lamp. cause a fuse or safety
simple torch normally has two 1.5 V batteries Therefore, the current in each lamp is switch to break the
circuit. This stops the
connected in series. As each electron passes 6 A.
current from flowing
through both batteries, it collects a total of (b) If the lamps are connected in parallel, and may prevent
3.0 units of energy to light the torch globe. the electrons are divided between the electrocution.
When batteries are connected in parallel, wires. This means the current is divided
each electron passes through either one battery equally between the lamps.
or the other. So each electron collects the same
6 A ÷ 2 lamps = 3 A in each lamp
amount of energy as it would from one battery
on its own. The advantage of this arrangement
is that the two batteries last longer than either
one of them would in the same circuit on
their own. Worked example 7.3 shows how to that allows the electrons to move most easily.
calculate currents. Short circuits are dangerous because they can
also lead to wires heating up from the fast flow
Short circuit of electrons, causing damage or even fire.
Fuse
A short circuit occurs when a current (moving short circuit
electrons) flows along a different path from the when electrical current
one intended. This can be caused by damage A fuse is a switch or thin piece of wire that flows along a different
path from the one that
to the insulation that usually surrounds the burns up quickly when electrons flow too fast
was intended
wires or by another shorter conductor, such as in a circuit. This causes a break in the circuit
fuse
water, providing an easy path for the electrons. so the electrical energy stops flowing. This
a wire of high resistance;
Electric charges will always take the path of is a safety mechanism to prevent damage
it will melt if too much
least resistance. This means that large currents to appliances from the high current, and to current flows in the circuit
can flow through any short path or conductor prevent loss of life.

Remember and understand 5 Describe how the household appliances are connected in
1 Contrast the movement of current in a series circuit your house (in series or in parallel). Justify your answer
and a parallel circuit. (by explaining how series and parallel circuits behave and
providing an example that matches your explanation).
2 Look at the party lights in Figure 2.
6 Double adaptors and power boards enable you to
a Describe how you could determine whether the
connect additional appliances to a power point.
globes are connected in series or parallel.
Explain whether the double adaptors or power boards
b Draw a circuit diagram showing the possible
are more likely to be series or parallel connections.
connection of some of the globes.
Justify your answer.
3 Describe the advantage of having a safety switch or
fuse in the electric circuits of your house Evaluate and create
7 An electrician wanted to connect four identical lamps
Apply and analyse
to a 6 A source so that two lamps had a current of 6 A
4 Three lamps were connected in series to a battery and the other two lamps had a current of 3 A each.
that produced a 12 A current. Calculate the current Draw a circuit diagram to show a possible arrangement
flowing in each lamp. of the lamps the electrician could use.

7.4 Voltage is the difference in
energy between two parts
of a circuit. Resistance
makes it difficult for current
to flow in a circuit
In this
topic, you • Voltage is a measure of the difference in electrical potential energy carried by
will learn charged particles at different points in a circuit.
that: • Voltage can be measured using a voltmeter or multimeter in parallel to the circuit.
• Resistance is a measure of how difficult it is for current to flow through part of
the circuit.
Voltage In a series circuit, the potential energy

contained by each electron must be divided
Each charged particle has energy as it moves in between the different loads. This means a 12 V
an electric circuit. This potential energy can be battery connected to two identical globes in
transformed into sound as it moves through a series may transfer 6 V of energy to each globe.
speaker, or into light and heat if it moves through If the two globes are connected in parallel, each
a globe. This means the charged particle electron moving in a globe is able to transform
(electron) has different amounts of energy before all the 12 V into light and heat. Worked
and after the speaker or globe. This difference in example 7.4A shows how to calculate voltage.
voltage energy is called potential difference or voltage.
potential difference; the Voltage is measured by a voltmeter or a
difference in the electrical
multimeter in the unit volts (symbol V). To Worked example 7.4A:
potential energy carried Calculating voltage
measure the potential difference in a circuit,
by charged particles at
different points in a circuit
voltmeters are set in parallel across the two points If a 6 V battery is connected to two
in the circuit that you want to measure (Figure 2). lamps, calculate the voltage that can be
+ transformed in each lamp if they are
connected (a) in series, or (b) in parallel.
A Solution
(a) If the lamps are connected in series,
the electrons must divide the voltage
(potential energy) between the lamps.
Figure 2 A voltmeter is
used to measure voltage Therefore, the voltage transformed in
V in a circuit. each lamp will be 3 V.
Batteries add energy to the charged 6 V ÷ 2 lamps = 3 V in each lamp

particles. The amount of energy added by the (b) If the lamps are connected in parallel,
battery can be determined by connecting a the electrons will separate at the fork
voltmeter in parallel to the battery. In a 1.5 V in the wires and carry all the energy
Figure 1 Each unit of battery, each unit of charge (electron) receives to each lamp. This means the voltage
charge in this battery has 1.5 joules (symbol J) of energy as it passes (potential difference) transformed will
1.5 joules of energy. through the battery. be 6 V in each lamp.

7.4A: Using Ohm’s law to 7.4B: Understanding 7.4C: Investigating
find resistance resistor colour codes Ohm’s law
SKILLS LAB Go to page 199. SKILLS LAB Go to page 200. EXPERIMENT Go to page 201.
Resistance
The amount of current flowing in a circuit is
determined by the resistance of the circuit. The resistance
electrical resistance of a material is a measure a measure of how difficult
of how difficult it is for charged particles to it is for the charged
particles in an electric
move through. Electrons collide with the atoms
circuit to move
in the wires and the various other components
of a circuit, and some of their electrical energy
is converted or transformed into heat. Most
connecting wires are thick and made of good
conductors. This means they have very low Figure 3 Many types of resistor are available. The
resistance of carbon resistors is indicated by the
resistance, so hardly any energy is lost by the V
coloured bands on their plastic case.
electrons. However, the wires in a toaster are
designed so that a lot of the electrons’ energy is
transformed into heat – so much that the wires Ohm’s law I R
glow red-hot and brown the toast.
Georg Ohm, a German physicist, discovered
Resistors are devices that are deliberately Figure 4 The Ohm’s law
the relationship between voltage, current and
placed in circuits to control or reduce the size triangle can be used to
resistance. Ohm found that the voltage drop
of the current. Resistance is measured by a remember the equations
across a fixed-value resistor is always directly
multimeter in units called ohms (symbol Ω). for Ohm’s law. To find
proportional to the current through the resistor. resistance, cover the
Worked example 7.4B shows how to calculate
This means that as the voltage goes down, the R – the other two letters
resistance.
current will also go down. This relationship is show you the formula to
A potentiometer is another type of variable known as Ohm’s law and is written as: use. The V is over the I,
resistor with a dial that rotates. A light dimmer so R = V .
V = IR I
is a potentiometer, as is the temperature control
on an oven.
Worked example 7.4B: Calculating resistance

If a 9 V battery produces 6 A of current, calculate the resistance of the circuit.
V
R= I
Solution
If V = 9 volts, and I = 6 amperes, then
9 volts
R= = 1.5 ohms
6 amperes
Therefore, the resistance in the circuit is 1.5 ohms.

Remember and understand 5 Calculate the change in voltage across
1 Define the term ‘voltage’. a 25 Ω resistor when a current of 50 mA
(0.05 A) flows through it.
2 Describe the voltage across two lamps
when they are connected: 6 Calculate the value of a resistor that has
a voltage drop of 8 V across it when a
a in series b in parallel.
current of 0.4 A flows through it.
Apply and analyse 7 Use Table 1 on page 200 to find the
3 Identify the three equations that can be value of a resistor that has three coloured
obtained by rearranging the Ohm’s law bands of:
triangle. a red, white, black
4 Calculate the current flowing through b yellow, green, red
a 44 Ω resistor when it has a voltage drop c brown, blue, orange.
of 11 V across it.

7.5 Current and resistance in a
circuit can be altered
In this
topic, you • Diodes allow current to flow in one direction only.
will learn • Rectifiers are a type of diode that convert alternating current to direct current.
that:
• LEDs are diodes that emit light.
• Photoresistors alter their ability to conduct electricity according to the amount of
light they are exposed to.
• Some thermistors reduce their resistance as they are heated.
Diodes Most diodes are connected in series with a

resistor so that the current is below the
Many materials can alter their ability to conduct maximum allowed by the diode.
electricity. A diode is a semiconductor device Silicon diodes are useful for converting AC
that allows current to flow in one direction to DC. Such a device is called a rectifier. A lot
only. Most diodes are made of specially treated of electrical equipment operates on DC instead
silicon. The symbol for a diode in a circuit of AC, but it is convenient to plug them into AC
diagram is shown in Figure 2. You can think of power points. For example, a hair dryer plugs
the triangle as an arrow that shows the direction into an AC power point, but most hair dryers
that the diode allows the conventional current contain a rectifier circuit that converts the AC
(from positive to negative) to flow. to DC before it flows to the heating elements
and the fan motor.
Negative Positive
Light-emitting diodes
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a special
Figure 2 Think of the triangle as an arrow that
type of diode that not only restricts current
Figure 1 Diodes come shows the direction that the diode allows the
in all shapes and sizes, conventional current (from positive to negative)
flow to one direction only, but also emits
depending on their role in to flow. light of a particular colour (Figure 5) when
the circuit. a current flows through it. Typically, the
When the diode is connected correctly, and light from LEDs is one of the visible colours
rectifier
the voltage is above the minimum threshold, (commonly red, yellow or green), infrared
a device that coverts AC to
DC, commonly composed current will flow through the circuit. If the (IR) light or ultraviolet (UV) light. The
of diodes diode is reversed, the current will try to travel remote controls of televisions and DVD
light-emitting diode (LED) in the opposite direction, but the diode will players send their messages via infrared
a type of diode that emits resist the current (Figure 3). This will stop the LEDs. Red LEDs are also widely used on
light of a particular colour flow of all charges in the circuit. electrical equipment to show that the power is
on or to indicate a particular setting. They are
also used in torches, and garden and vehicle
+ – lights. LEDs are replacing incandescent
globes in traffic lights, where they appear as
– + dots of coloured light.
Figure 3 The diode allows LED televisions use the light from the
current to flow in one Current permitted Current prohibited LEDs behind a screen of liquid crystals. The
direction only. Diode is forward-biased Diode is reverse-biased LEDs produce a light that shines through the
pixels to create an image. Because LEDs are
Some diodes can only carry small currents, more energy efficient, LED TVs are thinner
of much less than 1 A. Bigger currents produce than normal liquid crystal display (LCD)
too much heat, which would destroy the diode. televisions.

7.5A: Investigating with
a remote control 7.5B: Lighting up LEDS 7.5C: Wiring a house
CHALLENGE Go to page 202. CHALLENGE Go to page 202. CHALLENGE Go to page 203.
property is called photoconductivity. In the

dark, a photoresistor has a very high resistance
(thousands of ohms), while light can reduce the
resistance to a few hundred ohms. This means
more light causes more current.
Wall sensor
Photoresistors are used in camera light
meters, night lights and solar street lamps.
When light falls on the photoresistor in a street
Infrared receiver
Bumper lamp, it turns the lamp off. Figure 5 Light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) are more
efficient, longer lasting
Temperature-dependent
Figure 4 Robot vacuum cleaners send infrared
beams around a room to tell the robot the size of and use less power than
the room and if there are any drop-offs, such as
stairs.
resistors light globes, making them
useful for a wide range of
Temperature-dependent resistors (or applications.
thermistors) are devices that change their light-dependent resistor
Light-dependent resistors resistance when the temperature varies. This
affects the amount of current that can flow
(LDR)
a resistor that changes its
Light-dependent resistors (LDR) (or through the circuit. Most commonly, the resistance according to
photoresistors) use light to change the amount higher the temperature, the lower the resistance the amount of light it is
of electric current that moves through the (Figure 7a). Thermistors are often included in exposed to
circuit. The more light that shines on a programmable circuits that detect the amount photoconductivity
photoresistor, the less it resists the movement of of current flowing and use it to display the a property of light-
electrons and the more the current is allowed temperature (as in thermometers) or to turn an dependent resistors, where
to flow through the circuit (Figure 6a). This the amount of electricity
object on or off.
passing through the
resistor is dependent on
the amount of light it is
exposed to
a a
Resistance b
decreasing with b
Resistance
light intensity
Resistance
Light intensity Temperature c

Figure 6 a The resistance of an LDR decreases
when more light shines on it. b An LDR and its Figure 7 a The resistance of a thermistor changes with temperature.
circuit symbol b Thermistors c Thermistor circuit symbol
temperature-dependent
7.5 Check your learning resistor
a resistor that varies the
Remember and understand Apply and analyse flow of current according
to the temperature it is
1 Describe the role of the following 3 Compare a photoresistor and a
exposed to
devices in a circuit. thermistor.
thermistor
a LED 4 Explain why an electrical device such as
a temperature-dependent
b photoresistor a toaster would need a rectifier.
resistor that varies the flow
c thermistor 5 A television remote control usually has of current according to the
2 Describe the role of a resistor that is an infrared LED that converts electrical temperature it is exposed
connected in series with a diode. Draw energy into infrared energy. Identify to; commonly used for
the device the television must have to temperature control
a circuit using circuit symbols showing
the correct arrangement of these communicate with the remote.
components.

REVIEW 7
Multiple choice questions 8 Define:
a LED
1 The units of voltage, current and resistance, respectively, b rectifier.
are:
A amps, ohms, volts 9 Compare current and voltage.
B ohms, volts, amps 10 Describe how current moves in a parallel circuit.
C volts, amps, ohms 11 Contrast a voltmeter with a multimeter.
D volts, ohms, amps.
12 Describe the relationship between current, voltage and
2 The potential energy that can be transformed in a lamp resistance.
is also known as:
13 Describe how voltage changes through a series circuit.
A current
B voltage 14 Identify the circuit in Figure 2 as either a parallel circuit
C resistance or a series circuit.
D load.
3 A 50 Ω resistor is connected to a 10 V battery. The current
flowing through it is __________ amps. If the voltage is
doubled, then the current will be __________ amps.
A 5 A, 2.5 A
B 0.2 A, 0.1 A
C 5 A, 10 A Figure 2 What type of circuit is this?
D 0.2 A, 0.4 A
Apply and analyse
Short answer questions 15 Draw a circuit diagram that shows a battery and a switch,
with a globe on either side of the switch.
Remember and understand a Describe whether or how the circuit will be affected if
4 Draw a circuit diagram for a circuit containing a battery, the switch is placed before both globes.
globe and switch. Identify the direction of electron flow b Identify the direction of electron flow and the
and the direction of conventional current. direction of conventional current in the circuit.
5 Match each circuit symbol shown in Figure 1 with its 16 Two identical bulbs are set up in a parallel circuit.
name. Describe what would happen if a third identical bulb is
ammeter battery globe switch connected in parallel.
17 Use Table 1 on page 200 to calculate the value of a
resistor with the following coloured bands (in order):
a green, brown, black
b brown, yellow, red.
18 Use Table 1 on page 200 to calculate the coloured bands
on a 7.9 MΩ resistor.
19 The lights in Figure 3 are connected in series. Describe
what will happen if one globe fails.
Figure 1 Circuit symbols
6 Describe the role of an ammeter.

7 If you don’t connect the conducting wires to a
globe correctly, the globe doesn’t light up. Use the
terms ‘insulators’ and ‘conductors’ to explain
this observation. Figure 3 Lights connected in series

20 Calculate the current flowing through a 30 Ω resistor Critical and creative thinking
when it has a voltage drop of 12 V across it.
30 In a storm, a tree has been blown over onto the main
21 Calculate the voltage drop across a 50 Ω resistor when a power line to your neighbourhood. The electricity supply
current of 25 mA flows through it. is cut. Describe your day without mains electricity.
22 Calculate the value of a resistor that has a voltage drop of 31 Use your understanding of current and voltage to model
18 V across it when a current of 0.3 A flows through it. the flow of electricity through a circuit. You might use
23 Explain why electrical current flows more easily in people or even an animation as your model.
conductors.
Evaluate
Research
32 Choose one of the following topics for a research project.
24 Power lines carry electricity from power stations to
A few guiding questions have been provided, but you
cities and towns. They experience a voltage loss due to
should add more questions that you wish to investigate.
the high resistance along the lines according to Ohm’s
Present your report in a format of your own choosing.
law. Describe how the current in power lines could be
changed to minimise this voltage loss due to resistance.
25 Explain why a voltmeter is connected in parallel and an
» Seeing the light
ammeter is connected in series in a circuit. Research incandescent light globes. Identify what is
meant by ‘incandescent’. Describe the materials that
26 Use the correct symbols to draw a circuit consisting of a
these globes are made of. Explain why the filament
6 V DC supply, an LED and a 100 Ω resistor connected
must contain an inert gas like argon. Describe the
in series. Add a voltmeter to measure the voltage drop
temperature the filament needs to be heated to so
across the LED.
that it gives off light. Describe the efficiency of
27 Evaluate the claim: ‘Resistance increases as voltage incandescent light globes.
decreases.’

28 LEDs are gradually replacing incandescent street lights
and traffic lights because they are more energy efficient.
Unfortunately, this makes the lights much brighter,
which can interrupt the sleep or migration patterns of
local wildlife, including the bogong moth.
The bogong moth is a major food source of the
pygmy possum. When the moths are attracted to the
LED lights in the city, this diverts them away from the
pygmy possum’s habitat, and so the possums fail to get Figure 4 Incandescent light globes
the food they need to survive.
Discuss the ethical dilemma caused by use of LED
lights by: » Light-emitting diodes
• describing the advantages of using LED lights Describe diodes and how they
• describing the disadvantages of using LED lights work. Describe light-emitting
• deciding whether the advantages are more important diodes (LEDs) and explain
than the disadvantages (consequentialism) or whether why they are used in traffic
some rules should not be broken (deontology). lights. Evaluate the benefits
of using LEDs. Identify other
29 Less than 3 per cent of batteries that are purchased
applications of LEDs. Compare
in Australia are recycled. This means 97 per cent of
their longevity to that of
batteries get sent to landfill, where they contaminate soil
compact fluorescent globes and
and water with toxic matter. Lithium batteries can also
incandescent globes.
cause fires and explosions if they are inappropriately
stored, damaging native habitats and homes. Evaluate the
importance of recycling batteries and using rechargeable Figure 5 LEDs are used
batteries to avoid damaging the environment. in traffic lights.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 7 ELECTRICITY 145

» Energy-efficient housing
In previous societies, energy efficiency was important
because people had limited access to the types of energy
supplies and their applications that we have today.
Research how civilisations in tropical areas designed their
homes to keep them cool and damp-free. Describe the
different types of energy-efficiency practices that humans
have used through the ages.
Figure 6 Solar panels improve energy efficiency.
Reflect
The table below outlines criteria for successfully understanding Chapter 7 ‘Electricity’. Once you have completed this
chapter, reflect on your ability to do the following:
Describe the difference between static electricity and Go back to Topic 7.1 ‘Electricity is the
electric current. presence and flow of electric charges’
Identify the key components of an electric circuit. Page 134
Explain why circuit diagrams are used to represent Go back to Topic 7.2 ‘Electric current results
circuits and draw appropriate circuit diagrams. from the movement of charges around a
Explain how an ammeter measures current. closed circuit’
Page 136
Describe the differences in arrangement of series and Go back to Topic 7.3 ‘Current can flow
parallel circuits. through series and parallel circuits’
Measure current using an ammeter. Page 138
Describe how voltage is shared in series circuits and the Go back to Topic 7.4 ‘Voltage is the
same in parallel circuits. difference in energy between two parts of
Measure voltage using a voltmeter. a circuit. Resistance makes it difficult for
current to flow in a circuit’
Page 140
Describe how a diode restricts current to one direction. Go back to Topic 7.5 ‘Current and resistance
Describe how resistance can be altered by light or in a circuit can be altered’
temperature. Page 142
Chapter quiz

8
How do motors convert CHAPTER
electrical energy to movement?
Wires carrying an electric current

8.1 generate a magnetic field
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electricity and magnets are
8.2 used to produce movement
Magnetic fields and movement

8.3 are used to generate electricity What if?
The power of magnetic fields
What you need:
Bar magnet, A4 paper, iron filings
What to do:
1 Place the bar magnet on the table.
2 Use the paper to cover the magnet.
3 Sprinkle iron filings over the paper
and observe how they arrange
Science as a human endeavour: themselves in a series of lines.
8.4 Electromagnetic fields are used What if?
in technology and medicine » What if the horseshoe magnet was
used?
» What if both magnets were used?

8.1 Wires carrying an electric
current generate a
magnetic field
In this
topic, you • A magnetic field is generated when charged particles move through a wire.
will learn • The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right-hand grip
that: rule, where the thumb points in the direction of the current (towards the negative
terminal) and the fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field.
Magnetic fields When a small compass is placed in the field,

the needle shows the direction of the magnetic
A magnetic field exists in the space field.
surrounding a magnet. When iron or steel Just like the magnetic field around
enters the magnetic field, it experiences a force. a magnet, the magnetic field around an
The shape of the magnetic field can be made electrical wire carrying current has direction.
visible by sprinkling iron filings around the The field around the outside of a magnet is
magnet. The closer the iron filings are to the always said to be moving from the north
magnet, the stronger the magnetic force. pole to the south pole of the magnet. To
Using electricity to create

determine the direction of the magnetic field
right-hand grip rule around an electrical wire, use the right-hand
a rule used to predict the
magnetic field direction
magnetic fields grip rule (also called the right-hand curl
rule) (Figure 2).
around a current-carrying Magnets are not the only objects that generate
Place your right hand so that your thumb
wire or the magnetic magnetic fields. When Danish physicist Hans
field of a solenoid; the
is pointed along the wire in the direction of
Christian Øersted discovered that a wire
right thumb indicates the the conventional current, which traditionally
carrying an electric current caused a compass
current direction and the is towards the negative terminal of the
to move when the current was switched on,
curled fingers give the battery. Now curl your fingers. The way your
he concluded that electricity could cause
magnetic field direction; fingers curl gives the circular direction of the
also known as the right- magnetism. A single current-carrying wire
magnetic field.
hand curl rule creates a circular magnetic field that gets
weaker as the distance from the wire increases
(Figure 1).
–
Current
–
Field
Current-carrying wire
Iron filings +
Card Wire Figure 2 The right-hand grip rule. The way the
+
fingers point around the wire gives the direction of
Figure 1 The magnetic field around a straight the magnetic field. The direction in this diagram is
current-carrying wire is circular. anticlockwise.

8.1: Creating magnetic fields
Electromagnets around the outside of the solenoid. This means

the magnetic field inside the solenoid moves
To create a stronger, straighter magnetic field, towards the north pole, and the magnetic field
you can loop a long, single, current-carrying around the outside of the solenoid moves out
wire into coils (Figure 3a). Such a coil of loops from the north end and around the outside to
is known as a solenoid. The magnetic field the south end (just like a bar magnet). solenoid
produced by this arrangement is very similar a coil of wire that can carry
To create an even stronger magnetic
to that of a bar magnet. To determine the an electric current; an iron
field, a soft iron core can be added inside core can be added to make
direction of the magnetic field in this case, the solenoid (Figure 3b). Pure iron is easily an electromagnet
use the right-hand grip rule on any one of magnetised. If the current is switched on, the
the loops of the solenoid to get the direction core becomes magnetised and strengthens the
of the field around this loop. This will give magnetic effect of the solenoid. If the current
the direction of the magnetic field inside and is switched off, the magnetic field is reduced.
This is an example of an electromagnet,
a
which is a type of magnet that can be
turned on and off. The versatile nature of
N S
electromagnets has enabled many devices to
be invented (Figure 4).
+ – Conventional
current flow
N S
+ – Conventional
current flow
Figure 3 a A stronger magnetic field is created

when a long, single, current-carrying wire is
looped into coils. b An iron core increases the Figure 4 The ability to switch the magnetic fields of electromagnets on and off
strength of the electromagnet. has made them useful for many devices.

1 Describe how two bar magnets could be arranged 4 An electromagnet made by a student will pick up
to produce: three paperclips, but it is not strong enough to pick
a attraction up four paperclips. Describe two ways the student
b repulsion. could modify the electromagnet so it can pick up
2 Describe what happens to the strength of the magnetic four paperclips.
field as you come closer to a current-carrying wire. 5 Describe how the strength of the magnetic field
3 Describe how the right-hand grip rule can be used around a solenoid could be increased.
to show the direction of the magnetic field around a 6 Explain why all electrical wiring on a ship should
current-carrying wire. be kept away from the ship’s compass.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 8 ELECTROMAGNETISM 149

8.2 Electricity and magnets are
used to produce movement
In this
topic, you • All electric motors use electrical current and magnets to generate movement.
will learn • The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire interacts with the magnetic
that: field surrounding a magnet to exert a force on the wire.
• The right-hand slap rule can be used to determine the direction the wire will move.
The magnetic field generated by an electrical

current can be used to move another magnet.
Electric motors
For this to occur, the direction of the magnetic The force on a single wire is not particularly
field must be known. useful. To create a more effective force, the
single wire can be looped into coils, similar to
Right-hand slap rule the solenoid. If this coil has current moving
through it, then it will generate a magnetic field.
If a current-carrying wire is placed at right If the magnetic solenoid is placed in another
angles to a separate magnetic field, such as that magnetic field, the forces between the magnets
right-hand slap rule of a strong magnet, the magnetic field of the will cause either the magnet or the solenoid to
a rule used to predict the wire will exert a force on the magnet. In some rotate. Such a device is an electric motor.
force on a current-carrying places, the two magnetic fields will attract each
wire in a magnetic field; It is possible that you’ve used an electric
other, and in others the magnetic fields will motor already today. A hairdryer uses an
the right thumb indicates
repel each other. This results in an unbalanced electric motor to drive the fan that blows hot air
the current direction, the
outstretched fingers follow magnetic field that pushes on the electrons over your hair. Electric motors attached to fans
the magnetic field direction moving in the wire, causing the wire to move. are also used in heaters and air conditioners to
and the palm of the hand The direction the wire moves can be blow warm or cold air around a room or inside
pushes in the direction of predicted by the right-hand slap rule. The a car. A washing machine, a clothes dryer, a
the force right thumb points in the direction of the blender and a fan in a computer all use electric
armature conventional current (towards the negative motors to create rotation. Each of these devices
coils of current-carrying terminal of the battery) and the straight fingers uses a current-carrying solenoid and a magnet
wire in a motor or point in the direction of the external magnetic to generate movement.
generator field (from the magnet’s north pole to the Figure 2 shows how an electric motor works.
brushes south pole). The direction the palm faces is the The coil of wire, called an armature, usually
a pair of contacts that bring direction the wire will be pushed (Figure 1). consists of many turns but is shown in the
current into an armature diagrams as a single loop for clarity. The pivots at
(motor) or take current out Force Current
(out of palm) each end of the armature are omitted for clarity.
of an armature (generator)
The coil is connected to the DC power
split ring commutator Field supply using brushes and a split ring
a device in a DC motor commutator (SRC).The direction of the
or a DC generator that conventional current is shown by the arrows.
reverses the current flow The right-hand slap rule on each side of the
in an armature every half
diagram shows the direction of forces on the
turn to maintain rotation
sides of the coil. The downward forces on the
(motor), or that converts
the AC generated in the
Right hand left side and the upward forces on the right side
armature to a DC output create an anticlockwise rotation. However, once
(generator); most consist of the coil rotates past the vertical, these forces
two shells or half-rings that Figure 1 The right-hand slap rule. The thumb need to be reversed to maintain smooth rotation.
rub against the brushes represents the current, the fingers represent the
external magnetic field and the palm pushes in the
direction of the force.

8.2A: Observing magnetic force 8.2B: Building an electric motor
a Current Force b Current Force

Field Field
Field Field
Coil Coil
(armature) (armature)
Force Current Force Current
N S N S
Brush Brush Brush Brush
Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional

current Commutator current current Commutator current
+ – + –
Figure 2 How an electric motor works a The force pushes the red wire down and the green wire up. b The coil has now turned over.
The force pushes the green wire down and the red wire up.
The commutator does this job by connecting current in the coil. Therefore, the direction of
to the opposite brush after each half turn (180° rotation is maintained.
rotation) of the coil. Figure 2b shows the same Most electric motors are more
coil turned over 180°. The red side is now on the complicated than this simplified example.
left and the green side is on the right. They often have several sets of coils, all at
The commutator has also rotated 180° and slightly different angles to each other, and
now connects to the opposite brush, which electromagnets are often used instead of
has the effect of reversing the direction of the permanent magnets.

Remember and understand 2 In an electric motor, describe the role of the following
1 Figure 3 shows the major components of an electric structures.
motor, numbered 1–5. Match each of the labels below a split ring commutator
with its correct number. b brushes
a permanent magnet c armature
b armature coil Apply and analyse
c split ring commutator 3 Describe the direction of rotation (either clockwise or
d brush anticlockwise) of the electric motor shown in Figure 3.
e DC power supply Justify your answer (by describing the right-hand
slap rule used to identify the forces, describing the
direction of wire movement and deciding whether this
(4) is clockwise or anticlockwise).
(1)
Evaluate and create
N S 4 Draw a diagram that shows the best arrangement of a
(5) single current-carrying wire and a strong magnet in
order to produce the maximum force on a wire.
5 Draw a diagram that shows the arrangement of a
(2)
+ – single current-carrying wire and a strong magnet in
(3) order to produce zero force on the wire when current
is flowing.
Figure 3 The major components of an electric
motor

8.3 Magnetic fields and
movement are used to
generate electricity
In this
topic, you • Electromagnetic induction involves generating electric current from movement
will learn between coils of wire and a magnet.
that: • A dynamo generates direct current (DC) and an alternator generates alternating
current (AC).
• The generated current can be increased by increasing the number of coils or the
speed of movement.
Electromagnetic induction is disconnected from the power and made to

spin, it becomes a generator and generates
If a wire is connected to a sensitive ammeter, electricity. The faster the coil is spun and the
and a horseshoe magnet is moved up and greater the number of turns in the coil, the
down around the wire, an electric current will greater the voltage generated.
flow in the wire. This happens even when no
external power is supplied to the circuit. It
doesn’t require electricity because electricity
is generated by the moving magnetic field.
electromagnetic This process is known as electromagnetic
induction induction. This effect is due to the magnetic
the production of voltage field exerting a force on the moving electrons
(and hence a current) in
inside the wire, which pushes the electrons
a circuit, by the magnetic
along the wire. This flow of electrons
field through the circuit or
by the relative movement
contributes to an electric current. When the
of the magnetic field and magnet is pushed in the opposite direction,
the circuit; all dynamos the electrons are pushed along the wire in
and generators use the other direction and the current reverses.
this principle This constantly reversing current is known as
alternating current (AC) alternating current (AC). The same effect is
electrical current that achieved if the magnet is held still and the wire
flows first in one direction, is moved up and down. The voltage driving the
then in the opposite current can be increased by:
direction, then back in the
> increasing the speed of the movement
first direction and so on;
electrical energy is usually > using a bundle of wires rather than a
generated in this form in a single wire
power station > positioning the wires at a right angle to the
generator magnetic field.
a machine that uses the
electromagnetic effect
to separate charges and
The generator
Figure 1 A bicycle dynamo has a rotating magnet
produce electricity A more efficient way of generating electricity
and a stationary coil. As the bicycle moves, the
is to wrap one long wire into a coil and rotate bike’s rotating wheel turns the magnet, which
it in a magnetic field. This is the reverse of induces enough electricity to run the bicycle’s
an electric motor. In fact, if a simple motor lights.

8.3: Producing electricity with a
generator
Such a device is called a generator, although dynamo

the names dynamo and alternator are also a generator that
used. A dynamo generates direct current (DC), produces direct current
(DC) through the use of a
which flows in one direction only (Figure 1).
split ring commutator
An alternator generates alternating current (AC)
alternator
(Figure 2).
a generator that produces
alternating current (AC)
Water flow through the use of slip rings
direct current (DC)
the type of current that
Dam flows in one direction
only; electrical energy is
produced in this form by a
battery or a generator
Reservoir Generator
Brush
Turbine
Magnetic pole
Coils of wire
turned by shaft
Shaft driven by wind, water

or heat from burning coal
Figure 2 Most power plants use wind, water or heat from coal to turn the shaft of the generator.
This causes the large loops of wire to turn between magnets, generating a current (usually AC).

Remember and understand b a bar magnet moving away from a coil
1 Describe how the voltage driving a c a coil being lowered over an upright
current can be increased in a generator. bar magnet
2 Contrast a dynamo and an alternator. d a bar magnet being held still inside
3 Explain how a generator works, to a a coil
student in Year 7. Write down your e a current being turned on in a coil that
explanation. is above another coil
f an iron core being inserted into a coil
Apply and analyse
5 Explain how the motor you built in
4 Identify which of the following will
Challenge 8.2B could be used to generate
generate electricity.
electricity.
a a bar magnet moving in a coil

//SCIENCE AS
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR//
8.4 Electromagnetic fields

are used in technology
and medicine
Current moving through a coiled wire generates a magnetic
field. If the direction of the current continually changes
(alternating current), so too does the direction of the
magnetic field. A constantly changing magnetic field can
generate a current in a nearby wire coil. This process
occurs in transformers and wireless chargers.
Transforming
current
Figure 2 A laptop computer has a transformer in
The movement of a wire or coil in a magnetic its power cord.
field or vice versa is not the only way to
generate electricity. Michael Faraday was a box attached, which transforms the 240 V into
poorly educated book binder who developed a smaller voltage that the computer can use
an interest in science by reading the books (Figure 2).
he was working on. In 1831, Faraday began
a series of experiments on electromagnetic WIRELESS CHARGING
fields. He wrapped two insulated coils of wire The process of transferring an electric current
transformer around opposite ends of a large iron ring through coils of wire is used in wireless charging
a device that changes the devices. Alternating current flows through coils
and found that when a current was passed
voltage at which energy
through one coil of wire, a current appeared of wire in the charging device. The resulting
is transmitted by an
alternating current; usually briefly in the other coil of wire. This current magnetic field generates a current in a coil in the
consists of two coils of wire only lasted while the first wire’s current was receiving device, such as a mobile phone. When
(primary and secondary), being turned on or off. If the current in the the current is converted into direct current, it
an iron core and an AC first coil constantly changed direction, such recharges the battery in the device. Although
power source as in an alternating current, the current in wireless chargers are convenient, the current
the second wire also constantly changed generated is lower than when charging devices
direction. Therefore, electricity could be directly wth a cord. If the coils of wire on the
passed between wires without the wires wireless charger are not directly aligned with
touching each other. If the first coil the coils in the phone, most of the energy is lost
of wire had more turns of wire than as heat. Figure 3 shows the process of wireless
the second coil of wire, then the charging for a mobile phone.
voltage passed on would be less in
the second coil. This is what happens MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
in a transformer (Figure 1). The Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) involves
current and voltage are changed or placing a human body inside a strong, stable
transformed. Many electrical devices magnetic field. The magnetic field is usually
operate on less than the 240 V that generated by a large cylindrical coil of specially
come from an electrical power point in made wire in a bath of liquid helium, and the
Australia. For example, many computers patient is positioned in the centre of the coil
Figure 1 A transformer have an electrical cord with a small black (Figure 4). The liquid helium is at –269°C.

4 The current is converted Receiver circuit Receiver coil 3 When a mobile phone is within
to direct current and the range of the magnetic field,
battery starts recharging. a current is generated in coils
within the phone.
1 Alternating current flows

2 A magnetic field is generated
through coils of wire in
around the recharging device.
the charging device. Transmitter circuit Transmitter coil
Figure 3 Wireless charging: alternating current generates a magnetic field, which generates a current in the mobile phone.
This very low temperature decreases the

resistance of the wire to electric current so that
it can conduct electricity indefinitely without
any loss. Once current is flowing in the coil, it Radio
produces a strong magnetic field. The magnetic frequency
field causes the protons in the water (H 2O) in coil
the person’s body (we consist of 60 per cent
water) to align with it. Patient
Extra small coils are also placed around the
person and brief pulses of current are passed
through the coils. These current pulses produce Patient
additional magnetic fields, which vary in strength Gradient table
and direction throughout the patient’s body. This coils
causes the protons in water to temporarily change
their alignment with the main magnetic field. Magnet
The amount the protons shift varies according to
where they are in the body. The way the protons Scanner
respond to these additional magnetic fields also
depends on their chemical environment. These Figure 4 An MRI machine uses a magnetic field to generate images of the
subtle changes in alignment can be detected and body’s internal structure.
converted to an image of the internal structure
of the body (Figure 5). In this way, medical
specialists can identify any damaged or diseased
tissues or organs and decide on appropriate Figure 5 The brighter area of this MRI image
treatment for the patient. indicates an abnormality in the brain.

Assumptions about high-voltage 3 Evaluate the accuracy of your
wires assumptions, by:
Some people consider that the magnetic fields > describing the factors or arguments
generated by current moving through wires is that could be made, that would cause
a reason not to live near high-voltage wires, or you to change your view
the generators in windmills or transforming > identifying whether these factors or
stations. Use your critical thinking skills to arguments are correct
answer the following questions. > deciding whether your assumptions
1 Identify possible assumptions or biases are accurate or you should change
that you might have about the dangers of your opinion.
high-voltage wires. 4 Describe the importance of using
2 Describe how these assumptions could critical thinking to avoid bias when
affect any decisions you might make making decisions.
about living near high-voltage wires.

REVIEW 8
Multiple choice questions 6 Describe how to use:
a the right-hand grip rule
1 The right-hand grip rule: b the right-hand slap rule.
A is used to determine the direction of force on a
current-carrying wire 7 Describe how the magnetic field changes when iron is
added to the centre of a solenoid.
B has the thumb pointing in the direction of the
electron movement 8 Describe one way to increase the strength of the
C is used to determine the direction of the magnetic magnetic field of an electromagnet.
field around a current-carrying wire 9 Define the abbreviation ‘MRI’.
D has the palm of the hand pointing in the direction of
10 Describe how a phone can be charged wirelessly.
the current.
2 The current generated by electromagnetic induction can Apply and analyse
be increased by:
11 Contrast the way an alternating current is generated and
A increasing the number of coils in the solenoid or
the way a direct current is generated.
increasing the movement of the magnet
B increasing the number of coils in the solenoid or 12 Figure 1 shows an electric bell. Explain how the bell
decreasing the movement of the magnet works when the switch is pressed.
C decreasing the number of coils in the solenoid or
Switch
increasing the movement of the magnet
D decreasing the number of coils in the solenoid or
Pivot
decreasing the movement of the magnet.
Spring
Electromagnet
Remember and understand Contacts
3 Copy and complete the following paragraph with the most
appropriate words or phrases.
A ___________ is able to attract objects made of iron or
___________. A magnet has two ___________: north and
Bell
___________. A current-carrying wire has a magnetic Striker
___________ around it. The direction of the field is
given by the ___________ rule. In an electromagnet,
many___________ of wire are wrapped around an iron Figure 1 An electric bell
___________.
4 Identify each of the following statements as true or false. 13 The current-carrying wire in Figure 2 has a magnetic field
If a statement is false, rewrite it to make it true. travelling in a clockwise direction. Use the right-hand grip
a The direction of a magnetic field is the way the south rule to determine whether the current is moving into or
pole of a compass will point. out of the page.
b The fingers of the right-hand grip rule indicate the
direction of the magnetic field of a solenoid.
c The split ring commutator in a DC electric motor
reverses the current direction in the armature every
half-turn to keep it rotating in the same direction.
d A changing magnetic field generates no current.
e An alternator is used to generate a current that flows
in one direction only.
5 Define:
a electromagnet Figure 2 A current-carrying wire with a magnetic field
b alternator
c dynamo
d electric motor.

14 Use the right-hand slap rule to identify whether the wire Social and ethical thinking
in Figure 3 moves up or down.
19 A mobile phone charger that is switched on at the
power point is constantly using energy, even when
no phone is placed on it to be charged. Evaluate the
ethics of maintaining this energy use when your phone
N S is fully charged (by describing the advantages and
disadvantages of leaving the phone charger on, deciding
whether you are using an ‘ends justifies the means’
Current consequentialism approach or a ‘rules-based’ deontology
I
Field approach, and deciding whether the phone charger
should be left on).
Figure 3 A straight current-carrying conductor
15 Use the right-hand slap rule to identify whether the wire

in Figure 4 is carrying current from a to b or from b to a.
Direction of
a
rotation
A D
N S
B C
b
Figure 4 A wire carrying current
Evaluate
16 a Describe how a mobile phone charger charges a
phone.
b Sketch a diagram to show two sets of coils and an
iron core, like those inside a mobile phone charger.
Identify which set would connect to the power point
and which set would connect to the phone.
c Identify the other electronic components a mobile
phone charger must contain.
17 A radio-controlled car works with a remote control.
a Describe how this remote-controlled car works. Figure 5 A phone charger
b Identify the electronic components the remote control
is likely to have. Critical and creative thinking
c Identify the electronic components that are required
20 Electricity can be generated by moving either a magnet
for the toy car to move.
or a solenoid. This can be achieved by moving water
18 The amount of electricity generated from spinning a in a hydroelectric scheme, wind in windmills or coal-
dynamo depends on the magnetic field strength, the size powered steam. Develop a set of criteria that could
of the coil and the rotation speed. Design an experiment to be used to evaluate the effectiveness of each of these
investigate all three of these variables. Write an aim, list of methods. Describe the limitations you have included in
equipment, hypothesis and method. You don’t need to carry your definition of ‘effectiveness’. For example, did you
out the experiment. Carefully explain in your method limit the criteria to how the electricity was generated,
section how each variable is tested, one at a time, while the or did you consider the environmental impacts? Justify
other variables remain constant. your decision.

Research
» Wind turbines
21 Choose one of the following topics to research. Some
Describe how a wind turbine generates electricity.
questions have been included to get you started.
Identify the factors that affect the amount of electricity
Present your findings in a format of your own choosing,
generated. Contrast the different types of wind
giving careful thought to the information you are
generators. Identify how the efficiency of the different
communicating and your likely audience.
types of wind generators may vary.
» Synchrotron
A synchrotron is a huge scientific instrument that » Hairdryers
accelerates electrons to a very high speed. The A hairdryer generates heat and uses a fan to push the
electrons are forced to move in a circular path by large warm air over hair. Describe how a hairdryer works.
electromagnets. The direction of travel of an electron Describe how the heat is generated. Describe how
is the reverse of the direction of conventional current. electricity is used to move the fan. Describe how the
Identify the arrangement of the north and south amount of heat can be increased. Describe how the
magnetic poles and the direction of the electron beam speed of the fan can be increased.
if the electrons are to be pushed to the right. Research
this phenomenon to see if your arrangement is correct.
If you were incorrect, describe the error(s) of
judgement you made.
Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 8 ‘Electromagnetism’. Once you’ve
Use the right-hand grip rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field Go back to Topic 8.1 ‘ Wires
around an electrical wire. carrying an electric current
Discuss how increasing the coils of wire and using iron can create stronger generate a magnetic field’
magnetic fields. Page 148
Describe how an electric motor works, by explaining the functions of the Go back to Topic 8.2 ‘Electricity
armature, brushes and spit ring commutator. and magnets are used to
Use the right-hand slap rule to determine the direction the wires will move. produce movement’
Page 150
Describe the process of electromagnetic induction. Go back to Topic 8.3 ‘Magnetic
Distinguish between alternating current and direct current. fields and movement are used to
generate electricity’
Page 152
Explain how a constantly changing magnetic field can generate a current in Go back to Topic 8.4 ‘Science
a nearby wire coil. as a human endeavour:
Explain how the hydrogen atoms in water are affected by changing Electromagnetic fields are used
electromagnetic fields and how this is used in magnetic resonance imaging in technology and medicine’
(MRI) to generate images for the diagnosis of disease. Page 154
Chapter quiz
your knowledge. with one of three chapter
quizzes.

9
CHAPTER
EXPERIMENTS
Science lab rules

Being safe in the lab is essential to prevent you and others from getting hurt.
Whenever you are in the lab, you must always follow the rules below.
DO: DON’T:
» wear a lab coat for practical work » run in a laboratory
» keep your workbooks and paper away » push others or behave roughly in
from heating equipment, chemicals a laboratory
and flames » eat in a laboratory
» tie long hair back whenever you do an » drink from glassware or
experiment laboratory taps
» wear safety glasses while mixing or » look down into a container or point
heating substances it at a neighbour when heating or
» tell your teacher immediately if you mixing chemicals
cut or burn yourself » smell gases or mixtures of chemicals
» tell your teacher immediately if directly; instead, waft them near
you break any glassware or spill your nose and only when instructed
chemicals » mix chemicals at random
» wash your hands after any » put matches, paper or other
experiments substances down the sink
» listen to and follow the teacher’s » carry large bottles by the neck
instructions
» enter a preparation room without
» wear gloves when your teacher your teacher’s permission.
instructs you to.

Learning and How to clean equipment
working in a
laboratory
Working in a science laboratory
requires you to use a variety
of special skills. Many of these
you may not use anywhere Figure 2 Place warm water in the
else. You must know how to equipment (e.g. beaker).
identify, prepare and clean up

equipment safely to prevent
chemicals contaminating
future experiments, or harming
yourself or someone else.
Wearing lab coats and

safety glasses, having
hair tied back
Figure 3 Add a small amount of detergent.
Figure 1 Wearing a lab coat and Figure 4 Use a brush or cloth to wipe
safety glasses is an essential part of around the equipment.
completing any experiment.

What to do with broken glass
CAUTION!
Do not use your
hands to pick up
the glass.
Figure 5 Clean test tubes using a small Figure 8 Tell your teacher. Place the glass
bottle brush. in a special glass bin. Alternatively, wrap
the glass in newspaper and dispose of it in
the normal rubbish.
How to clean up common spills
CAUTION!
Tell your
teacher first.
Wear safety
glasses and
gloves when
cleaning up
spills.
Figure 6 Tip out water and rinse the

equipment with fresh water to prevent
contamination for the next experiment.
Figure 9 If it is safe, wipe the spill up with
paper towel and dispose of it in the normal
rubbish. Can you spot what's wrong with this
image? When cleaning up spills, wear gloves
to protect your hands!
Figure 7 Place the equipment upside Figure 10 Let your teacher know straight
down to drain. away if there is a chemical spill. Follow your
teacher's directions. Laboratories should
have a special spill kit that may be used in
these circumstances.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTS 161

Safely smelling chemicals
CAUTION!
Check with your
teacher if it is
safe to smell
the chemical,
and only
proceed if it is.
Figure 14 Close the air hole by turning the

collar.
Figure 11 Hold the chemical slightly away

from your face. Use your hand to gently waft
a small amount of air above the container
towards your face.
How to light a Bunsen burner Figure 15 Light a match and place it above
the barrel, with your hand below the flame.
CAUTION!
Remember
to keep your
hand below the
flame.
Figure 12 Place the Bunsen burner on a

heatproof mat. Figure 16 Open the gas tap fully.
Figure 13 Connect the rubber hose firmly Figure 17 The Bunsen burner will now
to the gas tap. have a yellow (safety) flame.

1.1 What if the absorbency of different paper
towels was compared? EXPERIMENT
Aim Results
To measure and compare the absorbency of different brands of
> Calculate the total surface area and the cost per square
paper towel, which vary in their cost per square centimetre.
centimetre for each paper towel, and record your results in
Materials > 250 mL beaker the table.
> 5 different brands > 100 mL measuring > The total surface area of the paper towel roll is calculated
of paper towel (one cylinder as follows:
must be a home > Scissors A = l × w × number of sheets of paper towel
brand) > Ruler and pencil > The cost of paper towel per square centimetre is calculated
> Small beaker of water > Calculator as follows:
with a dropper > Stopwatch cost of roll
Cost of paper towel =
total area of roll
Method > Calculate the average volume of water absorbed per 20 cm
1 Cut a 20 cm by 20 cm square from one sheet of each brand square and record your results in the table.
of paper towel. > The average volume of water absorbed per 20 cm square is
2 Record the brand, price, number of sheets and the calculated as follows:
dimensions of each sheet in centimetres.
volume 1 + volume 2 + volume 3
3 Fill the measuring cylinder with water to the 100 mL mark, Average volume of water =
3
using the dropper for the last 2–3 mL. Ensure that your
eyes are level with the scale, to avoid parallax error. > Draw a bar graph to show the average volume of water
4 Immerse the square of paper towel in water for 10 seconds. absorbed for each brand.
Use the stopwatch for timing. Hold the paper towel above > In your graph, place the brands in order from least
the measuring cylinder, without squeezing the towel, expensive to most expensive. On each bar, state the price
for another 10 seconds, then remove it and place it in per square centimetre of that brand.
the large beaker.
5 Record the level of water left in the measuring cylinder
Discussion
and, hence, the volume of water absorbed by the paper 1 State the reasons for the following.
towel in 10 seconds. a Three readings were taken each time and then averaged.
6 Repeat steps 1–5 for two other sheets of the same brand of b The same-sized square was used each time.
paper towel. c The cost of the paper towel per square centimetre was
calculated and used instead of the total cost of the roll.
Inquiry
d Each square of paper towel was allowed to drip for
What if the absorbency of more expensive paper towels was precisely 10 seconds before removing it from the water.
compared to home brand paper towels?
2 Compare (the similarities and differences between) the
Answer the following questions with regard to your inquiry absorbency of the different brands to the predictions you
question. made in your hypothesis.
> Identify the brands of paper towel that you will test. 3 Evaluate the validity (by identifying any variables that
> Write a hypothesis (If … then … because …) for your inquiry. might not have been controlled) and reliability (by
> Identify the (independent) variable that you will change describing whether you or other scientists will achieve the
from the first method. same results) of this experiment.
> Identify the (dependent) variable that you will measure 4 Identify the limitations of these results (by describing
and/or observe. how testing with other solutions may achieve different
> Identify two variables that you will need to control to ensure absorbency).
a valid test. Describe how you will control these variables.
> Identify the materials you will need for your experiment.
Conclusion
> In your logbook, write down the method you will use to From your graph, identify any apparent relationship between
complete your investigation. the cost of the paper towel per square centimetre and its
absorbency. Provide evidence (by mentioning values) from
> Draw a table to record your results.
your results to support your answer.
> Show your teacher your planning for approval before
starting your experiment.

1.2 Avoiding errors and improving accuracy
CHALLENGE
What you need > Item from

Questions
pencil case
> Ruler
> Analogue clock 1 Compare your measurement of the line in step 1 to the
> Electronic scales
person’s next to you. Identify any differences in the values
you measured. Explain a possible error that might account
What to do for differences in measuring with rulers. Describe how you
1 Measure the following line. could minimise this error.
___________________________________________ 2 a Identify any differences in the mass values you
measured in step 2. (Are they closely grouped
Record the value in your logbook.
together?) Explain a possible error that might account
2 Use the electronic scales to measure the mass of an item
for differences in measuring with electronic scales.
from your pencil case (such as a pen). Make four
Describe how you could minimise this error.
measurements and record them in an appropriate table in
b Calculate the average of the mass measurements.
your logbook.
Compare the average measured value with the
3 Working in groups of three, read the time on an analogue
individual measurements. Describe how the average
clock, with each person reading from a different
would be affected by one value that was much lower
perspective. One person should read the clock from
than the other values.
directly in front of the clock. Another person should stand
3 a Describe any differences in the clock time that was read
to the right of the first person at an acute angle. The other
from different positions.
person should stand to the left of the first person at an
acute angle. Each person should read the clock and note b Identify the type of error that the differences represent.
the time. c Describe how this type of error could be avoided.
Figure 1 Your reading of an analogue clock can be affected by where you stand.

2.1A Making a biosphere
CHALLENGE
What you need > Aquatic plants

6 Check your biosphere every few days and write down some
> Pond water containing > Mud or sand from a observations about what you see happening.
macro-invertebrates pond
7 Weigh the jar and contents when you have finished the
(e.g. water fleas, pond > Large glass jar with a lid experiment.
snails) > Electronic balance
Questions
What to do 1 Describe how the weight of your jar and contents changed
1 Work in pairs and take turns with observations and over time. Explain what might have caused any change.
note-taking. 2 Plants are important in a biosphere because they make
oxygen and sugar from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight.
2 Take the large glass jar and partly fill it with mud or sand
Identify the name of this process.
from a pond and some pond water. Make sure there are
some small macro-invertebrates in your pond water. 3 Animals consume sugar and oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide. Identify the name of this process.
3 Add some small pieces of aquatic plants to the jar.
4 Describe how the processes you named in questions 2 and
4 Seal the jar with an airtight lid and then weigh the jar and
3 are related.
contents.
5 Use the internet to research other home-made biospheres
5 Place the jar near a well-lit window, but not in the direct
and suggest some improvements you could make to the
sunlight or it may warm up too much.
design of your experiment.
Figure 1 This biosphere has only

been watered once in 53 years.

2.1B Purification of water
EXPERIMENT
Aim
Results
To find out how effective natural systems can be at filtering
Record in a table:
water.
> the time it took for the water to finish draining through
Materials > Mixture of castor oil, the pots
> 3 medium-sized plastic
dirt, small pieces of > your observations of the odour and quality of the
paper, water, salt drained water.
pots with drainage holes
> Plastic bucket
> Gravel Discussion
> Water
> Sand
> Timer 1 Compare (the similarities and differences between) the
> Soil
> 3 containers to collect water that was filtered through each pot (by summarising
> Plants (native grasses)
the water drained from your key observations in 2–3 sentences and the time it took
the pots for most of the water to move through the layers).
2 Explain what factors may have contributed to the
Method differences you observed between the flow rate of drained
water in respect to:
A few weeks in advance, prepare one plastic pot with a layer of
a the cloudiness of the drained water
gravel, then sand and finally dirt. Plant some native grasses in
this pot. You will need to wait until the grasses have become b the odour of the drained water.
established in the pot before proceeding with this experiment. 3 Describe how this knowledge could be used in maintaining
the water quality of streams and rivers in national parks.
1 Prepare two plastic pots: Pot 1 with gravel, then sand, and
finally a layer of dirt; Pot 2 with just gravel. Label the pot Conclusion
with native grasses as ‘Pot 3’. You should now have three
Explain the effect that different soil types and the presence of
pots, as in Figure 1. Sit each pot in a container.
native grasses have on the quality of water available.
2 Mix the castor oil, dirt, small pieces of paper, water, salt
and any other materials you wish to include in a bucket
of water. The mixture should be very cloudy and have an
odour.
3 Pour an equal amount of the mixture into each of the three
pots and collect the solution that filters out of the base of
each pot. Record how long it takes the solution to finish
flowing out of the base of each pot.
Native
grass
Dirt Dirt
Sand Sand
Gravel Gravel Gravel
Pot 1 Pot 2 Pot 3

Figure 1 Experimental set-up

2.2 What if more seeds were planted in a pot?
EXPERIMENT
Aim > Write down the method you will use to complete your
To investigate some factors that affect competition in plants. investigation in your logbook.
> Draw a table to record your results.
Materials thirds, or 3 medium-
sized pots containing > Show your teacher your planning for approval before
> Packets of seeds
good-quality potting starting your experiment.
(a variety of vegetables
mix
or flowers is needed) Results
> Measuring cylinder
> Small plot (20 × 20 cm) Record all results. You could take photos showing the progress
or graduated jug for
in a garden, divided into of growth and/or record the average heights of plants of
watering
different species and record them in a table.
Method Discussion
1 Prepare the plots (or pots) so the soil is moderately deep 1 Identify one piece of beneficial advice that you would give
and smooth. Label them A, B and C. another student who wants to carry out the experiment.
2 In plot A, plant six seeds of the same type, spread evenly 2 Compare (the similarities and differences between) the
apart. growth of the plants in each plot (by summarising your key
3 Water the soil in all plots each day as evenly as possible observations in 2–3 sentences).
with the same amount of water. 3 Use evidence from your results to describe any competition
4 Record the growth of the seeds. If possible, take between the seeds as they germinated. Use statements such
photographs each week or every few days when the seeds as, ‘The plants in plot … grew … than the plants in plot …
begin to germinate. If the seeds become seedlings (small This implies that …’
plants), measure their heights and record the results 4 Identify one other factor that might have affected the
in a table. growth of the seeds. Describe how this factor could have
affected the results of your experiment.
Inquiry
5 Describe how the competition you observed would affect
Choose one of the following questions to investigate. organisms in the natural environment.
> What if more of the same seeds were planted close together
in plot B? Conclusion
> What if different seeds were planted between the original Write a conclusion about the factors that affect competition
seeds in plot C? between germinating seeds.
Answer the following questions in relation to your inquiry.
> Identify the types of seeds that you will test.
> Write a hypothesis (If …
then … because …) for your
inquiry.
> Identify the (independent)
variable that you will change
from the first method.
> Identify the (dependent)
variable that you will measure
and/or observe.
> Identify two variables that you
will need to control to ensure
a valid test. Describe how you
will control these variables.
> Identify the materials that you
will need for your experiment.
Figure 1 What factors affect the growth of seeds?

2.3 Bead and candy counting
CHALLENGE
What you need > Cotton thread > Pencil

> Small beads (at least 15) with holes > Paper bag > Ruler
> Hard-shell candies (at least 40) > A4 graph paper
What to do
PART A: CAPTURE–RECAPTURE
1 Place a random number of beads in a paper bag. 4 Use the formula to determine how many beads are in the bag.
2 Draw 10 beads out of the bag. For each bead, thread a
N1 × N2
short strand of cotton through the hole of the bead and Total number of beads =
M2
tie a knot around the bead. Place the 10 beads back into
the bag. This is equivalent to tagging the beads and where N1 is the number of beads drawn out the first time (10),
releasing them. N2 is the number of beads drawn the second time (10)
3 Mix the beads in the bag and draw another 10 beads out and M 2 is the number of tagged beads drawn during the
of the bag. Count the number of ‘tagged’ beads you second draw.
collected in the ‘recapture’.
5 Count the number of beads that are actually in the paper bag.
PART B: QUADRATS
1 Divide the graph paper into 20 equal-sized sections. Questions
2 Spread a large handful of hard-shell candies over the graph
1 Identify the types of organism populations that could be
paper. These represent insects in an ecosystem.
counted using:
3 Count the number of ‘candy insects’ in four of the sections.
a capture–recapture
Include the candies that are on the top lines or left lines
b quadrats.
of the squares. Do not include the candies that are on
the bottom lines or right lines of the sections. Divide the 2 Describe the accuracy of the capture–recapture method
number counted by 4 to determine the average number of in determining population size (by comparing the number
candy insects in each section. of candies determined in Part A step 4 to the ‘true value’
counted in Part A step 5).
4 Multiply the average number of candy insects in each
square (from step 3) by 20 to determine the size of the 3 Explain which of the following animals would be more
population in the ecosystem. likely to be recaptured:
5 Count the number of candies that were actually spread > an animal that was fed and treated well during the first
over the graph paper. capture
> an animal that became frightened and was roughly
handled during the first capture.
Justify your answer (by describing how each animal will
react the next time it sees or smells a trap, and deciding
which behaviour is more likely to lead to them being
recaptured).
4 Describe the accuracy of the quadrat method in
determining the population size.
5 Identify the size a quadrat would need to be to measure a
population of fully grown trees.
Figure 1 Counting the number of hard-shell candies.

2.4 Rabbit and fox chasey
CHALLENGE
What you need > Outdoor space > Timer

> Large packets of popcorn > Container
> Material to represent rabbit tails > Measuring wheel
What to do
Many scientists use simulations or modelling to determine how populations will be affected by the introduction of a new species.
PART A: RABBIT POPULATIONS

1 Measure an area of 30 m2 outside in the schoolyard. Count placed in a container at the finish line and is removed from
out 40 pieces of popcorn. Randomly throw handfuls of the the available resources.
counted popcorn through the area. 3 Simulate a second season by adding another 30 pieces of
2 Select five students to represent rabbits. Each ‘rabbit’ popcorn and having the rabbits collect popcorn during
should tuck a piece of material into his or her belt to another 15-second period. After the second season, any
represent a tail. In order to survive, each rabbit must collect rabbit that survives then ‘reproduces’. This involves selecting
at least five pieces of popcorn as they cross the measured another student to join the simulation as a rabbit. The
area in the 15-second ‘season’. The retrieved popcorn is simulation is repeated, using popcorn in varying amounts to
represent the food production in good and poor years, until
‘starvation’ begins to reduce the population.
4 Record your data for six seasons in Table 1. Highlight the
seasons that are droughts (poor food supplies) and those
that are bumper years (good food supplies).
Table 1 Population of rabbits over many seasons
Season 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of rabbits at end of season
Figure 1 How does food affect a rabbit population?
PART B: INTRODUCING FOXES
1 Repeat the simulation from Part A but this time with Table 2 Populations of rabbits and foxes over many seasons
additional students modelling foxes. A fox must catch a Season 1 2 3 4 5 6
rabbit in order to survive. A fox Number of rabbits at end of season
catches a rabbit by removing Number of foxes at end of season
the cloth tail hanging from the
rabbit’s belt (similar to flag Questions
football). 1 Graph the results of the model as a bar graph showing the
2 Record your data for six number of each animal at the end of a time period.
seasons in Table 2. 2 Identify how the following factors were represented in
the model.
a increased food supplies
b decreased food supplies
Figure 2 How do predators affect c competition or predator populations
a rabbit population? 3 Use data from the modelling to explain the effect of:
a increased food supplies
b decreased food supplies
c competition on predator populations.
4 Explain the characteristics in a population that will help
some animals to survive.

2.5A Photosynthesis role play
CHALLENGE
This is a group activity.
Questions
What you need 1 Explain why photosynthesis is described as a ‘synthesis’
> Balloons (6 black, 12 white, 18 red) reaction.
> Balloon pump 2 Describe the entry of energy and the final location of the
> Torch energy in a food chain.
3 ‘The energy from the Sun can be thought of as disordered
What to do energy which becomes ordered in the form of glucose and
1 Work in groups of nine: one student has 6 black (carbon) ATP.’
balloons, four students have 3 white (hydrogen) balloons Explain what you think this sentence means (by writing it
each, three students have 6 red (oxygen) balloons each and in your own words).
one student holds a torch.
2 In 10–15 minutes, develop a creative and entertaining way
to show the process of photosynthesis.
3 Perform your role play of the process of photosynthesis for
the rest of the class.
Figure 1 Modelling photosynthesis

2.5B Inputs and outputs of photosynthesis
EXPERIMENT
Aim
Results
To examine the role of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
Record all your observations in an appropriate table.
Materials > Timer Discussion

> Bromothymol blue > Water
1 Identify why the bromothymol blue changed from blue to
solution in a dropper > Elodea canadensis water
yellow when you blew through the straw.
bottle plant
2 Describe what would happen to the bromothymol blue if
> 4 test tubes with rubber > Strong light source
the carbon dioxide was removed from the water.
stoppers > Clean straws
3 Identify which test tube you would expect photosynthesis
> 2 test-tube racks > Paperclip to occur in. Justify your prediction (by defining
> Measuring cylinder photosynthesis, identifying the organism responsible for
photosynthesis and deciding which test tube contains
Method the factors needed by the organism to carry out
photosynthesis).
1 Add 2 drops of bromothymol blue solution to 15 mL of
4 Identify the test tubes in which you would expect no
water in all test tubes.
changes in colour to occur. Justify your prediction (by
2 Using the straw, blow into each test tube. The solutions
describing the reactants and products of photosynthesis,
should change from blue to yellow. This indicates the
identifying which reactant or product will cause a colour
presence of carbon dioxide from your breath in the water.
change and deciding which test tubes will not change).
3 Label the test tubes A, B, C and D. Prepare them as
5 Compare your results with your predictions. Use evidence
explained in Table 1. Place test tubes A and B in one rack,
from your results to justify your answer.
and test tubes C and D in the other rack.
6 You may have observed bubbles forming around the Elodea
Table 1 Test tube set-up leaves in test tube A. Identify this gas.
Test tube Set-up 7 Identify one variable that was difficult to control in this
A Place the paperclip on the end of an Elodea plant experiment. Describe how you could control the variable
to weigh it down, and place the plant into the test next time.
tube. Place the stopper on the test tube.
Place the stopper on the test tube (with no
Conclusion
B
Elodea). Describe the photosynthesis reaction and where it occurs.
C Place the stopper on the test tube (with no
Elodea).
D Place the paperclip on the end of an Elodea plant
to weigh it down, and place the plant into the test
tube. Place the stopper on the test tube.
4 Expose test tubes A and B to sunlight or a bright light for

20 minutes. Record any colour change. Count any bubbles
that may have formed on the Elodea plants.
5 Place test tubes C and D in a closed (dark) cupboard
for 20 minutes. Record any colour changes and count
any bubbles.

2.5C Effect of carbon dioxide on starch
production EXPERIMENT
CAUTION! Take care when using methylated spirits: it 6 Remove the plants from the bell jars. Break off one leaf
is highly flammable. Do not use near a flame. Use only a
from each plant and put it into a Petri dish marked to
hotplate and water bath to heat the methylated spirits.
match the plant label (i.e. A, B or C).
Aim 7 Half-fill the large pot with boiling water to make the water
To find out how the concentration of carbon dioxide affects bath. Transfer the leaves into three labelled 250 mL beakers
the amount of starch produced in leaves grown in different matching samples A, B and C. Half-fill each beaker with
conditions. boiling water and place all three beakers in the water bath.
Put the water bath on the hotplate and gently boil for no
Materials > Methylated spirits longer than 2 minutes, to soften the leaves. Return the
> 5 × 250 mL beakers leaves to their Petri dishes. Use the tongs to remove the
> 3 soft-leaved plants (e.g.
> Large pot (to act as a beakers from the pot.
geranium) of same size,
boiling water bath) that 8 Half-fill a 250 mL beaker with methylated spirits and place
shape and colour, in
can hold three 250 mL it into the water bath.
seedling pots
beakers 9 Reheat the water bath on the hotplate. When the methylated
> Alka-Seltzer tablet
> Boiling water spirits is hot, add the sample A leaf to the beaker.
> Soda lime (solid)
> Hotplate 10 Leave the leaf for 5 minutes or until the chlorophyll has
> Iodine solution (iodine
> 4 Petri dishes been removed from the leaf.
in potassium iodide)
> Tablespoon 11 Remove the leaf with tongs, dry it on the paper towel and
in a dropper bottle
return it to the Petri dish.
(approximately 0.1 M) > Tongs
12 Repeat steps 9–11 for the other two leaves.
> 3 large bell jars or 3 large > Timer
clear plastic bags with 13 Place several drops of iodine solution on each leaf. Observe
> Paper towel
twist ties to close them each leaf over a light source (e.g. light box) and describe
> Marker pen
the iodine solution’s colour change on the leaf. Draw each
> Petroleum jelly
leaf to show the colour of the iodine solution.
Method Results
1 Label the three plants A, B and C. Place the plants in a Include your observations and diagrams in an appropriate format.
cupboard for 3 days before the start of the experiment. Discussion
Water the plants immediately before use.
1 Identify the level of carbon dioxide in each of the following
2 Place plant A in a bell jar with a 250 mL beaker half-filled
bell jars:
with water. Add an Alka-Seltzer (antacid) tablet to the
A (Alka-Seltzer), B (soda lime), C (no Alka-Seltzer or
beaker. The tablet will produce carbon dioxide gas. Seal the
soda lime).
bell jar with petroleum jelly.
2 Identify the bell jar that contained the control plant. Justify
3 Place plant B in another bell jar. Put two tablespoons of soda
your answer (by identifying the independent variable in this
lime in a Petri dish and place it in the jar. The soda lime will
experiment, identifying the bell jar that the other plants will
remove carbon dioxide from the air. Seal with petroleum jelly.
be compared to, and describing why this plant is used for a
4 Put plant C in the third bell jar. Seal with petroleum jelly.
comparison).
5 Place all three plants in a sunny place. The plants must
3 Explain how the rate or speed of photosynthesis is affected
have the same amount of sunlight and water. Leave the
by:
plants for two or three days.
a low carbon dioxide levels
b high carbon dioxide levels.
4 Explain how the amount of glucose produced through
Plant A Plant B Plant C photosynthesis affects the level of starch in a plant.
5 Explain why iodine was used to test for starch.
6 Compare the amount of starch that was produced in low
carbon dioxide levels with the amount produced in high
carbon dioxide levels.
Water
Soda lime
Conclusion
Antacid
Describe the effect that increasing or decreasing the amount of
Figure 1 Experimental set-up
carbon dioxide has on photosynthesis.
2.6 Food for thought
CHALLENGE
What you need What to do

> 2 L bottle of coloured water
1 Work in groups of five to represent five different parts of
> 10 mL and 100 mL measuring cylinders
the food chain: the Sun, native grass (producer), a cricket
> 4 plastic cups
(herbivore), a wedge-tailed eagle (top consumer), and a
> Dropper fungus (decomposer).
2 Use the bottle of coloured water to represent the Sun’s
energy. The total energy available from the Sun is equal
to the volume in the bottle (i.e. 2000 mL).
3 Give a cup to each person representing a part of the
food chain.
4 Through photosynthesis, the plant receives 3 per cent of the
solar energy available to it: 3 per cent of 2000 mL = 60 mL.
Measure and pour 60 mL of coloured water into the
plant’s cup.
5 The herbivore receives 10 per cent of the energy:
10 per cent of 60 mL = 6 mL. Measure out 6 mL from
the plant’s cup and pour this into the herbivore’s cup.
6 The top consumer receives 10 per cent of this energy:
10 per cent of 6 mL = 0.6 mL. Measure out 0.6 mL
from the herbivore’s cup and pour this into the top
consumer’s cup.
7 When the top consumer dies, the decomposer will get
10 per cent of its energy: 10 per cent of 0.6 mL = 0.06 mL.
This can be represented by adding a single drop into the
decomposer’s cup.
Questions
1 Identify the organism that would have been ‘most satisfied’
by the amount of energy/food it received.
2 Identify the organism that would have been ‘least satisfied’
by the amount of energy/food it received.
3 Explain what happened to the remaining 1940 mL of
‘energy’ from the Sun that did not pass into the plant.
3 Identify the amount of ‘energy’ the herbivore received.
Describe how 90 per cent of the insect’s (cricket’s) energy
was used.
4 Identify which consumer in the food chain will have to eat
the most food to gain enough energy to survive. Justify
your answer (by comparing the amount of food each
organism can collect from the organism before them in the
Figure 1 Parts of a food food chain and deciding which organism needs the greatest
chain: Sun, grass, cricket,
amount of food to survive).
eagle and fungus

2.8 Natural disasters in Australia
CHALLENGE
What you need

> Large map of Australia
> Colour-coded pins or small cardboard squares (e.g. red for bushfires, blue for floods, brown for droughts)
> Copy of Table 1
Table 1 Some natural disasters in Australia, 1974–2020

Year Nature of disaster Location
December 1974 Cyclone Tracy Darwin, NT
February 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires Victoria and South Australia
1989 Earthquake Newcastle, NSW
February 1993 Heatwave South-eastern Australia
1997 Landslide Thredbo, NSW
2003 Bushfires Canberra, ACT
June 2007 Storm and flood Hunter Valley and central coast, NSW
February 2009 Black Saturday bushfires Victoria
December 2010–January 2011 Flooding Queensland and Victoria
February 2011 Cyclone Yasi Queensland
October 2013 Bushfires New South Wales
February 2015 Cyclone Lam Northern Territory
March 2017 Cyclone Debbie Queensland
March 2018 Bushfires New South Wales
September 2019 – March 2020 Bushfires Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria,
ACT, South Australia and Western Australia
What to do Questions
1 Work in small groups to place pins or attach squares of 1 Identify the areas that were more affected by these natural
the appropriate colour to the map at the part of the map events than others.
affected by each natural disaster. 2 A student suggested that monsoonal rains should have been
2 If a large area is involved, place a number of pins or included in this map. Evaluate this suggestion (by defining
squares across the area. ‘natural disaster’, describing monsoonal rains and deciding
whether monsoon rains are classified as a natural disaster).
3 Describe the positive and negative effects of these events.
4 Identify and describe patterns in the alternation of floods
and droughts.
Figure 1 Bushfires occur frequently in Australia.

2.9 Field trip
CHALLENGE
The abiotic features of the environment determine the
4 Describe how your chosen plant is adapted to the
vegetation in an ecosystem.
conditions in the ecosystem.
Choose an ecosystem, such as a woodland, grassland
5 Measure the abiotic factors shown in Table 1, for your
or rainforest. After a short study of the vegetation, measure
chosen ecosystem.
the abiotic factors and form a conclusion about how these
factors determine the type and height of the vegetation. You Table 1 Abiotic factors in an ecosystem
may need the following materials and equipment.
Abiotic factor Reading
> Thermometer (for temperature)
Temperature
> Wet/dry thermometer (for humidity) Wind speed
> Anemometer (for wind speed) Humidity
> Light meter (for light) Light intensity
> Rod (for measuring soil depth) Soil depth
> Cobalt chloride paper (for soil moisture) Soil colour
> Soil pH kit or pH paper Soil moisture
Soil pH
Note: Data loggers may be used if preferred.
6 For each observation and measurement you made, analyse
What to do and evaluate its significance. It might be appropriate to
1 Observe the plants around you. Describe what you see. You research and analyse the history of the area you are studying.
could take photos, draw diagrams or write descriptions.
Questions
2 Examine the leaves of the plants. List three of their
characteristics and how this feature could give the plant an 1 Describe the abiotic conditions in the environment you
advantage over other plants. examined.
3 Choose one species of plant. Record its common name, 2 Describe the vegetation in this ecosystem.
its scientific name and, if possible, the family of plants to 3 Describe how this environment may be affected by
which it belongs. Sketch a leaf of this plant. increased human population in the future.
Figure 1 Open temperate woodlands allow Figure 2 Increased rainfall and open
some sunlight to reach the ground, which areas allow undergrowth to develop.
allows grasses to grow. Water can be a
limiting factor in these areas.
Figure 3 Plants that survive in drier areas Figure 4 The level of acid in the soil can
have unique adaptations such as thin, affect the growth of a plant. Figure 5 Air temperature is an abiotic factor.
needle-like leaves.

3.1 Testing your senses
CHALLENGE
PART A: TEMPERATURE RECEPTORS

What you need > Ice cubes
Questions
> Very warm water > 3 ice-cream containers
> Thermometer 1 Identify the stimulus experienced by the hand in very
> Room temperature water
> Timer warm water.
> Warm water (no hotter
2 Contrast (the differences between) the information
than 50ºC; use the
provided by the temperature sensors in the hand when
thermometer to check)
it moved from:
a the iced water to the room temperature water
What to do b the very warm water to the room temperature water.
1 Half-fill one container with cold water and add the ice cubes. 3 Evaluate the effectiveness of the temperature receptors
on the skin of your hand (by comparing the messages
2 Half-fill the second container with room temperature water.
sent to the brain by both hands and deciding whether the
3 Half-fill the last container with very warm water.
temperature receptors provide an accurate measure of the
4 Place one hand in the iced water and the other in the very
water temperature).
warm water for 2 minutes.
4 Explain why scientists use a thermometer rather than their
5 Remove your hands from the iced and very warm water
hands to test the temperature of solutions.
and place them (at the same time) in the room temperature
water.
PART B: TOUCH RECEPTORS

What you need > Modelling clay
6 Record the distance between the two pointed ends of the
> 2 toothpicks > Blindfold toothpicks in a table.
> Ruler 7 Repeat this procedure for the palm of the hand, back of the
hand and forearm.
1 Work in pairs. One person puts on the blindfold. 1 Contrast (the differences between) the ‘two point’ distances
2 Place the toothpicks 50 mm apart in the modelling clay. on different areas of the skin.
3 Using the modelling clay, place the pointed ends of the 2 Identify the part of the body that was able to detect the
toothpicks gently on the blindfolded person’s finger. Ask closest toothpicks.
them whether they feel one or two points. 3 Identify which skin areas have the most touch receptors.
4 If two points are felt, move the toothpicks closer together Justify your answer (by describing how touch receptors
and repeat step 3. work, describing how a receptor might mistake two
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the blindfolded person reports toothpick points for a single touch, and using your answers
‘one point’ for the first time. to questions 1 and 2 to decide which area of skin has the
most touch receptors).

3.2 Pipe cleaner neurons
CHALLENGE
What you need than the axon and you can twist more pipe cleaners to
> 5 different-coloured pipe cleaners representing different make more dendrites.
parts of the neuron (cell body, axon, dendrites, myelin 4 Wrap a pipe cleaner along the length of the axon to form
sheath, synaptic terminal) the myelin sheath.
> A3 or A4 paper 5 Wrap another pipe cleaner on the end of the axon to make
> Sticky tape the synaptic terminal.
> Red felt-tipped pen 6 Tape your finished pipe cleaner neuron onto a piece of A3
or A4 paper and label the parts.
What to do 7 Mark the path of the nerve impulse, from start to finish,
along the neuron.
1 Roll a pipe cleaner into a ball to represent the cell body.
2 Attach another pipe cleaner to the cell body by pushing it Questions
through the ball so that there are two halves sticking out.
1 Describe the role of a neuron.
Twist the two halves together into a single long axon.
2 Describe the role of the myelin sheath.
3 Push another pipe cleaner through the cell body on the side
opposite the axon to make a dendrite. This can be shorter 3 Explain how the message moves from one neuron to
another via the synapse.
3.3A Testing reflexes

CHALLENGE
What to do
1 Look at the pupils (the black spots in the middle of the eyes)
in the eyes of a classmate. Note the size of the pupils.
2 As a class, dim the lights in the room. After a few minutes,
look at your classmate’s eyes and note the size of the pupils.
> How big are the pupils?
3 Turn the lights back on. Check the size of your classmate’s
pupils again.
> How big are the pupils this time?
Questions
1 Describe how the pupils of the eyes changed when:
a the room was dimmed
b the lights were turned back on.
2 Describe the role of the pupil in the eye.
3 Describe an advantage of the change in pupil size when
moving in and out of dark space.
4 With a partner, design an experiment to test another
reflex. Write an aim and a reproducible method for your
experiment.
Figure 1 Which pupil is in low light and which is in bright light?

3.3B How fast is the nervous system?
CHALLENGE
What you need 7 Try the experiment using touch only. Blindfold Student 2.
> Metre ruler When Student 1 drops the ruler, they tap Student 2 on
> Blindfold the head. Does this make a difference to the reaction
distance?
What to do 8 Try the experiment using hearing only. Blindfold Student 2.
When Student 1 drops the ruler, they say ‘now’. Does this
1 Work in pairs. Student 1 holds the ruler between their thumb
make a difference to the reaction distance?
and forefinger so that the ruler hangs with the zero mark at the
bottom. Student 2 waits with their thumb and forefinger at the Questions
bottom of the ruler, level with the zero mark.
1 Contrast the results of the three experiments (no blindfold,
2 Student 1 drops the ruler without warning. Student 2
blindfold and tap, blindfold and voice) to determine which
catches the ruler as fast as they can between their thumb
experiment had the fastest results.
and forefinger.
2 Evaluate the reliability of your results (by describing
3 Record the number of centimetres the ruler has dropped,
whether all the variables were controlled, explaining
by looking at the location of Student 2’s thumb and
possible errors that need to be improved, and deciding
forefinger on the ruler (Figure 1).
whether anyone who repeated the experiment would obtain
4 Repeat until you have 10 results for each student. the same results).
5 Work out the average reaction distance for each student.
6 Measure the approximate distance the messages must have
travelled if they travelled from your eye to your brain to
your fingers.
a b
Figure 1 Testing responses a using sight b using hearing

3.4 Sheep brain dissection
SKILLS L AB
CAUTION! Wear your lab coat, safety glasses and plastic 3 Place the brain with the curved top side of the cerebrum
gloves. Be careful with the scalpel because it is likely to be
facing up. Use a scalpel to slice through the brain along the
very sharp. Cut away from your hands and other people.
centre line, starting at the cerebrum and going down through
Aim the cerebellum, spinal cord, medulla and pons (Figure 3).
To explore the structure of a sheep’s brain. Separate the two hemispheres of the brain (Figure 4). Draw a
diagram or take a photo that displays these parts of the brain.
Materials
> Sheep’s brain > Coloured pins
> Dissecting board > Microscope, slide and
> Scalpel cover slip (optional)
> Dissecting scissors > Forceps
Method
1 Examine the outside of the brain. Set the brain down so that
the flatter side, with the white spinal cord at one end, rests
Figure 3 Step 3: Slice along the brain.
on the board (Figure 1). Using the different-coloured pins,
identify the two hemispheres, the four lobes of the brain, the
spinal cord, the cerebellum and the cerebrum. Draw a diagram
(in pencil) or take a photo that displays the different sections
of the brain. Check this with your teacher before continuing.
Figure 4 Step 3: separate the two hemispheres.
4 Cut one of the hemispheres in half lengthwise. Record what

Figure 1 Step 1 you see.
2 Remove the pins and turn the brain over (Figure 2). 5 If a microscope is available, slice a very thin section of the
Identify the medulla and the pons. Draw a diagram or take cerebrum and put it on a slide, covering it with a drop of
a photo that displays these parts of the brain. water and a cover slip. Draw a diagram of what you observe
at low and high magnifications. Follow the same procedure
with a section of the cerebellum, and then compare the two
sections of the brain.
Discussion
1 Describe the texture of the brain (smooth, rough, slippery,
waxy, tacky, flimsy, chalky, hard, soft, granular, rubbery).
structure of the sheep’s brain and what you know about a
human brain.
3 Contrast the cognitive functions (ability to think and
reason) of a sheep and a human. Describe how these
differences could be reflected in the structure of the brain.
Figure 2 Step 2

3.6 Glands and organs of the endocrine system
CHALLENGE
What you need Questions

> Large sheet of butcher’s paper
Choose one gland or organ to research.
> Felt-tipped pen
1 Identify the main hormone the gland secretes.
> Sticky tape
2 Describe how the hormone affects the target cells in the
target organ.
What to do
3 Describe one disorder that results from a malfunction of
1 Working in pairs, draw an outline of your partner’s body on this organ or gland.
the paper.
2 With your partner, draw in the glands and organs of
the endocrine system. Using the information in Table 1
(page 60), annotate each gland with a brief description, in
your own words, of what it is responsible for.
3 Use colour coding and arrows to show the path of the
hormone(s) produced by each gland to its target organ.
3.7 Experiencing homeostasis

EXPERIMENT
Aim
Discussion
To demonstrate how homeostasis maintains control of the
heart rate during and after exercise. 1 Describe how your breathing rate changed during and in the
10 minutes after exercise.
Materials 2 Explain why your heart rate increased during exercise.
3 Describe what happened to your heart rate during the
> Stopwatch
10 minutes after exercise.
> Heart rate monitors (optional)
4 Use the concept of homeostasis to explain why your heart
rate was different before, during and after exercise.
Method
1 While sitting down, find your pulse and count the number of Conclusion
times your heart beats in 15 seconds. Describe how homeostasis ensures that our muscles get
2 Multiply this number by 4 to determine the number of enough nutrients and remove wastes during exercise.
beats every minute.
3 Measure your respiration rate by counting the number of
breaths you take in 1 minute.
4 Do repeated step-ups or star jumps for 2 minutes. (Make
sure you are wearing appropriate shoes.)
5 Measure your heart rate and respiration rate immediately
after stopping exercise.
6 Measure your heart and respiration rate every 2 minutes
for 10 minutes.
Results
1 Record the data in a table.
2 Draw a line graph showing how your heart rate varied
after exercise.
Figure 1 Heart rate monitor on a smart watch
3 Draw a line graph showing how your respiration rate
varied after exercise.

3.9A Investigating pathogens
CHALLENGE
Pathogens are organisms that cause disease.
4 You now have 10 minutes to research the list of diseases to
confirm which group of organisms causes each disease.
What you need
> A selection of research resources, such as books, medical Questions
dictionaries, journals and computers 1 Describe the types of resources that you used in your
research. Describe two types of resources that you avoided
What to do and why you avoided them.
1 Working in small teams, brainstorm for 3 minutes and 2 Draw a bar graph showing the number of diseases you
prepare a list of as many pathogen-caused diseases as listed for each type of organism.
you can. 3 Identify the organism that occurred most frequently (the
2 You now have 2 minutes to predict the type of organism mode) on your list. Describe why you might be more
that causes each of the diseases in your list. Next to familiar with the causes of some types of disease.
each disease, write one of the following words as your
prediction: worm, fungus, protozoan, bacterium, virus.
3 Spend a minute discussing how your team can use
your resources to confirm or refute your prediction.
You must use at least two different types of valid
reliable resources.
Figure 1 Books can be used to conduct research on disease.

3.9B Investigating germ theory
EXPERIMENT
CAUTION! Do not open the tape seals. > Identify two variables you will need to control to ensure a
valid test. Describe how you will control these variables.
Aim
> Write down the method you will use to complete your
To determine what factors affect the growth of airborne
investigation in your logbook.
microbes.
> Draw up a table to record your results.
Materials > Sticky tape or paraffin > Show your teacher your planning for approval before
film starting your experiment.
> Agar plates
> Permanent marker
> Various disinfectants Results
> Timer
> Incubator Record all your results. You could take photos showing the
microbe growth on the agar plates.
Method
Discussion
1 Open the lid of one agar plate and leave it sitting on the
1 Define the term ‘bacterial colony’.
bench for 15 minutes.
2 Describe how a bacterial colony forms on an agar plate.
2 Place the lid on the top and seal the agar plate with sticky tape.
Write the label ‘Open bench’ around the edges underneath the 3 Explain why colonies are different colours and sizes.
plate, so that it does not obstruct the view of the agar. 4 Compare the colour and size (diameter) of the different
3 Leave another agar plate unopened. Seal it with sticky tape. colonies that grew on each plate.
Label the plate ‘Control’. 5 Explain why you left one agar plate unopened.
4 Incubate the agar plates at 35–37°C for approximately 3 days. 6 Evaluate whether your results support germ theory (by
5 Do not open the plates! Examine the closed plates for any explaining germ theory, comparing your results to germ
growth. theory, and deciding whether your results support germ
theory).
Inquiry 7 Evaluate whether your results support your hypothesis
What if the first agar plate was sprayed with a disinfectant (by describing your results in 1–2 sentences, comparing
before being incubated? your results to your hypothesis, and deciding whether your
Answer the following questions with regard to your inquiry hypothesis was supported).
question.
Conclusion
> Write a hypothesis (If … then … because …) for your inquiry.
Describe the factors that affect the growth of microbes.
> Identify the (independent) variable that you will change
from the first method.
> Identify the (dependent) variable that you will measure
and/or observe.

3.10 Modelling infection and vaccination
CHALLENGE
What you need > Phenolphthalein

6 Use the information recorded in the table to determine who
indicator
> 1 M sodium hydroxide the original source of the infection was.
> Plastic cups
> 0.1 M hydrochloric acid 7 Repeat steps 1–5, this time choosing whether or not to
> Pipette
> Water become ‘vaccinated’. Vaccination is done by adding 2 mL
> Felt-tipped pen of hydrochloric acid to your cup of water. Redraw the table
to record who you shook hands with after some people
What to do were vaccinated.
1 Half-fill a plastic cup with water and label it with your name. 8 Repeat this activity, increasing the number of people
vaccinated.
2 All students place their cups on one table.
3 Students turn their back while the teacher adds 2 mL of Questions
sodium hydroxide to one cup. This represents a student
1 Identify the number of people who became infected when
having an infection.
no one had been vaccinated.
4 Students then collect their cups and use the pipettes to
2 Identify the number of people who became infected when a
exchange 3 mL of water with three other students. This is
few people had been vaccinated.
equivalent to shaking hands. Record who you ‘shook hands’
with in a table like the one below. 3 Identify the number of people who became infected when
more people had been vaccinated.
Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 4 Explain why vaccination affected the number of people
who became infected.
5 Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator to each cup, 5 Describe a real-life example of how vaccination can protect
to determine who caught the disease. vulnerable members of the community.
4.1A Reconstructing Pangaea

CHALLENGE
What you need

> Photocopy of a map of the world
> Scissors
> Glue
What to do
1 Roughly cut out the continents of the world and fit them
back together in the shape of Pangaea.
2 Remember to cut off India from Asia, because it was once
separated.
3 When you are happy with your supercontinent, glue the
pieces into your science book.
4 You may like to add to your supercontinent what you know
about the locations of the fossil and glacier evidence.
Questions
1 Explain why fossil twigs, roots and pollen found in
Antarctica are almost identical to those found in Tasmania.
2 Identify one other country that may have fossils similar to
those found in Australia.
3 Explain how this activity provides evidence of tectonic
Figure 1 Fossil ferns in a rock
plate movement.

4.1B Milo convection currents
CHALLENGE
CAUTION! Do not eat in the laboratory. If the Milo will

be consumed, this experiment should be done in a
Questions
canteen/cafe. 1 Describe how the heat from the hotplate moved into the
This is a whole-class demonstration. milk. Identify which part of the milk was first heated.
2 Explain why heated milk rose to the surface.
What you need > 1 L of milk 3 Explain why the Milo moved the way it did when the
> 1 small container of > Saucepan heated milk rose to the surface.
Milo (Nesquik will > Hotplate 4 Compare the movement of milk and Milo in this experiment
dissolve too easily) to the breaking up of Pangaea into smaller pieces.
What to do
1 Pour the milk into the saucepan and add a very thick layer of
Milo over the surface.
2 Place the saucepan on the hotplate and heat slowly without
stirring.
3 Record your observations of how the Milo cracks and
moves as a result of the hot milk rising to the surface.
Figure 1 The Milo on the surface will move as heat is transferred

to cooler areas of the cup.

4.2A Cooling and layers
EXPERIMENT
Aim 3 Allow the beaker of saturated copper sulfate solution to

To investigate whether cooling of a substance causes layers cool undisturbed for about 20 minutes, then carefully place
to form. it in the fridge. Examine it after an hour if possible (or the
next day).
Materials > Heatproof mat 4 When the beaker has cooled, without moving the beaker,
> 250 mL beaker > Tripod examine its contents and observe where any solid copper
> Copper sulfate (solid) > Gauze mat sulfate might be located.
> Spatula > Matches
> Glass stirring rod > Water
> Bunsen burner
Method
1 Set up the heating equipment and boil 50 mL of water in the
beaker (Figure 1).
Figure 3 Examine the cooled contents
Results
Describe what happened as the beaker cooled, and record
where any solid copper sulfate is located.
Discussion
Figure 1 Heat the water 1 Contrast (the differences between) the density of solid
copper sulfate and liquid water.
2 When the water is boiling, turn off the gas. Add the copper 2 Compare (the similarities and differences between)
sulfate to the boiled water a little at a time, using the spatula the formation of solid copper sulfate from a solution,
and stirring constantly to make it dissolve (Figure 2). Stop to the formation of solid tectonic plates formed from
when no more copper sulfate will dissolve. a molten mass.
Conclusion
Explain why layers are formed when a substance cools.
Figure 2 Add copper sulfate

4.2B Modelling the parts of the Earth
CHALLENGE
CAUTION! Some students might have egg allergy.

Questions
1 In your model, the shell represents the Earth’s crust.
What you need Describe what happened when you pushed two pieces of
> Hard-boiled egg shell towards each other.
> Teaspoon 2 Describe an example of how this can happen with the
Earth’s crust.
What to do 3 Identify which parts of the egg should be liquid in a more
accurate model of the Earth.
1 Gently crack the shell of the hard-boiled egg. The egg
can be seen as a tiny model of the Earth. The thin shell
can represent the Earth’s crust, and within the shell can
represent the Earth’s mantle.
2 Move the pieces of the shell around. These pieces can
represent the Earth’s tectonic plates. Notice how the
pieces of shell collide in some places and reveal pieces
of the ‘mantle’ in others. This also happens on the Earth,
resulting in volcanoes, earthquakes and the formation of
mountain ranges.
3 Break the egg completely open. The yolk represents the Figure 1 The egg’s shell represents the Earth’s crust, and within
core of the Earth. represents the mantle and the core.
4.3 Modelling plates

CHALLENGE

> Play dough
1 Describe the vertical movement of the top of the play dough
> Spatula
when you modelled a transforming boundary.
2 Describe what happened to the top of the play dough when
What to do you modelled a converging boundary.
1 Wash your hands before starting this activity. 3 Describe how you would model a diverging boundary.
2 Use a clean spatula to cut the play dough in half 4 Explain how the play dough would change in your model
lengthways. Flatten each half into a flat, thick rectangle, and of a diverging boundary.
place the two ‘plates’ beside each other. 5 Test your prediction. Compare your observations to your
3 To illustrate a transform boundary, gently push the ‘plates’ prediction.
so that their sides are in firm contact with each other, then
slide one half of the play dough forwards and the other
backwards. Describe your observations.
4 To illustrate the force of compression associated with
mountain building when continental plates collide, push
on both sides of the play dough to squeeze it together.
Describe your observations.
Figure 1 Play dough can be used to model plate boundaries.

4.4 Volcanic bubbles
CHALLENGE
What you need > Bottle of lemonade 3 Step 1 described the formation of gases, while step
> Powdered chalk > 100 mL beaker 2 described how the size of the bubbles increased as
> Vinegar > Teaspoon pressure was released. Use this information to describe the
> Red food dye with formation of pumice (Figure 1) during a volcanic eruption.
dropper
What to do
1 In a 100 mL beaker mix a small amount of powdered chalk
with one teaspoon of vinegar and a few drops of food dye.
The reaction produces carbon dioxide bubbles and the food
dye makes the froth look like lava.
2 Tiny gas bubbles form as the pressure in a bottle of
lemonade is released. As the pressure is released more,
bigger bubbles form. This can be seen by slightly twisting
the screw top of a bottle of soft drink, such as lemonade.
The more you twist the lid, and the more pressure that is
released, the bigger the bubbles. This is like the cooling of
magma inside a volcano.
Questions
formation of carbon dioxide in step 1 with the gases formed
in lava. Figure 1 Gas bubbles formed the holes in this piece of
pumice rock.
2 Compare the pressure in the lemonade bottle to the
pressure in a volcano.
5.1 What is the ratio of atoms in a compound?

CHALLENGE
What you need > 50 g weight Prepare a hypothesis of what items are in the bag. Provide
(representing
> 2 marbles (representing evidence from your previous results to support your
carbon) hypothesis.
hydrogen)
> Scales
> 2 golf balls (representing 6 Open the bag to determine the accuracy of your hypothesis.
oxygen) > Paper bags
Questions
What to do 1 Identify the molecule that was formed in step 1.
1 Place two marbles and one golf ball in a paper bag. 2 Identify the molecule that was formed in step 3.
2 Use the scales to weigh the bag. 3 Evaluate the accuracy of your hypothesis (by describing
the data you gathered about the mystery bag, comparing
3 Add one 50 g weight and two golf balls to a different
this data evidence to your hypothesis, and deciding whether
paper bag.
your hypothesis was accurate).
4 Use the scales to weigh the bag.
4 Describe how you could use this process to determine what
5 Your teacher will prepare a mystery bag of items in a
atoms were in a completely new compound (C6H12O6).
combination that matches step 1 or step 3. Without
opening the bag, use the scale to determine its weight.

5.2A How can you tell what is inside?
CHALLENGE
This kind of investigation uses ‘indirect evidence’. It has
3 Describe how scientists might have used indirect evidence
been used by many scientists when trying to work out what
to model what is inside an atom.
is inside the atom.
4 Identify at least one other field of scientific investigation
in which scientists would have to use indirect evidence to
What you need > Wooden block
develop their theories.
> Ball > 3 small boxes
> Soft-drink can > Scales
> 2 nails
What to do
1 Form two teams (A and B) of three students to work with
each other.
2 Team A places one item in each of the small boxes. The
boxes are then closed.
3 Team B plans a way of determining what is inside each of
the boxes without opening or touching them. They can use
any equipment that is available in the science laboratory.
The team writes the steps of the method in their logbooks.
4 Team B then follows the method to touch and examine the
boxes, still without opening them.
5 Repeat the process, with Team B preparing a box and
Team A determining what is inside the box.
Questions
1 Contrast ‘direct evidence’ and ‘indirect evidence’.
2 Describe the senses that team B used to identify what was
inside the box. Figure 1 How can you determine what is in the box?
5.2B Rutherford model of the atom

CHALLENGE
CAUTION! Do not eat the popcorn used in the experiment. Questions

1 The hula hoop represents a
What you need > Empty matchbox gold atom in Rutherford’s
> Hula hoop > Popcorn experiment. Identify what the
> String > Scissors matchbox represents.
2 Identify the number of
What to do popcorn pieces that bounced
off the matchbox.
1 Tie the string securely around the matchbox and suspend it
3 Explain how your model of
in the middle of the hula hoop.
Rutherford’s experiment
2 One person holds the hula hoop so that it and the
provides supporting evidence
matchbox are hanging vertically, facing a second person.
for the Rutherford model of
3 The second person stands 1–2 m away and throws one piece the atom.
of popcorn at a time at the hula hoop. Repeat 10 times.
4 Record how many kernels of popcorn go through the hoop
Figure 1 What does popcorn
and how many bounce off the matchbox.
represent in this experiment?

5.4 Flame tests
EXPERIMENT
CAUTION! Wear safety goggles and a lab coat. Ensure

hair is tied back and loose clothing is removed or tucked
Discussion
away. Wire loops and flames are hot. Be careful not to 1 Explain why the loop was treated with hydrochloric acid
burn yourself. 1 M hydrochloric acid can give a small before any carbonates were tested.
chemical burn. If contact occurs, wash skin with tap
water immediately. 2 Explain why the flame colour changed in the different
chemicals.
Aim 3 Evaluate whether the colour change is a chemical change or
To observe the coloured light emitted when certain a physical change (by defining chemical change, defining
substances are heated in a flame. physical change, comparing the change in the chemicals to
these definitions and deciding the type of change).
Materials > 1 M hydrochloric 4 Explain why the electrons in different elements produce
acid different colours.
> Solid samples of
> Bunsen burner 5 Identify whether the colour change is caused by the metal
sodium carbonate,
> Heatproof mat or the carbonate part of the powder. Justify your answer
copper carbonate,
(by describing the differences between the chemicals tested
potassium carbonate > Matches
and describing how these differences caused the colour
and strontium carbonate > Wire loops
changes).
Method Conclusion
Describe what you know about the different coloured flames
1 Set up your Bunsen burner, observing safety instructions,
produced by different elements.
and light the Bunsen burner on the safety flame.
2 Adjust the Bunsen burner to the blue flame. Take a wire
loop and dip it in a small beaker of 1 M hydrochloric acid.
Flame the loop. This will clean the loop, ready for your
solid sample. Avoid getting too close to the flame. Stand
back a little.
3 Take a loop of solid chemical and place it in the flame.
Observe the colour of the flame. Try not to lose the solid
down the Bunsen burner barrel. This could block the
burner and contaminate the flame, changing the colour.
4 Once you have finished your observation, dip the loop in
the 1 M hydrochloric acid again and re-flame it. This will
clean the loop for the next sample.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the other samples.
Results
Record your results in an appropriate table.
Figure 1 Flames can change colour depending on what substances

are heated.

5.6 Calculating relative atomic mass
CHALLENGE
Your bag contains a sample of a new element called
4 Use the equation below to determine the relative atomic
‘legumium’ (symbol Lg). The atomic number of legumium
mass of legumium.
is 4. There are three isotopes of this element. The smallest
isotope is 4Lg. The next in size is 5Lg, which has an atomic (number of 4Lg × mass 4Lg)
mass of 5. The largest of the isotopes is 6Lg, which has + (number of 5Lg × mass 5Lg)
an atomic mass of 6. Your role is to determine the relative + (number of 6 Lg × mass 6 Lg)
atomic mass of the element and its isotopes. Average atomic mass Lg =
total number of isotopes
What you need

> 1 bag of ‘isotope sample’ containing 8 large dried lima Questions
beans, 11 baby lima beans and 15 black-eyed peas
1 For each legumium isotope, show its mass, atomic number
> Scales
and symbol.
2 Identify the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
What to do
each isotope.
1 Record the total number of isotopes in your sample. 3 According to your sample, explain which legumium isotope
2 Record the number of each of the isotopes in your sample. is most common in nature.
3 Weigh each legumium isotope and record the mass in an
appropriate table.
5.7 Modelling radioactive decay

CHALLENGE
This activity illustrates the idea of exponential decay and
7 Place the remaining nuclei back into the cup, shake them
half-life. Counters represent the nuclei.
and tip them out again.
What you need > Disposable 8 Move the decayed nuclei to the discard pile and count
plastic cup those remaining. Record the number.
> Counters (at least 30)
> Permanent marker 9 Continue until you have three or fewer nuclei.
> A4 paper
10 Repeat the whole process two more times.
11 Draw a set of axes with the number of atoms remaining
What to do (vertical axis) and the number of shakes (horizontal axis).
1 Draw up a table like the one below, to record your results. Plot points and draw a line of best fit through the points for
each of the three trials.
Number of Number of undecayed ‘atoms’
shakes Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Questions
0 (start) 1 The atomic nuclei were represented by counters. Describe
1 how the half-life of the decay process was represented.
2 2 Contrast the shapes of the curves drawn for each trial.
... 3 Explain how the overall shape of the curves would or
would not change if you started with more atomic nuclei.
2 Draw an M on one side of each counter.
4 In this experiment, you would eventually end up with no
3 Count the total number of counters that you have, record ‘undecayed’ counters. Evaluate whether this would be the
this number and place them in the plastic cup. case with a real radionuclide (by describing how atoms
4 Shake the cup and tip all the counters onto the paper. randomly decay in real life, comparing this to the counter
5 Those that have the ‘M’ facing upwards represent atoms demonstration and deciding whether every atom of a real
that have decayed. Move these to a ‘discard’ pile. radionuclide would become stable).
6 Count the remaining ‘nuclei’ and record this number.

6.1 Energy changes
EXPERIMENT
CAUTION! Wear your lab coat, safety goggles and plastic

gloves. Check the safety data sheets to see how to handle
Results
the chemicals in this experiment safely. Draw a graph of temperature versus time, and plot your results
from the two chemicals on the same graph. Make sure you
Aim label both axes and use the correct units.
To investigate an exothermic and an endothermic process.
Discussion
Materials > Stirring rod 1 Identify the reaction that had products with less energy than
> Sealed bottle containing > Thermometer (or the reactants.
potassium nitrate temperature sensor) 2 Identify the reaction that had products with more energy
(KNO3) > 2 foam cups than the reactants.
> Sealed bottle containing > 2 spatulas 3 Identify which reaction was endothermic. Justify your
calcium chloride > Stopwatch answer (by defining the term ‘endothermic’ and comparing
(CaCl2) > Wash bottle this definition to the changing temperatures of the
> Measuring cylinder > Residue bottle matching experiment).
> Water 4 Identify which reaction was exothermic. Justify your
answer.
This experiment may be carried out using a temperature probe 5 Use the graphs to describe how quickly (the rate) the
and data logging equipment instead of a thermometer. temperature rose or fell.
6 Explain why the temperature reached a steady value after
Method some time.
1 Prepare a table to record the times and temperatures. 7 Identify two variables that needed to be controlled in this
2 Measure 50 mL of water into a foam cup. experiment. Describe how they were controlled.
3 Measure the temperature of the water and record it. 8 Describe one change that you would make to improve the
4 Place three heaped spatulas of calcium chloride in the reliability of the results.
water and immediately commence stirring and timing. Conclusion
5 Record the temperature every 15 seconds for 3 minutes.
Describe what you know about exothermic and endothermic
6 Dispose of the solution into the container provided and reactions.
carefully rinse the thermometer with the wash bottle,
ensuring the rinse water is also added to the residue bottle.
Dispose of the cup as directed by your teacher.
7 Repeat steps 2–6 using potassium nitrate.
Figure 1 This experiment requires a stopwatch.

6.2A Testing with pH paper
CHALLENGE
What you need > Vinegar

> pH paper and pH > Milk
colour chart or > Toothpaste
universal indicator > Lemon juice
> White spotting tile > Water
> Variety of laboratory
acids and bases
What to do
1 Tear off about 1 cm of pH paper and place it on the
white tile.
2 Place a drop of a laboratory acid on the paper.
3 Compare the colour of the wet spot on the pH paper with
the pH colour chart.
4 Repeat for the laboratory bases.
5 Test each of the remaining substances on new sections of
the pH paper. For each substance, record the pH colour
and number and note whether the substance is an acid, a
base or neutral.
6 Dilute some of the substances with water and measure the
pH of the diluted solutions with more indicator paper.
Questions
1 Identify which substance was the most acidic solution that
you tested (lowest pH).
2 Identify which substance was the most basic solution that
you tested (highest pH).
3 Describe what happens to the pH of an acid when the acid
is diluted in water. Figure 1 pH paper and charts can determine whether a substance
4 Use your answer to question 3 to describe a way of is acidic, basic or neutral.
treating a burn caused by acid.

6.2B What if plants were used to create
an indicator? EXPERIMENT
Aim Inquiry
To make an indicator from red cabbage and demonstrate
What if another plant, flower or fruit was used to create an
how it can be used to identify acids and bases
indicator?
Answer the following questions with regard to your inquiry
Materials > 2 × 250 mL beakers
question.
> 2 leaves from a fresh red > Strainer
> Write a hypothesis (If … then … because …) for your inquiry.
cabbage (shredded) > 0.1 M hydrochloric
acid > Identify the (independent) variable that you will change
> 0.1 M sodium hydroxide from the red cabbage method.
> Water > Stick blender
> Describe how you will measure whether the plant, flower
> Stirring rod > Test tubes and test-tube
or fruit (dependent variable) is an indicator. Predict the
rack
> Spotting tile colour changes you might expect.
> A variety of household
> Plastic disposable > Identify two variables that you will need to control to
products (e.g. shampoo,
pipettes ensure a valid test. Describe how you will control these
vinegar, baking soda)
> Dropper variables.
Red cabbage contains a water-soluble pigment called flavin, > Write down the method you will use to complete your
which is also found in plums, poppies, grapes and apple skin. investigation in your logbook.
Very acidic solutions will turn flavin red, neutral solutions > Draw up a table to record your results.
result in a purplish colour, and alkaline solutions appear > Show your teacher your planning for approval before
greenish yellow if flavin is added to them. starting your experiment.
Method Results
1 To make the indicator: Include your table of observations.
a Place the shredded red cabbage leaves in a beaker.
b Cover the cabbage leaves with water and blend the Discussion
mixture until the water is purple. 1 Identify a colour change that can be used to determine the
c Strain the liquid into another beaker and save it, and pH of a substance added to red cabbage.
then discard the cabbage leaves. 2 Identify the colour that the extract from your plant
2 To test the indicator: becomes in:
a Add a small amount of hydrochloric acid (using a a an acid
pipette) to a test tube and then add a few drops of red b a base
cabbage indicator. c water.
b Record any colour change in a table. 3 Describe any limitations of your experiment (by describing
c Add a small amount of water (neutral solution) to a test conditions where your extract will become inaccurate,
tube and then add a few drops of red cabbage indicator. describing the sensitivity of your extract or if it can
d Record any colour change in your table. determine the difference between pH 1 and pH 2, and how
e Add a small amount of sodium hydroxide (basic expensive your extract would be to produce for chemical
solution) to a test tube and then add a few drops of red laboratories or manufacturing chemicals).
cabbage indicator.
Conclusion
f Record any colour change in your table.
Describe what you know about indicators and how they are
3 Test a variety of products, such as shampoo, vinegar and
produced.
baking soda in water, by adding a few drops of red cabbage
indicator solution to them.
4 Record the colour changes and determine which products
are acids and which are bases.
Figure 1 Many plants, including red cabbbage,

can be used to make an indicator.

6.3A Neutralisation reactions
EXPERIMENT
CAUTION! Ensure that you wear safety goggles at all 6 Record how much sodium hydroxide you needed to add
times during this experiment. Avoid skin contact with
from the measuring cylinder.
the hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions.
1 M hydrochloric acid can give a small chemical burn. If 7 Carefully empty and rinse out your glassware. Add 5.0 mL
contact occurs, wash skin with tap water immediately. of hydrochloric acid to the beaker and the amount of
sodium hydroxide that you recorded in step 6.
Aim 8 Pour the solution into a Petri dish and leave open in a safe
To investigate neutralisation reactions. place in the laboratory for a few hours. As the solution
evaporates, record your observations.
Materials > Dropping pipettes
> 1 M hydrochloric acid > 10 mL measuring Results
cylinder
> 1 M sodium hydroxide Present your results in a table.
solution > 100 mL beaker
> Petri dish Discussion
> Universal indicator
solution in a dropper > Water 1 Identify the reactants and products in a neutralising reaction.
bottle 2 Explain why is it essential to rinse the measuring cylinder
with water after it is used.
2 Explain why the experiment was repeated without the
Method
indicator.
1 Using the measuring cylinder, transfer 5.0 mL of 3 Explain how you could produce the solid salt more quickly
hydrochloric acid into the beaker and then rinse out the in the last step of the method.
measuring cylinder with water. Leave the test tubes in the
4 Explain why you should not taste the product of this
test-tube rack throughout the experiment. reaction to check whether salt has been produced.
2 Add 2 drops of universal indicator solution to the acid. 5 Describe the shape of the salt crystals produced. Explain
3 Pour 10 mL of the sodium hydroxide solution into the what this shape tells you about the arrangement of the
measuring cylinder. particles inside the salt crystals.
4 Using the dropping pipette, add drops of the sodium
hydroxide from the measuring cylinder to the acid in the Conclusion
beaker. Carefully mix the solution between each drop. Explain what you know about neutralising reactions.
5 Stop adding the sodium hydroxide when the acid has been
neutralised. (The indicator will turn green at this point.)
6.3B Making sherbet

CHALLENGE
What you need > Small zip-lock sandwich 3 Dip the plastic spoon into the mixture and put a small
bag
> 1 tablespoon icing sugar amount on your tongue.
> Measuring spoons
> ¼ teaspoon sodium
bicarbonate (baking > Plastic spoon Questions
soda) > Marker pen 1 Describe what happened to the sherbet when it mixed with
> ¼ teaspoon citric acid the saliva in your mouth.
> 1 teaspoon flavoured 2 Identify the three substances that were formed.
jelly crystals 3 Describe how the sherbet felt on your tongue. Describe the
differences in tastes you observed.
What to do 4 Evaluate whether carbonates and bicarbonates should
be described as bases (by defining ‘base’, comparing
Do this experiment in a food preparation area so that the
carbonates and bicarbonates to this definition, and
sherbet is safe to eat.
deciding whether they match the definition and should
1 Make sure the utensils are clean and dry. therefore be described as a base).
2 Mix all the ingredients in the sandwich bag and label the
bag with your name.

6.4 What if a metal was protected from an acid?
EXPERIMENT
CAUTION! Ensure that you wear safety goggles at all > Identify two variables that you will need to control to
times during this activity. Avoid skin contact with the acid.
ensure a valid test. Describe how you will control these
1 M hydrochloric acid can give a small chemical burn. If
contact occurs, wash skin with tap water immediately. variables.
> Identify the materials that you will need for your
Aim experiment.
To determine what factors protect a metal from acid rain. > Write down the method you will use to complete your
investigation in your logbook.
Materials > Matches > Draw up a table to record your results.
> 1 M hydrochloric acid > A variety of materials > Show your teacher your planning for approval before
that could be used starting your experiment.
> Test tubes and test-tube
as a barrier (e.g.
rack
petroleum jelly, Results
> Small pieces of metals
candle wax, Describe your observations. Draw or take pictures of the metal
(e.g. aluminium, copper,
masking tape, before and after exposure to the acid.
iron, magnesium, tin and
sticky tape)
zinc) to fit into test tubes Discussion
1 Describe (summarise) the observations you made about
Method
how the different metals reacted with the acid.
Work collaboratively to complete this experiment.
2 Identify the metal that was the most reactive with the acid.
1 Add a small piece of one metal to a test tube and pour in Justify your answer (by comparing the observations of the
enough acid to cover it. different metals, describing the strongest/fastest reaction,
2 Gently place your thumb over the top of the test tube to and identifying the metal that was responsible for this
allow any gas to accumulate. reaction).
3 After about 1 minute, there should be pressure on your 3 Identify the metal that was the least reactive with the acid.
thumb from the gas trying to escape. Another student Justify your answer.
should light a match (or use a lighter) and carefully bring it 4 Describe the success of your method of protecting the
to the end of the test tube as you take your thumb away. metal. Justify your answer (by comparing the observations
4 Observe what happens (e.g. bubbling, metal dissolving, of your protected metal to the unreacted metal and
colour change, test tube warming) and record your deciding whether the outcome matches your hypothesis).
observations in a table. 5 Compare your results to those of the rest of your class, to
5 Repeat steps 1–4 for each metal. identify the most successful method of protection.
Inquiry 6 Describe the limitations of your results (by describing
situations where the methods of protection would not work
What if a metal was protected from the acid?
in the real world).
Answer the following questions with regard to your inquiry
question. Conclusion
> Write a hypothesis (If … then … because …) for your inquiry. Describe what you know about reactions between metals and
> Identify the (independent) variable that you will change acid, and how these can be prevented.
from the first method to protect the metal.
> Identify the (dependent) variable that you will measure
and/or observe.

6.5 Combustion and candles
CHALLENGE

> Tealight candle
1 Identify the fuel for the chemical reaction occurring with the
> Beaker large enough to fit over candle
candle.
> Matches
2 Explain why the candle goes out shortly after being covered
with the beaker.
What to do 3 Describe the moisture on the inside of the beaker. Identify
1 Light the tea candle with a match. the source of this water.
2 Place the beaker over the candle and observe what 4 Write a word equation for the combustion of the
happens. candle wax.
7.1A Demonstrating electrostatics

CHALLENGE
What you need > Small pieces of paper

Part C
> Plastic comb > Balloons
> Balloon pump 1 Using the balloon pump, blow up a balloon and carefully
> Woollen cloth
draw a face on it.
> Rice Bubbles > Felt-tipped pens
2 Tie the balloon onto a string and suspend it from a
> Large plastic bag > String
doorway or ceiling using tape, so that it is level with
with tie > Tape
your head.
> Plastic rod or pen 3 Rub the balloon face with the woollen cloth and walk
towards it.
What to do 4 Record what happens.
> Identify the distance from the ‘balloon face’ you have to
Part A be before it is attracted to you.
1 Place some of the Rice Bubbles in the plastic bag. Blow air > Describe what happens if you put a piece of paper
into the bag and seal it with the tie. between you and the balloon.
2 Rub the woollen cloth over both the plastic bag and the 5 Blow up another balloon and draw a face on it.
comb. > Describe what happens when you bring it close to your
3 Bring the plastic bag and comb together. suspended balloon.
4 Record what happens.
5 Explain your observations, using the idea of electrostatic
Questions
charge. 1 Describe your observations in Part A using the terms ‘like
charges’, ‘unlike charges’ and ‘neutral or no charge’.
Part B 2 Describe your observations in Part B using the terms ‘like
1 On a piece of paper, draw four positive and four charges’, ‘unlike charges’ and ‘neutral or no charge’.
negative charges. Show what happens to these charges 3 Describe your observations in Part C using the terms ‘like
when the positively charged woollen cloth is brought close charges’, ‘unlike charges’ and ‘neutral or no charge’.
to them.
2 Explain why the paper is attracted to the plastic rod or pen
by discussing the movement of charges.
Figure 1 Can you explain the

attraction of the balloon?

7.1B Separating charges with a van de Graaff
generator CHALLENGE
What you need > Paper streamers

c paper streamers held nearby
> van de Graaff generator > Small pieces of paper
d long dry hair nearby
> Smaller sphere > Aluminium plates
e small pieces of paper thrown on top
connected to discharge > Paper cup with Rice
f aluminium plates placed on top
wand Bubbles
g paper cup with Rice Bubbles inside.
1 Observe what happens to objects that have been charged by a 1 Describe the three rules of electrostatic charges.
van de Graaff generator. Record your observations in a table. 2 Explain what happens in each example, using your
2 Your teacher may demonstrate any of the following: knowledge of electrostatic charge.
a a smaller sphere held near a larger sphere
b paper streamers attached to the top
Figure 1 What happens to paper streamers?
7.2A Making a simple torch circuit

CHALLENGE
What you need

Questions
> Pieces of insulated electrical wire with the ends
stripped bare 1 Select one of the arrangements that did not allow the globe
to light up. Explain why this arrangement did not allow
> 1.5 V battery
electricity to pass through the circuit.
> 1.2 V torch globe
2 Describe how the filament in the light globe is able to
> Hand lens
transform electricity into light and heat.
3 Describe how the globe holder connects the light globe to
What to do the circuit.
1 Try different arrangements of the wires, battery and torch
globe to make the globe light up. Draw each arrangement
that you tried.
2 Use circuit diagrams to record some of the arrangements
that work and some that do not.
3 Use the hand lens to look carefully at the filament in the
globe. The filament is the tiny wire inside the glass of the
globe – the part that glows brightly when the globe lights
up. Draw what you see.
4 Use the hand lens to look at how a globe holder (the base
of a globe) is constructed.
Figure 1 How does a torch work?

7.2B Connecting circuits
CHALLENGE
What you need > 2 switches

> 1.5 V battery > Connecting wires
> 1.2 V light globe
What to do
1 Construct a simple circuit containing a battery, a light globe
and a switch. It is a good idea to start at a particular part
of the circuit (e.g. the positive terminal of the battery) and
work your way sequentially around.
Figure 1 Where might a circuit with a globe and a switch be useful?
2 Draw the circuit diagram for the circuit.
3 Pull the circuit apart and reuse the components. Construct
a different circuit with a battery, a globe and two switches so
that the globe lights up only when both switches are closed.
Questions
4 Draw the circuit diagram for this circuit. 1 Define the term ‘series circuit’.
5 Pull the circuit apart and reuse the components. Connect 2 Describe where a series circuit with two light globes and
up a different circuit with a battery, a globe and two a single switch might be useful.
switches so that the globe lights up if either one of the 3 Describe where a circuit with two switches and a single
switches is closed. light globe might be useful.
6 Draw the circuit diagram for this circuit. 4 Describe a situation where a series circuit would not be
> Where might a circuit like this be useful? useful.
7.3A Making series and parallel circuits

CHALLENGE
Find out how many ways you can connect two globes in a
circuit. Questions
1 Describe the effect of changing the location of the switch in
What you need > Switch a simple circuit.
> 2 × 1.2 V globes and > Ammeter or 2 Define the term ‘current’.
holders multimeter 3 Describe how an ammeter should be connected to measure
> 1.5 V battery and holder the current in a circuit.
> 8 connecting wires (with 4 Describe how the current did or did not change when the
banana plugs or alligator ammeter’s location was changed.
clips)
What to do
1 Construct four circuits, placing the switch so that it controls:
a both globes, with both either on or off at the same time
b one globe only, with the other on all the time
c the other globe only, with the first globe on all the time
d both globes, with one globe on when the other is off
and vice-versa.
Follow step 2 before you disconnect each circuit.
2 Draw the circuit diagram to show where the switch was
placed in each circuit.
3 Connect an ammeter at different places in each circuit and
measure the current at each point. Figure 1 How many ways can you connect multiple globes in a circuit?

7.3B Short-circuiting an electric current
CHALLENGE
What you need > Connecting wires

> 1.2 V lamp
Questions
> 1.5 V battery
1 Describe the flow of electricity when the switch was
> Switch
left open.
2 Describe the flow of electricity when the switch was
What to do closed.
1 Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1. 3 Use the term ‘short circuit’ to explain your observation.
> What do you think will happen if the switch is closed?
2 Close the switch.
Figure 1 Circuit set-up
7.4A Using Ohm’s law to find resistance

SKILLS L AB
Example 3 Substitute the numbers for V and I:

Find the value of a resistor that has a voltage drop of 6 V 6
R=
across it when a current of 50 mA flows through it. 0.05
4 Do the calculation: 6 ÷ 0.05 = 120 Ω.
1 Check the units: 6 V is in volts and so can be used
unchanged. You will need to convert 50 mA (milliamps) Your turn
to amps. The prefix ‘milli’ means 0.001 (or × 10–3), so
This law can also be used to work out the voltage or the
50 mA = 50 × 0.001 or 0.05 A.
current.
2 Use the Ohm’s law triangle to find the correct formula.
1 Calculate the voltage drop across a resistor with a value of
You want to find resistance, so use your fingertip to cover
the R – the other two letters show you the formula to use 180 Ω and a current of 50 mA. (Remember to cover V in the
(see Figure 1). Ohm’s law triangle to get the correct formula for R and I. If
The V is over the I, so use: the letters are next to each other, multiply them.)
V 2 If a 12 V battery is placed in a circuit with a 470 Ω resistor,
R= calculate the current that will flow through the circuit.
I
3 If the current of a circuit with a 12 V battery is 0.004 A,
calculate the resistance of the circuit.
Figure 1 Using the Ohm’s law triangle

7.4B Understanding resistor colour codes
SKILLS L AB
Carbon resistors typically have four colour-coded bands Look at the resistor in Figure 2. What does its code mean?
on their case (Figure 1). These bands are part of a code 1 The tolerance band is gold, so the resistor has 5 per cent
that allows you to work out their approximate value and tolerance.
tolerance. The fourth band is the tolerance band, which
2 The first band is blue, so it has a value of 6.
indicates the amount that the resistance may vary by (the
3 The second band is red, so it has a value of 2. The number
relative accuracy of the resistor). Gold means 5 per cent
is now 62.
tolerance, silver means 10 per cent tolerance, and no fourth
4 The third band is also red, so this means 2 zeros need to be
band means 20 per cent tolerance. The lower the percentage
added to the number. The number is now 6200.
tolerance, the more accurate (or closer to the true value) the
resistor is. 5 Resistor values are always coded in ohms, so the value of
this resistor is 6200 ohms or 6.2 kilo-ohms.
1st digit
2nd digit
Multiplier
Tolerance
Figure 1 A resistor with colour-coded bands
To read the three other bands, put the tolerance band on

the right and start at the other end. The first two bands form a
two-digit number according to their colour (see Table 1). The
third band tells you how many zeros to put after the number.
Table 1 Resistor colour codes

Colour Value Figure 2 Calculate the value of this resistor.
Black 0
Discussion
Brown 1
Red 2
1 Define the electrical term ‘resistance’.
Orange 3
2 Explain why different resistors may need to be used in
different circuits.
Yellow 4
3 Explain what is meant by the term ‘tolerance’.
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9

7.4C Investigating Ohm’s law
EXPERIMENT
Aim 5 Record your results in Table 1.

To investigate the voltage drop across and the current flow Table 1 Experiment results
through a resistor, and to calculate an average value of the
resistance. Resistor Voltage (V) Current (mA) Volts ÷ amps
Materials > 3 other resistors

with masking tape
> 2–12 V power supply
over their coloured
> Ammeter
bands
> Voltmeter
> Connecting wires 6 Repeat the experiment for the other three resistors, without
> 10 Ω resistor
reading their coloured bands.
7 Complete the results table for each of the three masked
Method resistors and calculate their resistance.
1 Identify the 10 Ω resistor. It should be colour-coded brown, 8 Remove the masking tape and determine the resistance
black, black. values from the coloured bands of the resistors.
2 Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1. Use the DC
Results
terminals of the power supply and start with the dial on 2 V.
Include your results table.
3 Switch on the power supply, take the readings on the
ammeter and voltmeter, and switch the power off again Discussion
straight away (so you don’t overheat the resistor).
1 From your results table, identify what the values in the last
4 Change the dial on the power supply to 4 V and repeat
column calculate.
step 3. Then change the dial to 6 V and repeat.
2 For the three masked resistors, compare the accuracy of
the values you obtained to the values indicated by their
coloured bands.
3 Use the formula below to calculate the difference (error)
between the two values as a percentage of the marked
value.
marked value – average calculated value

% error = × 100
marked value
4 Identify which value – the one obtained by reading the

coloured bands or the one obtained from your calculations
– provides the most useful measure of a resistor’s
resistance. Justify your answer (by explaining how each
value is obtained, describing which value is most relevant to
use in a circuit and deciding which value provides the most
useful measure).
Conclusion
Figure 1 Circuit set-up Describe what you know about Ohm’s law.

7.5A Investigating with a remote control
CHALLENGE
What you need 2 Make sure the device that the remote belongs to is turned
> Wireless remote device with a working remote control off. With your back to the device, angle the mirror so that
> Mirror you can see the device. Point the remote control towards
> Smart phone the mirror and push the ‘on’ button. Can you activate the
device?
1 Most remote-control devices use infrared LEDs to send 1 Define the term ‘LED’.
their signal. This colour of light is outside the visible
2 Explain how the device is able to detect the signal from the
spectrum. Y ou can test whether a remote control is working LED.
by using the camera function on your smart phone. Open
3 Explain how you were able to use the mirror to switch on
the camera app on your phone and switch it to the front-
the device.
facing camera. Point the remote at the camera and press any
button on the remote.
> Describe what you see in the camera picture.
7.5B Lighting up LEDs

CHALLENGE

1 Identify which leg of the LED (one leg is longer than the
> Red LED
other) needs to be connected to the positive side of the
> 330 Ω resistor
circuit for it to light up.
> 1000 Ω resistor
2 Explain why a resistor should be used in this circuit.
> Connecting wires
3 Explain the advantages of using an LED instead of a
traditional light globe.
What to do
1 Connect the power supply set on 8 V DC in series with the
red LED and 330 Ω resistor (orange, orange, brown). If the
LED doesn’t light up, reverse its connection.
2 Try a larger resistor, such as the 1000 Ω (brown, black,
red), in the circuit and observe what effect it has.
3 Draw a circuit diagram of your circuit when the LED
lights up.
Figure 1 LED lights

7.5C Wiring a house
CHALLENGE
What you need > Paperclip

2 Use the LEDs, wires, resistors, switch and other items as
> Cardboard box > Split pins needed to complete your room design in the cardboard
> 6 LEDs > Cardboard box.
> 4 resistors (330 Ω) > Optional:
decorations for Questions
> 9 V battery
your house 1 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of devices being
> Wires
connected:
a in series
What to do
b in parallel.
1 Design a room in a house that needs lighting for at least 2 Party lights often have groups of five LEDs connected in
three parts of the room and a power switch that needs to be series. These groups are then connected in parallel with
turned on and off. It may be a bedroom with an overhead other groups of LEDs. Describe what will happen when
light, a computer or television and a bedside lamp. It may be one of the LEDs is damaged.
a study with an overhead light, a desk light and a computer 3 Explain why it is important that resistors be used when
terminal. It may be a kitchen with an overhead light, an oven wiring LEDs.
light and a fridge where the light turns on when the door is
4 Government codes require circuit switches (with electrical
opened. You may choose to use several LEDs to make more
fuses) to be included in the electrical wiring of a house.
complicated overhead lights (such as a chandelier).
Describe where you would put a circuit switch in your
> Draw your room design. house to prevent damage in the event of a short circuit.
> Draw a circuit diagram for your room. Consider
whether you need the devices connected in series
or in parallel. Describe the reasons for each of your
decisions.
Figure 1 What is the best way to organise wiring in a house?

8.1 Creating magnetic fields
EXPERIMENT
Aim Discussion
To investigate the magnetic field around a single wire and
1 Explain why the magnetic field around the solenoid is
a solenoid when connected to direct current (DC) and
stronger than around the wire.
alternating current (AC).
2 Explain the difference in pulling the nail out of the solenoid
Materials > Long insulated wire with the power on and off.
> Different-shaped > Iron nail 3 Explain the effect of the stand on the ease or difficulty of
magnets > Connecting wires removing the nail from the core.
> Iron filings > 2 plotting compasses 4 Describe the effects of DC and AC on the nail.
> Sheet of A4 paper > Retort stand 5 Explain why the iron nail became hotter when the solenoid
was switched on.
> AC/DC 12 V power
supply Conclusion
Describe the effects of an electric current on the magnetic field
Method surrounding a wire and a solenoid.
1 Arrange the magnets under the paper. Sprinkle the iron
filings on the top of the paper. The iron filings will align
with the magnetic field around the magnets. Draw the lines
that are created. Include arrows showing the magnetic
field moving from the north pole to the south pole of
the magnets. Put the iron filings away before starting the
next step.
2 Wrap the wire around the nail as many times as possible.
Remove the nail to make a solenoid.
3 Sit the solenoid on the retort stand base.
4 Connect the solenoid to the power supply. Use the DC
connections and turn the knob to 12 V. Before switching on
the power, position the plotting compass under one of the
connecting wires so that its needle is parallel to the wire.
5 Switch the power on and observe the compass needle.
Move the compass above the connecting wire and observe.
Test the other compass with the other connecting wire.
Record your observations.
6 Insert the nail into the solenoid. What do you notice during
this process? What happens to the temperature of the nail?
Try to pull the nail out of the solenoid while the power is still
on, and again after the power is off. Was there a difference?
Move the solenoid off the stand base and again try to remove Figure 1 The pattern of iron filings shows the magnetic field.
the nail while the power is on. Was there a difference?
7 Remove the nail and change the power to AC. Reinsert
the nail. Is there any evidence that the magnetic field is
vibrating? Does the nail get hot after a while?

8.2A Observing magnetic force
CHALLENGE
What you need

Questions
1 Use the right-hand slap rule to explain your observations.
> Strong horseshoe magnet
2 Describe how the force is dependent on the angle between
> Connecting wires
the current and the magnetic field.
3 Complete the following:
What to do When the angle is 0°, the force is ___________________.
1 Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 1. When the angle is 90°, the force is ___________________.
2 Turn on the power. The wire should ‘jump’ out of the
magnetic field. Consider why this happened.
3 Predict what will happen if you change the positions of the
wires and the magnet. Set up the equipment to match your
prediction and observe what happens.
4 Set up the equipment so that the current is parallel to the
magnetic field and observe what happens.
Figure 1 Equipment set-up

8.2B Building an electric motor
CHALLENGE
What you need > Rubber band

5 Wind the copper wire into coils, leaving the ends sticking
> 2 m of insulated copper > Blu-Tack straight out. These ends will fit into the loops of the
wire > 2 disc magnets paperclips. When you are satisfied with your coil and you
> 2 paperclips > Sticky tape have checked that it sits easily in the paperclip loops, tape
> D battery > Pliers up the coil to hold it together. Sit it in the loops ready for
the start-up.
What to do 6 To start the motor, bring the two disc magnets between the
coiled wire and the battery. The coil may need a kickstart to
1 Use the pliers to strip the ends of the copper wire so that the get it running.
metal is exposed.
2 Unwind the paperclips to create two roughly straight pieces Questions
with small loops in them. 1 Describe how increasing the number of coils of wire could
3 Hold the straight parts of the two paperclips at either end change the speed or force of your electric motor.
of the battery and place the rubber band around them to 2 Describe how increasing the voltage of the battery would
hold them against the battery terminals. affect your motor.
4 Place the battery on the bench and secure it with a piece
of Blu-Tack on either side. The paperclips should point
straight up and the loops should be approximately level
with each other.
Figure 1 Power cables

8.3 Producing electricity with a generator
CHALLENGE

> Model demonstration generator
1 Draw a picture of the generator, labelling each section,
> Lamp
including the coil of wire, the magnets, the brushes, the split
> Galvanometer
ring commutator and the two slip rings of the generator.
2 Draw arrows to indicate the direction of the rotation and
> Connecting wires the letters N and S to indicate the poles of the magnet.
3 There are always three parts to any motor or electricity
What to do generator. Identify these three parts and describe how
1 Inspect the demonstration generator. they interact with each other.
2 Identify the coil of wire, the magnets, the brushes, the split
ring commutator and the two slip rings of the generator.
3 Use the generator to light a lamp.
Figure 1 High-voltage transmission lines carry electricity from power stations to our homes.

[STEAM project 1] How can we
use sustainable
farming
practices so
that no one Your task
goes hungry in Increase the growing capacity
(productivity) of a 1 hectare
the future? (100 m × 100 m) plot of land
by designing a vertical garden
that won’t damage the local
The United Nations ranks food shortages and environment.
hunger among the most serious issues affecting
humankind. It predicts that more than 840
million people will be hungry by 2030. Even
Figure 1 Vertical farming allows people to grow more food in a
in a high-income country such as Australia, smaller space.
5 per cent of the population are unable to access
enough nutritious food. The experience of
having inadequate access to food, or having an
inadequate supply of food, is known as food
insecurity. Food insecurity is linked to poor
general health, higher rates of some cancers and
higher mortality.
Rapid climate change is increasing threats
to Australia’s and the world’s food security.
Changes in the amount of rainfall, longer
droughts and an increase in the number of
extreme weather events are expected to disrupt
the amount and quality of food that Australia
can produce. A hotter climate is expected to
cause stress in livestock animals such as chickens,
sheep and cattle, and to increase the amount of
water needed for crop irrigation.
Sustainable farming
Sustainable farming practices use methods Figure 2 Drought impacts Australia’s production of important
crops, such as wheat.
that balance the needs of all members of the
community. This means that new and old • ecologically sound – if the local environment
technologies are used to make sure that food is not supported, then the land will be unable
production is: to support food production. Sustainable
• economically viable – if farmers cannot make farming also works to maintain the diversity
enough money to survive, then the farming of the local wildlife.
practice is not sustainable Sustainable farming uses technology to
• socially supportive – if the lifestyle of the increase the production of fresh, nutritious
farming community is not supported, then food while minimising the impact on the
people will not want to live in the area local environment.
HUMANITIES
In Geography this year, you will learn about food security around
the world and food production in Australia. You will investigate the
factors that influence crop yield (such as soil moisture) and how food
production can alter a biome. In Economics and Business, you will
study the agricultural resources (such as wheat) that form a large part of
Australia’s trade economy.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to investigate the
environmental constraints on agricultural production in Australia, such
as climate and distribution of water resources. You will also need to
understand the extent to which agricultural innovations have overcome
these constraints.
You will find more information on this in Chapter 3 ‘Food security’,
Chapter 2 ‘Biomes’ and Chapter 17 ‘Understanding the global economy’
of Oxford Humanities 9 Victorian Curriculum.
MATHS
In Maths this year, you will build on your knowledge of measurement
and geometry to determine areas and volumes of more complicated
shapes. You will be introduced to Pythagoras’ Theorem and
trigonometry. You will also extend your skills in collecting, representing
and investigating data.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to perform
calculations involving angles, lengths and areas of two-dimensional and
three-dimensional shapes. You will need to apply your understanding of
scale factors to build a prototype of your designed product. To consider
the situation at local, national and international scales, you will need
skills in dealing with ratios and proportions. You may also find it helpful
to use scientific notation for very large or very small numbers.
You will find help for applying these maths skills in Chapter 6
‘Measurement and geometry’, Chapter 7 ‘Pythagoras’ Theorem and
trigonometry’, and section 2E ‘Scientific notation’ of Oxford Maths 9
Victorian Curriculum.
SCIENCE
In Science this year, you will learn about the biotic and abiotic factors
that support and maintain ecosystems. You will consider the role of
different nutrients and sunlight on plants and the effects each of these
will have on the surrounding ecosystem.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to understand the
factors required to keep a system, such as a vertical garden, alive. You
may need to consider how these factors can be monitored and controlled
automatically. You will also need to be familiar with the scientific
method, and understand how to conduct a fair test.
You will find more information on this in Chapter 2 ‘Ecosystems’ of
Oxford Science 9 Victorian Curriculum.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS STEAM PROJECT 209

[STEAM project 1] The design cycle
To successfully complete this task, you will need to complete each of the phases of the design cycle.
experiencing and why it is important. Use the
following phrase as a guide:
discover ‘How can we help (the group) to solve (the
problem) so that (the reason)?’
communicate define Determine the criteria

1 What is the total area of the 100 m × 100 m plot
of land? (Remember to use the correct units.)
2 If the plants are planted 25 cm apart in a 100 m
test ideate
row, and the rows are placed 1 m apart, how
many plants could be planted in the plot of
land? HINT: Draw the plot of land to make
build sure you reach maximum capacity.
3 What criteria will you use to measure the
success of your solution or design? How will
you measure how much the end-users have
Discover been helped?
When designing solutions to a problem, you need

to know who you are helping and what they need. Ideate
The people you are helping, those who will use
your design, are called your end-users. Once you know who you’re designing for,
Consider the following questions to help you and you know what the criteria are, it’s time
empathise with your end-users: to get creative!
• Who am I designing for? As a group, brainstorm ways the problem can
• What problems are they facing? Why are they be solved. Remember that there are no bad ideas
facing them? at this stage. One silly thought could lead to a
genius innovation!
• What do they need? What do they not need?
Once you have many possible solutions, it is
• What does it feel like to face these problems?
time to sort them by possibility. Select three to
To answer these questions, you may need
five ideas that are possible. Research whether
to investigate using different resources, or even
these ideas have already been produced by
conduct interviews or surveys.
someone else. If they are already on the market,
can you make a better version?
Define
Before you start to design your vertical garden, Build
you need to define the criteria that you will use
Draw your top two vertical garden designs. Label
to test the success of your vertical garden in
each part of the designs. Include the materials
achieving your goal.
that will be used for their construction.
Define your version of the Include in the designs:

problem a the total surface area available for plant growth
Rewrite the problem so that you describe the b a description of how food production will
group you are helping, the problem they are be increased

c a description of how the design (inputs and waste) If your prototype will be used to help another group,
will impact the local ecosystem or native plants and animals, you will need to consider
d a description of how the workers will access all areas of how you could test the impact it will have. (Will the
the design to tend the plants prototype affect normal behaviours? How will the
e at least one advantage and disadvantage of each design. prototype affect the soil or waterways?)
Select one of the designs to take to the building and
testing stage.
Prototype 3
Use the information you have obtained from testing the
Build the prototype first two versions to adapt your last prototype to be more
You will need to build at least three versions of your vertical effective and usable for the group you are helping. You
garden design prototype. The first prototype garden will be may want to use the first two prototypes to demonstrate
tested for effectiveness. The second prototype will be used how the design has been improved.
to survey the group you are helping. The third prototype
will be used for the presentation. The prototype may be full
size, or it may be a scale model (10 cm represents 1 m). Use
Communicate
the following questions as a guideline for your prototype:
Present your vertical garden design to the class as though
• What materials will you use? you are trying to get your peers to invest in it. Describe
• What material will you use to represent the plants? the criteria and testing used to measure the effectiveness
• How will you represent the height, width and angle of of your vertical garden design.
the finished prototype? In your presentation, you will need to:
• explain why we need to be more efficient with
food production
Test • describe the key features of your design and how they
improve or solve the problem of food shortages
Prototype 1 • show a labelled, to-scale diagram of your prototype
Use the scientific method to design an experiment that • describe how the ecosystem will be affected by the
will test the effectiveness and strength of your first installation of the prototype
vertical garden prototype. You will test the prototype • explain the relevant scientific principles that
more than once, to compare results, so you will need to support your designed solution (e.g. water cycle,
control your variables between tests. What criteria will photosynthesis, nitrogen/carbon cycle)
you use to determine the success of your prototype?
• quantify the increase in food production that your
Conduct your tests and record your results.
design allows; present calculations to justify your claim
Prototype 2 • present a calculation for the estimated cost of
producing a full-size model of your design
If your prototype will be used to help market gardeners,
• explain the implications of your design at a state or
then you will need to generate a survey to test whether
national level, by comparing the benefits and costs.
the prototype is appropriate for their use. (How would
they use it? Would they consider buying it?)
Check your student obook pro for the following digital resources to help you with this STEAM project:
Student guidebook What is the design cycle? How to manage a project How to pitch your idea
This helpful booklet will This video will help you to This ‘how-to’ video will This ‘how-to’ video
guide you step-by-step better understand each help you to manage your will help you with the
through the project. phase of the design cycle. time throughout the ‘Communicate’ phase of
design cycle. your project.
Check your Teacher obook pro for these digital resources and more:
Implementation advice Assessment resources

Find curriculum links and Find information about
advice for this project. assessment for this
project.

[STEAM project 2] How can
we harness
technology so
that we can live
healthier lives?
A disorder or disease is a condition that affects Your task
the normal functioning of the body. Different
disorders and diseases can affect many parts Develop a strategy to
of the body. They can be caused by infectious help prevent a disorder
agents such as bacteria or viruses that spread or disease within a
from person to person. Some disorders or chosen at-risk group.
diseases are inherited. Environmental factors
(such as pollution or diet) can also have an
impact on the development of disorders or Figure 1 During the 1918 flu pandemic (sometimes called the
Spanish flu), an estimated 500 million people, or a third of the
diseases.
world’s population, were infected with the virus.
Heart disease, a non-infectious disease, is the
leading cause of death globally. Mental health
disorders, such as depression, bipolar disorder
and dementia, also affect many people around
the world.
Disorders and disease affect both high-
income and low-income countries, but there
are large differences in the ability of different
healthcare systems to provide adequate care
for people. The need for low-cost health care
has led many researchers to investigate how
technology can be used to help people live
healthier lives.
Prevention of disorders and

disease
There are many disorders and diseases that
can be prevented through simple, low-cost
interventions. Below are a few examples.
• Wearing a helmet or a seat belt has been Figure 2 Healthcare workers wear personal protective
shown to decrease the risk of brain injury from equipment (PPE) to prevent the spread of infectious disease.
a road accident. In Vietnam, when wearing a

helmet was made mandatory for motorcycle • Providing vaccinations for viruses such
riders, it resulted in a 16 per cent decrease in as polio and meningitis can also prevent
head injuries. neurological conditions.
• The use of mosquito nets can help to prevent • Promoting a healthy lifestyle and educating
malaria, a disease that can lead to life-long the population about the importance of diet
neurological impairment, such as epilepsy in can reduce the prevalence of stroke. In Japan,
children if they have a severe infection. campaigns and treatment for high blood

HUMANITIES
In Economics and Business this year, you will learn about different
economic systems, and how health services are provided in Australia.
In Geography, you will study how people are interconnected through
travel, technology and trade. These connections affect where and how
people access the services they need. In History, you will examine the
experiences of different groups during the Industrial Revolution, and the
reforms made to improve living standards.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to research the
demographics of your local area, and the location and accessibility of
health services. You should also consider the economic performance of
your area to determine what type of preventative strategy would be most
successful for your at-risk group.
You will find more information on this in Chapter 17 ‘Understanding
the global economy’, Chapter 4 ‘An interconnected world’ and Chapter 8
‘The Industrial Revolution’ of Oxford Humanities 9 Victorian Curriculum.
MATHS
In Maths this year, you will extend your skills in representing and
interpreting data. You will consider media reports that use statistics
and collect secondary data to investigate social issues. You will relate
real-world data to probabilities of events, and compare data sets using
summary statistics and different graphical displays. You will evaluate
and represent data, both with and without digital technology.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to find data to
quantify the problem, work out how much your strategy will cost,
and calculate a quantitative, evidence-based estimate of the possible
benefits of your strategy. You will need skills in dealing with ratios,
proportions and percentages to consider the situation at local, national
and international scales.
You will find help for applying these maths skills in sections 1A
‘Calculator skills’ and Chapter 8 ‘Statistics’ of Oxford Maths 9 Victorian
Curriculum.
SCIENCE
In Science this year, you will learn about how the body coordinates and
regulates its internal systems so that it can respond to changes. When
things change in the environment (such as the emergence of a disease-
causing agent), or a part of the body fails, the normal functioning of the
body is interrupted. The body needs to respond and attempt to return to
a normal homeostatic state before permanent damage is caused.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to identify how
pressure have reduced the rate of
the body’s systems work together to maintain a functioning body. You
strokes by 70 per cent.
should consider the type of disorder or disease that you will be fighting,
• Personal protective equipment
and how it may cause changes in the body’s normal function and
(PPE) is used to protect people
response mechanisms.
from catching infectious diseases,
You will find more information on this in Chapter 3 ‘Control and
such as Covid-19.
regulation’ of Oxford Science 9 Victorian Curriculum.

[STEAM project 2] The design cycle
To successfully complete this task, you will need to complete each of the phases of the design cycle.
Define your version of

the problem
discover Rewrite the problem so that you describe the
group you are helping, the problem they are
experiencing and why it is important. Use the
communicate define following phrase as a guide.
‘How can we help (the group) to solve (the
problem) so that (the reason)?’
test ideate Determine the criteria

build 1 Describe the type of life that the people
you are helping lived before their lives were
affected by the disorder or disease.
2 Describe how the people affected by the
disease have needed to change their lives to
cope with the effects of the disorder or disease.
Discover 3 Describe how you will know that you have
made their lives better as a result of your
When designing solutions to a problem, you need prototype strategy.
to know who you are helping and what they need.
The people you are helping, who will use your
design, are called your end-users. Ideate
Consider the following questions to help you
empathise with your end-users: Once you know who you’re designing for,
and you know what the criteria are, it’s time
• Who am I designing for? Is it the people
to get creative!
directly affected by the disorder or disease, or
do their families and carers need support too? Outline the criteria or requirements your
design must fulfil (i.e. usability, accessibility, cost).
• What problems are they facing? Why are they
facing them? Brainstorm at least one idea per person that
fulfils the criteria.
• What do they need? What do they not need?
Remember that there are no bad ideas at
• What does it feel like to face these problems?
this stage. One silly thought could lead to a
What words would you use to describe
genius innovation!
these feelings?
To answer these questions, you may need
to investigate using different resources, or even
conduct interviews or surveys.
Build
Each group member should draw an individually
designed solution. Label each part of the design.
Define Include the material that will be used for its
construction.
Before you start to design your solution to the
problem, you need to define the parameters you Include in the individual designs:
are working towards. a a detailed diagram of the design
b a description of why it is needed by the
individual or group

c a description of any similar designs that are already survey to test whether the prototype is appropriate for
available to buy their use. (How would they use it? Would it make their
d an outline of why your idea or design is better than life easier or harder? Would they consider buying it? How
others that can be purchased. much would they be willing to pay to access the design?)
Present your design to your group.
Prototype 3
Build the prototype Your last prototype should be adapted using the
Choose one design and build two or three prototypes. information gathered from testing the first two versions
Use the following questions as a guideline for to make it more effective and usable for the group you
your prototype. are helping. You may want to use the first two prototypes
as a demonstration of how the design has been improved
• What materials or technology will you need to build or
over time.
represent your prototype design?
• What skills will you need to construct your
prototype design?
• How will you make sure your prototype design is able
Communicate
to be used by the people who need it? Present your design to the class as though you are trying
• How will you describe the way the prototype design to get your peers to invest in your design.
will work? In your presentation, you will need to:
• outline the relevant disorder or disease and how it
affects individuals, as well as society as a whole
Test • create a working model, or a detailed series of
diagrams, with a description of how it will be used by
Prototype 1 an individual and group
Use the scientific method to design an experiment that • explain how you changed your design as a result of
will test the effectiveness and strength of your first testing or feedback
prototype. You will test the prototype more than once, • describe how the design will improve the life of an
to compare results, so you will need to control your individual or group
variables between tests. • describe how many people need or will use the design
What criteria will you use to determine the success of • describe how individuals will be able to access the
your prototype? design (will they need to purchase it or will it be
Conduct your tests and record your results in an publicly funded?)
appropriate table. • describe how the design will improve an individual’s
ability to contribute to society as a whole.
Prototype 2
If your prototype will be used to help individuals with
the disorder or disease, then you will need to generate a
Check your Student obook pro for the following digital resources to help you with this STEAM project:
Student guidebook What is the design cycle? How to manage a project How to pitch your idea
This helpful booklet will This video will help you to This ‘how-to’ video will This ‘how-to’ video
guide you step-by-step better understand each help you to manage your will help you with the
through the project. phase of the design cycle. time throughout the ‘Communicate’ phase of
design cycle. your project.
Check your Teacher obook pro for these digital resources and more:
Implementation advice Assessment resources

Find curriculum links and Find information about
advice for this project. assessment for this
project.

GL
A atomic theory
the theory that all matter is made up
abiotic of atoms
all the non-living components of
an ecosystem; for example, light, autonomic nervous system
temperature, water the part of the nervous system that
OS
controls involuntary actions such as
accuracy heartbeat, breathing and digestion
how carefully, correctly and consistently
data has been measured or processed; in axon
science, how close a measured value is to the part of a neuron (nerve cell) that
the true value carries an electrical message away from
the cell body to the synapse
aerobic respiration
the second step in the breakdown of
glucose to carbon dioxide and water; B
SA
occurs in the mitochondria when B cell
oxygen is present and produces 34 ATP an immune system cell that produces
molecules antibodies in response to pathogens
alkali beta particle
a base that dissolves in water a radioactive particle (high-speed electron
alkaline solution or positron) with little mass; can be
a solution that consists of a base dissolved stopped by aluminium or tin foil
in water biological control
RY
allergy a method of controlling a population by
an overreaction by the immune system in releasing a living organism (a parasite or
consumer) into an ecosystem
response to pollen, dust or other non-
pathogens biosphere
a layer around the Earth's surface that
alpha particle
supports life; consists of the atmosphere,
a radioactive particle containing two
hydrosphere and lithosphere
protons and two neutrons; can be stopped
by a piece of paper biotic
relating to the living organisms in an
alternating current (AC) ecosystem
electrical current that flows first in one
direction, then in the opposite direction, Bohr model
then back in the first direction and so on; a model of the atom in which electrons
electrical energy is usually generated in orbit the nucleus in a series of defined
this form in a power station orbits known as shells
alternator brushes
a generator that produces alternating a pair of contacts that bring current into
current (AC) through the use of slip rings an armature (motor) or take current out
of an armature (generator)
anaphylaxis
a life-threatening overreaction by the
immune system to a normally harmless C
substance capture–recapture
anion a method of estimating the number of
a negatively charged ion formed when an organisms in an ecosystem by capturing,
atom gains electrons marking and releasing a sample of the
organisms
antibody
a molecule produced by B cells that binds carbon dating
to a specific pathogen a method of estimating the age of organic
material, by comparing the amount
armature of carbon-14 in the material with the
coils of current-carrying wire in a motor amount in the atmosphere, knowing the
or generator rate at which carbon-14 decays over time

carrying capacity convection current dry cell
the maximum number of organisms the current or flow of air or liquid that an object, such as a torch battery, that
in a population that can be sustained results from the transfer of thermal energy uses a chemical reaction to produce
by an ecosystem by convection electrical energy
cation converging boundary dynamo
a positively charged ion that results from the boundary between two tectonic plates a generator that produces direct current
an atom losing electrons that are moving together (DC) through the use of a split ring
commutator
cell body core
the main part of a cell that contains the the centre of the Earth
nucleus/genetic material correlated E
central nervous system when results in an experiment show that ecosystem
the brain and spinal cord independent and dependent variables are a community of living organisms (biotic)
related and non-living (abiotic) factors
chlorophyll
a green pigment in chloroplasts that corrosion electric circuit
absorbs solar energy, which is used by the gradual destruction of materials by a a closed pathway that conducts electrons
plants in photosynthesis chemical reaction with their environment in the form of electrical energy
circuit diagram crust electric current

the lithosphere, or outer layer of the Earth the flow of electrical charge through a
a diagrammatic way to represent an
electric circuit circuit
collaboration D electrical conductor

a material through which charged
a relationship between organisms of the decomposer particles are able to move
same species working together to ensure an organism that gains nutrients by
their survival breaking down dead organisms into electrical energy
simpler nutrients energy associated with electric charge,
combustion reaction either stationary (static) or moving
an exothermic reaction between a fuel dendrite (current)
and oxygen that produces heat, carbon the part of a neuron (nerve cell) that receives
dioxide and water a message and sends it to the cell body electrical insulator
a material that does not allow the
commensalism dependent variable movement of charged particles
a type of relationship between two a variable in an experiment that may
organisms of different species, in which change as a result of changes to the electromagnetic induction
one organism benefits and the other is independent variable the production of voltage (and hence
not affected a current) in a circuit, by the magnetic
derived units field through the circuit or by the relative
community units of measurement that are calculated movement of the magnetic field and the
different populations living in the same using a combination of SI (international circuit; all dynamos and generators use
place at the same time system) base units, e.g. cm3 for volume (base this principle
unit is cm), m2 for area (base unit is m)
competition electron
a type of relationship between organisms direct current (DC) a negatively charged particle in the
using the same limited resources in an the type of current that flows in one nucleus of an atom
ecosystem direction only; electrical energy is produced
in this form by a battery or a generator electron shell
continental drift a defined area of space in which electrons
disease move around an atom’s nucleus
the continuous movement of the
a disorder or condition that interrupts the
continents over time
normal functioning of an organism electronic configuration
continental shelf a numerical way of showing the number
disease vector of electrons in each electron shell around
a flat area under shallow ocean water at a living organism that can transmit
the edge of a continent a particular atomic nucleus
infectious disease between humans, or
convection from animals to humans electrostatic charge
the transfer of thermal energy by the an electrical charge that is trapped in an
diverging boundary object such as a balloon
movement of molecules in air or liquid the boundary between two tectonic plates
from one place to another that are moving apart emigration
when an organism leaves an ecosystem
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS GLOSSARY 217

emission spectrum
the pattern of wavelengths (or
H L
frequencies) that appear as coloured lines in habitat light-dependent resistor (LDR)
a spectroscope; it is unique to each element the place where a population of organisms a resistor that changes its resistance
live according to the amount of light it is
endocrine system exposed to
a collection of glands that make and half-life
release hormones the time it takes the radioactivity in light-emitting diode (LED)
a substance to decrease by half a type of diode that emits light of a
endothermic reaction particular colour
a chemical reaction that absorbs energy in hibernation
the form of heat a state of inactivity of an organism, lignotuber
usually as a result of low environmental a small growth in the root of a plant that
enhanced greenhouse effect temperature allows regeneration after a fire
an increase in carbon dioxide and other
heat-capturing gases in the atmosphere, homeostasis litmus paper
resulting in increased warming of the Earth the process by which the body detects a paper containing an indicator that turns
and responds to stimuli to ensure a stable red when exposed to an acid and blue
epicormic bud internal state is maintained when exposed to a base
a small growth beneath the bark of a
plant that allows regeneration after a fire hormone
evaporation
a chemical messenger that travels through
blood vessels to target cells
M
a change in state from liquid to magma
gas; also a technique used to separate hydrocarbon semiliquid rock beneath the Earth’s
dissolved solids from water a molecule that contains only carbon surface
and hydrogen atoms
exothermic reaction mantle
a chemical reaction that releases energy in the layer of molten rock beneath the
the form of heat or light I Earth’s crust
immune mass number
able to fight an infection as a result of a number that represents the total
F prior exposure number of protons and neutrons in the
fault centre of an atom
a fracture in rock where the tectonic immune system
plates have moved a system of organs and structures that mating
protect an organism against disease the pairing of a male and female of a
fuel species to produce offspring (babies)
a substance that undergoes a chemical independent variable
reaction producing large amounts of energy a variable (factor) that is changed in matter
an experiment anything that has space and volume;
fuse matter is made up of atoms
a wire of high resistance; it will melt if too indicator
much current flows in the circuit a substance that changes colour in the memory cell
presence of an acid or a base an immune system cell produced in
response to an infection; retains the
insulator
G a substance that prevents the movement
memory of how to fight the pathogen
gamma rays of thermal or electrical energy metal oxide
high-energy electromagnetic rays released a molecule containing a metal and oxygen
interneuron
as a part of radioactive decay; can be
a nerve cell that links sensory and motor mid-ocean ridge
stopped by lead
neurons; also known as a connector a series of underwater mountains that
generator neuron form as a result of tectonic plates moving
a machine that uses the electromagnetic apart and allowing magma to rise to
ion the surface
effect to separate charges and produce
an atom that is charged because it
electricity
has an unequal number of electrons migration
glycolysis and protons the movement of a single organism or
the first part of cell respiration in which a population from one ecosystem to
isotope another
glucose is broken down to produce energy
an atom of a particular element that
group has more or fewer neutrons in its mitochondrion
a vertical list of elements in the periodic nucleus than another atom of the an organelle of a cell, where energy is
table that have characteristics in common same element produced (plural: mitochondria)

motor neuron outlier population
a nerve cell that carries a message a data value that is outside the normal a group of individuals of the same species
from the central nervous system to a range of all the other results living in the same place at the same time
muscle cell
positive terminal
mutualism
a type of relationship between two
P the point in the circuit where electrons
flow into
organisms of different species in which parallax error
an error, or inaccurate reading, that precipitation
both organisms benefit
occurs as a result of reading a scale from 1. in meteorology: the process in which
myelin sheath an angle water vapour in the upper atmosphere
a fatty layer that covers the axon of a becomes liquid water in the form of rain,
parallel snow or sleet and falls to the ground;
nerve cell
a way of connecting loads (e.g. lights) 2. in chemistry: the process of forming
in an electric circuit so they are all a precipitate
N connected to the battery separately; they
are in parallel to each other predator
negative feedback mechanism an animal that hunts and feeds on
a regulatory loop in which the stimulus parasitism another (prey) for food
causes a response that acts in the opposite a relationship in which one organism
direction to whatever is being regulated (parasite) lives in or on the body of the prey
other organism (host) and benefits while an animal that is hunted and killed by
negative terminal the host is harmed another (predator) for food
the point in the circuit where electrons
flow out from pathogen proton
a microbe that can potentially cause disease a positively charged subatomic particle in
neuron the nucleus of an atom
a nerve cell period
(in chemistry) a horizontal list of
neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger that crosses the
elements in the periodic table Q
synapse between the axon of one neuron periodic table quadrat
and the dendrite of another neuron a table in which elements are listed a randomly selected square plot used to
in order of their atomic number, and estimate the number of organisms
neutral grouped according to similar properties
having a pH of 7, so neither an acid nor a
base; an example is water peripheral nervous system
all the neurons (nerve cells) that function
R
neutralisation outside the brain and spinal cord radioactive decay
a reaction in which an acid and a the conversion of a radioactive isotope
pH scale into its stable form, releasing energy in
base combine to produce a metal salt
a scale that represents the acidity or the form of radiation
and water
alkalinity of a solution; pH < 7 indicates
neutron an acid, pH > 7 indicates a base, pH 7 radionuclide
a neutral (no charge) subatomic particle indicates a neutral solution a radioactive isotope
in the nucleus of an atom phagocyte reading error
an error that occurs when markings on a
non-metal oxide an immune system cell that surrounds,
absorbs and destroys pathogens scale are not read correctly
the product of a reaction between a non-
metal and oxygen photoconductivity receptor
a structure that detects a stimulus or change
nucleus a property of light-dependent resistors,
where the amount of electricity passing in the normal functioning of the body
1. in biology: a membrane-bound
structure in cells that contains most of through the resistor is dependent on the rectifier
the cell’s genetic material; 2. in chemistry: amount of light it is exposed to a device that coverts AC to DC,
the centre of an atom, containing protons photosynthesis commonly composed of diodes
(positive charge) and neutrons (no charge) a chemical process used by plants to make reflex
glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide, an involuntary movement in response to
sunlight and water
O a stimulus
ocean trench plate tectonics relative atomic mass
a deep ditch under the ocean along a the theory that the surface of the Earth the average mass of an element, including
tectonic plate boundary consists of pieces, known as plates, that the mass and prevalence of its different
are continually moving isotopes

resistance series subduction
a measure of how difficult it is for the describes an electric circuit that is the movement of one tectonic plate under
charged particles in an electric circuit arranged with the loads (e.g. lights) another tectonic plate
to move connected in a row, so the electrical
energy passes through one load at a time symbiosis
rheumatoid arthritis a close physical relationship between two
an autoimmune disease in which the shell diagram organisms of different species
immune system attacks the joints of a diagram that shows the number of
the body electrons in each electron shell around a synapse
particular atomic nucleus a small gap between two neurons that
rift valley must be crossed by neurotransmitters
a deep valley that forms as a result short circuit
of tectonic plates moving apart on land when electrical current flows along a
right-hand grip rule
different path from the one that was T
intended T cell
a rule used to predict the magnetic
field direction around a current- SI system an immune system cell that recognises
carrying wire or the magnetic field of a an international system of measurement and kills pathogens
solenoid; the right thumb indicates the based on the metric system, with units target cell
current direction and the curled fingers such as kilogram, metre, kilometre a cell that has a receptor that matches a
give the magnetic field direction; also specific hormone
known as the right-hand curl rule significant figures
the number of digits that contribute to tectonic plate
right-hand slap rule the overall value of a number a large layer of solid rock that covers part
a rule used to predict the force on a of the surface of the Earth; movement of
current-carrying wire in a magnetic solenoid
a coil of wire that can carry an electric tectonic plates can cause earthquakes
field; the right thumb indicates the
current direction, the outstretched fingers current; an iron core can be added to temperature-dependent resistor
follow the magnetic field direction and make an electromagnet a resistor that varies the flow of current
the palm of the hand pushes in the solution according to the temperature it is
direction of the force a mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent exposed to
rounding off somatic nervous system thermistor
reducing the number of significant figures the part of the nervous system that a temperature-dependent resistor that
by increasing or decreasing to the nearest controls the muscles attached to the varies the flow of current according to the
significant figure; for example, 7.6 cm is skeletal system temperature it is exposed to; commonly
rounded up to 8 cm, 7.2 cm is rounded used for temperature control
down to 7 cm split ring commutator
a device in a DC motor or a DC Thomson plum pudding model
generator that reverses the current flow in an early model of the atom in which the
S an armature every half turn to maintain positively charged nucleus has negatively
charged electrons scattered through it,
rotation (motor), or that converts the AC
salt like a plum pudding
generated in the armature to a DC output
a compound that contains a metal cation
(generator); most consist of two shells or transformer
and a non-metal anion
half-rings that rub against the brushes a device that changes the voltage at which
sample size energy is transmitted by an alternating
starch
the number of subjects being tested or current; usually consists of two coils of
a complex form of sugar that is found in
used in an experiment wire (primary and secondary), an iron
certain foods (e.g. bread, potato and rice)
sea-floor spreading core and an AC power source
stimulus
the theory that the middle of the ocean
any information that the body receives transforming boundary
is spreading apart, forming new oceanic the boundary between two tectonic plates
that causes it to respond
crust that are sliding past each other
stomata
semiconductor transpiration
small holes in a plant leaf surrounded by
a material that conducts electricity the process of water evaporating from
guard cells that control their opening and
more than an insulator and less than plant leaves; causes water to move up
closing (singular: stoma)
a conductor; its conductivity can be through the plant from the roots
changed by adding other substances to it subatomic particles
particles that are smaller than atoms tsunami
sensory neuron a series of large waves that result from an
a nerve cell that carries a message from a underwater earthquake
receptor to the central nervous system

type 1 diabetes
an autoimmune disease in which the
valence shell
the outermost electron shell in an atom
W
immune system attacks the insulin- that contains electrons wet cell
producing cells in the pancreas an object, such as a car battery, that uses
van de Graaff generator a chemical reaction to produce electrical
a machine that produces an electrostatic energy
U charge
white blood cell
universal indicator variable an immune system cell that destroys
a solution that is used to determine the something that can affect the outcome or pathogens
pH (amount of acid or base) of a solution results of an experiment
voltage Z
V potential difference; the difference in the
electrical potential energy carried by charged zero error
vaccination particles at different points in a circuit an error that occurs when an instrument
an injection of an inactive or artificial has not been adjusted to zero before the
pathogen that results in the individual measurement is taken
becoming immune to a particular disease

IN
A atomic numbers 100, 106, 107
atomic theory 96–7
abiotic factors 18, 24, 175
atoms 96–7
Bohr’s model 102
cool burning, firestick and cultural burning
42–3 electron configuration 102–3
farming practices 43 and ions 104–5
DE
use of ecosystems 42 mass 99, 100–1
absorbency of paper towels 163 mass number 100
accuracy 4, 5, 164 ratio in a compound 96, 187
mathematical 5–6 representing 100
acid rain 124–5, 195 Rutherford’s experiments 98–9
acidic oceans and coral carbonates 122–3 Rutherford’s model 99, 188
acidity 121 subatomic particles 98–9
acids 120 Thomson’s model 98
concentration 121 ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 32, 34
how to tell if a substance is an acid 120, 192 Australia
X
neutralisation reactions 122 earthquake and tsunami risk 89
pH values 121 fuel use 128–9
reacting with bases 122–3, 194 natural disasters 174
reacting with metal carbonates or Australian plants, adaptation to fire 39
bicarbonates 122 autoimmune diseases 73
reacting with metals to produce hydrogen autonomic nervous system 57
and a salt 124–5 axons 52
strength 120, 121
adrenal glands 60–1
adrenalin 60, 61 B
B cells 71, 73
aerobic respiration 34
backbone 58
afferent neurons 53
bacteria 68, 69
agriculture
bases 120
food production and biodiversity 43
how to tell if a substance is a base 120, 192
sustainable farming practices 208–11
pH values 121
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome) 73 reacting with acids 122, 194
air, gas balance 19 bats 19, 49
airborne microbes, factors affecting growth 182 batteries 134, 135, 136–7
alcohol 34 in series and in parallel 139
algal blooms 41 beaded counting 168
alkaline solutions 120 beta particles (beta radiation) 108, 112
alkalinity 121 biodiversity 18, 42, 43
alkalis 120 biofuels 128–9
allergies 72 biological control 28
alpha particles (alpha radiation) 98, 108, 112 biosphere 18, 165
alternating current (AC) 136, 152, 153 biotic factors 18, 24, 209
alternators 153 birds 19
Alzheimer’s disease 59 births 24
Amasia (possible supercontinent) 90, 91 blood
americium-241 108 carbon dioxide level in 65
ammeters 137 radionuclide ‘labelling’ 113
amperes 137 and water regulation 64
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) 58–9 blood clotting 70
anaemia 67 blood doping 66
anaerobic respiration 34 blood glucose levels 73
anaphylactic shock 73 regulation 63
anaphylaxis 72 Bohr, Niels
animals 19 emission spectra 103
anions 105, 122 model of the atom 102
antibiotics 69 bone scans 113
antibodies 71, 72 brain 56
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 60, 64 cross-section 59
armature 150 lobes of 56
asking questions 113 and senses 49, 50, 51, 54
assumptions, identifying 69 sheep’s brain dissection 179
atmosphere 18, 40 breast milk 71
atomic masses 106, 107 broken glass 3

brushes 150 cold packs 119 disease vectors 20
building materials 124–5 collaboration 20 diseases 28
Bunsen burner, lighting 162 colliding tectonic plates 81 caused by pathogens 68–9
bushfires 42 combustion reactions 127, 128, 196 germ theory 68, 182
impact on ecosystems 39 commensalism 20, 21 simple, low-cost interventions 212–15
community 18 disorders, prevention 212–15
relationship between organisms 20–3 dissection, sheep brain 179
C commutators 150–1 diverging boundaries 84–5, 186
calcium, electron configuration 102 competition 20, 22, 24, 167 DNA, radiation effects 11
calcium carbonate 123 for resources 40 droughts 38–9, 209
calicivirus 28 compounds, ratio of atoms in 96, 187 drug testing in sport 67
cancer cells 112 concentrated acids 121 dry cells 134
capture–recapture method 25, 168 concentration of acids 121 dynamos 152, 153
carbon-12 107, 110 conclusion 3
carbon-13 107 connector neurons 53
carbon-14 107, 108, 110, 111 consumer products, investigating 12–13 E
carbon atom 97 consumer science case study 2 ear wax 70
carbon cycle 37 continent-to-continent collision 83 ears, and hearing 49
carbon dating 110–11 continental crust 79, 85 Earth
carbon dioxide 19 continental drift 78 continental drift 78
in the atmosphere 122, 123, 129 continental shelves 78 look of a future Earth 90–1
in cellular respiration 34 convection 81 plate tectonics 78–9, 82–3, 90–1
dissolving in the ocean 40, 122, 123 convection currents 79, 81, 184 sea-floor spreading 79
effect on starch production 172 converging boundaries 83–4, 186 structure 80–1, 186
from burning of fuels 40, 127 cool burning 42–3 tectonic plate boundaries 82–9, 186
homeostatic control 65 cooling and layers 185 tectonic plate movement 78, 79, 81
as molecule 97 coral bleaching 41 earthquakes 79, 80
in photosynthesis 30, 31, 171 coral carbonates and acidic oceans 122–3 in Australia 89
carbon isotopes 107 coral reef ecosystems 123 causing tsunamis 86, 87
carbon monoxide 127 core 81, 186 ecosystems 18, 29
carbonic acid 120, 122, 124 correlated 3 benefits of 18–19
careers, in radiation 112–13 correlation of data 11 biotic and abiotic factors affecting 18, 24,
carrots 31 corrosion 125 175, 209
carrying capacity 38 counting organisms 25, 168 climate change effects 41
cations 105, 122 Covid-19 vaccine 71 cool burning 42–3
cell body 52 crust 80, 81, 186 cycles of matter 36–7
cellular respiration 19, 34, 65 current 136 dynamic balance 24
general equation 34 altering in a circuit 142 energy flow through 32–5
and photosynthesis 35 calculating 139 energy sources in 30–1
central nervous system 56 direction 136 field trip 175
cerebrum 56 flow through series and parallel circuits 138–9 food webs 24, 26
charged particles 134, 135, 140, 141, 148 measuring 137 historical use 42
chemical bonds, breaking of 118 see also alternating current (AC); direct human activity effects 40–1
chemical reactions 118 current (DC) human management 42–3
combustion reactions 127, 128, 196 cycles of matter 36–7 modern needs 43
energy changes 118–19, 191 natural events affecting 38–9
neutralisation reactions 122, 194 new species impact on 26–8, 169
reaction of metals and non-metals with D effector muscles 54
oxygen 126–7 Dalton, John, atomic theory 96–7 effectors 62, 63
reactions of acids 122–5 data efferent neurons 53
chemical receptors 50 correlation 11 electric charge 134
chemicals, Safety Data Sheets 8–9 working with 10–11 electric circuits 135, 136–7, 197–8
chloride ion 104, 105 deaths 24, 28 altering current and resistance 142–3
chlorine atom 104, 105 decomposers 19, 36 current 137, 138–9
chlorophyll 31 Democritus 96 resistance 141, 199–201
chloroplasts 30, 31 dendrites 52–3 series and parallel 138, 139, 140, 198
choosing the right instrument 4 dependent variable 3 short circuit 139, 199
circuit diagrams 136–7 derived units 6 voltage 140
circuits see electric circuits design cycle 210–11, 214–15 wiring a house 203
cleaning equipment 2–3 diabetes 73 electric current see current
climate change 41, 208 dilute acids 121 electric motors 150–1, 206
coal 128 diodes 142 electrical conductors 135
cobalt-60 108, 109 direct current (DC) 136, 150, 153 electrical energy 134, 136
cochlea 49 discussion 3 electrical insulators 135
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS INDEX 223

electricity 134 ethics groups (periodic table) 100, 101, 103
generation using magnetic fields and of biofuels 129 guard cells 31
movement 152–3, 207 in sport 67
and magnets used to produce movement eutrophication 40
150–1 evaporation 36 H
to create a magnetic field 148–9 exercise 34, 180 habitats 18
electromagnetic fields, use in technology and exothermic reactions 118, 126, 127, 191 half-life 109
medicine 154–5 experimental errors 4–5 calculating 109
electromagnetic induction 152 experiments 159–207 of medical radionuclides 109
electromagnets 149 extinction of organisms 39, 41 using to tell the time 110–11
electron configurations 102 eyes, and sight 49 Hawaiian Islands
for electron shells of an atom 102 evidence of volcanic activity 88
representation in shell diagrams 102 formation 87–8
and valence shell 102–3 F hay fever 72
electron shells 102 farming practices 43 hazardous chemicals, Safety Data Sheets 8–9
evidence for 103 sustainable 208–11 hearing 49, 178
electrons 98, 99 faults 82 heat energy 32, 118
arrangement in atoms 102–3 fermentation 34 heat packs 119
have a negative charge 104, 134 fever 70 Helicobacter pylori 68
loss or gain 104–5 field trip 175 hibernation 41
electrostatic charge 134, 196, 197 ‘fight, flight or freeze’ response 60–1 high-altitude training 66
elements first line of defence 70 Himalayas 81
atomic masses 106, 107 flame tests 103, 189 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) 73
atomic numbers 100, 106 Fleming, Alexander 69 homeostasis 57, 213
conventional representation 100 floods, impact on ecosystems 38 blood glucose regulation 64
emission spectra 103 Florey, Howard 69 heart rate during and after exercise 180
isotopes 106–7 food chains 123 oxygen and carbon dioxide 65
listed in order of atomic masses 106 carbon-14 in 110 regulation through negative feedback 62–5
periodic table 100–1, 106 movement of energy along 32, 173 water regulation 64
properties according to number of electrons in food production 43 hormones 60
the valence shell of an atom 102, 103 food security/insecurity 208, 209 at work 63
relative atomic masses 107, 190 food webs 24, 26, 40 and homeostasis 63–5
symbols 100 forest ecosystems 19 and organs of the endocrine system 60, 61
emigration 24 fossil fern, found in southern continents 78, 183 use in sport 66–7
emission spectra 103, 189 fossil fuels 129 hot spots 87–8
endangered species 41 free radicals 112 human activity affecting ecosystems 40–1
endocrine system 60–1 frontal lobe 56 human endocrine system 61
organs, glands and hormones 60, 180 fuels 127 Humanities (subject), in STEAM projects
endothermic reactions 118–19, 191 use of 128–9 209, 213
energy fungi 19, 68 hydrocarbon fuels, combustion 127, 128
absorption in exothermic reactions 118 fuses 139 hydrocarbons 127
and cellular respiration 34–5 hydrochloric acid 120, 121, 122, 124
glucose and ATP 34 hydrogen 124
movement along food chains 32, 173 G hydrogen atom 97
and photosynthesis 30–1, 35 gamma rays (gamma radiation) 108, 109 hydrogen isotopes 108
release in endothermic reactions 118–19 Geiger counter 110 hydrosphere 18
for work 33 generators 150, 152–3, 207 hypothalamus 60, 61, 62, 64
energy changes in chemical reactions germ theory 68, 182 hypothesis 2
118–19, 191 global positioning satellites (GPS) 90
energy flow through ecosystems 32–5 global warming 43
energy pyramids 32 glossary 216–21 I
energy sources in ecosystems 30–1 Glossopteris (fossil fern) 78 immigration 24
energy transformations 32, 33 glucagon 60, 63 immune 28, 71
enhanced greenhouse effect 37, 40–1 glucose immune system 58, 70–1
epicormic buds 39 in cellular respiration 34 first line of defence 70
epinephrine 60 from photosynthesis 30, 31 second line of defence 70, 72
Epipens 73 storage 31 things can go wrong 72–3
errors 4–5, 164 use of energy from 32, 33 third line of defence 70–1, 72
erythropoietin 66 glycolysis 34 independent variable 3
for blood doping 66, 67 grasp reflex 55 indicators 120, 121, 193
medical uses 67 grass pollen 72 indirect evidence 188
ethanol 128 greenhouse effect 40 Indo-Australian Plate 81, 82, 89
as a biofuel 128–9 greenhouse gas emissions 42, 43 infection, and vaccination modelling 183

inflammation 70, 72, 73
influenza vaccine 71
magnesium metal 124, 126
magnesium oxide 126
N
natural disasters 38–9
inhibition 22, 23 magnetic fields 148, 204
in Australia 174
inner core 80, 81 around a straight current-carrying wire 148
natural events affecting ecosystems 38–9
insects 19, 37 direction of (right-hand grip rule) 148, 149
natural systems, filtering water 19, 166
insulators 135 direction wire moves (right-hand slap
negative correlation 11
insulin 60, 63, 73 rule) 150
negative feedback mechanism 62–5, 66
interneurons 53, 54 and movement to generate electricity 152–3
negative terminal 136
introduced species, impact on ecosystems in solenoids 149
negatively-charged ions 105
26–9, 169 magnetic force 148, 205
nerve cells 52–3
invasive species 26–9, 41 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 154–5
nerve impulses, transmission 52–3
ion charge, calculating 104–5 magnets and electricity to produce movement
nervous system
ionisation 104 150–1
of the body 56–7
ions 104 mantle 79, 80, 186
control of reflexes 54–5, 177
formation 104 Marshall, Barry 68–9
speed of 178
negatively-charged 105 mass numbers 100, 106
things can go wrong 58–9
positively-charged 105 mathematical accuracy 5–6
neurons 52–3
iron 126 Maths (subject), in STEAM projects 209, 213
damaged 58–9
iron oxide 126 mating 20
structure 52, 177
irrigation 40, 43 matter, made up of atoms 96–7
types of 53, 54
isotopes 106–7 matter cycles in ecosystems 36–7
neurotransmitters 52, 53
half-life 109, 110–11 mean 10
neutral solutions 121
and radioactive decay 108–9 measurements and units 6–7
neutralisation reactions 122, 194
median 11
neutrons 99, 100
medicine
J electromagnetic field use 154–5
and isotopes 106–7, 108
nickel-60 108
joints of the body 73 radiation use 109, 112–13
joules 140 nitric acid 120, 124
meditation 65
nitrogen-14 108
memory cells 71
nitrous oxide 43
K meniscus 5
metal bicarbonates, reaction with acids 122
non-metal oxides 127
non-metals, reacting with oxygen 126–7
kidneys 60, 61, 66 metal carbonates, reaction with acids 122
Koch’s postulates 68 non-specific immune response 70
metal etching 124
non-symbiotic relationships 22–3
metal oxides 126
nose, smell receptors 50
L metals
impact of acid rain 125
nuclear equations 108
laboratory safety 160–2 nuclear medicine technologists 112–13
protection from acid rain 125, 195
lactic acid 34 nuclear radiation
reacting with acids 124–5
land clearing 40 penetrative power 108
reacting with oxygen 126–7
Lavoisier, Antoine 96 types of 108–9
methane 40, 43, 97, 127, 128
law of simple multiple proportions 96–7 use in medicine 112–13
method section 3
leaves 31, 172 nucleus (atom) 99
micro-organisms 68
light-dependent resistors (LDRs) 143 nutrients 18, 19, 21, 39, 209
Mid-Atlantic Ridge 79
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 142, 202
mid-ocean ridges 79, 85
light energy 30, 31
light receptors 49
middle ear 49
migration 24
O
lignotubers 39 occipital lobe 56
Milo convection currents 184
like charges (electrostatics) 134 ocean acidification 40, 122–3
mitochondria 34
limestone 124 ocean formation 85
mobile phones, wireless charging device 154,
limiting resources 38 ocean-to-continent collision 83
155
lithium atom ocean-to-ocean collision 84
mode 11
mass number and atomic number 100 ocean trenches 83, 84
motor neuron disease 58–9
two-dimensional model 99 oceanic crust 79
motor neurons 53, 54
lithosphere 18, 79, 80 Ohm’s law 141, 199, 201
mountain pygmy possum 41
litmus paper 120 outer core 80, 81
mountain ranges 83
liver 63 outer electron shell
mucous membranes 70
and formation of ions 104
multimeters 137, 140
see also valence shell (of the atom)
M multiple sclerosis 58, 59
mutualism 20, 21
outliers 10, 11
Macquarie Island rabbits 27 ovaries 60, 61
myelin sheath 52, 58, 59
magma 79, 81 oxygen 19, 30, 34
Myxoma virus, for rabbit control 28
magnesium atom 104 electron configuration 102
magnesium ion 104 homeostatic control 65

oxygen atom 97 pollution/pollutants 40, 124 relationships
mass number and atomic number 100 population 18 between different species 20–3
oxygen molecule 97 population dynamics 24–5 between organisms 20
population size non-symbiotic 22–3
calculating 25 symbiotic 20–1
P counting organisms 25, 168 within a species 20
Pacific Plate 82, 87 factors affecting 24 relative atomic mass 107, 190
Paleomap Project 90 modelling 169 relative measurement 100
pancreas 60, 61, 63, 73 rabbits 26–7, 169 remote controls 142, 202
Pangaea (supercontinent) 78, 84, 90 positive correlation 11 resistance 141
reconstructing 183 positive terminal 136 altering in a circuit 143
Pangaea Ultima (possible supercontinent) 90 positively-charged ions 105 calculating 141
panic attacks 61 potatoes 31 Ohm’s law 141, 199, 201
panting 50 potential difference 140 resistors 141, 142, 201
paper towels, absorbency 163 power plants 153 colour codes 141, 200
parallax error 5 precipitation 36 responding to change 48
parallel circuits 138, 139, 140, 198 predator 22 results 3
paraplegia 58 predator–prey relationship 22 rheumatoid arthritis 73
parasitism 20, 21 prefixes and meanings 7 Ribena 2
parasympathetic division 57 prey 22 rift valleys 84, 91
parathyroid glands 60 primary consumers 32 rift zone 79
parietal lobe 56 producers 32 right-hand grip rule 148, 149
Pasteur’s experiments 69 protons 99, 100, 106 right-hand slap rule 150
patellar (knee-jerk) reflex 55 have a positive charge 104, 134 ring of fire 82
pathogens number of to determine names 100 roots 31
causing disease 68–9 protozoa 68 rounding off 5–6
immune system as defence against 70–1 pumice 187 rust 126
research 181 Rutherford, Ernest
penicillin 69 gold foil experiment 98–9
periodic table of the elements 100–1 Q model of the atom 99, 188
arranged by electronic configuration 103 quadrats 25, 168
atomic masses 106 quadriplegia 58
relative atomic masses 107 questions, asking 113 S
periods (in chemistry) 100, 101, 103 safely smelling chemicals 162
peripheral nervous system 57 Safety Data Sheets (SDS) 8–9
pests 41 R safety in the laboratory 160–2
petrol 129 rabbits salts 122, 124
pH paper 192 biological control 28 sample size 3
pH scale 121 for hunting 26–7 scientific method 2–3
phagocytes 70, 72 impact on local ecosystems 27 scientists
phagocytosis 71 introduction to Australia 26 investigating consumer products 12–13
photoconductivity 143 Macquarie Island 27 testing manufacturers’ clams 2–3
photoreceptors 49 population control 27, 169 Scotese, Christopher, Paleomap Project model
photosynthesis 19, 30–1, 110, 119 population growth 26, 169 90, 91
carbon dioxide in 30, 31, 171 radiation sea-floor spreading 79
and cellular respiration 35 careers in 112–13 seasonal changes 38
equation 30 effects of 112 second line of defence 70, 72
factors affecting 31 and medicine 112–13 secondary consumers 32
glucose from 30, 31 see also nuclear radiation semiconductors 135
inputs and outputs 171 radioactive decay 108, 109, 110–11 sense organs 48–51, 176
location of 31 modelling 190 sensory neurons 53, 54
role play 170 radioactive half-life see half-life series circuits 138, 139, 140, 198
pineal gland 60, 61 radionuclides (radioisotopes) 108 sheep brain dissection 179
pituitary gland 60, 61, 64 half-lives 109 shell diagrams 102
plantar reflex 55 use in medicine 109, 113 sherbet 122, 194
plants 19, 29 radiotherapy 112 short circuits 139, 199
adaptation to fire 39 reading error 4 SI system of unis 6
competition 167 receptors 48 sight 49
energy use 30, 31 detecting stimuli 48–51, 54 significant figures 5–6
photosynthesis 30–1 rectifiers 142 simple circuits 137, 197–8
plate tectonics 78–9, 82–3 red blood cells 66, 67 skin 51, 70
and a future Earth 90–1 red cabbage indicator 13, 121 slipped disc 58
pollination 19 reflexes (reflex action) 54–5, 177–8 smell 50

smoke detectors 108 tears 70 vitamin C content of Ribena 2
sneezing reflex 55 technology volcanic bubbles 187
sodium atom 105 electromagnetic field use 154 volcanoes 80, 83, 84, 187
sodium chloride 122 to help people live healthier lives (STEAM around Pacific Ocean 82
sodium hydroxide 120, 122 project) 212–15 causing tsunamis 86–7
sodium ion 105 tectonic plates 78, 80, 81, 185 Hawaiian Islands 87–8
solenoids 149 boundaries 82–5, 86–9, 186 voltage 140
solution 119 as constructive or destructive 86–9 voltmeters 140
somatic nervous system 57 movement 78, 79, 81, 183
sound receptors 49 temperature control 50
species temperature-dependent resistors 143 W
relationships between different 20–3 temperature receptors 62–3, 176 Warren, Robin 68–9
relationships within 20 temporal lobe 56 waste energy 32
specific immune response 70–1 termites, recycling carbon 37 water 122
spills, cleaning up 161 testes 60, 61 for photosynthesis 30, 31
spinal cord 54, 56 thermal energy 119 water cycle 36–7
spinal damage 58 thermistors 143 water filtration 19, 166
split ring commutator 150–1 thick bark, as protection from fire 39 water molecule 96, 97
sport third line of defence 70–1, 72 water regulation in the human body 64
drug testing 67 Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom 98 weak acids 120, 121
ethics in 67 thyroid gland 60, 61 weak bases 120
high-altitude training 66 tongue 50 weeds 41
hormones in 66–7 top consumer 32 Wegener, Alfred 78
sprinting 65 touch 51, 178 wet cells 134
starch 31, 172 touch receptors 51, 176 wetland ecosystems 19
startle reflex 5 transformers 154 white blood cells 70
STEAM projects transforming boundaries 82–3, 186 wireless charging devices 154, 155
sustainable farming practices 208–11 transpiration 36 wiring a house 203
technology to help people live healthier lives tree pollen 72 word equations 122, 124, 126, 127
212–15 trophic levels 32 ‘work’ of living organisms 33
stems 31 tsunamis
stimulus
and reflexes 54–5, 177–8
caused by undersea earthquakes 86
caused by volcanoes 86–7 X
and response 48–51 risk in Australia 89 X-rays 112
stimulus–response model 54 tubers 31
stomach ulcers 68
stomata 31
Type I diabetes 73
Y
yeast 73
strength of acids 120, 121
strong acids 120, 121 U
strong bases 120
subatomic particles 98–9
undersea earthquakes 86
undersea volcanoes 84
Z
zero error 5
subduction 83, 84, 87 universal indicator 120
sulfuric acid 120, 124 unlike charges (electrostatics) 134
Sun, light energy from 30, 31, 32 uranium-235 111
supercontinents 78, 84, 90, 91 urine 64, 79
sustainable farming practices (STEAM project)
208–11
sweating 62–3 V
symbiosis 20–1 vaccination 71, 183
symbols used in circuit diagrams 137, 142 vaccines 71
sympathetic division 57 valence electrons 103
synapse 52, 53 valence shell (of the atom) 102
synaptic terminals 52 and element’s properties 102–3
and formation of ions 104
van de Graaff generators 134, 135, 197
T variables 3
vertebrae 58
T cells 71, 73
target cells 60 vibrations 49
taste 50 viruses 68, 69, 70
tastebuds 50 vaccines against 71

Notes

Australia is one of the most
biologically diverse countries
on Earth. It is home to more
than one million species of
plants and animals, many of
which are found nowhere else
in the world. This image shows
researchers using a special
type of net, known as a fyke
net, to study a platypus.
Studying platypuses helps us
understand their health and
diet, as well as the overall
health of the ecosystems in
which they live. The scientific
name for the platypus is
Ornithorhynchus anatinus.
visit us at: oup.com.au or

contact customer support: oup.com.au/help

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Control and regulation

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

iv OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Focus on concept development

• Every chapter • Students are

begins with a encouraged to self-

clear learning 6.2 Acids have a low pH. Bases

I can do this. I cannot do this yet.

students. success criteria in the

Define alkalis, alkaline, indicator, litmus paper, universal indicator,

If students do not feel

confident about their

learning, they are

06_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd 132 9/22/21 1:46 PM

• Every topic begins with a concept statement

energy between two parts

topic in one sentence.

makes it difﬁcult for current

• Key ideas are summarised

for each topic in succinct

Margin glossary terms

• Key terms are bolded in the body in blue

text, with a glossary definition provided in

07_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd 140-141 9/22/21 1:52 PM

Check your learning

vi OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

1.4 Scientists present their data

increasing order. For the previous

means: relationship between the two variables;

• The Science toolkit is

that explicitly teaches

inquiry skills and

Pathogens cause disease

Develop your abilities

• ‘Develop your abilities’

endeavour’ topics explore

real-world examples and

case studies, allowing

students to apply science developing skills and

03_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd 68-69 9/22/21 12:41 PM

Focus on practical work

back of the book

• All practical activities are

organised in a chapter at the end

of the book and signposted at

the point of learning throughout

Challenges, Skills labs and

• These activities provide students

with opportunities to use problem-

apply science inquiry skills. 200 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Focus on STEAM Problem solving through

use sustainable real-world problem that students

are encouraged to problem solve

using design thinking.

that no one environmental constraints on agricultural production in Australia, such

cross-curricular learning with

engaging STEAM projects.

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